BS 5390 : 1976 pe 679.8: 6931 Confirmed April 1984 Code of practice for Stone masonry (Formerly CP 121.201 and CP 121.202) Code de bonne pratique relatif la magonnerie en pierre Richtlinien fiir Steinmauerwerk iW ih neBS 5390 : 1976 Contents Foreword Code drafting committee Code Section one. General 1. Scope 2. References 3. Definitions Section two, Materials 4. Goneral 5. Types of natural stone 6. Cast stone 7. Components 8. Mortar 9. Metal dowels, fixings and wall tes 10. Damp-proof courses 11. Alrbrieks, gratings and ducts 12, Flashings and weatherings 13. Resin adhesives 14. Sealants, mastics and other materials for expansion joints ‘Section three. Design and specification 18. General 16. Choice of stone 17. Choice of walling type 18. Coursing n ashlar and rubble walls 10. Finishes 20. Exclusion of rain 21. Dimensional stability 22. Insulation and fire resistance 23. Mortar 24. Jointing and pointing 25. Damp-proof courses 26. Weathering of details: flashings 27. Structural considerations 28. Internal linings in solid walls 29. Fixing of metal and stone ‘Section four. Work off site 30. Ashlar 31. Rubble 32, Transport Section five. Work on site 133, Scaffolding 34. Storage 35. Mortar 36. Handling the stone 37. Backings 38. Construction 39, Protection after fixing 440. Attendance on other trades Page Back cover Section six. Inspection and testing 41. Inspection 42. Testing Section seven. Maintenance 43, 44, 48, 46, General Cleaning Repairs Preservation of stone ‘Appendices A ‘Computation of thermal transmittance B. Stone cleaning C. Geological age of some building stones Tables 1. Types of wall suitable in given exposures 2. Methods of fixing ironwork, and t advantages 3, External surface resistance 4. Conductivity values 5. Moisture factors 6. Thermal conductivity according to bulk ‘ry density Figures 1. Thermal conductivity of stone according to porosity 2. Traditional ashlared masonry wall 3. Typical details and protection of mouldings 4. Damp-proof courses at wall base 5. Damp-proof courses at openings 6. Types of rubble walling 7. Types of rubble walling and details 8. Rough faced random slate with sawn slate dressings (Lake District masonry) 9. Uncoursed whole flint with brick dressing 10. Square knapped flints with stone dressing 11 Surface finishes and pointing 12. Damp-proof courses in solid wall parapet 13. Damp-proof courses in cavity wall parapet 14. Gable end copings 16, Sills and lintels 16. Stone copings 17. Slate copings 18. Lifting appliances 19. Dry stone walling in the Lake District: slate with some limestone 20, Random knapped rangework in Portland stone 21. Repair of window tracery in special mortar (plastic repair) 22. Examples of pointing 2 19 19 20 code of practice represents a standard of good practice. Compliance with it does not confer immunity from relevantForeword ‘This British Standard code of practice is published as a revision of, and to supersede, CP 121.201 ‘Masonry walls ashlared with natural stone or with cast stone’ and CP 121.202, ‘Masonry—Rubble walls’. The content of these ‘wo codes has undergone complete technical revision to bring it in ine with current practices. “The main aceas of change include the introduction of more detailed information on lifting devices, scaffolding and repairs, and, inthe clause on testing, a discussion of the principal measurements that could be made for the assess ment of durability and quality control. The subject of cleaning is dealt with more fully and appendix B lists the BS 5390 : 1976 various methods now in use, thelr advantages and disadvan- tages, and gives guidance on the use of new products marketed as ‘stone preservatives’ and ‘water repellents’ in dealing with the preservation of stone. The approach to ‘computation of thermal transmittance in appendix A differs from that given in other publications because it takes into consideration the effect of changes in moisture content and porosity of the stone, ‘Appendix C has been added to give information on the geological age of some building stones. ‘The standard units of measurement adopted throughout are in accordance with BS 3763 and PD 5686.BS 390 : 1976 British Standard Code of practice for Stone masonry Section one. General 1. Scope ‘This code deals with the design and construction of, and the selection of materials for, wals ashared (i. faced) With stone or cast stone, and rubble or rubble-faced walls Using stone or cast stone. For stone used asa cladding to structural masonry or to any structural steelwork or con: crete frame see also CP 298. For structural requirements of all masonry {including stone or cast stone) see BS Part 1 {in course of preperation). In the case of rubble walling, methods of construction, style and appearance will vary in different districts accord- ing to the nature of the stone locally available and to local traditions, but the general principles laid down in this code should be adhered to, 2. References The titles of the standards publications referred to in this code are listed on the inside back cover. 3. Definitions For the purposes of this British Standard code the detini- tions contained in BS 2847, BS 3589 and BS 4049 apply, with the following additions and exceptions. General terms: 3.1 ashlar {aiser) (a) A square-hewn stone. {b} Masonry consisting of blocks of stone, finely square ‘essed to given dimensions and laid in courses with thin joints. 3.2 edge-bedded. A stone laid with the nat cally, and at right angles, to the face of the wall NOTE. Edge bading it used in the cuting of vousioirs with a view to distibutingstess around the arch and So helping to avoid breaking and exfoliation when the stone Is submitted to the setion ‘of ume and atmosphere. Iti also used for comieas and projecting fring courses. 3.3 fave-bedded. A stone laid with the natural bed running vertically, and parallel, to the face of the wall 3.4 natural bed (quarry bed). The plane of stratification in a sedimentary rock. 3.8 bond (a) An interlocking arrangement of stones within a wall to ensure stability. (b) Adhesion between mortar and stone composing a wall 13.6 cast stone. Any product manufactured from aggregate {and cement and intended to resemble in appearance and bed vert 3.7 oornice. tural feat projection that crowns a wall or an architec , associated with the clasical styl. 3.8 course. A continuous layer of stones of uniform height ina wall, including the bed mortar. 3.9 fixings. A general term for the various types of cramp, ‘dowel or metal corbel used to fix stone permanently toa backing 3.10 freestone. Any fine grained sandstone or limestone that can be savn easily, 3.11 plastic stone. A mix of mortar consistency containing 2 stone dust or sand aggregate, used to fill small cavities in ‘chipped or decayed stonework. 3.12 pointing. The finishing of joints in mortar as the work proceeds or the filling with mortar of the joints in a wall from which the bedding or jointing mortar has been raked out. 3.13 profile. A temporary gauge lath used in setting out to define the position and levels of foundations, walls or other parts of a structure. The sectional outline of a mould: ing or other feature from which the templet is made. 3.14 scaffolding. A temporary erection of timber or metal framing with boarded platforms at levels suitable for building 2 wall. {3.18 seasoning, The process of storing the stone after {quarrying to reduce its moisture content and bring it to ‘the proper condition for use. NOTE. Some stone can be very soft on its removal from the quarry ‘nd hardens considerably st ths stage, 3.16 storey rod. A batten of exact storey height on which vertical dimensions are marked. 3.17 tingle. A small flat strip of lead or copper fixed below ‘one piece of the same and long enough to project below ‘the upper piece and be turned over free edge to prevent it lifting. Generally used for flashings or in tiling repair. 3.18 tooling, Having a surface obtained by using a batting ‘ool in parallel strokes each traversing the full depth of the stone face. The strokes may be vertical or oblique, The result isa pattern of fluted cuts in the stone face. The number of bats (strokes) desired may be specified per 25 mm (see figure 11), 3.19 weathering {a}. Working the top face of a stone to an inclined plane for the purpose of throwing off rainwater. (b) The effect of the action of time and weather on the surface of masonry which may change its appearance, ‘Terms peculiar to Scotland: 3.20 blaes. Blaze, poorly bituminous sandstone, shale or fireclay in coal measures.321 3.22 3.23 3.24 3.25 3.26 bottle-nosing. Rounded nosing, bottoming. Hard core. cant. Edge-bedded stone. coding. Padstone or template. gorge. Throating bowing. Hand working of stone. 3.27 intake. ‘3.28 lime-shells. Quicklime in lumps, unground, kiln burnt limestone. 3.29 lineal stones. Stones sold by the linear measurement. 3.30 longstone-swings. Stone lintels. 3.31 munion. Mullion. 3.82 oncome. Corbel at springers of opening as at gathering of flue. 3.33 rest. Wall hold, bearing of a structural member on a wall; template or padstone. 3.34 rubbed jointing, Masonry joints rubbed with leather fr india rubber to remove marks and ensure close fit to irregular stones, 3.35 shivers. Chippings, spalls, broken or crushed stone. 3.36 shiver bottoming. Hard core filling 3.37 snecked harling, Rough cast showing the faces of ‘occasional walling stones built proud. 3.38 snecked pointing. Flushing up the joints in walling leaving the faces of larger stones clear, 3.39 spalls. Small pieces of broken stone. 3.40 super stones. Stones sold by superficial measure, 3.41 tusks, Toothing, linth or offset to a wall Section two. Materials 4. General ‘The choice of building stone is influenced by the design of the building and its situation and may involve aesthetic as well as technical considerations. 5. Types of natural stone ‘The primary clasificetion of bullding stones falls into three ‘major groups: (@) igneous; (0) sedimentary: (6) metamorphic. 5:1 Igneous rocks. Igneous rocks are formed from molten ‘magma, and the different types derive from the position of emplacement in the earth's crust of the magma and from its chemical composition. The principal igneous building stones granite basalt diorite serpentine 5.2 Sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks derive from the disintegration of pre-existing rocks by weathering and ‘erosion, the resultant sand, mud and grit being redeposited in water or by the wind in layers which eventually harden to form rocks and clays. The principal sedimentary building stones are: limestone BS 5390 976 ‘These have many subdivisions, and many varieties are found, within the spectrum, e.g. shaly arenaceous and magnesian limestones, calcareous sandstones, and breccia or conglomer: ‘ate where large fragments of much older stone have been naturally cemented together. 5.3 Metamorphic rocks. Metamorphic rocks are so called because they are praduced from pre-existing rocks which hhave undergone change caused either by pressure or by heat, ‘0r both. The principal metamorphic building stones are: sate marble ‘So-called ‘stone slates from Collyweston, the Cotswolds, Yorkshire etc., are not true slates, but are from sedimentary rocks which split naturally along the bedding planes. Many British ‘marbles’ are not true marbles but limestones ‘formed with a very dense matrix and small fossil shels, e.g. Purbeck, Ashburton, Frosterley and Wealden marbles. In ‘the British Isles true marble is found only in Ireland (Connemara) and north-west Scotiand. 6. Cast stone Cast stone is @ building material manufactured from cement and natural aggregate for use in a manner similar to, and for the same purpose as, building stone. It is also described as artificial stone (a term that is deprecated), reconstructed stone or reconstituted stone. It should comply with the requirements of BS 1217. Reconstructed stone contains crushed stone, but cast stone need not. 7. Components 7.1 Cast stone blocks. Cast stone blocks in standard sizes can be obtained in many areas with textured faces to simu late rubble. Some of these are in single stones and others composed of several to form a walling unit carefully designed to create a sound bond. 7.2 Cast stone lintels. Cast stone lintels should comply with, the requirements of BS 1217 and BS 1239, 7.3 Stone lintels. Stone lintels should comply with the requirements of BS 1240. The stone should be carefully selected, free from vents and similar sources of weakness, and of proven durability and weather resistance. NOTE. For typical details of sil, lintels and copings sve fguret 15 8. Mortar Mortar may consist of (a) lime and fine aggregate; (b) cement, lime and fine aggregate; (c) cement and fine aggregate; (a) cement and fine aggregate with suitable air entraining agents, as required. 8.1. Lime. Lime should comply with the requirements of BS 890, which also specifies requirements for hydrated lime powder, quicklime and lime putty for use in building ‘There are four types of hydrated lime and of lime putty: {a} high calcium lime (white lime, {(b) high calcium by-product lime; {e)_semi-hydraulic lime (grey time); (a) magnesian lime; and of these (a), (c) and (d) can be quicklime. Eminently hydraulic lime may be used, but is not covered by any existing standard.BS 5390 : 1976 8.2 Cement. Cement should comply with the requirements of one of the following British Standards: BS 12, BS 146, BS 4027, BS 4248. High alumina cement (HAC) may be used for special purposes, for example, resistance to chemical attack, resist- ance to elevated temperatures in chimneys, or where carly high strength is required. However, because of conversion HAC mortars may suffer in time a reduction of strength and no guidance is given in this code on its use. Conse- ‘quently, a designer wishing to use high alumina cement has to rely entirely on his own judgement 8.3 Masonry cement. Masonry coment is a propared product based on Portland cement and contains no lime; it should comply with the requirements of BS 5224. The easy-working quality is obtained from the addition during manufacture of a finely ground mineral filler and an entraining agent, and is mixed with sand and water to produce mortar. It should anly be used for mortar or rendering 8.4 Sand and other fine aggregate. Send and other fine ‘aggregate should comply with the requirements of BS 1200 Which covers naturally occurring sands, crushed stone sands and crushed gravel sands. They should be hard, durable, clean and free from adherent coatings, such as clay, and from any appreciable amount of clay in pellet form. They should not contain iron pyrites or soluble salts or other harmful materials that would disfigure or weaken the ‘mortar, or any organic impurities. Crushed stone and stone dust of the same type as the stone used in the construction is often substituted wholly, or in part, for sand, to match the walling Demolition rubble should not generally be used, but in ‘some cases crushed, hard, durable brick or tile may be used, ‘as may any other fine aggregate provided that it is free from harmful materials. 8,5 Water. Water should be clean and should not contain any material, either in solution or in suspension, in quan: tities sufficient to have a harmful effect on the mortar or ‘on metals or to impair the durability of the units of constructions. 8.6 Pigments, Pigments should comply with the require ments of BS 1014, if they are used. 9. Metal dowels, fixings, and wall ti 9.1 Metal dowels and fixings. Metal dowels and fixings should be non-corrodible, preferably of non-ferrous metal fr stainless steel. Galvanizing or coating with bitumen affords only a temporary protection against the corrosion (of iron or mild steel and could cause staining in a sensitive stone. Iron eramps set back 175 mm from the face of buildings have been known to cause spalling and even with this ora greater depth of cover the use of iron is dangerous. The following materials may be used for the stated purpose. Tying back and together fixings: copper, phosphor bronze, austenitic stainless steels, LLoadbearing fixings: aluminium bronze, phosphor bronze, austenitic stainless steels. All these should ‘comply with the requirements of the appropriate British Standards. ‘A wrought or continuously cast product should be used in preference to a sand casting as freedom from porosity cannot be guaranteed in the latter. The types of austenitic stainless steels recommended for these fixings are as follows. (a) Fixings made from sheet and strip (BS 1449 : Part 4) 302517, 304516, 316516, 321812, 347817, (0) Fixings made from plate (BS 1449 : Part 4) 304815, 316816, 321812, 347817 or the highproof stress versions of these steels. (c) Fixings made from bar (BS 970 : Part 4) 302825, 303821, 304815, 316816, 321812, 347817 or the high: proof stress version of 316516. 9.2 Metal wall ties. Metal wall ties should be of copper, phosphor bronze, or stainless steel, and comply with the requirements of BS 1243 in which the three types (butter fly, double-triangle and vertical twist) are described. The ‘ype selected should be suitable for sound insulation and structural requirements. If other types of tie are used the ‘manufacturer should submit evidence that the material is suitable for the intended purpose. 10. Damp-proof courses Suitable materials are. (a) lead-cored bituminous sheet; (b) bituminous felts: {c} mastic asphatt; (4) black polyethylene (low density sheet not less ‘than 0.46 mm thick); {eo} slates (at east two courses set in cament/sand mortar 1:3), ‘These materials should comply with the requirements of 18S 743, and the standards appropriate to each material Copper is not recommended here because of staining, and impervious bricks, whilst efficient, could be aesthetically undesirable. If other materials are proposed evidence should be available that they are suitable for the intended purpose and cond tions of use, “The mortar in which the above materials are bedded Is. ‘elated to their efficiency and should not be weaker than 1:1/4:3 of cement, ime and sand. 11. Airbricks, gratings and ducts 11.1 Airbricks and gratings. Airbricks and gratings should comply with the requirements of BS 493, where the materials used are appropriate to that British Standard. Other airbricks, for use in external walls, and gratings for internal use in Conjunction with sirbricks should be of durable materials, should provide an adequate wall-hold or anchorage and should, wherever possible, be of such a size 4510 course in with the units of the wall. 11.2 Ducts. Ducts, consisting of pipes, used to bridge and lose the cavity of a cavity wall, should bein accordance with BS 65 and BS 540. Slates used to form ducts should comply with the requirements of BS 743. The passage of vermin and rubbish into the building through the duets should be prevented by having a suitable form of grating on the outside of the wall with as large an area of free airway as possible provided that @ 10 mm diameter ba cannot passthrough, or by backing it with a durable mesh of similar fineness. The inner ends of ducts, where they are exposed in rooms or elsewhere inside buildings, also should be fitted with a suitable form of grating, complying with the requirements of BS 493,12. Flashings and weatherings ‘Sheet metals used for flashings and weatherings should comply with the requirements of appropriate standards. ‘The metals suitable for this purpose are: (a) ead, castor milled: not less than code no. 4; (6) zinc: 14 ZG for normal exposure including coastal: 20 ZG for industrial and heavily polluted areas; (6) aluminium: not less than 99 % purity, 22 oF 208WG; (a) stainless steel: usual thickness 0.4 mm. ‘Copper is not recommended because of staining, and attention is necessary to avoid corrosion if different metals {are used for flashings and for rooting. 13, Resin adhesives ‘These adhesives are being used more frequently in stone construction and repair. Several varieties are produced by each manufacturer and itis important that the correct one is selected. They should not be used for pointing porous stone as they are impermeable, and decay of the stone is likely to be accelerated. At present these adhesives are not covered by a British Standard, and caution is urged in their use, Advice may be obtained from the Building Research Establishment. 14, Sealants, mastics and other materials for expansion joints ‘These are covered by BS 3712 and BS 4254. BS 3712 is general and defines building mastic as a sealing or eaulking material applied by gun or trowel, or in stip ‘orm, or by pouring. It should maintain a weatherproof seal between the sides of a joint which is subject to some degree fof movement. The materials in strip form are readily deformable on compression but do not revert to their original shape, BS 4254 defines the sealant as a two part compound consisting of one part containing a liquid polysulphide polymer and a second part containing a curing liquid. When ‘mixed according to the manufacturer's instructions the sealant cures at ambient temperature to form a rubber-like solid. There are two grades, pouring grade and gun grade, {and they have a known shelf life and application life. In all but shallow joints a back-up material has to be used which may be cellular polyurethane, polyethylene, or types fof rubber. The choice of sealant and back-up material depends on the conditions and result required, and different types of sealant require different back-up materials on which the manufacturers will make recommendations. Appendix B in CP 121 : Part 1 : 1973 gives a summary of ‘he properties of available sealing compounds. Section three. Design and specification 18. General (Once it is decided that framing and cladding are not required but that solid stone should be used, iti likely to be clear, at an early stage in the design, whether the building is to have ashlar or rubble walling, the operative factors probably being the context of the building in its environ: ‘ment, and its function. The locality may influence the type of stone to be used. BS 5390 : 1976 16.1 Consultation and exchange of information. The previous codes of practice recommended consultation and ‘exchange of information when the contract is signed. Supply of stone is now much more limited, and a great dea! Of design detailing is dependent on the imitations imposed by the material so that this stage should be brought forward almost to sketch design stage “The designer should programme the precontract work to allow time for at least one quarry visit, combined with a Visit to the workshops in order to obtain the necessary information. Indications are given in this section of the type of information to be collected. Whilst the use of competitive tendering may mean that full ‘consultation is impossible, the practice of using nominated subcontractors for specialist work such as stone masonry is normal practice, and a negotiated contract is used more frequently. These methods allow full coordination at the ‘earlier stage, and this is particularly important in view of the very limited knowledge of the nature and uses of stone now prevalent. Although repair contracts are likely t0 involve smaller expenditure, the need for consultation is ‘greater in view of the specialized knowledge of traditional Craftsmanship involved in the repair of old and historic buildings. “The designer should supply adequate dimensional drawings from which, in the case of ashlared walls particularly, the ‘masonry contractor can prepare his working drawings and fixing schedules. Specification of depths of beds related to What the chosen quarry is able to supply, thickness of joints, rminimum bonding overlap in vertical joints and suitable lengths of stone should be made in consultation with the ‘masonry contractor. Instructions as to the selection and approval of the stone, and to its finishes and fixings must be included in the specification and/or bills or quantities 16. Choice of stone 16.1. Environmental suitability. The preponderance of sandstone in the north and of limestone in the south is @ generalization of the circumstances that affect the choice Of stone. Each area of the country is characterized by the local stone or, in areas without good building stone, by the ‘most readily available stone from the surrounding regions. Regard should therefore be taken, in country areas particu larly, to the local type of stone. In towns more flexibility ‘can operate since stone from remote areas may have been {and continue to be imported — hence the generalization of the opening sentence. The construction of a building in a stone totally alien to the area is likely to cause it to jar with its surroundings for its entre life. The choice of the appropriate stone also affects the way in which the building weathers and matures. For instance, the local stone might no longer be obtainable, and a stone of the same colour from a totally different area and geological age (e.g. Blue-grey Kentish ragstone and blue Clipsham) might be used instead. This might be visually acceptable for ‘twenty years, but the method of weathering of the two stones is so different that their dissimilarity would increase with time, ‘The performance of the stone used in any area should be studied to gauge the effects of exposure and the methods Cf dressing and jointing. Stones that are suitable for use in inland areas may be totally inappropriate on the coast, arash: enlargement areolaBS 5390 : 1976 . The supply of many varieties of local stone is very limited because of the closure or partial closure of many quarries, particularly as far as building stone is concerned. The designer should therefore ascertain at a very early stage in the design that the required stone is still available, and the sizes in which itis obtainable. Ifa large building is being considered then he should also ensure that ‘the quarry will be able to supply the quantity of stone needed, ‘Natural Stone Directory’, published from time to time by Stone Industries, lists the quarries that are producing stone for building ‘The sizes of stone blocks are determined by the depth of the natural bed and the occurrence of joints. Where blocks are required to the maximum depth of the bed they may be available, but not economically so, and this factor should bbe given careful consideration at the design stage. ‘At this early stage the designer should visit the quarry and Consult the quarry manager so that he is aware of the limitations the material may impose before the design has progressed too far to accommodate them. If cast stone is ‘to be used the manufacturer should also be consulted at an early stage in the design. 16.3 Durability. A factor to be considered here isthe lite expectancy of the building, in the case of a new structure, or the actual life of an existing one. Criteria are different and repairs of the large stone buildings may be the only ‘ones possible in a hundred:year cycle. (See section seven.) 16.3.1. The selection of stone. The selection of stone is liable to be affected by variation in the bed. In some quarries the beds are sufficiently regular in character for selection to present no special difficulty, the relative durability of stone from such quarries being fairly well known, whereas in others the variations are such that each individual block has to be considered separately. In some beds blocks of good or inferior quality can be distinguished by inspection; in others the difference is not so apparent. Here again the quarry manager is a key adviser. Samples of selected stones should bbe taken and these should represent the range of variations that are acceptable 18.3.2 The selection of cast stone. Cast stone is made from aggregate (sand, gravel or stone, whole or crushed, or a mixture of both) and cement. It may be homogeneous or ‘may be made with 2 facing mix not less than 19 mm thick ‘ast integrally with a different concrete mix. The colour may be varied by the addition of pigments, and the texture may bbe as required, with the stone cast against it. The designer or purchaser should satisfy himself that the cast stone is not Viable to surface crazing. The manufacturer should ascertain that the agoregate will give a frost resistant stone, as some ‘aggregates that could be used for this purpose are not resist: ant in their natural state. Walls that have been erected for ‘more than five years may be inspected to investigate their weathering characteristics, but the manufacturer should certify, if requested, that the cast stone isin accordance with BS 1217. 16.4 Seasoning. The quarryman is knowledgeable about the length of time needed for a stone to become seasoned. This varies from quarry to quarry. Many stones can be worked by hand more easily immediately after quarrying, but because ‘of the high water content some stone, when mined in winter, [snot brought to the surface for working until the spring Salts in the stone will tend to move towards the surface during seasoning and will thus be removed when the stone is dressed. Cast stone must be properly cured before being brought to the site, otherwise damage can occur to arriss, and if its laid too soon joints will open up, and there will be a great Fisk of erazing 165 Soluble salts. Many stones ae affected by the action of soluble salts which disfigure and finally decay them. Soluble salts may be: airborne, especially near the sea, but also from road salt; absorbed from the backing or jointing material; absorbed from the ground or stored materials; formed by reaction with sulphur gases in polluted air: introduced by some cleaning materials or processes Special care may need to be taken to avoid conta by sea salts if stone has to be transported by sea. To avoid the deleterious effects of sea salts on buildings in ‘coastal areas guidance should be sought in selection by observing other stone buildings in the locality ination Al backing materials for stone may contain salts, and clean sand is essential in the mortar, which should not contain an unnecessary proportion of cement. This could cause staining ‘from impurities present in it If bricks or blocks are used as backing, they should be stored off the ground before use to prevent absorption of soil salts, and ifthe stone is backed by structural concrete, the concrete should be painted with bitumen paint before any stone is fixed. The practice of painting the stone with bitumen paint is not recommended in most circumstances for the following reasons. {a} It could cause bitumen staining. (©) It restricts the ability of the stone to shed its natural ‘moisture in any direction but the face, and this can cause staining {c) It inhibits the natural bonding between stone and mortar. (d) It is an additional labour on the stone which experi lence suggests to be generally unnecessary. ‘See clause 45 for circumstances connected with old buildings. Contamination by soil salts is a common cause of staining, particularly in buildings without a damp-proof course. The use of an impervious granite or similar stone set in cement mortar for plinths is an acceptable substitute for a damp- proof course, but not all granites are impervious. 16.6 Atmospheric pollution. Sulphur compounds in the air ‘or in rainwater may react with stone of be deposited on its surface. This may lead to deterioration. Some stones are ‘more resistant than others to this action, The type of stone sed on other buildings in the locality should be a quide. 16.7 Frost action. Some stones are seriously affected by frost when wet, and care should be taken to ensure that these are not used in positions where they can become saturated, e9. cornices, copings. Care should be exercised in the selection of the stone and in ‘the detailing of the structure so that the parts that protect the building are stooled and weathered. If there is doubt about ‘the frost resistance of the stone all projecting mouldings should be protected by lead flashings or other impervious ‘coverings. Copings and sills should be bedded on damp-proof ‘courses to prevent water penetration into the walling below ‘them:16.8 Incompatibility. The association of limestone or rmagnesian limestone with sandstone or brickwork can bring about staining and decay of the latter by the calcium sulphate washing down from the limestone. The combina- tion of these materials occurs frequently and no treatment fas yet been found to prevent the interaction on existing buildings. The damage caused by sulphates from magnesian limestone is generally much greater than from other lime- stones. In new work care should be taken to avoid the situation by careful selection and detailing Cast stone above sandstone or brickwork can also produce the same effect. 17. Choice of walling type 17.1 Ashlar walling. This type of walling is generally appro- priate to buildings in an urban setting or where a certain amount of formal character is sought in the finished work. 17.1.1 Solid wall. n this more traditional type of walling the ashlared stone is built up simultaneously with brickwork ‘or blockwork forming the balance of the thickness of the wall. In determining the wall thickness reference should be made to BS...” and to current building regulations. ‘The coursing of the stonework may be equal or random but should relate to the coursing of the backing to prevent ‘unnecessary cutting of the backing units. If brick backing is used the greater number of bed joints in proportion to the facing bed joints should be taken into consideration. It is important to ensure that the ashlared stone is properly bonded and tied in, especially at openings and quoins, and that shear stresses are evenly distributed through the com ponent materials. See figure 2 for traditional solid masonry. 17.1.2 Cavity wal. Stone or cast stone may also be used as ‘the outer leaf of an ashlared cavity wall to give a total thick nes as for solid walls, plus the width of a cavity of not less ‘than 50 mm and not more than 75 mm. The stone may be backed by brick at alternate courses, but provided structural ‘demands are met, the stone leaf may consist of solid blocks of stone. ‘The design of the cavity wall should comply with the requirements for brick and block masonry set out in CP 121 : Part 1 in respect of wall ties and other details. 17.2 Rubble walling. This type of walling is more appropriate for buildings where a less formal characteris required, or in village and rural settings where it is necessary or desirable to ‘perpetuate good manners in architecture by continuing the local walling characteristics. rent types of ‘The term rubble walling covers many di masonry which are generally characteristic of a region or area of the country and found only there. The varieties are determined by the type of stone available and the way in which it comes out of the quarry or can be dressed. The types of rubble walling may be classified as described. in 97.2.1 to 17.23. 17.2.1. Random rubble {a} Uncoursed (see figure 6). This type of masonry is ‘constructed of stones as they come from the quarry. The ‘mason or waller selects blocks of all shapes and sizes, ‘more or less at random, and places them in position to ‘obtain a good bond, while restricting cutting of the BS 5390 : 1976 stones to the removal of inconvenient corners with @ walling hammer. ‘The bond should be transverse (across the thickness of the wall) and longitudinal (along both faces of the wall) ‘Transverse bond is obtained by the use of bonders, of which there should be not less than one in each squat metre of each wall surface. They should extend about ‘two-thirds into the wall; headers extending through the {ull thickness of the wall are known as ‘through stones’, ‘but their use is not recommended as they tend to permit damp-penetration, (b) Brought to courses. This walling i similar to ‘uncoursed random rubble except that the work isroughly levelled up to courses at intervals varying from 600 mm to 900 mm in height according to the locality and the type of stone used. The course heights usually corres- ‘pond with the heights of the quoin and jamb stones. Another variant of this type of wall is called ‘shoddy work’T which is builtin graduated or diminishing courses, having stone of 200 mm to 225 mm at the base Of the wall and the intermediate courses, gradually diminishing in height to the top course which may vary from 35 mm to 60 mm in height. 17.2.2 Squared rubble (a). Uncoursed (see figure 6). In this type of masonry, the stones are roughly squared as risers or jumpers and stretchers with varying heights, and are laid uncoursed. {In general, the risers should be not more than 250 mm in height and stretchers should not exceed two-thirds the heights of the adjoining riser. If small stones. introduced to assist bonding, these are often referred to 2s ‘snecks’. This type of masonry is also known as ‘sifted rubble’. (b) Snecked rubble. Snecked rubble walling consists of stones roughly squared but without the limitation of size and proportions recognized in uncoursed squared rubble (see (a)). This type of walling is designed to include a definite proportion of snecks that prevent the ‘occurrence of long continuous vertical joints. These snecks are comparatively small stones, but should be not less than 80 mm in any dimension, (6) Brought to courses. The stones are similar to those used for snecked rubble, but the work i levelled up to courses of varying depth from 300 mm to 900 mm according to the locality and type of stone used. The ‘courses usually correspond with the quoin or jamb stones. (d) Coursed. Coursed walling is builtin courses which ‘may vary in height from 100 mm to 300 mm (225 mm average) but the stones in any one course are roughly squared to the same height. The faces of the stones may be pitched to give a rackfaced appearance or may be dressed smooth. A variant of this type of walling may be formed by the introduction of pinnings, ie. smaller stones in the same course, at intervals, producing a chequered effect. 17.2.3 Miscellaneous rubble walling. There are many varieties of rubble walling, due to particular characteristic struction, which are sometimes known by regional names.BS 5390 : 1976 (2) Polygonal rubble walling or ‘Kentish Rag’ (see figures 7 and 22). Stone with no pronounced lamination is roughly hammer pitched into irregular polygonal shapes, and bedded to show the face joints running irregularly in all directions. Where the stones are only roughly shaped and fitted, itis called ‘rough-picked” but where the face edges of the stones are more carefully formed and fitted together itis called ‘close picked. “Kentish Rag’ as aterm for polygonal walling derives from the use of Kentish ragstone in this type of walling 2s the stone is frequently taken out of the quarry in irregular blocks. (0) Flint walling (se figures 9 and 10). lint walling is traditional and is found in many varieties throughout East Anglia, and in the south and south-east of England, ‘The stones used are flints or cobbles (popples) varying Lup to 300 mm in length and 75 mm to 150.mm in width and thickness. The walling is built up with a facing of selected flints or cobbles and a core of the same material or other rubble. Quoins and dressings to openings are usualy of squared stone or of brickwork. In building flint walling the work should only be raised in short lifts to avoid the mortar being squeezed out. ‘The facing flints may be selected stones used as found or may be split. When field flints are used as they come from the pit, a creamy grey surface is produced, while shore flints give a darker and more uniform surface colouring. Flint walling may be uncoursed or brought to courses. If the flints are split and their split surface exposed, this 's known as ‘polled work’. Coursed flint work is known as’polled facing’. ‘The flints may also be squared (knapped or snapped) and brought to courses (see figure 10). When the flints are knapped, the work is sometimes described as ‘gauged’ or ‘squared’ flint walling, and the joints on the exposed face fe well raked back. Lacing courses of long thin stones, tiles or bricks at Vertical intervals of 1 m to 2.m and stone or brick piers {flush with the wall faces or projecting) at about 2 m Intervals are often introduced either as bonding or decorative features Flints may be introduced as diaper or galleting work for decoration, (c}_ Lakeland waiting (see figure 8). There is a type of walling peculiar to the Lake District that averages from '525 mm to 750 mm in thickness. It is constructed of irregular flat bedded slate blocks not larger than 600 mm, in width, 11m in length end about 76 mm on bed. The walls ae built in two well bonded faces with a core, and the stones are laid tilted downwards towards the outer face at a slope of approximately 60 mm in 300 mm. Through-stones or ‘watershots’ are provided at regular intervals, and the stones are roughly coursed. The mortar is kept back about 50 mm from the face, and no mortar is used in the core. Where quoins are used, they are usually of hammer dressed angle drafted limestone, or large, sawn slate blocks. (4) Dry stone walling. This form of random rubble walling without mortar occurs in most moorland areas in the form of boundary walls and farm buildings (see ‘The stones, roughly dressed, are laid either on bed in dry ‘earth or on edge at a slope, and the core is formed of pisé or small stones. The principle followed in dry stone walling is that the stones should be laid in such @ manner that rain which penetrates the outer face tends to run out at a lower level. In some areas rubble walling, especially the uncoursed type, is rendered externally to improve its waterproofing. 17.3 Solid wall. There is less demand for solid rubble walling at this time; this is partly due to the cost of materials and the lack of craftsmen and partly to exposure problems, bbut when itis required it should conform in thickness to current building regulations, The core should not be wider than 150 mm however large or small the stones used for the facing. Unless itis necessary for design purposes one face only is fair faced, and the back is made up in bricks or blocks, ined with plaster or plasterboard. Solid walls are not recommended in situations of severe exposure unless they have a separate wall ining, the fixing blocks for which should be inorganic or of timber impregnated with fungici 17.4 Cavity wall. Walls constructed with a cavity are essen- tial where exposure is likely to be severe or even moderate, and they also are subject to regulations concerning thickness as mentioned in 17.3. ‘The thickness of the outer skin may have to be greater than required depending on the type of walling and of stone since the external appearance should conform as far as possible to the regional type. Many quarries now, however, supply specially square cut, rock faced stone in regular size for cavity wall construction. This produces @ more even appear- ance than the older walling but enables a building to be in hharmony with those around it. (See figure 20.) ‘The specification requirements are similar to those appli ‘able to cavity walls of brick and block. 18. Coursing in ashlar and rubble walls All building stone except flints should be laid with its natural bed normal to the load. Thus in walling the bed should be horizontal and in arches it should be normal to ‘the curve of the arch In cornices and overhanging string courses, however, that have horizontal mouldings the bed should be vertical and perpendicular to the face of the wall except the terminal stones. If the blocks for these features have no pronounced. stratification, e.g. Ketton stone, and are known by experi tence not to delaminate on exposure they may be laid on ‘their natural bed as in plain walling. These conditions are demonstrated in figure 2. ‘The window mullions of old buildings were frequently inserted with the bed vertical, and no joints, but this can lead to splitting of the mullion from top to bottom. It is ‘advisable when replacing them to bed the stone naturally and allow for joints. Early consultation with the stone supplier is essential because the height of each course is regulated by the depth Of the beds in the quarry, combined with the need for economical handling of the blocks of stone. ‘Some quarries have bed depths of over 1 m between beds and therefore cut the stone into smaller, more manageable sizes, whereas others may have no bed greater than 300 mm $0 that deeper courses are out of the question.The limitations imposed by the depth of quarry beds have sometimes been overcome by face bedding or edge bedding, Where the stone is markedly laminated, face bedding can lead to accelerated decay since the laminations are not restrained by the weight of the surrounding stonework, and it should therefore be avoided. The same is true of edge ‘bedding at corners or in mullions 19. Finishes 19.1. Ashlar. Since ashlar work normally consists of blocks of finely square dressed stone laid in courses with thin joints, the variety of finishes is limited to sawn and rubbed. It might be necessary to specify a tooled finish in particular circumstances, such as in repair work, or other finishes as illustrated in figure 11 Contrasts may be made between the plinths and quoins and ‘the plain walling of an ashlared building of traditional design. These can seldom be executed except by hand. 19.2 Rubble. Most rubble walling is roughly dressed with a hammer if any dressing is needed after the stone is removed from the quarry. The amount of dressing depends also on the type of walling to be employed: squared, coursed rubble will require a larger amount, as will squared, knapped flintwork, Contrasts are found in rubble walling also between the ‘quoins and the remainder of the wall, as for instance in Lake District walling, and in the polygonal walling where it is necessary to form the quoins from sawn or roughly squared blocks. 20. Exclusion of rain 20.1. Exposure. The degree of exposure to which buildings {are subject has been studied in some detail and the results have been published in the BRE Digest No. 127, ‘An index ‘of exposure to driving rain’. A summary is given in CP 121 Part 1 to which reference should be made. Table 1 shows which types of cavity or solid walling are suitable for given exposures. 20.2 Penetration. Stone, whether natural or cast, absorbs ‘water at a rate depending on its pore characteristics. Water reaching the inner face of the wall will have penetrated in two possible ways, as follows. (a) Through the stone itself or through the mortar. This ‘occurs in permeable stones, when the pores gradually fill with water and are unable to shed it. It tends to happen when there isa long wet spell or heavy driving ‘ain. Direct penetration may occur around openings or below projections. Table 1. Types of wall suitable in given exposures (Construction types: Exposure ia [ooh aly fendered Severe x x J Moderate x v v Sheltered y J ’ BS 5390 : 1976 Penetrating moisture may carry salts through the stone ‘to the inner face where they may cause disfiguration ‘and decay. This is particularly prevalent in window ‘mullions in coastal areas. {(b) Through cracks in the masonry. Hair cracks can be found in the joints of the stonework, or other minor movement may open the walling slightly, and these will leave paths for water running down the face of the building to penetrate. This defect can be overcome to some extent by ensuring that the mortar is not stronger ‘than the stone, and that it contains the recommended amount of lime to give it some movement tolerance. In ‘old flint rubble walls penetration occurs frequently ‘where the flint has been pointed or repointed in dense mortar. This shrinks away from the stone allowing water ‘to enter which is then trapped and can only get out of ‘the wall by evaporating through the inside face and damaging the plaster. 20.3 Protection against rain penetration. From these remarks it will be perceived that a cavity wall correctly designed and constructed provides a barrier to rain penetra- tion, but solid walls may not always give satisfactory protection in all conditions of exposure. ‘The design of all external parts of the structure, and the detailing at ground level, intermediate floors, openings, roofs and parapets all contribute to the protection of the building, and this is dealt with in more detail in ensuing clauses. In order to combat penetration of water through the stone itself water repellent solutions can be applied. These should comply with the requirements of BS 3826. There are many cautions to be considered before they should be specified. These are discussed more fully in section seven. They are useless if cracks in the joints are the cause of penetration. 21. Dimensional stability 21.1 Movement caused by moisture. Sandstones exhibit some slight movement at changes in moisture content, but limestones and igneous racks only an insignificant amount. Moisture movement may contribute to the opening up of ‘coping joints, and cracking has been known to occur at the tends of sandstone sills and lintels when built into brickwork in circumstances that suggest that shrinkage of the compo- rent on drying may be the cause. 21.2 Thermal movement. The amount of thermal move- ‘ment in stonework is small, and is unlikely to affect rubble walling provided that the correct mortars are used. In ashlar, however, there isthe possibility of lateral expansion {and contraction which could lead to spalling of the edges of blocks of stone, displacement on bed or even severe shattering of the masonry. Vertical expansion joints 10 mm wide should therefore be provided every 12 m to 15 m, This kind of damage does not generally occur, but the pproblem is found when stone is used as a cladding separate from the structure so that each is reacting differently to thermal movement. This code does not cover cladding, which is dealt with in CP 298, CP 121 : Part 1 gives details of sealants, but until more information on building movement is available reliance should be placed on practical experience.BS 5390 : 1976 2. Insulation and fire resistance 22.1 Thermal transmittance. The Building Regulations for England and Wales apply only to dwellings in their require ments for thermal insulation, as it is considered that other buildings, e.g offices, shops and railway premises or factories, are covered by separate legislation. Building regulations for Scotland, however, apply to most residential buildings inclu ding hotels, hostels and institutional buildings. The thermal ‘transmittance coefficient or U-value is now expressed in ‘watts per square metre per degree Celsius (W/m? °C)) and is therefore different from the imperial value. The U-value (of external walls should not be more than 1.0 W/(m? °C). ‘The method of calculating this value for stone wall i given in appendix A. 22.2 Sound insulation. Building regulations apply similarly with sound insulation. Reference may also be made to BRE Digest 143, ‘Sound insulation: basic principles’ ‘Stone masonry however is relatively massive and is chiefly Used for external walls so that the problems posed by airborne sound rarely arise. The remarks in CP 121 : Part 1 are otherwise applicable here also. 22.3 Fira protection. Few of the building regulation requirements relate specifically to stone masonry and, assuring that itis only used for external walls, the principal conditions are as follows (a) Most external walls must have at least half an hour fire resistance. (b} A wall on a boundary or within 11m of it must be fire resistant from both sides. (If more, then it should be resistant from the inside only) (c) It must be constructed of non-combustible material “The thickness needed to comply with building regulations {for the height of the wall and loadings on it is generally sufficient to fulfil the requirements under this heading. 23. Mortar ‘The materials required for mortar are described in clause 8 and the proportions in which they are mixed materially affect the strength and appearance of the walling. The ‘mortar should be durable, but nat stronger than the stone; it should be easily workable, but set reasonably quickly; and it should be sufficiently resilient to accommodate minor settlement in the wal. Factors that have to be considered are discussed in 23.1 10233. 23.1 Type of stone (a) The mortar used for stone or cast stone should bi hydraulic lime or cement/time mortar, the former for very porous stone, in proportions of 2:6 of 1:3:12 respectively. If greater strength is required, say on copings or projections, 1:2:9 is more suitable. These ‘mixes should also be usod for flint walling (b) For some sandstone and granite a stronger mortar ‘may be used such as 1:1:6, or for very dense granite a ‘cement mortar in the mix of 1:3. ‘There may be the need to increase the gauging with ‘cement in frosty weather; this is discussed further in 96,2. It is recommended that work is delayed where ‘possible to avoid these conditions, and the programme of construction planned with this in mind, If hydraulic lime is used no cement is necessary, 23.2 Type of walling (2) In ashlar walling the proportions of mixes are likely ‘to be the same as in rubble but the type of fine aggregate may vary. In ashlar the mortar is normally finer and may bbe made up with crushed stone rather than sand or fine aggregate to give a more harmonious effect. (6) In rubble walling, where the thickness of joint is ‘more irregular, the aggregate should be coarser and may Consist of grit as wel as sand or crushed stone. Coarsely ‘rushed stone of the same stone as the walling may be suitable. The choice depends very much on the local characteristics and practice, as there may be the need. to match adjacent work. Crushed oolitic limestone is unsuitable as the breaking up of the ooliths destroys ‘their strength and shows a smooth texture. 23.3 Type of sand/fine aggregate. The colour and texture Of the mortar is obtained from the sand/fine aggregate used in the mix, and the strength of the wall itself is affected by it, Soft sand is even textured with worn and rounded grains, and mortar made with itis easity workable, smooth and. less strong than mortar made with sharp sand. Sharp sand has angular grains, which give a tougher workability and greater strength to the mortar, and may occur naturally or be produced from crushed stone. Whilst sand can be obtained in various colours depending fon the locality and geological nature of the source, the type: of even, worn grain is less suitable to ashlar which, by its very nature, needs strength, and also less suitable to rubble walling, which looks better with a coarser texture of mortar and will benefit from the extra strength. Terms such as pit, yellow or building sand are imprecise and where texture and colour are important samples should be obtained. 24. Jointing and pointing 24.1 Ashlar. The stone work may be bedded and pointed with the same mortar at the same time and this is preferable asall the mortar is then homogeneous. If it is desired to introduce special colours the joints may be raked out as work proceeds to a depth of 20 mm and later pointed with the specially prepared mortar. The pointing mortar should be of adequate frost resistance and of similar strength to the bedding mortar. The pointing of ashlar work is normally finished flush with the face of the wall (See figure 22.) 24.2 Rubble. The same recommendations apply to rubble walling in that it may be jointed and pointed simultaneously, ‘or pointed later in a special mortar. The character of rubble ‘walling is generally such that its appearance is better if the former action is taken, There may be more variety in the ‘way the pointing is finished as shown in figure 11. The ‘coarse texture in the very slightly recessed joint is achieved by stippling the surface of the mortar, before it finally sets, ‘with 2 stiff bristle brush to show up the grit in the mix. The surface of the wall has to be kept clean during the operat ‘by washing it down with clean water. Ths finish is attractive and functional as it cannot hold water against an arrs. (See figure 22.) ‘Ribbon’ pointing, which projects from the face of the wall and is finished with a trowel, causes water to lodge against the stone until eventually frost action causes the mortar to ‘break away. This pointing is generally carried out as @ separate operation after the wall is built. Ifa dense mortar is used, as frequently happens, this type of pointing ‘accelerates the decay of stone. (See figure 22.)If the rubble is very irregular the joints may be filled with glleting of different shapes depending on the type of stone and local practice. (See figure 7, where two typical methods are illustrated, and figure 22.) 25. Damp-proof courses The damp-proof course should provide a barrier to the passage of water either from an external source into the fabric of the building or from one part of the structure to ‘another. Sheet material to provide continuity should be used when the moisture flow is downwards. All damp-proof courses should be laid on an even bed of fresh mortar, and should be protected from injury during building work. T mortar should not be as gritty as those recommended for rubble walling n case the aggrogate damages the damp-proot ‘course materia ‘The recommendations of CP 121 : Part 1 in respect of damp: proof courses should be followed, and the remarks below amplify them in dealing with the spectal requirements of stone walls Damp-proof courses should be provided at the positions described in 28.1 to 28.6. 25.1 Below ground. This is generally referred to as tanking and there are no special requirements for stone walling 25.2 Just above ground level. The height above ground level of this horizontal damp-proot course should be not less than 150 mm but may vary more than in brickwork for ‘aesthetic considerations. It may form part ofa plinth but if ‘the plinth course has to be over about 300 mm from the ground level, then provision should be made for the damp- Proof course at a lower level ‘The plinth or wall base, especi ‘course, is extremely vulnerable to staining and splash-back, 0 that if a pale-coloured stone is specified for the main walling, consideration should be given to using a darker or more impervious stone (such as granite) for the base course or plinth, Its essential that the damp proof course goes right through 2 solid wall to the face of the building and that the internal ‘treatment is as required forall ground floors. (See figure 4.) Ima cavity wall the demp-proof course should be separate in fech leaf, taken right through to the face and an additional ‘one inserted over a square ventilation duct. Ifa circular pipe is used it should be set to slope downwards to the outer leaf {as shown in figure 4 and should not require a separate damp- proof course over it. Weep holes to the external face should ‘be provided at the base of the cavity, 25.3 At openings. Ifthe stone of a sill that i all in one piece is impervious no damp-proof course is necessary, but if its in two or more pieces, or of porous stone one should bbe provided, turned up at the back and at ends. In cavity walls there should be flexible damp-proof course Cover the internal lintel extending atleast 100 mm beyond the ends, sloping down across the cavity and projecting to form a drip below the lintel. Figure 5 shows the variation in ‘types of lintel and jamb damp-proof courses for use with internally or externally rebated openings. 25.4 At floor levels. In solid walls an additional horizontal {damp proof course is recommended immediately above the joist level at the intermediate floor levels. Alternatively the joist end may be wrapped in bituminous felt to protect each ‘one individually but this should be loose enough for the air ly below the damp-proof BS 5390 : 1976 25.5 In parapets. A damp-proot course should be provided {at a height of not less than 150 mm above a roof abutment ‘to close the cavity with the roof flashing, extended to form ‘a small drip on the external face. In a cavity wall this flash ing should be stepped down towards the inner face of the parapet, and weep holes provided at intervals. If the parapet extends for more than 150 mm above the flashing level, another damp-proof course should be pro: vided under the coping, unless the coping is of an impervi ‘material such as slate. (See figures 12 and 13.) 25.6 At other positions. Chimneys should be provided just above roof level with a non-combustible damp-proof course, stepped if necessary, with @ melting point higher than the heat likely to be generated by the flue gases. Consideration should be given to the structural stability of the stack with such a separating membrane, Where internal wals rise to become external walls some additional damp-proof course will be necessary. s 26. Weathering of details: flashings 28.1 Weathering. Projecting or coping stones should be ‘weathered by dressing the upper surface to a slope in order to shed water properly. The addition of stooling at the back edge of cornices, string courses and the top of plinths is an additional improvement as there is then no bed joint con- tinuous with the top surface by which water can penetrate the building. Figure 3 illustrates the stooling on these ‘members. On a sloping gable coping an overlapping or stepped joint is recommended to protect the wall top more effectively as shown in figure 14. Slate copings should also have a stepped joint asin figure 17. The stooling on the built-in ends of sills is also necessary to prevent water penetration. The alternative of using straight section for sills means that all the reliance for exclusion of ‘water is placed on the jointing materials. (See figure 15.) Essential to sils, copings and lintels isthe throating in their underside to prevent the running back of rain into the structure, the optimum dimensions for which are shown in figure 15. 26.2 Flashings. Weathered members may need the protec- tion of a metal Flashing if they are in an exposed position, or if the stone is permeable. ‘The materials to be used for flashing stonework are lead, aluminium, zinc and stainless steel. Copper is liable to cause staining and is not recommended. The suitable thickness depends more on the stiffness required to permit dressing into shape and avoidance of lifting caused by wind than on the liability to corrosion caused by atmospheric pollution. Except for stainless stool these metals are prone to corrode when in contact with (a) damp woodwork; (b) dissimilar metals; (c)_ mortar when metal is tucked into position. This corrosion can be guarded against by the application of a bitumen coating. Lead flashings are held in position with little rolls of lead compressed to form wedges to retain the upper edge of the flashing in its chase in the wall. The rest Of the chase is then pointed up in mortar. The lower edge Of the flashing is held by a tingle plugged to the stonework {see figure 3). If lead is used the lengths should not be greater than 1200 mm to 1500 mm with 100 mm laps.Bs 5390 : 1976 27. Structural considerations Care should be taken to ensure that lintels have adequate support, certainly not less than 100 mm at each end. Provision should be made for spreading concentrated loads ‘over the wall area by the use of padstones. Adequate abutment should be provided for the thrust from arches. Relieving arches may be used over flat arches or lintels to transmit part of the loading before it reaches. ‘them, but again the abutment must be adequate. “The requirements for bearings for floors and roofs are described in detail in CP 121 : Part 1. 28. Internal linings in solid walls ‘There are three types of lining that may be suitable for use: (2) board, plasterboard or insulating plasterboard on treated battens secured to composition blocks built into the walls; (b) waterproof dovetailed bitumen/asbestos sheeting secured to composition blocks built into the walls, and plastered internally. (c) lightweight concrete blocks (non-loadbearing) separated from the outer wall by cavity or waterproof barrier, plastered internally. ‘The final choice will be dictated by considerations outside the scope of this code. 29. Fixing of metal and stone General comments on the damage caused by iron cramps are given in 9.1, but this clause deals with exposed ironwork and other metal and the methods to be used in fixing thern to the stone masonry. The fixing of ironwork is a major problem, but other metals (e.g. stainless steel, bronze and ccopper/bronze alloys) likely to be used for railings, gates, grilles, etc., being non-ferrous, prosent few difficulties. Iron has a very high coefficient of expansion, and oxidation, particularly of wrought iron which has a laminated struc- ture, produces very severe displacement so that the stone surrounding the fixing of ironwork spalls off or breaks up in large areas. 29.1 Traditional method. The traditional method of fixing iron railings or grilles into stone was to position them in mortices leaving 6 mm clearance around the iron and to run in molten lead, on the hypothesis that the lead, being softer, would take up some of the expansion in the iron. ‘The lead was finished off to slope down from the metal to the stone so that it threw off the water running down the face of the railing. Even this amount of care did not prevent moisture attacking the builtin end of the iron from the stone, or finding a way between the lead and the iron because of thermal movement of the lead. Onee such a gap ‘occurs the lack of facility for moisture to dry out leads to the acceleration of corrosion of the iron through electro: Iytie action, followed by the splitting of the stone in which the iron is embedded, 29.2 Recommended method. It is now recommended that ‘more time should be spent at design stage to avoid embedded ironwork and that where itis necessary the embedded ends should be of a non-ferrous metal that may be either welded to the iron or halved and screwed together. Whilst this second method may produce some electrolytic action, it will not cause damage to the structure itself, The ends should be pointed into the mortices with cement/lime mortar. The use of aluminium as @ non-ferrous metal oF as 2 substitute for iron in this context is not recommended as similar failure has been known to occur. 29.3 Other methods. The deterrents to the use of molten lead are expense and safety. Operatives understandably find it difficult to handle and accidents could cause serious injury. The alternative sometimes used isto fill the mortice ‘with lead woo! rammed to a solid state. This is more expen- sive in the operative's time than molten lead, but itis safe and the embedded iron end can be dipped or painted with bituminous paint, which will not be melted off as it might with molten lead. Ultimately, however, the iron will stil rst ‘Modern practice tends towards pointing the ironwork (which ‘may have been tinned or galvanized) into the mortice with a lime or cement/lime mortar which will break up quickly if corrosion starts, and can then be renewed. Tinning the iron, however, is not a long term answor as the least defect in the Coating will again lead to accelerated corrosion. “The ange of resin adhesives that is now available may produce 2 suitable method of overcoming this problem, but so litte is known about their performance that any use should be regarded as experimental. The advice of the manufacturer should always be obtained before using such proprietary mate 29.4 Summary. This clause can therefore be summed up in ‘able 2, Table 2. Methods of fixing ironwork, and their advantages Considerations Method Labour fetor Expense Painting of nds | Dipping of onds vvith bitumen inet iin Nonferrous tipping | good | in - - Yong (L) Molten lead bed high | v HL Lead woo! ‘medium high v v %L Cement/iime mortar | good low ’ v short Resins 00d medium (eocording to manufacturer’ not known instructions)Section four. Work off site 30. Ashlar For the guidance of the mason, the direetion of the naturat bed should be plainly marked on the blocks at the quarry, and transferred to the sawn or worked stones as they are finished at the yard. Each block should be sawn or worked true with no irregu- larities except at the back. The stone should not be undercut fr concave as this concentrates the stress at the edges and causes spalling. At this stage, when stone is generally still fresh from the quarry, great care has to be taken in handling it as it can very easily become chipped. Each stone should be prepared for lifting by forming an undercut mortice in ‘the top of the stone to accommodate the particular form of ‘ip to be used on the site. This may be either a chain lewis oF a three legged lewis, the hole being known asa lewis hole. All the necessary chases for joggles, dowels and cramps, and ‘mortices for fixing other components should be worked at the yard. These are generally worked by hand or with power tools, not mechanically. 30.1 Lifting dovices. The type of lewis has to be related to the weight to be lifted, i.. the greater the weight the larger and stronger the lewis. The two-pin and splitpin lewises are now extensively used for lifting stones of moderate mass because they are labour saving, only round holes having to be drilled with tungsten carbide tipped drills, instead of the rectangular mortices required by the three-legged and chain- ced lewis which have to be hand finished and fitted. “The three-legged lewis shown would be suitable for the heavier stones, but is les used than formerly for stones of moderate weight. In the chain linked lewis a sliver or wedge is sometimes inserted between the two parts, but it can detract from the rolling fulcrum action which makes the lewis tighter and more secure in the mortice. It is important that all lewises, but these two in particular, should bind at ‘the bottom of the mortice and not at the top. “The two-pin lewis is much used for stones of moderate mass, but itis essential that the two holes are drilled at steeply ‘opposing angles or there is a risk of the pins pulling out. ‘Slightly lighter stones are lifted with the split-pin lewis inserted into a single hole. ‘The chain dog is used for particularly heavy or long stones. (See figure 18.) All ifting devices, chains, slings, wire ropes, cranes, gantres, tetc., have to be frequently inspected for possible faults or defects that could lead to failure in use. 31. Rubble {In most forms of rubble walling no special off-site work is necessary. It should be decided before the work commences ‘whether the stone isto be delivered in bulk for spliting as ‘desired, or whether it should be delivered in smaller random sizes ready for selection and laying “The stones for squared rubble should be prepared at the quarry or in the yard, as should contrasting quoins, together, with sills and lintels, ee. BS 5390 : 1976 32, Transport The transport of ashlar to the site should be so arranged as to minimize handling. Whatever method of transport is used, precautions should be taken, by careful stacking and by packing in clean wheat straw or other suitable material, to guard against accidental damage to the stones. Whilst care has to be taken in transporting stone for rubble walling, there are no special recommendations. Dressed stone for quoins, openings and features should be treated as ashlar. Particular care is needed, as described above, in the transport of stone by sea, to ensure that it remains uncon taminated by salts throughout the journey. Section five. Work on site For recommendations concerning setting-out, reference should be made to 4.1 in CP 121 : Part 1: 1973. 33. Scaffolding Scaffolding may be of stel or aluminium alloy and may be erected in one of two forms: putlog independent Aluminium alloy is more frequently used in general building work but is not as strong as steel. It does not rust, however, as steel does, and this factor should be considered, particu- larly ifthe scaffold is likely to be in position for a long period and is of the putlog type, as rust staining may ensue. Buffer caps should be used on the ends of horizontal tubes where these abut against stonework, to prevent marking and damage Putiog scaffolding is generally used for a new building, with € single line of standards parallel to the building, linked to it by putlogs built into the masonry 0s work proceeds. Where work to an existing building is involved an indepen- dent tied scaffolding is used, which may be light, general purpose or heavy duty, according to the type of work. Stone cleaning would require alight or general purpose scaffold whereas a heavy duty one would be necessary if there were store materials on the scaffolding. Its built of two lines of standards parallel to the building linked to each other by transoms and ledgers and tied at openings and projections. The centres of standards are limited and dictate the loading allowed. Ina large stone building special scaffolds are often required ‘which will be designed for the structure with all the hoisting and access facilities demanded by the work. Cantilevered scaffolds may also be provided, and all these types have to comply with statutory regulations and should be in accord: ance with CP 97 : Parts 1, 2 and 3. 34. Storage 34.1 Stone. Stone is generally despatched from the yard in lrder of need and should be carefully stored in similar order to avoid double handling. It should be stored cleer of the ground to prevent the leaching of soil salts into it, or stain: ing from moisture. In wintry weather, precautions should be taken to prevent damage to the stones through the freezing of rainwater or residual quarry-sap by covering with tar- paulins or polythene over the more normal coverings of straw, hessian or other suitable materials, which should ‘contain nothing that might injure or stain the stone.BS 5390 : 1976 ‘A special staging or gantry should be provided for the storage of ashlars. It is sometimes advisable to fence off the area allocated to storage because serious delay may be ‘caused by accidental damage to any of the stones. Each stone should be checked on delivery and marked off on a ‘copy of the fixing schedule, carefully examined for damage and, if undamaged, stacked in the correct sequence for fixing and in such a manner that its identification letter and number are clearly visi 34.2 Cement. Cement should be stored off the ground on 2 timber floor in a dry structure. Consignments should be placed in a manner that permits inspection and use in rota: ton of delivery. Cement that has been exposed to dampness, should not be used. 34.3 Lime (quicktime). Lime (quicklime) should be delivered to the site as soon after manufacture as possible and slaking commenced immediately because it deteriorates rapidly on exposure to the atmosphere and is liable to cause fire if stored in an unslaked condition near combustible materials. 34.4 Lime (hydrated). Lime (hydrated) should be stored in the same way 2s cement. 34.5 Sand/fine aggregate. Sandi/fine aggregate should be stored away from other materials to prevent their contami: nation by deleterious matter. Extremes of moisture content will affect gauging and the heaps should therefore be 35. Mortar 38.1 General. If large quantities of mortar are required ‘these should be mixed on site by machine, which should be Cleaned out before use to avoid contamination and before ‘changing mixes. Hand mixing may be used for small quan- ities and should be carried out on a clean watertight platform. Details concerning the mixing of mortars listed 48 suitable (see clause 23) are given in CP 121 : Part 1, including information about the handling of quicklime and hydraulic lime. Reference should also be made to BS 6224. 136.2 Freezing conditions. The mortar used should be suitable for use in cold weather (see tables 4.1 and 6 in CP 121 : Part 1 : 1973) but itis desirable, if possible, to Postpone the work or programme it to @ better season. Newly erected masonry should be protected against frost by covering it with sacking, tarpaulins or other suitable ‘materials, combined possibly with heating of the work area. Chlorides should not be added either separately or as an ingredient of other added materials. The air-entraining type of mortar plasticizer will improve the frost resistance of Time-based mortars. 36.3 Plasticizers. Plasticizers are sometimes added to give improved workability, but their use in lime or cementvlime ‘mortar is unnecessary 25 the lime contributes to the worka- bility, and their use should be confined to cement mortars. 35.4 Transport. Mortar may be taken to the mortar boards in suitable containers. If large supplies of mortar, and. ‘therefore large containers, are required (e.g. wheelbarrow) iis important that the surface of tracks leading to the working area should be as smooth as practicable, as the vibration caused by rough tracks tends to make laitance rise to the surface, and spoils the consistency of the mortar. 36. Handling the stone “The stones used in masonry are usually of such a size that they can be neither unloaded nor placed in position by hand, and adequate lifting plant forall purposes should be provided in order to ensure continuity of the work. It may ‘be necessary to employ a crane: smaller blocks can then be ‘laced in containers and slung direct from the lorry to the required position. It is preferable that there should be at least two cranes, oF other suitable lifting tackle, one for unloading and one for raising the stones to the work. In addition, the use of one of more platform-hoists, conve: niently situated, is recommended. If only one crane is ‘available, it should be set in such a position that it can both unload and hoist. ‘The majority of the stones in rubble masonry will be small ‘enough to move and place by hand, but it may be necessary to-use hoists, grips and slings for certain large quoins, lintels and sills. The long stones are best slung by a rope-sling about their quarter points; for others, a suitable grip with a flat surface to clamp the face and a pointed grip for the back ‘may be used. All cranes and hoists should comply with statutory regulations. 37, Backings Brick is generally used as a backing to ashlar or rubble stonework. Alternative materials are clay hollow-blocks and conerete blocks. Care should be taken that the dimensions of the backing materials are convenient for bonding and that the stone sizes have been regulated by the course-heights, Of the backing materials, so that working to courses does not necessitate extra cutting, ‘The built-in faces of some stones may occasionally be treated with bitumen paint. Ths is discussed in 16.5, and should not generally be necessary except where itis antici pated that the backing materials contain deleterious salts. ‘The paint should be applied on site. 38. Construction 38.1 Ashlar 38.1.1 Preliminaries to fixing. The fixer should first check ‘that the blocks as delivered are of proper dimensions and will work-in satisfactorily. The positions of the main feat such as quoins, door jambs, etc., should be checked, and a ‘gauge-ath then prepared and marked off, making allowance for the joints. In intricate work, the stones may be laid dry for the first course, and then relifted in order to permit the spreading of the mortar bed before final fixing. 38.1.2 Bedding. Thin joints are usually required in ashlar masonry. To overcome any possible irregularities, itis recommended that the thickness of the bedding, and the ‘width of the vertical joints, should be not less than § mm. To obtain a solid even bed, two strips of metal of the thick: ness of the required joint should be used as distance pieces. Al joints should be flushed up solidly at the time of fixing. Only sufficient mortar should be spread to bed one ashlar at a time, and care should be taken in the preparation of the mortar to ensure that there are no hard lumps to inter: ‘ere with the even bedding. Uneven bedding may cause the stone to crack. I necessary, the bedding mortar should be remoistened slightly by sprinkling with a brush immediately before the stone is laid.Both the top bed of the laid course and the bottom bed of the course to be laid should be moistened prior to | ‘Additionally the faces of stones adjacent to beds and joints should be moistened prior to final pointing ‘The projecting members of an overhanging cornice should be hollow-bedded. Precautions should be taken to prevent overturning of projecting cornice stones, which may be unstable, pending the setting of the mortar, the fixing of dowels or cramps and the bedding of stabilizing courses. 38.1.3 Hoisting into position. Manhandling of any but the smallest stones snot recommended. the hoisting tackle or ‘rane should be conveniently situated and easily operated so that the fixer ean readily control and guide the stones into position. During inclement weather, care should be taken to keep the blocks dry. Stones containing much moisture have little absorption, are difficult to place accurately, and tend to slide on the bed. '38.1.4 Dowels and cremps. Dowels and cramps should be fitted and joggle joints filled and grouted as the work proceeds. Grouted joggle joints should be completely filled ‘and tamped to ensure that any trapped air is expelled. 38.2 Rubble 38.2.1 Laying and bonding. The strength of @ rubble wall depends largely on the skill of the mason in selecting, laying and bonding the stones. The necessity for laying stones on their natural bed is described in 38.1.2. Quoins should be built up in advance of the main body of the wall to a height of about 11m, and adjacent walling built or stepped down fn either side The front part of the wall should be built to a height of not ‘more than 400 mm after which the back part should be raised to the same or approximately the same level, using as {ar as possible stones that are broad on bed and which talkin well with the front portion. At the same time, any spaces left between the stones of the two wall faces should be filled with core stones carefully chosen to bond in with the remainder. All stones should be well and solidly bedded in mortar and all voids filled. Bonders should be builtin, ane to each superficial metre in ach face in random work, and at approximately 1 m verti- cal and horizontal intervals in coursed work, staggering the stones between the two faces; through-stones are not recom mended. Bonders should have a height of not less then ‘one-third their length and should extend through two-thirds of the wall thickness ‘Similar principles apply ifthe backing is of material other than stone. 38.2.2 Cavity walls. If the rubble wall is the outer leat of a cavity wall, the method of construction will be similar to the brick or block cavity wall described in CP 121 : Part 1. ‘The importance of keeping the cavity clear cannot be stressed too heavily. Particular care is needed with uneven rubble walls which inevitably will present a rough face to the cavity. It is advisable to increase the width of the cavity, in order to reduce the risk of its being bridged by mortar droppings Contact between the outer and inner part of the wall at the jambs of openings should be broken by a vertical damp- proof course extending the full height of the openings. ‘The outer and inner leaves of a cavity wall should be tied SR BS 5390 : 1976 walling, and there should be ties spaced approximately 450 mm apart vertically at the sides of all openings. The ties should be bedded with a slight fall towards the outer leat 38.2.3 Plumbing of walls. To ensure that rough-faced stonework is erected plumb, temporary but rigid vertical forms or battens should be erected at the building angles, about 300 mm away"from the wall face, from which 2 constant distance should be maintained when forming the bed joints of the quoins. Lines should then be stretched either from the laid quoin stones or from the battens which will indicate the face of the bed joints in the intermediate walling. When a wall isto be built to a batter or slope, the battens should be erected at the desired angle from the vertical, ‘and measurements taken as before. 38.2.4 Quoins and jambs. Unless constructed in ashlar or brickwork, selected large stones should be used for quoins {and jambs. These should be more regular in shape and more carefully dressed than stones for the main walling, and should be selected and set out on the ground beforehand. The use of these stones at the angles will give greater strength and stability to the wall, and enable the mason to course and plumb the wall as the work advances. 38.2.5 Wetting of stones. Impervious stones when surface: ‘Wet oF stones containing too much moisture tend to slide ‘on bed and are difficult to place in position accurately. Porous stones, if very dry, ae apt to absorb too much moisture from the mortar. Protection from rain should, therefore, be provided, and any necessary damping of stones carried out under contra, 38.3 Laying of damp-proof courses. The stonework on which the damp-proof course isto be laid should be care- fully flushed up with mortar and an even bed formed, free from pebbles and irregularities that might fracture or penetrate the material of the damp-proof course. After the damp-proof course has been laid, it should be ‘protected from injury until the mortar in the bed has set. (On proceeding with the building, care should be taken to ensure that the mortar bed on top of the damp:proof course is of sufficient thickness and free from pebbles Flexible damp-proof courses in cavity walls, particularly in pparapets and over openings, should be carefully dressed and laid, and should be capable of retaining the desired shape after dressing Where the outer face of the stonework is to be rendered, weepholes should be provided to permit the discharge of moisture arrested by the damp-proof course. It is preferable that unrendered stonework should have the ‘outer edge of the damp-proof course left unpointed. The

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