ct and of he egth hat may be neesany {uci} wher ones coud bm Cad 5i Poms ox Peg oF Brose Hower Stacy supposedly inepencent Rosle Sonera by ial tanst ond thay ons‘ an optima of between 22,000 ha'58000 poole. Whee the Span adel Soe ineeny repo undaterened oninetthe_ Enc veson wes sa SSrane, nt an ovina Sony Mata ‘Tcrbed te locomotion vot Satna odaon to vans the eset ‘Soe eB een On Stuy and sewerage compat wath ‘Setouton menos of eon ut! Pp om being. at_anhess 12 the wbnty tanned nr ty was et ‘erty song'# angio network ot ‘So-oxsing tones connecting sto take ona eect envs Wha ths degree proton ot Howard’ yas a seit agen county was equ gina te fm Ste iy tro wae ese drone. On the Sloan cunts ted S Gor Goi of TOIT Howord concaved of his iy = 6” Womnaty sutcrt mits a com ori producing ttl Byori om ead To taneo between tess cy odes oy Teaiy te taney iron aides My spt tol wnat Wheves Home's line see onda dana the ourney (Cleo herby bing ese or obets ‘Ghnerthon ent adele was exes Souned to tacit conan. "in however the Eris ood cy i i moed form that camo to. be wey ‘Soper han th ras model soosored gore y Mats Compania Media 2% Libarizacion, whieh anty built some 22 Kio: smeties (14 miles) of the SS-himatre (34: tile) long netlacocrginly pojecte fo the tnciclemont of Magid. The faite of the Sole exemple condemned the lines city 10a] Shooetcal rather than practical future, and this love parsisted for the Russian i hes of the late, 19205 10 Le Corbusier [ASCORAL planning thess, frst publishes {Les Troe Eablssements humains in 1848. “The taheal reinterpretation of Howe conginl diagrams flected inthe layout of 1 first garden city, Letchworth in Hertor (etaned in 1803), ineuguraed the Sitesque phase in the English onrden ‘movement That the engineer -plannor Fev “Unum wes impressed by Ste is evident ‘book Town Planning| ' fo Nuremberg aed Rethenburg-ob-der-T fea Wes banind thie picturesque {or Hampstead Garden Subu, 41907, Yet for al hs contempt for “bye “rehitectue. Unwin remained 26 conde ‘Sany ather planner by the consis ‘bymodein standards of hygiene and cul ‘Thus despite the renowned ‘empirical cof thesapionseing garden cities, the Enolsh schoo! of town planning 3 feast i part, om Uriwi’s fore tvs implacable dichotomy, thai 1 mmodieval nostalgia with buresucratic ¢ ‘The wain-ocedent block layouts ofthe entry are among the enduring forme ‘of this tare. Chapter 3 Technical transformations: structural engineering 1775-1939 win ion, an etfs! building matenal p- peared for the fist tino an the hictoy of frchectre K-went though » development rose tempo accelerated during the cour of the century Ths ecewed is decisive mmpule ten i turned out thatthe locomative, with Tutich experiments id been made since the nd of the "weries, coud only be ullzes ‘On iton wis. Tho rail was the fist unit of onsuction the forounner of the gia. lon ‘wes avoided 10 dwaling-houses. oad made ee of for cages, exhibition alle rainy ons. buildings which served. transitory Gurpoces. Simultaneously the. atchtecione Se ie which glass was employed were fended. But tho social conditions foe is ‘reremed ulation ae 3 building material only fae into being # hunched yeas later In Serco “Glasschitekiur (1914) it stil Sapaaed inthe coment of 2 Uropia Witter Benjamin Pats Capital ofthe 191% Cantury, 1930 saan power and the ion frame came Bececeanimomcce lta Bese see lee paea Ben ae parse come, Sd rr en Berar a sl oe es se cote interest: and in 1785 the Anglo- ‘American revolutionary, Tom Pane, designed 2 ‘monument to the American Revolution In the fom of 2 easeuon bidge spanning. the Schuyki River. Poe had the por for this bridge mado in England, where. they are exhibited in 1791, just a year betore he was ‘charged with Wesson nd fered into exile in France. In 1796 2 71-mete (236-foot) cast. iron bridge was but ecrss. the Wear at Sunderiand 10 the design of Thomae Wilson, who adopted Paines ‘voussoir method of assembly. About the same time Thoma Telford ‘made his début a5 9 bridge bullder with is '395-motra(130-Foot) Buildwos Bridge erected ‘ver the Severn, a design which employod ‘only 178 tonnes (173 tors) to, 8 opposed {e the 384 tonnee (378 tone) ueed st Cosl- brooke (ver the next hy years Telford want onto prove his unparalled siatwe as 4 road and idge build and asthe lst 08 canal engin for al the waning waterway ea. i proat Career ws brought to a clove wih his ick ‘ncacad,iton-lamed warehouses at St Kthe tine Dockin Landon, doigned with thesrchiteet Philip Hardwick and erected in 1629. Thoy ‘were based on the system ef feeproof mul storey mill constuction developed. nthe Mictande during tho ast decade ofthe 18th ‘century. The main suet antecedent for St Katharne’'s were Willam Suutts si-story alco mill bul a Dexby in 1782, and Charles Bage’s laxepioning mil ected a Shows: ‘bury in 1796. Whila both! these suctures ‘employed cast-iron catumns the presing need to perloct a fneproot system for mil butdings Jen the space of four yous, 1 the replace iment of the timber baeme uta at Doty by ‘esection ron beams. In eich instance theassem being stiffened by an outer shel anc bby wrought ron te rods restraining the stuc- ture in lateral droction This use of vauting seems fo havo dovod diet fom the 18th entry. davelopmant of the Rovstilon or Caalonian vault ia France which wos fist ‘doped thew ae 2 means of achieving 2 fr froot structure Chewy By, bul at Vernon by Constant eiry a 174. Aside om soir 13th cantury cathe, wrought ion masomy rinforeemant in France hoe its ongins in Pia, in Peraul's cost facedo of the Laure (1657) and Souls pporico of Ste-Goneviove (1772). Both works Sntempate the development of reinforced con- theta, In 1776 Souffle proposed 2 wrought ‘fom trused roof for par of the Louvre that prepared the way forthe pioneering werk of Victor Lous, that for Louis's wnoughi-on roof fr tha Thébe Francais of 1786 and Ns theatre inthe Palais-Royal of 1790. This lst Combined an ron roo! with a hollow-pot fre roo loo structure, 8 system that once again Moe denved trom the Roussilon vault. That {te was a rowing urban hezard con be sen fiom the Hall au 81, Pars, whose buret-oc toot was replaced i 1808, by an kon-xbbed Cupola, designed by the architect J. Bélanger ‘nd the engines F- Brunet ~inckdentay, one lie fst stances of laa division of nbour ‘between stchitect’and_conshucta meantime the eatist French application of fon 0 bridge constrtion had occured with tho Buiding ofthe elagart Poot des Ars over the Seine, erected to the designs of LA. de CCessa in 1803. ‘With the foundation of tha Ecole Pltech: sigue in”1795, the French stiove toads ‘etaliehing @ toehnocracy appropriate 1 the fchieverent of the Napoleonic Empire this enphase on applied technique only served 40 reinforce the growing specalizaton of ‘thitectre and enginaring (@cvsion seady ‘atustonoleed tough Pavtona’s Cole dos yr ahitecte euch as J.-B. of Ste-Genevibve alter Souls death, bogan fo tecord the plonasting work of Soult louis Brunet de Coster and others. And while fondelet documented the ‘sans’ inhi Trt de Fort de itr (1902). J-N.-L, Durand at the Ecole Poly wchnigue, ‘des lecane données 3 FEcole Polyiechnique (1802-09), Durand book lsseminated Stern whereby Classica form, concewed as ‘moduler sernonts, could be aranged at wi fr a ‘decksuspensionbxidgain 1801, ona that was disseminated by Thomas Po Treatise on Bridge Archkecure published 4811. The emax of Finly’s bef but era Career was his, 74 S-meve (244-00!) 0a tten-chasn suspension bridge across the tac Rivet at Newport in 1810. Finlo’s work 08 documented by Pope, on immedi influznce on the Chain suspension techrgue it ‘Samuel Brown and Tolford became i {nits davelopmant. Brown's wrought-foa ber links were patented in 1817 and a twth lsting success to bis 115-meve\G foot) span Union Bridge, bull ove he jn 1820. Tollrd and Brown collaborated ‘ona chain. bridge for uncom, ad Cellboretion 99. doubt informed TH erin for his 177-mete (580-(oot) 3 Menai Siete ridge, which ater ght ff erduovs work was finally opened ini Biiish wrought-iron cuepension consivl culsinetes i lombard Kingdom Grune notte (702-1!) span Cilton Bridge. ale tans ofthe et Hy hoa entation to wh tho alway engineer Chair for tes etence suetes symmetcaly da] Fm, who was veeponiie forthe dating owed) te glare patents ett unietosie solution. The eventual ad hoc use of canvas. tunings 10 shee the root could harly be tegen naga pat ofthe yee and tmay oie intone exhttars chose {held themsaher rom to ‘roenhouse fect ty canopies of festoned epmies, which ‘wre no dr hang 8 much agit the un. ‘covtable ‘object of the stccture we hey ‘rors asia he son “he Bish abandonment of the internation ‘rcroun of mature tee8. Since the remaining | ube apposition 10 the Grost EXNPKiON 0 1881 tured on his question of Luoulasome lms could easly bo accommoda {eby acento ransopt with high ured 09 ‘and thus the double symimeny ofthe inal mee Ot yh ace wat ot v0 mich 2) satton hl arth ante! 11a partauclamartcsteisogoecsmuds| ‘tr ebton in 7082, wot x nce ‘axpoted by the Fronch, who mounted five ‘naar lnterational exhibitions between 1855 Gnd 1900. The degre to which these displays ‘wer rogaded a national pettrms rom which {ochallengethe Bish command overindustiat roducion and tradé may be judged trom tho ‘snphasis placed each time on the stuctur and ortane of the “Galario des Mochines The young Gustave Eifel worked with the engineer 4-8: Kranz onthe moet sigicent exhibition Tbuling to be erected ster 1881. that for tho Faris World Exhibtion of 1867. Ths callabora- ‘ton reveled not only Eilers exprestive sgnsiliy but azo his expaciy as an engineer, ‘snes in cetaling to Gales des Machines, | rhs 25-mate (114-004) span, ho was abla “very the. validity of Thomas. Young's ol easticty of 1807. a hitherto eclly ‘ieowteal formula for determining the ease marist a8 9 total Systm, for sin com | option, fabvication and tran-shipoent 10 ‘sruciured around a basic 2-44-maue (8-1 ‘Cladding module, assembled into hiratchy af Konrad Wachsmana hae romotked in hs bo Wendepunkt im Bauen (The Tariog Point Building) of 1981's production requ ‘cluded studies which indies that for Wii the Cresta Its opon latice work epectacuior paral ‘oblique perspectives whose hnes dni Into 'e diaphenoue haze of lights ie ‘envelope, comprising nealy 33.000 Np the conceptual genius nf PF Le who hd suggested that the building be a8. concentic galeries exhibiting einer, clothing turin, berate, fine Sd he history of abo. 1967 te shes se and diversity of the Produced, and the independenen do by wwernaionl compattion, seem to have demanded multiple exhibition structures. By tho time of tha Intemational Exibition of 1889 00 pretence was mace of housing the exhibits in one saleontaned busing. This enuitinato exhibition of tha century was ominsied by wo af the most temakable structures that Fronch engineesing was eve 10 achieve ~ Vietor Contain vast Galerie des Machines, 107 moves (350 feet) in span, ‘signed withthe architect C.-L.-F-Duter end Eilers tower, 300 metres (S84 feet) high designed in collaboration with the engineers NNovguier and Koschin. and. the steht ‘Stephen Sauvesra.Contamine structure, based ‘on statical methods pertectod by Eifel in hs hinged viaducts ofthe 1880s, was one ofthe fist to uso tha thee-hinged atch form i the achievement of » lege span. Contarin's shed ‘0 only exhibited machines: was Hoel en ‘exhibiting machine’, ia which mobile viewing platfoms, running on elevated tracks, passed ‘ver the exhibtion space on ether side of the contol ass, affording tho visitor a fast and ‘comprehensive view ofthe emi show Inthe lat half of tho 19th century the Masi Cesta had boon oure to be sutictenty chin ‘einerais to justly the considerable expense of ‘eqvpping i wih a vallway network. The ra ‘way waducts that Eifel designed thre between 1859 and 1864 vxempify a method and an ‘esthetic that found thet ultimate celebration In the design of the Eifel Tower. The bost shaped basa and tha parabolic venical section 18. Dun snd Conumin Galore aos Machings ot te. Pai Exon ‘owing pin:‘of the tubular on pylon that Ell evolved for ‘hese viaduets is formally indiestvo of hie ‘constant attempt to resolve tha dyrarne intr. ‘Seton of water and wind. “The naad to make widar ver crosingé lod Eifel and his associates to deviso an ingemious system of waduct suppor. The spur to such & Solution camo 1875, withthe commission © ‘canstucta away viaduct over the river Douro im Portal. The avait of ehasp ste! ater 1670 afforded 9 material ia which a wide-spen solution might be ready achieved. A decision ‘was thereto made to crore the zavine in fue Spans, two shor spans supported on pylons fn ethos sido and 3 conval longer span of 160 ‘motes (524 fet) cad on a twe-pinned ach. ‘The procedure of erection, to ba repaated Tow years later at Garabit, was to consruct the tanking spans with thir supporting prions ané then 10 evact tho conta section tom these continuous stuctues on siher side Tuss ex Tensions wore contlevered out at wack level ‘andthe hinged arch was simultaneously con- tuctd, in two halves, rom the water below ‘Tho intah hinged sections wore loated {ced Inco postion and then maietsined oweet incline duving thet final assombly by ‘ables suspended rom the es of the acacon pylons. The outstanding success of the Dowre Viaduct, comploted in 1878, immediately ‘rough Eilela commission ro build he Grab Vioduct over the River Truyire in the Mass Canta. ‘Just a8 the Douro Vieduet provided the necessary expeionce to build Garabit so the Schievement of Garabit was essanial to the {design end conceation ofthe Ete Tower. Like ‘he Crystal Palace, but at a slower rae, the tower was designed and erected under con siderable pressure. Fist exhibited as « design In the spring of 1665, t was lathe ground by the summer of 1887 aed wel ever 200 mates (654 fet) high by tho winter of TBBB. AS ‘ Contamin’s Galerio dos Machines, the Siructur hod to be provided with an acest ‘ystem for the rapid mavament of visitor. Speed wos essential sina there was no way ot ‘timing accesso the tower excep via loatork {hat ran on ncined wacks within its hyperboliz loge and rose vericaly from fest platform 10 36 pinnacle The guide els for theso elevator wore exploted duing erection ab tacks for Climbing cranes, an. economy. in working method reminiscent of the mounting technique Used in the essa of the hinged viaducts. AS ‘mach a by-product of the away asthe Crystal Palace, the towor was, in eflect,# 200-mete (874-foo!) high viaduct pylon, whose type: form had criginaly been evolved out of the Imeration of wind, gray, water snd mate tosstance. It was t hitherto unimaginable | elute that could not be experienced excen | bby taversng the anil matixol the space isl Given the future affinity of the towar 1 | aviation ~ celabrated by the aviator Santos DDumoet. when he ccled the structure wit his diigible 1901 ~ it harly suprising tha thy yaar afer ts erection it should have been ‘pprpvioted and reinerprsted a the pring ‘ymb0l of @ new social anc techmcal order, | ‘Viadimir Tata's monument tothe Thi! In stone, projected im 1819-20. [As ron technology developed through the ‘exptotaton of the ears mineral woah, concrete technology of atleast the develop ‘ut of tac on toa In 1778, John Sea fstabished the bose of hie Eddystone Light haute using a “concrete” compound of quick Time, cay, send end ciushed ion slag, ed ‘St eonctate mies wero usd in Engle ‘naga, canal and harbour works throughout last quarter of tho 18th century. Despita Jos ‘apd plonouing devalopment of Porta Cement for use a8 ritalin stone in 1824, and various other English proposals for tointorees concrete consrction, such ‘made bythe ever inventive Loudon a 172, inal Engen led in the ploneeing ofc cate gradually passed 1 France, Tn France ho economic rostictions 1h followed the Revolution of 1788 the sy ‘of hydrate camant by Vist sround 1800} ‘he tadton of building in pis (rare ea ‘combined to raat the optimum cieumsta forthe invention of rainforced concrete {ist consequential usa ofthe new mati made by Fangois Coignet, who was famiior with the pee bulng the Lyons distict In 1861 he developed a tecnnique for strengthening concrete with ‘etal mesh, and the basis ofthis seabed the fest timited company to specialize in fenoconerete constuction. Coignet worked Peis under Haussmann’s direction, bulging aawers and other publi stucturee i lao onere including, 1807, 9 remaska 5 of six-sorey aparement backs. Despite 258 commissions, Coignt led to uphold hie patent and by the end a he Second Emp is empany was diasolved ‘Another French pioneer of concrete was the gerdoner Joseph Monior who, following hi ‘czastul production of concrete flower pot in 1850, took out, ator 1867, a series of patents for metalreniorced applications, the paral tights of which he il-adwsedly sod i 1880 10 > engineers Schuster and’ Weyss. Further fights were obtained fom Moni in 1884 by the fim of Froyiag, and soon afterwards the large ‘German ‘el ongineoring concen of Wiayss and Frey came Into beng. ‘The ‘monopoly over tho Aone syst rae con ‘oldated by GA. Wayss's standaré work on the ‘Monier method (Monierbau), published in 1887, The publication of wmportamt theoretical dis 0 elerential sess in reinforced eon- {gst by tho Geman theorists Neumann end Koevern served to consolidte the German lead in thes typeof constuction. ‘The period of mot intense development in feefaced concrete cccveed between 1870 ard 1800, with pioneering work boing cried 6 siukaneousy in Germany, Amerie, Eng- ‘oncite Hudson ver home in 1873. tho ‘Apercen Wile €. Wards became the fist (otsucter toto ul advantage ofthe tensile siwogt of seal by situatag bare below the ata xia the beam, The inherent store Of this was almost immediately od by the concrete am experiments in England by Theedeus Hyatt end Ons Riches. whose joint reaults wore pub- io 1877, 10 Hennebigue, mothe. winliced-co Join penal n 1952 Hennebique 2 sel-eduested Franch builder, fist used concioto in 1879. He then concted an extensive programme of pavate research before patoning his own uniquely compe hensive sytem in 1892, Beforo Hennebiaue ‘the get prebiem in feroconeoto had been the frowsion of a monolihic joint The compound onerete and stool systems that had been patanted by Fattoaen in 1845 were far from being monchthic, and the same resictions ‘applied 10 whe work of Hyatt and Rickets. Henasbique overcame this ifieuty though the use of bars of evingkical section wich ‘could be bent round and hooked together Integral to his system alone was the cranking up ‘of rinorcemert bars and the binding of joints ith stitup hoops in order wo rasist local sas With the peroction ofthe monotihie joint.the ‘mona kame could be realized, leading Promptly othe fst large-scale application of such a sysiom 10 thee spinning mil that Heennebique bul in the region of Tourcoing ‘and Lille in 1896. The results were 0 once ‘2cclsimed as success and Hennique’s fm immediately prospered. His poner, =<. ‘Mouchel took the system te Engen in 1887, bling th first conerate read bridge ther “The wide success of the Hennebique fam dates fiom around 1888, with the repulse ‘ubicstion ditshouse magazine Le@&tonarmé (Reinforced Concrete’) and the extensive use fit system in the eclectic sractnes ofthe Pats Exhibtion of 1800, Despite the false Eofacades of the Chateau Eu, constucied out of faroconcrete by Frangos Coiane's 30, 1 Pats Exhibition of 1800 gave an enormous carn By thon inumerable works wore being onatruted In concrete throughout Europe ‘wih Hennabique acting asthe main cormactr. 1 1904 ho built hie own teinforeed-concrete vila at Bourg ling compere with oof (gerden and miner its sold walls, were formed out of fanceoncrete poured in place ‘between permanant pre-est conceto shu Ing and te almost totally glared fopade was dramatically cantleverad out frm the main ‘plane ofthe bulaing, By the wn of the contry, Fennebiqus’s manopaly over hs system began to wana, though his patents till ad a number fot yeorto rn, tn 1902 his cio assistant. Pau ‘Chistophe, popularized the sytem by publish Ing Le Beton wme et ses applicaions, Four vows loier Armend-Gabrid Consdéré, who hod keady cariad out concrete research for the depariment of Ponts et Chaussées, headed the ‘ational committe het established the French code fr eeinfored-conerte practice. Tn 1890 the engineer Gottancin ptented tre ‘own system of ciment amd, which depended tn the combined ranforcement of concrete nd trek, te eke being bonded into te concrete wah vita reinforesment. In his hybrid system the main funeton at the foroconerete element ‘was to maintain suctual continu in areas of high tension. In arene of compression brick atually predominated. The system hod a 20g, Jahinundeate, Gacaa (Wiactnw) ‘song. appeal for the rationalist erchitoct ‘Anatole de Baudet who, 36» pupil ofthe great French sructra theorist Vdlt-le-Due, wos preoccupied with revealed suture a the nly Valid Bass for expression in arhiectire On twas grounds, do Baudot consoned mano | Tithe Aéton semd to the Tel of engineering, ‘while reserving for tho architect the statically move explict and. aiclata technique of foment armd a techwology whose expressive (begun in 1884), “The inteate. vaulting there was. cosely to 6 whole sequence of grande sale projet N910 and 1914, Alter Viollet-le-Duc. ho was concerned with the problem of he great space | 23s tho necessary proving ground for eny ‘rect far the 1800 Exhibition, may bo soon a | Snteatng tha ected ft alas ance | {absent folded shois that were tobe achieved built outside Rome in 1953. In opposition to de Bauder’ principle revewsted form the chabenge of the ge Max Tol and then, from 1900 onwards the United Statos, in the woik of Ernest L Farsome, who was the Wventot of twisted reinforcement. Wi the buiding in 1902 of his 91-metre (300-foot) machine shop at Grons- ute, Pennsyvania, Ransome became. the fiona f the monolithic coneete ram the United States. Hera he aoplled for the fist tine the principle of spiral column reinforce ment in accordance witt the theories of ConsidréI says someting fr the techoical procociousness of Frank Loyd Wright that he Bogan to design reinforced concrote stuctwree {round the some time: he urvslzes Vitoge Bonk project of 1801, and the EZ Polish actor’ and Unity Torpe, completed {Chicago in 1905 ans 1908 roxpectvly. ‘Meenwtil, in Pos, Port Fibres had begun first allconcrate ‘Auguste Perrts minal Rue Frerin parent block of 1903, nd ie Théate des Champs-Elysées of 1913, ‘At about tha same tire, Hon Souvege ‘explored tho expressive ‘plastic™ potential of ths new monolthic mateval in his set back Gpecmonte in the AUD Vavie, completed in 4912. By this date th reiniorced-coneate ‘rere had tecome a normative tehaique. ad from ow on most ofthe devslopment ‘was 10 lig the scale of is appleaion and in is einilavon as an expretsvo eloment. While {fat use on @ megesi.ctural scale was in Math Truceo's 40-hoctze (100-acre) Fit Works, beoun in Tuinin 1515 ts appropriation ‘beam whic was in is Turn supported BI massive pendentve archos Ths Herculean stucture was conceded on ‘outside by concentne ties of glanng, ‘organic plan at Suppressed by the supeimposiion of Classica elements Up 1 1895, fonoconcrete work 9 importation of cement fom Europe Soon al the epoch of the grain slo and ‘Maison Dom Ino’ proposal of around the same fe, Whore the one ceary domonstated that conerate roofs could sustain the vibeation dynanvic moving loads ~ tho Fiat factory has 8 ost tack on its tot ~ the other postulated tho Hennebiaue system a a ‘patent primal ‘tuctuie to whieh, after the manner of Laugier’ pimive hut, the dovslopment ofthis new eehtecture would hav orate. From en engineering standpoint his peiod ‘was 1 reach is most sublime expression in the ‘any work ot the engineers Rober Male anc Eughne Freysinet. By 1905 in his Rhine Bridge at Tavanasa, the grest Swiss engineer ‘Matlan had aleedy arved at hs cheractrstic brig form — a tves-hinged arch of hollow box section, with wiangutsr openings eu eno its sidos to veduce unnecessary weight and to Impant@ Hight and expressive character to tho ‘overall form. By 1912, Mallat had acheved the fist boamtess oor slab In Europe, in a fue storey warehouse that he built in Alor! His ‘beamiesssystom soamstoheve heen an advance ‘verthemushroom slab eonstuctiondevelopad slighty eater by the American enginos: CA P “Trner In Tuners ‘our-way reinforcement, 3 ‘opposed to Matlan’s ‘two-way’ system, the bate wore requied to pass over all column heads. with the consequence that the see! ‘could not be aecommadeted within an econa- ‘mie depth i the tendency of the column t ‘punch though the slab was tobe veised. The Sloot stictorpin the Tuner ayatem as, near. ‘2 network of heavy reinforcad let beams with larg column hesds to osc the suing shar “The beamless “two-way” Mallat system wes Furie 1815-21 38Niger and generated fa less shear, with a comesponding reduction in the imansiong of both the lab ard the eotumn heads ini Aare Bridge et Aarburg (1911) Maint succeeded in articulating the bridge platform ftom ft supporting meh wile stiffening the patio through transverse frames st into the fhaunch ofthe arch, He had sti wo aiculate the ftbutments of tha bridge lation tits vera form. in smo! al he bednes, even whore supported by nbbed arches, Mallat designed the platfomn 36 4 box section so that a fr Dossible the road bed was made 10 suppor sel He reached the height of hie powers as 3 Dodge burser with hs 80-mete (235-too!) span Salginatobe! Bridge, erected in tho Alps in 1330, butte formal that he had fist worked ‘ut at Asrburg received its finest expression in ‘he Arve Bridge, bul at Vestey neat Genova in 1996. “The high twin iship hangar hat the Franch enginaor Fressine! realized at Orly between, ee ica eee Part 2 fast attempts ater th projects ode Baudot, to ‘design monoithic swuctures whose assembled A critical history Sttuctonronence etme seer ot 1836-1967 half ofthe 1630s. Whilo stil at work a Ory, Freysint designed forthe concrete contactor Lmousi #seree of reinforced: conerate bow sting worehousesiuctures, ineudlng @ aM, bbc of hangars and factory Bulings It through monitor lighten the shel oot The culnination ff all thi work was two lage bowing bridgoe in veinforced concrete, a SI-Piwr-d Vauveay (1923) and at Plougestel (1828-25), the te eosin he lm etsy in Bian Inthe spans with tot! length of 375 mene (2,200 fee) "7 ‘The probiem of she intense comeresivg ‘nd tonsils stresses inguced Inthe cutng and Toading of lige parabolic arches ld Fraysse by the mid-19200 10 oxperment with the sical inducement of stress In te eter: § tment before casting. Withm @fow years re: ‘itessed concrete es we nav know Ie boa invonted, This eattemaly economical system 6 Lange spans~reducing the boam dopth by boa hall forthe some concrete ction ~ wos il patented by Freysinet in 1999. “Troon Coen oul Fesio. Como, 1932-28 ibys eemonciaton (ae > 208)