TABLE 2.1. Laplace transform table Item no. fo Fis) Bt) 1 2 u(t) i 5 3 6 i u(t) 2, 4 rn a ue) +l 5 ay a nul) Sta 6. i o sinwtu(:) ety 7. coset (t) wig TABLE 2.2 Laplace transform theorems Item no. Theorem Name 1 LIF ()| = Fs) = feo f(tle*de Definition 2 SIkF) KP(s) Linearity theorem 3. LUFC) + falt)] = Fils} + Fas) Linearity theorem 4 ele*F(t)] F(s+a) Frequency shift theorem 5 Zift-T)) =e F(s) ‘Time shift theorem 6. LIF lat)) a 1) Scaling theorem 1 #(Z) =sF(s)—F(0-) Differentiation theorem 8 ¢ [i] = 8F(s) -sf(0-)-'0-) Differentiation theorem 9. £| gE Differentiation theorem 10. 2(f. f(r)aq] Integration theorem. u. fo) Final value theorem’ 12, (0+) = lim sF(s) Initial value theorem? "For this theorem to yield correct finite results all roots of the denominator of F(s) must have negative real parts, and no more than one can be at the origin. >For this theorem to be valid, ft) must be continuous or have a step discontinuity at ¢= 0 (that is, no impulses or their derivatives at r= 0).Example 2.1 Laplace Transform of a Time Function PROBLEM: Find the Laplace transform of f(t) = Ae~*u({). SOLUTION: Since the time function does not contain an impulse function, we can replace the lower limit of Eq. (2.1) with 0. Hence, (2.3) GR 200) 102.2 Inverse Laplace Transform PROBLEM: Find the inverse Laplace transform of Fy(s) = 1/(s +3). SOLUTION: For this example we make use of the frequency shift theorem, Item 4 of Table 2.2, and the Laplace transform of f(t) = ru), Item 3 of Table 2.1. If the inverse transform of F(s) = 1/s? is tu(t), the inverse transform of F(s+a) = I(s +a)’ is e~*tu(e). Hence, f(0) = e-™ne(:). GEE, Example 2.3 Laplace Transform Solution of a Differential Equation PROBLEM: Given the following differential equation, solve for y(2) if all initial conditions are zero. Use the Laplace transform. | dy = 32u(t) + 12G + 32y = 32u() (2.14) SOLUTION: Substitute the corresponding F(s) for each term in Eq, (2.14), using tem 2 in Table 2.1, Items 7 and 8 in Table 2.2, and the initial conditions of y(¢) and dy(/dt given by y(0—) =0 and 5(0-) =0, respectively. Hence, the Laplace transform of Eq. (2.14) is SPY (6) + 128¥(s) +32¥(5) ee (2.15) Solving for the response, ¥(s). yields Ya) 32 32 9) = S24 las +32) ~ se a) 8) (2.16)To solve for y(0), we notice that Eq, (2.16) does not match any of the terms in Table 2.1. Thus, we form the partial-fraction expansion of the right-hand term and match each of the resulting terms with F(s) in Table 2,1. Therefore, 32 Ki Kr Ks YO) = 34648 5 16+ GH (17) where, from Eq. (2.13), 32 ‘= ara0r8 ks P82) 32 = al (2.18b) 32 ‘s+ 4) (2.18¢) Hence, y(s) 1-2 1 (2.19) s (+4) Since each of the three component parts of Eq. (2.19) is represented as an F(s) in Table 2.1, y(i) is the sum of the inverse Laplace transforms of each term. Hence, y(t) = (= 2e* +e jue) (2.20) GE skil-assessment Exercise 2.1 PROBLEM: Find the Laplace transform of f(t) = te-*. ANSWER: FY) = 1/(s + 5)? ‘The complete solution is at www.wiley.com/college/nise, GE 5ii-1ssessment ers 2? PROBLEM: Find the inverse Laplace transform of F(s) = 10/|s(s + 2)(s + 3)"). 10 40 ase 4 10g 4 40m = 5S sie 4D wieyrtus Coot Seitons The complete solution is at www.wiley.com/college/nise,Cc 2.3 The Transfer Function EE 22002) conditions, we have PROBLEM: Find the transfer function represented by SOLUTION: Taking the Laplace transform of both sides, assuming zero initial The transfer function, G(s), is Transfer Function for a Differential Equation HO 5 26() =r) (255) dete) dt 8C{s) +2C(s) = R(s) (256) Gs) = (257) 1 RG) “5+ Trylt 26 Use the folowing MATLAB, and Symbolic Math Tootox Element to lp you get Eq. 200) eFtiise (+20 ‘rylt2.7 Use the following MATLAB statements to plot Eq (260) for from 040 stinterva of ants ioe J2eexp e200) De system Response from the Transfer Function PROBLEM: Use the result of Example 2.4 to find the response, ¢() to an input, P(t) = (2), a unit step, assuming zero initial conditions. SOLUTION: To solve the problem, we use Faq. (2.54), where G(s) = I/(s-+2) as found in Example 2.4. Since r(e) = u(¢), R(s) = 1/s, rom Table 2.1. Since the initial conditions are zero, (6) = RG)G() = 2.58) 6) = ey ban Expanding by partial fractions, we get | 12 ape ow - es| Finally, taking the inverse Laplace transform of each term yields a= 2.00) Skil Assessment Exercise 2.3 PROBLEM: Find the transfer function, G(s) = C(s)/R(s), cortesponding to the de de ide dr differential equation Fy +355 +75 +-Se ate Answer: G(s) £0) 3 RG) S438 + Ts5 ‘The complete solution is at www.viley.comv/college/nis.|-Assessment Exercise 2.4 PROBLEM: Find the differential equation corresponding to the transfer function, 2s+1 C9 = 2 643 @e de dr ANSWER: Se 465 +2027 +r | The complete solution is at www.wiley.com/college/nise. L Assessment Exercise 2.5 PROBLEM: Find the ramp response for a system whose transfer function is Go) = — )= GeaGr8 valeytus 1 ont Seaton: ANSWER: c(t) The complete solution is at www.wiley.com/college/nise. | (2.4 Electrical Network Transfer Functions TABLE 2.3 _Voltage-current, voltage-charge, and impedance relationships for capacitors, resistors, and inductors Impedance “Admittance Conpenent Voltagecumrent _Current-ollage __Voltage-charge—Z(9) = Via/T()__Y4s) = 149/V6) AG yal finer y= ct wt = Ba 1 a canine O=Ef aoe a= ct 40) = Bat) 2 cs ya sayy dq\t) 1 AW t= Rte) 1) = 400 wt) = Ra tag Resistor eR a R ny vo = apy _ att) 1 1000 = 0 w=p fete y=. Ls ‘ [Note:The following et of symbols and units is used throughout this book: (0) ~ V (volts) () — A (amps). 4) ~ Q (coulomb), C—F (orads), R= (ohms), G — 0 (eahos), L — H (nenries),Example 2.6 Transfer Function—Single Loop via the Differential Equation PROBLEM: Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage, Vc(s), to the input voltage, Vis) in Figure 2.3. oe SOLUTION: In any problem, the designer must first decide what the input and vw oF '") output should be. In this network, several variables could have been chosen to be i 7? 7 the output—for example, the inductor voltage, the capacitor voltage, the resistor voltage, or the current. The problem statement, however, is clear in this case: We FGURE23 REC network are to treat the capacitor voltage as the output and the applied voltage as the input, ‘Summing the voltages around the loop, assuming zero initial conditions, yields the integro-differential equation for this network as 189 4 min +f (ede = v(t) 2.61) teh Changing variables from current to charge using i(t) = dg(t)/dt yields 2, Hao, ni, Law = 10 (2.02) From the voltage-charge relationship for a capacitor in Table 2.3, ae) = Cvelt) (2.63) Substituting Eq. (2.63) into Eq. (2.62) yields ict ve) + ache + ve(t) =v) (2.64) ‘Taking the Laplace transform assuming zero initial conditions, rearranging terms, and simplifying yields Yon Yeo (LCF + RCs + 1)Ve(s) = Vis) pk Solving for the transfer function, Vc(s)/V(s), we obtain FIGURE 2.4 Block diagram of series RLC electrical network (2.66) 1s shown in Figure 2.4. For the capacitor, iF 1 Vs) =F) (2.67) For the resistor, V(s) = Ri(s) (2.68) For the inductor, V(s) = Lst(s) (2.69)SE 220210 FIGURE 2.6 a. Two-loop electrical network; b. transformed two-loop electrical network; «block diagram Transfer Function—Multiple Loops PROBLEM: Given the network of Figure 2.6(a), find the transfer function, 42(s)/V(s) SOLUTION: The first step in the solution is to convert the network into Laplace transforms for impedances and circuit variables, assuming zero initial conditions, ‘The result is shown in Figure 2.6(b). The circuit with which we are dealing requires two simultaneous equations to solve for the transfer function. These equations can be found by summing voltages around each mesh through which the assumed currents, 1)(s) and J:(3), flow. Around Mesh 1, where Zi(s) flows, Rili(s) + Lo (s) - Lsha(s) = V(s) (2.78) Around Mesh 2, where 12(s) flows, LsIo(s) + Role(s) + Jew = Ish(s) =0 (2.79) woe velo © wo Lee fst EP RDLCEHR Ce DR | ©‘Combining terms, Eqs. (2,78) and (2.79) become simultaneous equations in /;(s) and (8): (Ri + Ls\h(s) ~ Lsh{s) = V(s) (2.80a) — Lsh(s) + (s +Ri+ aya) =0 (2.806) We can use Cramer's rule (or any other method for solving simultaneous equations) to solve Eq. (2.80) for i2(s).* Hence, I" +Ls) Vis) a) ot BY) est) where (Ri+Ls) -Ls “Ls (u+m +3) Forming the transfer function, G(s), yields 6-288 Les (2.82) 70) (Rr + Ra)LCP + (RRC + L)s + Ry as shown in Figure 2.6(c).