Fiber optic means

Optical fiber
Optical fiber is a transmission medium, usually employed in data and
telecommunications networks, consisting of a very fine line of
transparent material, glass or plastic materials, by which light pulses
that represent data to be transmitted are sent. The light beam is
completely confined and propagates inside the fiber at an angle of
reflection above the critical angle of total reflection, according to
Snell's law. The light source can come from a laser or LED.

The fibers are widely used in telecommunications, as they allow send

large amount of data at a great distance, similar to those of the radio
and superior to those of a conventional cable speeds. The means of
transmission are more advanced, being immune to electromagnetic
interference, cable and are also used for local networks where you
need to take advantage of fiber optics over other means of
transmission.

How fiber optics work

Optical fiber systems are similar to copper cable systems in many
ways. The biggest difference is that the fiber optic light pulses used
to transmit information through fiber circuits instead of using
electronic pulses through copper circuitry. The fiber transfers data
using light. The input light is reflected or refracted out of the coating
depending on the angle hitting the coating. Then bounces inside the
core and cladding over long distances.

Understanding the components of a fiber optic system helps to

understand better how the system works with respect to cable-based
systems. Due to the nature of two-way data communication, each
optical fiber circuit is formed, in reality, two fiber cables. There is one
for transmitting data in each direction. In the cable shown in the
picture, the extreme "Tx" is the transmission ends and the ends "Rx"
are receiving. Note that each wire has both a connector and a receive
transmission. Depending on where the cable is used in the network,
you can plug a pair (Tx / Rx) on a router, switch, patch panel, server
or even a workstation.
 

In general, there are five elements each fiber optic cable. These
elements are: the core, the cladding, a buffer, a durable material and
an outer coating. The core is in fact the element that transmits light,
and is located in the center of the optical fiber. Generally, this core is
silica or glass, and is made of chemical elements like those
surrounding coating. The light pulses traveling through the fiber core
reflects the interface where the core and cladding are joined. Because
the construction of the lining has a slightly different construction, it
tends to function as a mirror reflecting light to the fiber core. This
keeps the light into the core while traveling through the fiber.

Around the coating is a buffer that helps protect the core and
cladding from damage. The resilient material surrounds the buffer,
preventing the fiber optic cable is stretched when it is pulled.
Generally, the material used is the same as is used to make bullet
proof vests.

The final element, the outer coating, is added to protect

the fiber from abrasion, solvents and other contaminants. The
composition of this coating can vary depending on the use of cable.
The fire prevention codes may require the use of plenum grade
materials or vertical driver
As fiber optics uses light signals instead of electrical signals to move
data, you must install special devices that can interpret these signals.
Each optical fiber is connected to a transmitter at one end and to a
receiver on the other.
The transmitter converts data into encoded light pulses and the light
pulses injected into the optical fiber. The transmitter may be a laser, a
light emitting diode (LED) or a special device called surface emitting
laser vertical cavity (VCSEL). Each of these elements working in
different ways to convert the incoming data signal into light pulses.
The pulse sequence represents the data sent.
When the light pulses arrive at the destination, they are channeled
into the optical receiver. Again, the device class to which the cable
connects determine the actual processing. Generally speaking, the
receiver converts the light pulses into electrical signals that can be
used by the device or can be transmitted to other devices via copper
circuits.

Multimode versus singlemode

The fiber optic cables come in two forms, multimode and singlemode.
The single mode uses a single mode light to transmit the signal. The
multimode uses multiple modes of light to transmit the signal, hence
the term multimode. In the optical transmission mode is a ray of light
entering the core at an angle. Therefore, the modes can be
represented as bundles of light rays of the same wavelength entering
the fiber at a particular angle.
The optical fiber singlemode and multimode have many differences in
construction and application in structured cabling systems.

multimode
Multimode fiber allows multiple modes of light to propagate through
the core of the optical fiber while single mode fiber allows only one
way. Multiple modes of light propagating through the fiber can travel
different distances, according to its entrance angle. As a result, they
do not reach their destination (receiving end cable) simultaneously;
This phenomenon is called "modal dispersion". Multimode fiber glass
uses a type called graded index glass having a refractive index lower
toward the outer edge of the core. For this reason, the light
decelerates when running through the center of the core and is
accelerated when it passes through the outer areas of the core; This
ensures that all modes of light reach the end about the same time.
A standard cable multimode optical fiber (the most common type of
fiber optic cable) uses an optical fiber with 62.5 micron core and a
cladding diameter of 125 microns. Often it called fiber optic 62.5 / 125.
Because the casing diameter is considerably larger than the
wavelength of transmitted light, light bounces (reflected) in the core
as it propagates along the transmission line.
Lately, 50/125 micron optical fiber is what has been more widely
accepted. This type of fiber is used mainly in building and campus
backbones. 50/125 micron fiber has a higher bandwidth and covers
longer distances. Besides the fact that the installation of this type of
fiber is no more expensive than fiber 62.5 / 125 micron, it is an ideal
sosterner Ethernet 1Gb and more choice.
Multimode fiber uses LED as light generating devices. LEDs are more
economical to build and somewhat safer because less power. Also
they are more effective for short distances that the laser used in
singlemode cables. Multimode fiber (62.5 / 125) can transport data at
maximum distances of 2000 meters (6560 feet). It is mainly used in
LAN applications, including backbone cabling.

singlemode
Single-mode fiber uses a single mode of light to propagate through
the optical fiber core. In a single mode optical fiber cabling, the core
diameter is considerably smaller (8 to 10 microns). 9/125 optical fiber
indicates that the fiber core has a diameter of 9 microns, and that the
coating is 125 microns in diameter.

The core in a singlemode fiber is approximately ten times larger than

the wavelength of light that transports. This leaves very little room to
bounce light. As a result, the light pulses carrying data in a single
mode fiber transmitting essentially straight through the core.
Usually, singlemode fiber uses a laser light source, which is more
costly to produce, requiring higher levels of security, and can even
transmit more data than multimode fiber. Single-mode fiber (such as
9/125) can transmit data up to 3000 meters (9840 feet) when installed
as part of a structured cabling system standard (note that in this
case, the standard may not reflect the physical limitation). Often, the
single mode fiber is used in exterioriores segments, and to connect
campus buildings larger.

Enclosure systems and patch panels

The optical fiber requires special handling due to the delicate nature
of thin glass fibers that transmit light signals. Enclosure systems
optical fiber connectors consisting of and protection channels are
designed to protect the fiber optic cable.

Advantages and disadvantages

Several advantages have led to increasing development and
implementation of systems fiber optic cable. Compared to copper,
optical fiber is superior in the following categories:
• Electromagnetic immunity, including non-conductivity
• Security Considerations
• Attenuation decreased and increased transmission distance
• Potential for increased bandwidth
• small diameter and low weight
• Long-term Economy

electromagnetic immunity
Because the optical fiber uses light to transmit a signal, is not subject
to EMI, RFI or surge.

This can be important when wires are placed near these types of
sources, such as motors, fans, some light sources, pumps,
transformers, power lines, etc. Light sources include sodium vapor,
mercury vapor, neon and fluorescent material. In some manufacturing
or industrial environments, these factors may be significant enough
so that no other media outlet has value. Because fiber does not use
electrical impulses and, therefore, can not produce or transmit
electrical sparks, it is the logical solution to cross flammable
environments, such as storage rooms of paintings, deposits of
solvents or even fuel tanks. Moreover, nonconductive nature of the
fiber makes it a valuable option for areas with high incidence of
thunder storms and even liquids through such as in the case of
linings under the ocean. Finally, a fiber optic connection avoids the
potential problem of a different earth, and eliminates the danger
posed loops grounded for personnel and equipment. In fact, fiber
insulates the devices connected at each of its ends, and makes it a
very good choice when completely separate systems are joined, such
as two LAN in different buildings.

Decreased attenuation and increased transmission distance

Advances in fiber optic technology have led to reduce signal loss, or
attenuation, and to increase the transmission distance. As an
electrical pulse, or a light pulse travels its respective cable, it loses
the signal strength due to imperfections in the transmission medium.
So that the signal does not disappear, it should stimulate frequently
along your route. Electronic pulse to stimulate a copper wire in a
signal regenerator (repeater) is used. To stimulate light pulse in a
fiber optic cable, an optical repeater is used. The advantage of the
optical fiber is that it works best with respect to attenuation. The fiber
optic cable needs less devices boost copper wire. The lengths of the
extensive continuous segments of fiber optic cable will also provide
advantages to manufacturers, installers and end users.

Potential for increased bandwidth

A characteristic of the optical fiber that has not yet been completed to
determine is their potentially high band width. Bandwidth is the
amount of information that a fiber, or any other means, can be
transported per unit time. The higher the bandwidth, the higher the
transport capacity of the cable.
Currently, fiber circuits used in connections and trunking between
countries carry information cities up to 2.5 gigabits per second
(Gbps). This is enough to carry 40,000 telephone circuits or 250 TV
channels. Industry experts predict higher bandwidth as technology
advances. The laboratory experiments were made with fiber optics
have produced a data rate of up to 200,000 Mbps, using bandwidths
up to 1000 GHz. The frequencies of the carrier waves
telecommunications between 40 Mbps and 8000 Mbps. At level LAN
currently data rates are standardized at 10 Mbps and 100 Mbps, and
Gigabit Ethernet (1000 Mbps) is the most is utilizndo in the backbone
and data cabinets. Currently, standards are being considered for 10
Gigabit (10.000 Mbps) and faster technologies.
Copper standards such as 100Mbps and Gigabit have evolved and
added vital capacity copper LANs. Maximum much shorter lengths of
copper make it necessary to use fiber for longer for LAN backbones
and for connectivity between buildings on a campus lines.

Size and weight considerations

Compared to copper, optical fiber is relatively small in diameter and
much lighter weight. These features have made it the preferred as a
conduit into the floor. The canal space for wiring is connected
increasingly with the installation of expanded copper cable. Is
common even install new fiber optic cabling within existing pipelines
and canals to replace several copper circuits, and free space in the
pipeline, which is so necessary.
• An optical fiber cable 1 cm, fibers 24 Mbps operating at 140 carries
the same number of voice channels that a copper wire of 7.5 cm, 900
pairs.
• One kilometer (0.6 mile) of this glass fiber cable 24 fibers weighs 60
kg (132 lbs). The same length of copper wire pairs 900 weighs
approximately 720 kg (16 pounds).
• A single fiber single-mode optical fiber can carry up to five million
phone calls simultaneously.

disadvantages
The biggest disadvantage of the optical fiber is incompatible with the
old electronic hardware systems that make up today's world of
telecommunications. Much of speed is gained through optical fiber
transmission you can be lost in the conversion points fiber / copper.
When a network segment experiencing heavy use, information
(congestion) saturates the bottleneck where the conversion to
electronic signals, or from them is performed. These bottlenecks will
become less frequent as microprocessors become more effective,
and that all fiber devices evolve. The disadvantages of fiber optic
identified most frequently include:
• A higher initial cost than copper
• The optical fiber resists less abuse than the copper wire
• fiber connectors are more delicate than copper connectors
• The optical fiber connection requires a higher level of training and
knowledge
• Meters and installation tools are more expensive
Although the performance of the optical fiber is much higher than that
of copper, many institutions do not install the fiber due to increased
costs. It should take a decision on the basis of cost performance
compared to determine what kind of network media is best for each
individual installation.

Construction
How the optical fiber is created
Generally, the optical fiber is created by a process called external
vapor deposition (OVD). The fiber produced by this process is entirely
synthetic, has improved reliability, and enables precise optical and
geometric consistency. The OVD process produces a fiber with very
consistent dimensions. The three steps of the manufacture of optical
fiber Basic OVD deposit consists of consolidation and hard.
• Deposit
silica particles and germanium are deposited on a rod by means of a
chemical reaction. This step creates very pure materials.

• Consolidation
In this step the rod of the mass of minerals collected on it in the
previous step is removed. The mass is located, then, in a furnace
where the glass is created.
• Pavement
Then the glass preform is placed in a finished laying tower and tends
to form a continuous filament fiberglass. First, glass raw low within
the top of the furnace laying. The tip of the blank is heated until a
molten glass piece, call drop, begins to fall of the blank. It is very
similar to the hot caramel. While the drop falls, pulls back a thin
fiberglass, which is the beginning of an optical fiber. Gout is short
and thin fiber is spun into a tractor assembly controlled by a
computer, and tend. Thus, as the diameter is controlled, assembly
speed is accelerated or decreased to control with precision the size
of the fiber diameter. The fiber progresses through a diameter sensor
that measures the diameter hundreds of times per second to ensure
the specified outer diameter. Lying at the base of the fiber is wound
onto reels for further processing.

Classes fiber
Although multimode fiber is generally made of glass, in the past it has
been created using a combination of rigid plastic and soft. This kind
of fiber is not usually used due to its low bandwidth capacity, lack of
acceptance standards and limited availability. Fiber classes are:

• rigid silica coating

A core of silica (SiO2) surrounded by a coating of rigid plastic.
• Plastic coated silica
A core of silica (SiO2) surrounded by a plastic coating silicone
rubber. Although it was popular in the early 1980s, it is rarely used
today.
• Plastic Optical Fibers
A plastic core surrounded by plastic coating.
About sixty percent of all fibers used in telephone networks are long-
distance single-mode glass. However, the low cost of the multimode
electronics makes multimondo fiber is popular in the local area
network. The total cost of an installation is the combined cost of
cables and electronic components used to communicate through the
media.

loose tube and tight buffer

loose tube and tight-buffered are two basic designs for cable. The
main difference between the two designs is in the applications for
which they are used. The loose tube cable is mainly used for outdoor
installations of buildings, while the tight-buffered cable is used in the
inside thereof.
 

Loose tube cable

Loose tube cables are generally used for pipeline installations,
antennas and direct burial applications outside the plant. Has a
narrow damping around each fiber only has a coating of acrylic 250
microns. A loose tube cable consists of six components:
• fibers
• central resistant elements
• transport tubes filled with gel
• tape to block water
• resistant aramid elements
•Coating
 

Because of the potential exposure to damage caused by the

environment, buffer tubes used color-coded to contain and protect
optical fibers. The fibers floating in a color-coded tube filling gel to
prevent water penetration and cushion the fiber. The gel also helps
protect the fibers in areas of low temperature. Because the fibers float
in the tube, the fibers are somewhat loose. This extra length helps
cushion the fibers during installation. Multiple fiber cables can have
from 6 to 12 fibers per tube, and some manufacturers provide all
fibers in a single core tube. Generally, there will be solid fill tubes
attached with the gel-filled tube to surround the cable.
The separating valves usually wrap around a dielectric or metal fiber
to avoid kinking. For additional protection, can also be coated
shielded cables. Aramid fiber, an extremely durable material that is
often used in bullet-proof vests, is used to obtain an elastic
resistance. The coating material encloses the whole bunch.

It is easy to divide the groups of fibers in intermediate locations to

collect the fibers in multiple buffer tubes. This can be done without
compromising other buffer tubes which extend protected in other
locations. The color code of loose tubes facilitates identification of
the fibers.

Tight-buffered cable
Tight-buffered cables are often used for indoor backbone, vertical,
horizontal and plenum ducts. Unlike the loose tube designs, damping
cables have adjusted the damping material in direct contact with the
fiber. Cables tight-buffered single fiber are used as connecting cables
and jumpers to connect the cables loose tube directly into the
devices. A tight-buffered cable has four components:
• fibers
• Buffers
• resistant aramid elements
• Coating
Before applying the material PVC buffer, the fiber is coated with
acrylic, and each fiber receives an overall diameter of 900 microns.
The final bundle provides a rugged cable capable of protecting the
individual fibers during handling, routing and connection. The coating
helps prevent aramid fiber is stretched when pulling the cable
installers.
common cable configurations
 The cables can have a variety of configurations and combinations.
They may include single or multiple strands of fiber, different
insulation, carpet and even copper conductors. They can be
manufactured to various environments, such as the plenum, the
plenum not, which is rated for vertical distribution, the direct burial,
the antenna and of tethered underwater applications, among others.
There are many kinds of configurations of fiber optic cables, among
which include:
• Distribution
 
• Connection:
 
• Subgroup:
 
• Optical fiber Zipcord:
 

• Duplex round:
 
• Tape:
 
• Antenna:
 
• Shielded:
 
• Hybrid:
 

• Water-resistant:
 
Connectors
The connectors are used to connect the optical fiber to active devices
or panels. Currently, different types of connectors are used.
ST and SC connectors
 The ST, or straight tip, connector type uses a similar concept
bayonet connection but much smaller than that used in the coaxial
cable. Although ST is still the most widely used because it is
relatively easy to connect, the SC is imposed because it requires
much less space to secure and disconnect. Device manufacturers
generally seek high port density, or accuracy, to keep manufacturing
costs and space requirements in the lower frame.
The SC, subscriber channel connector is specified in various
standards as recommended fiber optic connections connector. The
connector has a frame connection and disconnection symmetrical,
which reduces the amount of space required to insert or remove a
connection. The SC connectors can be used individually or as part of
a duplex connector. SC connector both parties have a key
mechanism to help settle the connection.

Panduit connectors Optijack

 
 Some manufacturers have developed small form special connectors
to facilitate moving the optical fiber to the desktop. Panduit Optijack
the connector occupies the same form factor as the 8P8C connector
(RJ-45) exists. This means that the connector will provide the end
user the high bandwidth of the optical fiber, while still being
compatible with many existing wiring devices in walls, office cubicles
and telecommunications rooms.

Test fiberoptic
 Because of the delicate nature of the optical fiber and the strict
requirements of the standards, there are several activities related to
the testing of fiber optics.
• Sometimes, tests should be performed prior to installation to ensure
that the fibers and components are in good condition.
• Some companies require testing during each phase of the
installation to determine who may be responsible in case of any
problems with the fiber produced. Upon completion of the work, the
installation must be tested with special monitors to ensure that
cables and their connections comply with the applicable standards.

Pre-installation testing
A fiber optic cable to be installed can be damaged while it is being
transported. It will be useless to install a fiber optic if it is damaged
somewhere and has lost all utility. In addition, it can sometimes be
useful to check if a cable appears to be in perfect condition before
installation was damaged after being transported or installed.
Probably the most important part of the installation of fiber optics is
to test cables and connections. If the fiber fails the test, you should
repair the installation, including whether to build new fibers.
A simple control with a flashlight can be used to verify if the cable
works properly, but this test can be a challenge because, depending
on how the fiber is cut, can not accept light. (Always use safety
glasses when performing these tests). This occurs when the
appearance of glass core and cladding is cut or scratched irregular
shape. This is just a quick test to ensure that light can pass through
the fiber optic cable.

The reflection of a smooth surface is called "speculation", while the

reflection of a rough surface is called "fuzzy". If the glass surface is
cut irregularly, few refract light rays within the core of the fiber
because many of the rays will not be reflected.

Time domain reflectometer (OTDR)

A time domain reflectometer (OTDR) functions as a radar emits
pulses of light through the fiber being tested. Each discontinuity
misaligned joint and each make a small part of the light send the
reflection of the fiber where the OTDR monitors looking for echoes.
Plotting the strength of the echoes with respect to time, you can learn
a lot about the condition of the cable, even to determine what kind of
splices (fusion or mechanical) exist in the fiber and where they are
located.
The OTDR can also calculate the length of a fiber. It takes the time it
takes light to travel to the end of the fiber and back. To calculate the
length of the fiber, it is enough to know how fast light travels in each
class of fiber and how long it takes light to travel. It is important to
have a precise knowledge of the speed at which light travels through
the cable type in question. In general, the manufacturer provides this
figure based on statistical tests. It is called nominal velocity of
propagation (NVP).

Optical Cable Certification

Optical fiber is actually simpler to certify that the copper wiring. The
test is to certify a cable to be used verifying that most of the light
energy that enters the cord exits from the receiver side. Loss,
measured in dB, occurs due to a number of reasons that can be
traced, possibly using an OTDR, and corrected in many cases. It
certifies when the cable loss is minimized or, at least, when below
design specifications.
Maintenance of optical fiber
Unlike copper cables, which often benefit from being alone, fiber
optic connectors can benefit from periodic maintenance. The most
important problem is dirt, which can move into the spaces where the
connectors are joined together and, over time, degrade the signal.
The solution is a smooth periodic cleaning. It should be treated the
connector face as if it were an expensive camera lens, and gently
pass a piece of paper for cleaning lenses to restore the connection
and optimal performance. Avoid cleaning the connector part of the
paper that has been in contact with your fingers. Avoid resting the
paper on a dirty surface while changing the connectors. Avoid using
the same piece of paper more than one connector.
Most fiber optic outlets can be cleaned gently with a foam swab and
alcohol. However, make sure that this procedure meets the
specifications of the manufacturers.
A second maintenance function is to ensure that the output of light
emitting devices and laser have not weakened over time. This test
can often be performed in conjunction with cleaning. The installer
must take care to expose your eyes to infrared light can emerge from
disconnected outlets. At this time, it is important to verify that the
physical security of hardware connection is intact, which have not
been untied bundles of wire that locks are in place, and that the
building security measures are being applied.

Transmission
lightwave
Wave patterns occur in many forms in nature, from the sound to heat
and light. Each is an analog waveform. Often, one of the
characteristics being measured is the wavelength. A physical
representation of this phenomenon can be seen whenever you stand
next to a pond or lake and throw a stone into the water. Wavelength is
the distance between waves.
The wavelength is the distance traveled by an electromagnetic wave
in the time it takes to swing through a complete cycle. The
wavelength of light is measured in nanometers (nm) or in microns
(um). The wavelengths of visible light range from 400 to 700 nm. The
wavelengths in telecommunication systems ranging from 850 to 1550
nm.
You can see two other wave phenomena. These phenomena are the
amplitude and wave attenuation. Amplitude is the height of the wave
from the bottom of a valley to the top of the next peak. Attenuation is
the reduction of the wave in time and distance. The wave amplitude is
mostly near the source and the distance decreases to stop being
recognizable. Later in this module you will see that the attenuation is
important when comparing glass fibers and optical fiber with other
media consideration.
Reflection
Reflection is the abrupt change in the direction of a light beam at an
interface between two different media (air, glass, plastic or water, for
example) so that the light beam returns to means that originated it.
Another example occurs in nature is the reflection you see on the
surface of a lake or a pond that creates a mirror image of the sky and
the sea, or reveals the rocks and fish below the surface, depending
on the angle view over water.
 

critical angle
When light travels through a medium such as air and collides with
another medium, such as glass, the light is reflected on the surface or
through the second half. It depends on the angle it hit the surface.
The angle at which the beam strikes the glass surface is called angle
of incidence. When the angle of incidence reaches a certain point,
called the critical angle, all light is reflected back in the original
medium. This reflex is a phenomenon called total internal reflection.
 
Total internal reflection is a simple property of the glass, which
causes light stick on the surface at an angle to be reflected totally
within the core of the fiber with little or no loss. This important
property of the glass (and other reflective materials) holds basically
that whenever the light traveling through a reflective material hits the
surface at an angle that is greater than a certain value (critical angle),
the light not it will be issued through the reflective surface, but
bounce back inward again.
In the case of fiber optic system, this principle is crucial as it enables
data transmission in the form of light pulses through a fiber braided
curved without losing light by the side of the fiber. Once the light
enters the fiber within the critical angle, it is reflected continuously
within the core and cladding, provided that there is no loss. The
concept of the angle is defined as:
 
• When the angle is greater than the critical angle, all light is reflected
and the signal is sent through the fiber.

• When the angle is less than the critical angle, at least a part of the
light escapes or is absorbed by the surface of the second medium, in
the case of the fiber cladding. This can cause problems such as a
distorted signal or it reaches its destination.

Refraction
Refraction is the curvature of a light beam through an interface
between two different media, such as glass and air. With increasing
the angle of incidence of the light beam when it hits the glass surface,
the emergent light will bend towards the glass and, in fact, eventually
begin to be reflected back into the glass. Only when the light strikes
the surface between two media at a perpendicular angle, it will in the
right way between the two.
 

Knowing that the optical fiber works by passing light by total internal
refraction helps us understand some of the problems of laying fiber
optics. All curves should be smooth. Otherwise, the curvature in the
cable, combined with the index of refraction, can cause the light
bouncing off the cable instead of going through l.

Refractive index
The refractive index is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum and
the speed of light in another medium.

Transmitter
multiplexing