Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Inter-organizational conflict:
Conflict also occurs between organizations which are dependent upon
each other in some way. This conflict may be between buyer
organizations and supplier organizations about quantity, quality and
delivery times of raw materials and other policy issues.
Such conflict could also be between unions and organizations employing
their members, between government agencies that regulate certain
organizations and the organizations that are affected by them.
Conflict between the individual and the group:
All formal groups and informal groups have
established certain norms of behaviour and
operational standards which all members are
expected to adhere to. An individual member may
want to remain within the group for social needs but
may disagree with the group goals and the methods
to achieve such goals.
For example, in some restaurants, all tips are shared
equally by all waiters and waitresses. Some particular
waitress who may be overly polite and efficient may
feel that she deserves more, thus causing conflict
between her and the group. Similarly, if a group is
going on strike for some reasons, some members of
the group may not agree with these reasons or
simply may not be economically able to afford to go
on strike, thus causing conflict with the group.
Social Competiti
Dilemmas on
Perceived Misperce
Injustice ption
Social dilemmas
◦ A social dilemma is a situation in which an individual
profits from selfishness unless everyone chooses the
selfish alternative, in which case the whole group loses.
◦ Individuals must choose between maximizing their
personal outcomes and maximizing their group’s
outcomes.
Social dilemmas involve a conflict between
immediate self-interest and longer-term
collective interests. These are challenging
situations because acting in one’s immediate
self-interest is tempting to everyone involved,
even though everybody benefits from acting in
the longer-term collective interest.
A social dilemma is a collective action situation in
which there is a conflict between individual and
collective interest. (Kollock, P., "Social Dilemmas:
The Anatomy of Cooperation“)
It is a situation in which individuals could do
better if they either changed their strategies or
changed the rules of the game.
Another informal definition is that a social
dilemma "is defined by two properties: (a) each
individual receives a higher payoff for a socially
defecting choice ... than for a socially cooperative
choice, no matter what the other individuals do,
but (b) all individuals are all better off if all
cooperate than if all defect . (Dawes, Robyn,
"Social Dilemmas”)
Many real-life situations similarly pit our
individual interests against our communal well-
being. Individual whalers reasoned that the few
whales they took would not threaten the species
and that if they didn’t take them others would
anyway.
The result: Some species of whales became
endangered.
A situation in which the conflicting parties, by
each rationally pursuing its self interests become
caught in mutually destructive behavior.
Examples Prisoner’s dilemma and The Tragedy of
the Commons…
The prisoner's dilemma is a paradox
in decision analysis in which two individuals
acting in their own best interest pursue a
course of action that does not result in the
ideal outcome.(Rapoport, 1968)
Dawes in 1991 after a analysis and Meta analysis of
more than 2000 studies has concluded
The typical prisoner's dilemma is set up in such a
way that both parties choose to protect themselves
at the expense of the other participant. As a result
of following a purely logical thought process to
help oneself, both participants find themselves in a
worse state than if they had cooperated with each
other in the decision-making process.
In a laboratory version to the above dilemma
similar results were found out by Shergill et al. in
2003 and Anderson et al in 2008.
The tragedy of the commons is a term coined by
scientist Garrett Hardin in 1968 describing what
can happen in groups when individuals act in
their own best self interests and ignore what’s
best for the whole group.
A group of herdsmen shared a communal
pasture, so the story goes, but some realized
that if they increased their own herd, it would
greatly benefit them. However, increasing your
herd without regard to the resources available
also brings unintentional tragedy — in the form
of the destruction of the common grazing area.
Tragedy of the Commons The “commons” is any shared
resource, including air, water, energy sources, and food
supplies. The tragedy occurs when individuals consume
more than their share, with the cost of their doing so
dispersed among all, causing the ultimate collapse—the
tragedy—of the commons.
When resources are not partitioned, people often
consume more than they realize (Herlocker & others,
1997). As a bowl of mashed potatoes is passed around
a table of 10, the first few diners are more likely to
scoop out a disproportionate share than when a platter
of 10 chicken drumsticks is passed.
THE FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR
First, both games tempt people to explain their
own behaviour situationally (“I had to protect
myself against exploitation by my opponent”) and
to explain their partners’ behaviour dispositionally
(“she was greedy,” “he was untrustworthy”). Most
never realize that their counterparts are viewing
them with the same fundamental attribution error
(Gifford & Hine, 1997; Hine & Gifford, 1996).
People with self inflating, self-focused narcissistic
tendencies are especially unlikely to empathize
with others’ perspectives (Campbell & others,
2005).
EVOLVING MOTIVES
Second, motives often change. At first, people are
eager to make some easy money, then to
minimize their losses, and finally to save face and
avoid defeat (Brockner & others, 1982; Teger,
1980).
OUTCOMES NEED NOT SUM TO ZERO
Third, most real-life conflicts, like the Prisoner’s
Dilemma and the Tragedy of the Commons, are
non-zero-sum games. The two sides’ profits and
losses need not add up to zero. Both can win; both
can lose.
Non-zero-sum games - Games in which outcomes
need not sum to zero. With cooperation, both can
win; with competition, both can lose. (Also called
mixed motive situations. )
REGULATION- It is a very basic step we can take
and implement to resolve social dilemmas.
Fishing and hunting have long been regulated by
local seasons and limits; at the global level, an
International Whaling Commission sets an
agreed-upon “harvest” that enables whales to
regenerate. Likewise, where fishing industries,
such as the Alaskan halibut fishery, have
implemented “catch shares”—guaranteeing each
fisher a percentage of each year’s allowable
catch—competition and overfishing have been
greatly reduced (Costello & others, 2008).
SMALL IS BEAUTIFUL There is another way to
resolve social dilemmas: Make the group small. In
a small commons, each person feels more
responsible and effective (Kerr, 1989). As a group
grows larger, people become more likely to think,
“I couldn’t have made a difference anyway”—a
common excuse for non cooperation (Kerr &
Kaufman-Gilliland, 1997).
COMMUNICATION To resolve a social dilemma,
people must communicate. In the laboratory as in
real life, group communication sometimes
degenerates into threats and name-calling
(Deutsch & Krauss, 1960). More often,
communication enables people to cooperate
(Bornstein & others, 1988, 1989).
Hostilities often arise when groups compete
for scarce jobs, housing, or resources.
When interests clash, conflict erupts.
Fundamenta
Self-serving
Self-justify l attribution
bias
error
Preconceptio
Polarize Groupthink
ns
In-group
Stereotype
bias
MIRROR IMAGE PERCEPTION
This the condition of reciprocal views of each other often
held by parties in conflict; for example, each may view itself
as moral and peace-loving and the other as evil and
aggressive.
It is common for two rival groups to hold each other
responsible for same crimes and to consider themselves
moral and virtuous for the same reasons (Morton Deutsch,
1986). This is often the case in wartime, we see people in
only one of two categories; “for us or against us”. In
modern warfare it is seen as more diplomatic however for
us to say that it is not the general public that we are at war
with, but the evil regime that has contaminated it’s people
that we are against. This also gives us the appeal of a
knight in shining armour, trying to save the “good people”
from their “evil leaders”.
CONFLICT RESOLUTION (PEACEMAKING)
Conc Coop
COOPERATION
4 Cs
iliatio erati
n on
COMMUNICATION
Com
CONCILIATION munic
ation
• Does desegregation improve racial attitudes?
Sometimes.
• When does desegregation improve racial
attitudes? When there is equal status contact.
Many studies confirm the correlation between
contact and positive attitudes. For example, the
more interracial contact South African Blacks and
Whites have, the more sympathetic their policy
attitudes are to those of the other group (Dixon &
others, 2007). Anti-gay feeling is lower among
people who know gays personally (Herek, 1993).