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Eighth Edition

John D. Ramage
Arizona State UniversitY

John C. Bean
Seattle UniversitY

June Johnson
Seattle UniversitY

Longman

New York San Francisco Boston

London Toronto SYdneY TokYo Singapore Madrid
N{exico City Munich Paris Cape Totrt Hong Kong Montrcal
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Contents xi
Detailed
Preface xxv
Supplements xxxv
Acknowledgments xxxvii
Part $n* $wsrvie*n¡ of Argnm*nt 1

1 Argument:Anlntroduction 2

2 Argument as lnquiry: Reading and Exploring 24

Pañ nrys S$riting am Argum*nt fiS

3 The Core of an Argument: A Claim with Reasons 60

4 The Logical Structure ofArguments 73

5 Using Evidence EffectivelY 89

6 Moving Your Audience: Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos 109
7 Responding to Objections and Alternative Views 124
Pirt Three Ana$rzimg Argum*nts f 45

I AnalyzingArgumentsRhetorically 146
I Analyzing Visual Arguments 165

hrt Four Argum*mts in l!*pth: Five Type* *f {lmims 1g$

10 An lntroduction to the Types of Claims 200

I1 DefinitionalArguments 210
12 CausalArguments 237
13 Resemblance Arguments 264
14 EvaluationandEthicalArguments 284
15 ProposalArguments 310
Fañ Five The Researched Argu*m*nt 348

16 Finding and Evaluating Sources 344

17 Using, Citing, and Documenting Sources 368

tx
Brief Contents

Appendix* 4tll
1 lnformal Fallacies 401
2 Small Group Strategies for Practicing Argument Skills

Credits 423
lndex 426
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Preface xxv
Supplements xxxv
Acknowledgments xxxvii

Fart $me &rrertrtew nf &ngument 1

1 Argument: An lntroduction 2
What Do We Mean by Argument? 2
Argument Is Not a Fight or a Quarrel 2
Argument Is Not Pro-Con Debate 3
Argr-rments Can Be Explicit or Implicit 3

touts w. sutllvAN, M.D., "Let the Facts Decide, Not fear: Ean AB 1108" 6
A fotmer secretary of health and human seruices opposes a ban on a chemical
that
makes togs soft and Jlexible.

The Defining Features of Argr-rment 10

Argrment Requires Justification of Its Claims 10
Argu.ment Is Both a Process and a Product 12
Argument Combines Truth Seeking and Persuasion 13
Argument and the Problem of Truth 15

A Successful Process of Argumentation: The Well-Functioning

Committee 18

GORDON AOAMS {STUDENT), "Petition to waive the university Mathematics

Requirement" 19
A stud.ent accepted, to law school but delaged by a remaining math requirement
argues
to be exemPted.

Conclusion 23

2 Argument as lnquiry: Reading and Exploring 24

Finding Issues to ExPlore 25
Do Some Initial Brainstorming 25
Be Open to the Issues All around You 25
Explore Ideas by Freewriting 29
Explore Ideas bY Idea MaPPing 29
Explore Ideas by Playing the Believing and Doubting Game 30

xt
tffi¡t letailed Contents

Placing Texts in a Rhetorical Context 32

Genres ofArgument 32
Cultural Contexts: \Vho Writes Argumenh and Why? 32
Analyzing Rhetorical Context and Genre 37
Reading to Believe an Argument's Claims 38
JOHNKAVANAUCH,'Amnesty¡" 39
A Roman Cathokc priest and philosophy professor asks anti-immigratian groups to see
the human face of undocumented immigrants and to support a palh to amÁestg.
Summary Writing as a Way of Reading to Believe 40
Practicing Belieüng: Willing your Own Belief in the Writer,s Views 43
Reading to Doubt 44
Thinking Dialectically 45
Questions to Stimulate Dialectic Thinking 46
FRED REED, "Why Blame Mexitol', 47
A conseruatiue freelance journalist uses irong to attack illegal immígration, calling it
a "self-inflicted" crisis brought on bg Americans' loue o;f chiap tabol.

Three Ways to Foster Dialectic Thinking 48

Conclusion 50

Writing Assignment: An Argument Summary or a Formal

Exploratory Essay 50
Reading 52
MICHAEI BANKS (STUDEtrlT), "Should the United States Grant Legal Status to
Undorumentedlmmigran{Wcrkers?,, Sz
Examining articles and films, a student naTTates the chronological deuelopment of his
idms as he searches for his own position on illegal ímmigration.

Fart Tvrc Wrltlng trn *rg&merut FE

3 The Core of an Argument: A Claim with Reasons 60

The Classical Strucfure of Argument 60
Classical Appeals and the Rhetorical Tiiangle 62
Issue Questions as the Origrns of Argument 64
Difference between an Issue Question and an Information
Question 61
How to Identify an Issue Question 61
Difference between a Genuine Argument a¡d a pseuclo--\.gument 66
Pseudo-Arguments: Fanatical Believers and Fa¡arical Skepocs 66
Another Source of Pseudo-Arguments: Lack of Sha¡erl ,\sumptions 66
 Detailed Contents xiii

Frame of an Argument: A Claim Supported by Reasons 67

\Ahat Is a Reason? 68
Expressing Reasons in Because Clauses Og
Conclusion 70

Writing Assignment: An lssue Question and Working

Thesis Statements 7'l

4 The logical Structure of Arguments lj

An Overwiew of Logos:\A4rat Do We Mean by the "Logical Shucture,,
of an Argument? 73
Logic 73
Formal Logic versus Real-World
The Role of Assumptions 74
The Core of an Argument: The Enthymeme 74
Adopting a Language for Describing Arguments: The
Toulmin System 76
Using Toulmin s Schema to Determine a Strategy of Support 80
The Power ofAudience-Based Reasons 84
Difference between Writer-Based and Audience-Based Reasons 84
Conclusion 87

Writing Assignment: Plan of an Argument's Details g7

7
) Using Evidence Effectively 89
The Persuasive Use of Eüdence 89
Apply the STAR Criteria to Evidence 89
Use Sources That Your Reader Tiusts 91

Rhetorical Understanding of Evidence 91

Kinds of Evidence 91
Angle of Vision and the Selection and Framing of Evidence 94

Examining Visual Argumefits: Angle of Vision 95

Rhetorical Strategies for Framing Evidence 98
Special Strategies for Framing Statistical Evidence gg
Gathering Evidence 101
Creating a Plan for GatheringEüdence 101
Gathering Data Ílom Interviews 1Oz
Gathering Data from Surveys or Questionnaires 103
Conclusion 103
xirInt Detailed Contents

Writing Assignment: A Microtheme or a Supporting-Reasons

Argument 104
Reading 105
CARMEN TIEU (STUDENT), "Why Violent Video Games Are
Good for Girls" 106
A student argues that playíng uiolent uideo games helps girls gain insi.ght into
male calture.

6 Moving Your Audience: Ethos, Pathas,and Kairos I0g

Ethos and Pathos as Persuasive Appeals: An Overview 109
How to Create an Effective Ethos:The Appeal to Credibility 111
How to Creafe Pathos,,The Appeal to Beliefs and Emotions 7lZ
Language 113
Use Concrete
Illustrations
Use Specific Examples and 113
Use Narratives Il4
Use Words, Metaphors, and Analogies with Appropriate Connotations 115
Using Images for Emotional Appeal 115
Kairos:The Timeliness and Fitness of Arguments 116

Examining Visual Arguments: Lagos, Ethos, pathos, and Kairos I l r

How Audience-Based Reasons Enhance Logos, Ethos, and pathos 119
Conclusion 122

writing Assignment: Revising a Draft for Ethos, pathos,and Audience-Based

Reasons 123

7 Responding to Objections and Alternative Views lZ4

One-Sided, Multisided, and Dialogic Arguments 124
Determining Your Audience's Resistance to Your Views IZs
Appealing to a Supportive Audience: One-Sided Argument 127
Appealing to a Neutral or Undecided Audience: Classical Argument 128
Summarizing Opposing Views 128
Refuting Opposing Views 129
Strategies for Rebutting Eüdence 131
Conceding to Opposing Views 132
Example of a Student Essay Using Refutation Strategy 132
MARYBETH HAMtITON (STUDENT), From "First Pface: A Healing School for Homeless
Children" 133
A student who does uolunteer work in an alternati"*e school .for honteless ch¡ldren
refutes the arguments of those who uant to shut o/f the schoo! :.ñnding.
 Detailed Contents

Appealing to a Resistant Audience: Dialogic Argument 135

Delayed-ThesisArgument 135

ELtFFI cüüDMAN, "Miilne8pa{is F*rnography *rdi*ance" I3*

A nationallg syndicatid columnist reluctantlg disagrees with an antipornographg
ordinance ProPosed bY femínists
Argument
Rogerian 138

Conclusion 139
at
writing Assignment: A Classical Argument or a Dialogic Argument Aimed
Conciliation 140

Reading r40
tlAvlB LÁNGtrY f$TtlflENT!, "'Flslf-{r!*¡inals' sr [,lrb** áthie{esl A FIec
for Fair
Treatment of Skctebearders" {A el*ss¡cnl &rg*nne*t} 141
using the classical argument form, a shateboar,der argues that he and
his friends are
treaiád unfairlg by potice, ciuic offlcials, and the general public

REBEKAH TAyLrlR {sTunENTi, 'R letter t* Jim" {A Rogerian

Arg*r*ent} 143
actiuist suggests a
using the strategtes of Rogerian argument,,a uegan and animal rights
mtght take towardfair treatment of animals'
smal step her meatmtinlfriend

P*rt Xt*ree &remffi*xng&rg*mem$x 1S$

I AnalyzingArgumentsRhetorically 14'6

Thinking Rhetorically about a Text 146

Questions for Rhetorical Analysis I48
An Illustration of Rhetorical Analysis 148
,,Egg
KATHRY¡¡ JffT\i IOPE , FiCAdS" T 5"I

Writinginlgg|fortheconsensatiuemagazineNal|onalReview,KathtynJeanLopez
bg new reproductiue
argues"against thá emerging practice of egg donation enabled
technolog¡.

A Rhetorical Analysis of "Egg Heads" 154

Conclusion I57
Writing Assignment: A Rhetorical Analysis 158

Generating Ideas for Your Rhetorical Anaiysis 158

Organizing Your Rhetoricai Analysis 160

Reading 160
'¡Sf;
EttEFt 60$DMAN, "Wc$lb f*r Rent*t*r * Sr*ee"
the ethical
Writing ten llmrs after Lopez' liberal columnist Ellen Goodman explores
Itn*ñot oí*nct uhenfiist-worlcl couples "outsource" motherhood to third world
xaT Detailed Contents

,A ,Womb
ZACHARY sTUMPS (sTU0ENT}, Rhetori(al Analysis of Ellen Goodman,s
For Rent-tor a Price"'|62
'r*pntt¡r¡il
Astud'entanalgzesEllenGoodman'srhetoricalstrategiesin',Wombfor'Rent'''
nl* delaged thesis stluchffe and her use of language with double
meanings.

I Analyzing Visual Arguments 165

Argument 166
Understanding Design Elements in Visual
Use of T),?e 166
Use ofspace or LaYout 167
An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using Type and
Spatial Elements 168

Use of Color I7l

Use of Images and GraPhics l7l
An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using All the Design
ComPonents 172
The Compositional Features of Photographs and Drawings
174

An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using Images t77

The Genres of VisualArgument 183
Posters and Fliers 184
Public Affairs Advocacy Advertisements 184
Carloons 186
WebPages 187
Constr-ucting Your Own Visual Argument 189
Using Information Graphics in Arguments 191
How Tables Contain a Variety of Stories 191
Using a Graph to Tell a Story 194
Incorporating Graphics into Your Argr'rment 196
Conclusion 198

WritingAssignment:AVisualArgumentRhetoricalAnalysis,aPoster
ñrgutlnt, or a Microtheme Using Quantitative Data 198

Fsnt Fsllr *rgaw*nts im S*Sh: Fiwe T$p*s rf ülairus t$$

10 An lntroduction to the Types of Claims 200

An Overview of the Types of Claims 20O

Using Claim Types to Focus an Argument and Generate

Ideas: An ExamPle 2Oz
Making the LASIK Argument to Parents 2O3
Making the LASIK Argument to Insurance Companies
2O4
 Detailed Contents xvil

Hybrid Arguments: How Claim Types Work Together in Arguments 2O5

Some Examples of Arguments 2O5

Hybrid
An Extended Example of a Hybrid Argument 2O7

AAR0N FRIEDMAN, ?ll That Noise for Nothing" 208

AmemberofaNewYorkCitgalternatiuetransportationaduocacygrouparguesinthis
op-ed piece"that the city shoild ban car alnrms and explore
other methods for
preuenting auto theft

11 DefinitionalArguments 210
An Overview of Arguments About Definition 2I7
The Rule of Justice: Things in the Same Category Should Be teated the
Same Way 2I2
Types of Definitional Arguments 213

Examining Visuatr Arguments: A Definitisnal 215 Claim

The Criteria-Match Structure of Definitional Arguments 216
DevelopingtheCriteria-MatchStructureforaDefinitionalArgument2T6
Toulmin Framework for a Definitional Argument 217

Kinds of Definitions 21'8

Aristotelian Definitions 218
Operational Definitions ?,20

Conducting the Criteria Part of a Definitional Argument

221
Approach 1: Research How Others Have Defined the Term 221

Approach 2'. CreaIe Your Own Extended Definition 222

Conducting the Match Part of a Definitional Argument 224

Writing Assignment: A Definitional Argument 225

Exploring Ideas 225
\ñ4rafs at Stake 226
Identilying Your Audience and Determining
Organizing a Deflnitional Argument 227
Questioning and Critiquing a Definitional
Argument 227
Readings 229

JÉNEFER BoMlNGo (STUDENT), "Prote€ting Our Homes Can Lead to

Animal (rueltY" 229
Astud'entdeuelopsad'efinitionofwhatconstih.ttesanimaloueltgandappliesittoan
inuasion of starlings

KAIHY SUtLtvAN (STUDENI), "oncore, obsceni$, and the Liquor

control Board" 231
public control)ersg ouer photographs in a gag bar argues that
A student inuestigating a
theY are not PornograPhic.

DAVID ANDRIE5EN, "What Defines a Sport?" 233

debates whether actiuities such as stacking cups are sports
and asks,
A spotfs writer
what are the cYiteria for a sPort?
Detailed Contents

12 CausalArguments 237
An Overview of Causal Arguments 238
Kinds of Causal Arguments 239
Toulmin Framework for a Causal Argument 241
Two Methods for Arguing That One Event Causes Another 243
First Method: Explain the Causal Mechanism Directly 243

Examining Visual Arguments: A Causal flaim 244

Second Method: Infer Causa] Links Using Inductive Reasoning 246
Glossary of Terms Encountered in Causal Arguments 247

Writing Assignment: A Causal Argument 249

Exploring Ideas 249
Identifying Your Audience and Determining \44rat's at Stake 251

Orgarrizing a Causal Argu.ment 251

Questioning and Critiquing a Causal Argument 257

Readings 254
JUIEE CHR¡ST|ANS0N (STUDENT], "Why lawrence Summers
Was Wrong: (ullure Rather Than Biology Explains the
Underrepresentation of Women in Science and Mathematics,, 254
A student uriter d.isagrees with Haruard president La¿-rence Summers's claim that
women haue less innate talent for math and science than men'

oLlvlA JUDS0N, "Different but (Probably) Equal" 258

An euolutionary bíologistlooks at gender differences it the anímol kingdom to explore
whether gendeídffirlncu ín humáns-espeaallg the capaaty ra evel
in math and
science-can be attributed to nafure or nurture'

"'The credit (ard company Made Me Do ltl'-The

(redit
CARLOS MACIAS (STUDENT),
Card lndustry's Role in Causing Student Debt" 260
A stud.ent uriier examines the causes of college sñttie¡tts credú cartj debr and puts the
blame on the exploitiue practices of the credit card indtL'ir1

13 Resemblance Arguments 264

An Overview of Resemblance Arguments 265
Toulmin Framework for a Resemblance '\rgument 2
'i 5

Arguments bY AnalogY 267

Using UndeveloPedAnalogies 267
Using Extended Analogies 268

Arguments bY Precedent 269

Examining Visual Arguments: A Resemblance Oaim 270

WritingAssignment:AResemblanceArgument 171
 Detailed Contents xtx

Exploring Ideas Z7I

Identifuing Your Audience and Determining \\{hat,s at Stake 272
Organizing a Resemblance Argument Z7Z
Questioning and Critiquing a Resemblance Argument Z7Z
Readings 274
MEGAN MATTHFWS (STUDENT), ,,Whales Need Silence" 274
In this letter to the editor, a student uses an openíng analog to motiuate concern for
whales hatmed by Naug sonar.

Ct Ay BENNETT, 'ilust Emancipated" (editorial cartoon)

275
A cartoonist uses an analog to make a point about gag marriage.

BETH REIS, "Toon Offensive'. 276

A rmder ¿riticizes the anarog used bg ctay Bennett in'lust Emancipated."
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF UNIVERSIW PROFESSORS, "FOOIbAII COACh SAIATiCS, 276
In an excerpt from its annual reporf, the AAUP argues that coach salaries are too high.

SUSAN BRoWNM|LIER, "Fram Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape', 2g0
A feminist writer argues that pornographg is "antifemale propaganda" analogous to
Nazi propaganda agaínstJeus or blacks.

14 Evaluation and EthicalArguments 2g4

An Overview of Evaluaüon Arguments Zgs
Criteria-Match Structure of Caiegorical Evaluations Zgs
Toulmin Framework for an Evaluation Argument 296
Constructing a Categorical Evaluation Argument 2g6
Developing Your Criteria ZBo
Making Your Match Argument 288

Examining Visual Argaments: An Evaluation Claim 2A9

An Overview of Ethical Arguments 291
Major Ethical Systems 292
Consequences as the Base ofEthics 292
Principles as the Base of Ethics 293
Constructing an Ethical Argument 293
Constructing a Principles-Based Argument
293
ConstructingaConsequences-BasedArgument 294
Common Problems in Making Evaluation Arguments 255
Writing Assignment: An Evaluation or Eth¡Gl Argument 296
Exploring Ideas 296
Identifuing Your Audience and Deterrnining \Ahat's at Stake 297
Organizing an Evaluation Argument 297
 Questioning and Critiquing a Categorical
Argument 297
Critiquing m Ethical Argument 299
Readings 301

sAM |SAA(5ON {STUDENT}, "would Legalization of cay Marriage Be cood fof

ihe GaY CommunitY?" 301
Writing to a g(tY ouáirr,, rather than the general publíc' a student eualuates
the poíentiallripact upon the gag communitg of legalizing same-sex marriage

Tiffany Anderson {student), ? Woman's View of Hip-Hop" 304

Ayoungmiddle.classwhitewomanexplainshergrowingattractiontohip-hopmusic
p*n lA fU ¡u*ale atlists such as Lauryn Hill and Eue'

Dauid HolcberS, "Human Organs for Salel" 308

A media research specíalist for the Agn Rand Institute eualuates and approues a free
market approach to the selling and buying of human organs

15 ProposalArguments 310
An Overview of Proposal Arguments 311
The Shucture of Proposal Arguments 3I2
Toulmin Framework for a Proposal Argument 312
Special Concerns for Proposal Arguments 3I2

Developing a Proposal Argument 374

Convincing Your Readers That a Problem ExisLs 3I4
Showing the Specifics ofYour Proposal 315
TheJustif,cation:ConvincingYourReadersThatYourProposalShouldBe
Enacted 316

Proposal Arguments as Advocacy Posters or Advertisements 316

Using the Claim-'Iypes Strategl to Develop a Proposal Argument

318

Using the "Stock Issues" Strategy to Develop a Proposal Argument

320

Examining Visuat Arguments: A Propasal Clairn 3Zl

Writing Assignment: A Proposal Argument 323

Exploring Ideas 324
Identifuing Your Audience and Determining \A¡hat's at Stake 325
Organizing a Proposal Argument 325
Desigmng a One-Page Advocacy Advertisement 325
Questioning and Critiquing a Proposal
Argument 327
Readings 328
tAUREt WlLsoN isTuDENT),'A Proposal to Prsvlde Tips
for Hosts at
Stone's End" 128
Afotmerhostessatapopularbrewpubdetailstheunfairpagreceit.edbghostsin
cimparison with setaers- and proposes a more just ray to handle
rips.
 Detailed Contents xxi

JUAN vAzQuEz (STUDENT), "ltllhy the United States Should Adopt trluclear Power"
{MlA-format research paper) 332
nuctear Power should be part of the nation's approach to
:";Y:íH;:ffithat
DONATD SHOUe "Gone Parkin"' 340
A professor of urban planning argues that cities should charge for anrb parking.

h$ Fiue The Rrseardred Argumeffi 343

1 6 Finding and Evaluating Source s 344

Formulating a Research Question 345
Understanding Differences in the Kinds of Sources 346
Books versus Periodicals versus WebSites 349
Scholarly Books versus Trade Books 350
Scholarly Journals versus Magazines 350
Print Sources versus Cyberspace Sources 350
Finding Books: Searching Your Library's Online Catalog 351
Finding Afticles: Searching a Licensed Database 351
What Is a Licensed Database? 352
Key'word Searching 353
Illustration of a Database Search 353
Finding Cyberspace Sources: Searching the World Wide Web 355
The Logic of the Internet 355
Using Web Search Engines 356
Determining Where You Are on the Web 357
Reading Your Sources Rhetorically 357
Reading with Your Own Goals in Mind 357
Reading with Rhetorical Awareness 358
Ti*ing Effective Notes 359
Evaluating Sources 360
Angle of Vision 360
ofAdvocacy
Degree 361
Reliability 363
Credibility 363
Understanding the Rhetoric of Web Sites 363
The Web as a Unique Rhetorical Enüronment 363
Analyzrng the Purpose of a Site and Your Own Research Purpose 363
Sorting Sites by Domain Type 364
Criteria for Evaluating a Web Site 365
Conclusion 367
XXI¡ Detailed Contents

17 Using, Citing, and Documenting Sources

Using Sources for Your Ovm Purposes 368
Creating Rhetorically Effective AÚributive Tags 37O
Using Atiributive Tágs to Separate Your Ideas from your Source,s S7O
Creating Atfibutive Tágs to Shape Reader Response 371
Working Sources into Your Own Prose 371
Summarizing 372
Paraphrasing 372
Quoting 373
AvoidingPlagiarism 375
understandingParenthetical citationsystemswithBibliographies 376
Understanding MLA Style 377
The MLA Method of In:fbxt Citation 377
MLA Format for the "Works Cited" List 379
MLA "Works Cited" Citations 379
Student Example of an MLA-Sfyle Research paper 386
Understanding APA Sffle 387
The APA Method of In-Text Citation 387
APA Fomat for the "References" List 388
APA "References" Citations 389
Conclusion 393
Student Example of an APA-Style Research paper 393
MrcAN MATTHEWS iSTUDENT), "Scunding the.Alarm; Navy scnar a*d the suruiva!
af Whales" iAPA-format research paperi
394
A-student argues that preseruing marine mammals and ocean ecologl outweighs the
Naug's need for a new sonar fltstem.

&ppemdixes 4fiN

lnformal Fallacies 401

The Problem of Conclusiveness in an Argument 101
An Overview of Informal Fallacies 4Oz
Failacies of Pathos 403
Fallacies of Ethos 404
Fallacies of Logos 4O5
 Detailed Contents xxllt

2 Small Group strategies for Practicing Argument skills 409

From conflict to consensus: How to Get the Most Out of the writing
Commr.rrutY 4Og
Avoiding Bad Habits of Group Behavior 4Og
The Value of Group Work for Writers 4lO
Forming Writing Communities: Skills and Roles4ll
Working in Groups of Five to Seven People 471
Working in Pairs 413

Group Project: Holding a "Norr,ring session" to Define "Good Argumentative

Writing" 415

"Bloody lce" 417

"RSS Should Not Provide Dorm Room Carpets" 4'18

"Sterling Hall Dorm food" 419

"ROTC (ourses Should Not Get College Credit" 424

"LegalizationofProstitution" 422

Credits 423
Index 426
 -":**", ,Á'*,.
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ThroughitslirstSeveneditions,WritingArgumentshasls]lb.lisheditselfasthelead- dialogue in search

Éy fo'cusing on aTgument as
ing college rci""k; argom"ntutlon. Writlng
of solutions ,o ffiÁ, iistead * p;J-;;-;b;" witñ winnersmeans losers'
and
persuasron'
"f
a p'ot"" of inqurry as well
as a of
Argumentstreats argument as f,or teaching the critical think-
pttt"á ,n"
Users and ,"ri"iJ.!*rut"
consisiently look
for writingargumentsihow to analyze the- occasion for an argument;
ing skills needed audience; how
how to ground an argument ln
th" ,rutt""r'*á Ualáft of the targeted
t l:'^t¡l,:* seniitivelv to objections
to develop and elaborate an argume;i1irüg*
andalterrativeviews.Thetextisavailableinthreeversions_aregularedition,which
includes an anrhology of readings; "
ü;iJt *, which offers ttre complete rhetoric
withouttheanthology;andaconciseeditionwithfewerrearlinssandexamples-to
support-""vi""ñ"iionalapproath;;Jcoursedesigns'Ñ"uttpleasedthat while retaining the text's
harrÉ made ,nu.ry l*provements
in this eighrh ;;;;;"
signature strengths'

TheBigPicture:What'sNewintheH'ighthHdition?
and pedagogy' as well as
into argumentation theory
Based on our continuing research improvements in the eighth edition
made si'gnincant
on the advice of users,-we have students' we have made
flexibility f"r";;;?;*¿ lo upp"ul
to
that increase the text,s

'Ttfiiilil?r-H';l.'Íffirandincreas"d.ro"T"'T-":1::r*:T:"f
of the text has been f;ry,["*
greatly rt-
the text. The interest level and
,"'J"r+i."¿tiness
o9ri* and by new photographs, ads' car-
creased by the new full-colo, lhe Tany strráents, encounters with
thut deepen
toons, drawings, and other üsuaLa:rgum",.t, po"' opens with a visual
p"""*i""'il:;;;'' E'ach clarmffi;;;;!á'* visual Arguments
q,pe, ariá;;i;á"t an Examining
case illusrraring the claim political óufioottt, posters, and
feature that asks students ,o *afrJ "ár"á"v "¿s,
n re
,- fn;:,}'¿fl'ilY;"f; the rh eto ri"'r, i*' Y:-'r', o r
^writte
*ffre*5 i;
Sponsetouserrequests.t'".*"""-p""atheLxt,sl:.1,*"",ofrhetoricalanaly-
sisofarguments,thenewChapte'rSprovides.detailedinstr-uctiononhowto
text. This chapLer leaches students
to
write a íhetorical analysis or I*"ti.i to analvze the
identifv';;;;¡' 't'ui"gi"' f;;;;'il; a targeted áudience'

writer,sangleofvision,andtoevaluatetheargument'soveralleffectivenessfor and a
and outsider u.,ai"t""r. New wiiting Assignment options
both insider maJor
student example increase ttr"
t"*tt l"xibrlity for instructors in planning
assignments'
XXVi Preface

w Many concepts are now,displayed

graphicalty, particurarry in the Toulmin
Analysis charts, which help stualnts iee-the
concáptua fra-e,"o.k of an argu_
ment, and the organization plans for various
typás of *g.o-"rrt , which help
studenls outline ¿heir own arguments.
w simpler, shorter, and more accessibre
craim-t¡pe chapters (part Four) through
elimination of the.yyz temprates, through
á**pr"{ *á tLo.,g.l, substantive
""."
tightening In the first s"rr"r, édido.r, of tñr*ng,rrgu.,)ro,
*" Á"aX and y as prace_
holders in temprates to exprain a stasis: k this
approach worked for some studen!.
Í a i? or Does x cause yz ermough this
complained that certain passages in these
chapters seemed like a math text. In Tany
tne áqrrtn'eaiuon, we t uu"
ture by adopting a simpler, more skaightfoñTo this fea-
*a
a"*". "ti-irrut"d
uffroach for explaining
each claim t¡pe. we have also madá these
chapters snorte.'áJ crisper and have
used many new examples and new student
essays.
w An increased emphasis on rhetoricar
anarysis within a new part rhree.
our new chapter,B on analyzing written arguments
is paired with an updated
chapter 9 on anaryzing visual aiguments to
create u rré* part Three explicitly
devoted to rhetorical ánalysis. TÉe backgrorrra
r.rro.'r"ág."-riua""rs need for
rhetorical analysis is provided in part T\,io,
where stuaenis learn about /ogos,
ethos, and pathos, about audience-based
reasons, u.ra u¡o.rt analysis of evi_
dence, identification of assumptions, and
methods of treatrng-atternative views.
In Part Three, students bring these anaryticar
toors to tr"u. oi verbar and visual
arguments.
w A significantly revised chapter 2,
which prace.s the reading of arguments
within a context of inquiry and exproration.
'lp"T"tl our newry revise d Chapter z,
as Inquiry: ana nxptoring," combines fearures of the
edition's chapters 2 a!T-gg sevenrh
s rtre chapter.orhl.,", to focus * r""ai"g arguments
(summary writing, reading to
believe *J m doubt), but praces greater
on argument as inquiry and truth seeking. A emphasis
ploratory essay, is illustrated with a student
nel writing.Ári-igr-"rt, an ex_
example, incre'usirrg the instructor,s
options for course pranning and providing
students with ; friauctive toor for
reading arguments and generating id"ur.
m An improved emphalis on writing throughout part
writing Assignments. The rwo with new
new titre "writing an Argument,,, re-
o? ea.rt Two,
flects the absorption of the seventh edition,s
chapter s r,,úriti"g Arguments,,)
into Part Two, where a series of new examples
illustrates a student writer,s
process in producing an argument on
women and video games. writing
Assignments.rrow appea. in eLn chapter
in part Two, ailowingoteachers to co_
ordinate students' reading of part Trn¿o with
th" a"rr"top-á"?
their own arguments. in addition, part Two introd.,"", u"¿ writing of
Assignment-a "supporting-reasons" argument-that u new writing
focuses on reasons in sup-
port of the writer's.claim without re{uiring
students to summarize artd, re_
spond to opposing views.
 xxvll

mUpdatedMlAdocumentationbasedonthenew'$ildeditionoft]rleM¿A APA
ststp Man;I';;;;1" 'o
t"^íffi"i'"il"ing-12008)" and updated
documentationbasedontheir.i;W;";;ü:ii-t|1::'nicReferences(2oo7I
InChapterlTweexplainal$showtti"f",-,*g-gchangesinihecitingofboth
printand#;;;;:;*qn5i;:[f"'1"íX#:'1x;$ili;1"J!i"1
:'m:*:'*f'#*"J:ffi 3'Tffi J'iffi;:-::*{y*m'ff
trt".,i' sfu{ents where to H:tr¿il"'
find informa-
Three new r"*;;;pl"t
electronic sources. schoJarly ioutnals' and blogs'
don for their citations of
*"U ¿o",]ii"nt ,'onlit.
studeni L.,uy, throughout the
g: 10 new pLfessional
t"*t, or"lir"iir.* '"uai,'g,..uiib-;Itr
ilorgáti#'j"-9" ""a
rtr" ,o, include immigration,
stuje¡t interest' High-interest
women in math and sci-
topi., "ttt uti".rriirrr""grr"*
ence, údeo games' and
alternative energy'

TheDetails:Vt'rhatHasChangedintheEighthEdition?
ourparttitlesnowsignalaclearprogressjonlromargumentasinquiry(Partone),to under-
*"í)i"ü *óments"Patt{hree)' to a deeper
,nriting Five)' This revised arrange-
(Part.F""1, ,Jltiig t;t"utch(Patt
"rg""r""lr"tr"",.iwo)rto
sranding of claim types for the teaching of argument
provid",.*,i-p,o*a p"augofr.J"t'u*"*o'k context of this
ment use what thev need' In the
while giving ;#";"ililni¡¡rirf-i" to the content of each chaprer.
framework, #;;;;j" "hág",
**y
part one (chapters 1-and 2) has been refocused
part one, c)verview of Argument
toemphasiz";;;;u'ittn't""t.;g;Ji;q"ityandtoencouragestudentsto to a
enter a
úh ;;;";rninált"itnng for the best solution
a*p*J".""""rrutior
Problem'

wChapterl,.Argument:Anlntroduction,,,hasanimprovedandexpandedexpla- over
illustrated by the controversy
nation of impli-cit versus *!f;;;g"ments (pictures of
r*ffiri.1ulr,rír arguments opposing phthalates
onrn"r"rir"*ur"o, *uiti"t) are jtxtaposed wrth
-ioison bib" and. lr't,rtir"*9, q.gt.,'t
a baby wirh a "i "lriá .r]"*ltul industry's position' In addibron'
an explicit argumenr ,uppon,ii visual argumen[s and a new
I n"J"clais acti"itty *"fyrtng implicit
new
ielf-presenLati ons on Facebook'
Chapt"er
itg l*;;; lü'""t of
uy
""'"g'r "iiJg e*pro'"'"g," combine-q elements
* 'ort-pr
chupt"r"á,ffi;;; tÉr-":;;;.* -a be#er exptain how to evalu-
3 ftom'/h"';;;ñ
Chaprer z'urra-cnapt", "¿Lio"io The chapter's focus on
ate rhetorical context,
r"ua*g.ini"ru,"*a "^ptot" issues' about
n"* readings. pholos. and cartoonswriting
inquiry á'J-"*pto,ution l, ,uppl.t"J.r,y fwo
undocumenred^ workers
*¿ rrl?gi" rJtiil;;: Tt:;'chapter offers
Assignmentoptions-an."u'gt'-"ñtsummaryoranewexpioratoryessay'whichis
a new student essay'
with
described in detail and illustrated
pffiii Preface

Part Two, Writing an Argument Palt TWo, which has absorbed the material on
writing arguments foom the seventh edition's Chapter 3, places increased attention on
the lrátrng process. Part TWo introduces the classical argument and leads students
through u- t"ti"t of brief o*itittg assignments that help them plan and draft an
argument. Each of the chapters in Pal-t TWo includes changes as follows:

w Chapter 3, "The Core of an Argument: A Claim with Reasons," introduces the

struiture of classical argument and the classical appeals of logos, ethos, and pathos
at the outset to frame the discussion of the principles of argument. A new Writing
Assignment option asks students to frame an issue question and produce a work-
ing thesis statement.
w hi Chapter 4, "The Logrcal Structure of Arguments," the explanation of the
Toulmin system is clarified üth examples in graphic form. A new Writing
Assignment option asks students to use the Toulmin schema to plan details for an
argument in progress.
m Cliapter 5, "Usmg Evidence Effectively," expands its treatment of üsual eüdence
and includes new exercises on angle of vision and photographs. A new Writing
Assignment option asks students to ltrite a "supporting-reasons" argument, which
is illustrated by student writer Carmen Tieu's "\&/hy Violent Video Games Are
Good for Girls."
w chapter 6, "Moüng Your Audience'. Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos," has an improved
,".tion on how audience-based reasons enhance logos, ethos, utd pathos and
includes a new chart of questions for analyzing an audience. It also contains a new
Examining Visual Arguments feature that asks students to analyze the appeals of a
Toyota Prius ad. Its new Writing Assignment option asks studenüs to revise a draft
for improved focus on ethos, pathos, and audience-based reasons'
w Chaptér 7, "Responding to Objections and Alternative Views," has been tightened.
Thg seventh student example of a classical argument ('A Plea for Fair
"dition'r
Tieatment of Skateboarders") has been moved to this chapter, where the Writing
Assignment options are to write either a classical argument or a dialogic argument
aimed at conciliation.

Part Three, ,Analyzing Arguments Part Three includes a new chapter 8 on

analyzing written arguments along with Chapter 9 on analyzing üsuai alguments'

w Chapter 8, "Analyzing Arguments Rhetorically," proüdes comprehensive inshrrc-

tion to students on hbw to write a rhetorical analysis of an argument using the
theory and principles of argument explained in PaIt Tw'o. As examples for analy-
sis, ii presents two arguments about ethical issues in reproductive technology:
Kathryn Jean Lopez's 'Egg Heads" and Ellen Goodman's "\vomb for Rent-For a
Price.; The chapter provides our own analysis of Lopez's argument, a student
analysis of Goodmanb, and a new Writing Assignment. a rhetorical analysis of an
argument.
w Chapter t has been updated with new üsual argument eramples and provides a
new Writing Assignment option: to write a rhetoncal a-nall sis of a visual argument'
 Preface xxix

in Depth: Five.Tlpes of Claims f3rt Foü has

been
Part Four, Arguments of the XY
condensed, updated, ;á ;"d" simple, *¿ ñár" accessible by elimination
has been clarified
templates. In each ñ.d;ht analysis of an argument We have also
"h"p'";, of thé argument'
with a chart to help students pinpoint the.eléments feature and a new
added in cta'm-¡'iJ;;;d;ñ¡"'1T"s vi'"{A'sol'lP other local
"a.t'' determinurfi what's at stake. Numerous
section on identifying audie.rc" and
changes include the following:

wlnChapterl0,..AnlntroductiontotheTypesofClaims,',the'exampleofahybrid used
stu¿ánts identiff the various claim-types
argument is now *|o.¡u¡;á to help

have simplified the vocabulary and

. iltff #11, ,,Definirional ArgumelFi' *" arguments and what the seventh edi'
eliminated tLr" diJ;;;n ¡.t*""gn
definition
opens with a üsual argu-
,,simple categorical arguments." ThJchapter
tion called
has an Examining visual Arguments feature
ment case_a co"á.opriuip, ua-"*¿
The chapter has t-wo new readings: Jenefer
analyzing p"rt";;;il;; f*t'l- Animal Cruelty" and
" Lead to
Domingo trtta""tl,-'ét"i"?tt"g OT Homes'Can
Oavi¿ ¡ndriesen, "\&4rat Defines a Sport?"
,,CausJ Arguments," ópens with a new visual case using global
m Chapter 12,
diagrams' and has an
warming graphs, has s"everal new cause-and-effect
E'xaminingVisualArgumentsfeatureSnalyzinganAdbustersad.ThechapterhasA
also been shortened and reorgan ized
toi"ptb causal arguing T9t"
-crisply'
ii "\A4ry Lawrence
new student of u cuuál argument ¡ulee Christianson,
"ru*pi"
Summers Was Wrong'"
new^visual case and includes
m Chapter f g, "n"r"*¡iuoce Arguments"' opens wrth l
Association of University
new examples of resemblancé argumenti 4n
American
professors *g"r";;; ;g;nst the Éigh salaries of football coaches and a pro-gay-
in response'
marriage cartoon with a letter to the editor
wChapterf+,"gv¡uatlonandEthicalArgumentsj'openswithanewüsualcase
(the ad ro, e nS *tn"i-a Mexrcan) *á in.lrd"r a
new Examining Visual argu-
ments feature on the DailY Show'
supporting
w Chapter 15, "Proposal irgumenm''' opens with a visual argument an ML_4,
two new readings:
T. Boone pi.t"rrrli *irrd falrm propori and
includes
"\A4ry the united states Should
fomat research pup", uy studintluan vazquez,
ÁJopt Nuclear pá."t," and Oonald Shoup'
"Gone Parkin''"

PartFive.TheResearchedArgumentPartFivehasbeenupdatedtoreflectnew
changes include the following:
MLA and APA guidelines for citations. other local

16i, "Finding and Evaluaiing Sources"' p"ti{St

blogs have been
w In Chapter In addi-
added to Table 16.6, Arígles of Vision i" u.s. Media and Think Tánks.
updated, as well as the evalua-
tion, many of the searchillustrations have been
tion of a Web site'
 Preface

m Chapter 17, "Using, Citing, and Documenting Sources," includes new MLA cita-
tions based on the new third edition of the MLA Stgle Manual and Guide to
Scholarlg Publishing (2008), and updated APA documentation based on the APA
Stgle Guide to Electronic References (2007).It also includes three source samples-
Web article, online database article, and blog posting.

What Hasn't Changed? The Distinguishing Features

of Writing Arguments
Building on earlier success, we have preserved the signature features of earlier edi-
tions praised by students, instructors, and reviewers:

s Focus throughout on rtriting arguments. Grounded in composition theory, this

text combines explanaüons of argument with class-tested discussion tasks, ex-
ploratory writing tasks, and sequenced writing assignments aimed at developing
skills of writing and critical thinking. This text builds students' confidence in their
ability to enter the argumentative conversations of our culture, understand diverse
points of view, synthesize ideas, and create their own persuasive texts.
w Equal focus on argument as a rhetorical act, particularly on analyzing audi-
ence, on understanding the real-world occasions for argument, and on ap-
preciating the rhetorical context and genre of arguments. Focusing on both
the reading and the writing of arguments, the text emphasizes the critical thinking
that underlies effective arguments, particularly the skills of critical reading, of be-
lieving and doubting, of empathic listening, of active queshoning, and of negotiat-
ing ambigulb/ and seeking synthesis.
m Integration of four different approaches to argument: The Toulmin sys-
tem as a means of invention and analysis of arguments; the enthymeme as a
logical structure rooted in the beliefs and values of the audience; the classical
concepts of logos, pathos, and ethos as persuasive appeals; and stasis theory
(called claim-types) as an aid to inventing and structuring arguments through
understanding of generic argumentative moves associated with different cate-
gories of claims.
ru Copious treatment of the research pnocess? including two student examples of doc-
umented research papers-one using the Ml,A system and one using the APA system.
* Numerous "For Class Discussion" exercises, "Examining Visual Argument"
features, and sequenced Writing Assignments designed to teach critical think-
ing and build argumentative skills. AII "For Class Discussion" exercises can be
used either for whole-class discussions or for collaboratir.e group tasks.
"- Numerous student and professional arguments to illustrate argumentative
strategies and stimulate discussion, analysis, ard debate. Ntogether, the eighth
edition contains 14 v¡ntten arguments artd 40 visual arguments drawn from the
public and academic arenas and 16 student essavs and 2 student üsual arguments.
 Preface Xxxi

Our Approaches to Argumentation

in the relationship between
our interest in argumentation grows out of our interest
writingandthinking.whenwiting-alguments,writersareforcedtolaybaretheir
the complex interplay
p.";;;, L an unpara[é1"d-*ay, grappling.wrth In an effort to engage
thinking
between irrq"ir' *J p".rrruriorr, between iisue
and audience.
we draw on four
students in the kinds of critical thinking that argument demands,
major approaches to argumentation:
l.TheenthlTnemeasarhetoricalandlogicalstru-cture'Thisconcept'especially
an argument_as a claim with
,r.tl rorüffiü*r¿;;,;elps studen6It"nutshell"
also helps them see how real-world
one or -or.'rrrppó.ting becauie clauses.
by the audience rather than in uni-
arguments u." .óát"d in assumptions granted
veisal and unchanging principles'
etho,s, and pathos' These concepts
2. "fhethree classical types of appeal-logos,
context focusing on audience-
help students place their urgo-"ntr in a ihetorical
voice and style.
U*"a upf"Áitney utro help students create an effective
Toulmin's system helps students see
3. Toulminjs system of analyzing arguments'
an enthymeme and develop appro-
the complete, implicit structure inat"underlies
priategroun¿san¿backingtosupport?na.rg:lment,sleasonsandwarrants.Italso
nature of argument.
irlgl-rtight, the rhetorical, sócial, and dialectical
4.Stasistheoryconcerningtlpesofclaims.Thisapproachstressestheheunstic
for diiferent types of claims and of-
value of learning different putt"rr'r, of support
and full arguments'
ten leads studerits to make surprisingly rich

Throughoutthetexttheseapproachesareintegratedandsynthesizedintogenerative
tools fór both producing and analyzing arguments'

Structure of the Text

Thetexthasfivemainparlsplustwoappendixes.Partoneglvesgn.overviewof
seeking' These first
argumentation with an iniiiat foóus on *gú""tas rnquxy and huth
stro.wng how argument helps writers
two chapters ;r";;;; ;", philosophy of águment,
tn" values and beliefs of a questioning
clarify their á*-'' m"f.-g and connect .i¿Ut
audience.tsyemphasizingargumentasacommunity'ssearchforthebestsolutiontoa
problem,weinütestudentstoenteralguments*q*open-mindratherthanWiththeir
students to read alguments fi1t by sum-
minds alreadv mua" .,p. chapter Two"teaches
marizing *Jr"t*o
jiiu"rfgi *d then by systematicalty engaging with the writer's
ideas through believing and doubting
by applying.key principles'
Pafi Two teaches students hori, to write argqments
añ effective argument is a claim with
chapters 3 through 5 show that the core of
reasons. These reasons are often stated
as enthymemes, the unstated premise
the surfáce and supported. In effective
of which must sometimes be brought to
arguments, the reasons are audience-based so that the argument proceeds from un-
derlying beliefs, values, or assumptions held by the intended audience. Discussion of
Touimin logic shows students how to discover both the stated and unstated premises
of their arguments and how to provide audience-based structures of reasons and ev-
idence to iupport them. Chapter 6 focuses on ethos, pathos, and kairos as means of
persuasion, white Chapter 7 focuses on strategies for summarizing and responding
io opposing views in order to accommodate different kinds of audiences from sym-
pathetic to neutral to hostile.
Part Three focuses on analyzing arguments. Chapter 8 teaches students to do a
rhetoncal analysis of a written argument. Chapter 9 focuses on the theory and practice
of visual arguments-both images and quantitative data-giüng students the tools for
analyzing visual arguments and for creating their own.
Part Four discusses five different lypes of argument: definitional arguments, causal
arguments, resemblance arguments, evaluation arguments including ethics, and pro-
poial arguments. These chapters introduce students to recurring strategies of argu-
ment that cut across the different category types:

w Criteria-match arguing, in which the writer establishes criteria for making a judg-
ment and argues whether a specific case does or does not meet those criteria
w Causal arguing, in which the r,r,riter shows that one event or phenomenon can be
Iinked to others in a causal chain
m Resemblance arguing, in which the u,ryiter uses analogy or precedent to shape the
writer's üew of a phenomenon
m Proposal arguing, in which the writer identifies a problem, presents a proposed
solution, and justifies that solution, often using a hybrid of criteria-match, causal,
or resemblance strategies.

Part Five shows students how to incorporate research into their arguments, includ-
ing the skills of formulating a research question; understanding differences in the kinds
of sources; conducting effective searches of online catalogs, eleckonic databases, and
the Web; reading sources rhetorically to understand context and bias; evaluating
sources according to one's pulpose, audience, and genre; understanding the rhetoric of
Web sites; incorporating sources into the writer's own algument using summary, para-
phrase, and judicious quotation; and documenting sources according to MLA or APA
ionventions. Unlike standard treatments of the research paper, our discussion explains
to students how the writer's meaning and purpose control the selection and shaping of
source materials.
The appendixes provide important supplementa.l information useful for courses in
argument. Appendix 1 gives an overview of informal fallacies, while Appendi-x 2
shóws students how to get the most out of collaborative groups ir-i an argument class.
Appendix 2 also provides a sequence of collaborahve tasks that will help students
learn to peer-critique their classmates' arguments in progress. The numerous For Class
Discussion exercises within the text proüde addihonal tasks fol group collaboration'
 Preface xxxiii

Writing Assignments
The text provides a variety of sequenced Writing Assignments.

m In Part One the Writing Assignment options are €ur argument summary or an
exploratory essay.
m Part Two includes as options a "supporting-reasons" argument (with earlier scaf-
folding assignments), a classical argument, a delayed-thesis or Rogerian argument,
and an advocacy ad. It also includes "microthemes" for practicing basic argumen-
tative moves (for example, supporting a reason with eüdence).
w In Part Three the Writing Assignment options are a rhetorical analysis of a written
argument and a rhetorical analysis of a visual argument.
w Each chapter in Part Four on claim types includes a writing Assignment option
based on the claim type covered in the chapter. (Chapter 15 includes a practical
proposal assignment, a researched policy proposal assignment, and an advocacy
poster.)
%mffiffi$*rcxa1:¡,

The Instructor's Manual

New
The Instructor's Manual is written by Tim N. Taylor of Eastem Illinois University.
to the eighth edition are nine detailed sample writing assignments. In addition, the
Instructor's Manual has the following features:

m Discussion of plaming decisions a.n insh-uctor must make in designing an argument

course: for e*ámple, how to use readings; how much to emphasize Tolilmin or
claim-
type theory; how much time to build into the course for invention, peer review of
át*r, **otLrer writing inshrrction; and how to select and sequence assignments'
* Three detailed syllabi-showing how Writing Arguments can suppott a variety of
course sh"uctures and emPhases:
syllabus #.f .. This cout"se emphasizes argumentative skills. and strategies, uses
rJadings for rhetorical analyiis, and asks students to write on issues drau¡n
from their own interests and experiences'
Sgllabus #2:Thismore rigorous course works intensely with the logical struc-
tu-re of argument, the clasiical appeals, the Toulmin schema, ald claim-type
theory. It uses readings for rhetorical analysis and for an introduction to the
argumentative controversies that students will address in their papers'
sgltabus #3.. This course asks students to experiment with genres of argument
(fór exampie, op-ed pieces, üsual arguments, white paperc, and researched
freelance ár scholarlyarguments) and focuses on students' choice of issues and
claim types.
s F'or insh-uctors who include Toulmin, an independent, highly teachable introduc-
tory lesson on the Toulmin schema, and an additional exercise giving students
practice using Toulmin to generate argument frames'
*.r For new inshuctors, a helpful discussion of how to sequence writing assignments
and how to use a variety óf collaborative tasks in the classroom to promote active
learning and critical thinking.
x Chaptei-by-chapter responses to the For Class Discussion exercises.
w NuÁerous teaching tips and suggestions placed strategically throughout the chapter
material, rncludrng séveral ru-pt" qtizzes asking students to explain and apply
argumentative concePts.
w poi insÍuctors who ieach üsual arguments, suggestions for encouraging students
to explore how visual arguments have molded and continue to mold public think-
ing about issues and controversies.
r*: Fo"r instructors who like to use student essays in class exercises and discussions, a
number of new student essays showing how students responded to assignments in
the text. Several of these student pieces exemplify stages of revision'

xxxv
xxxvi Supplements

Helpful suggestions for using the exercises on critiquing readings in Part Four,
'Arguments in Depth: Five Types of Claims." By focusing on rhetorical context
as rvell as on the strengths and weaknesses of these arguments, our sugges-
tions will help students connect their reading of arguments to their writing of
arguments.
At the end of each claim-type chapter in Part Four, a list of anthology readings
that employ the same claim type, either as a major claim or as a substantial por-
lion of the argument.

MyCompLab
The new MyComplab integrates the market-leading instruction, mul-
üüffi}p timedia tutorials, and exercises for writing, grammar, and research
that users have come to identify with the program with a new online
composing space and new assessment tools. The result is a revolutionary application
that offers a seamless and flexible teaching and learning environment built specifi-
cally for writers. Created after years of extensive research and in partnership with
composition faculty and students across the country, the new MyComplab provides
help for writers in the context of their writing, with instructor and peer commenting
functionality; proven tutorials and exercises for writing, grammar, and research; an
e-portfolio; an assignment builder; a bibliography tool; tutoring services; and a
gradebook and course management organization created specifically for writing
classes. Visit www.mycomplab.com for more information.
É*l:;- i $$-s *'-, ; r:,;$.J:,i e -i;1i '' *'l
+1"."..q

teachers, and
we are happy for this opportunity to give public thanks to the scholars,
to composition and argument'
students who have inn rÉn.e¿ oút up-p.ou.n lor lnis
of Houston for her
edition, we owe special thanks to Tarnara Fish of the university
*run r.rr and rerrialiring work on the anthology. She brought her expertise
as a
a long-time user and reviewer of Writing
composition instructor, h"er knowledge as
graduate student instructors to
Arguments, and her experience as a veteran mentor of
hei research, selection of readings' and presentation of the issues'

We want to thank our taleited students who contributed their ideas' research'
Banks for his researching and writing
and time to this edition, especially, Michael
Mike Bowersox for dialoguing with us on
about illegal immigration in cnapter 2;
to chapter 8; carmen,Tieu for her essay
rhetorical"analysis and contributing ideas
for her MLA research paper
on women and violent video gamei; Julee Christianson
women and mathematics; and Juan
on the nature/nudur" "ontiou.rsy about we
Yazqtez for his researched white paper on nuclear power. Additionally' are

grateful to all our students whom *" harre been privileged to teach in our writing
classes and to our other students who have enabled
us to include their arguments in
this text. Their insighis and growth as writers have inspired our ongoing study of
rhetoric and comPosition.
Wethanktoothemanyusersofourtextswhohavegivenusencoulagement
improvements' Particularly we
about our successes and offered helpful suggestions for
thank the following scholars and ieachers who reviewed this
reüsion of writing
Álgu rnt, in its vaáous stages: JoAnn Dadisman, West Virginia University; Christine
san Jose state university;
caver, The university of Te"xas at san Antonio; Josh Gehl,
J*"ph The University of Memphis; William B' Matta' Mclennan Community
'C"[ig.,Jones,
Ann Spurlock, Mississippi 5¿¿¿s ¡ni,rersity; Elizabeth M-etzger, University
of
pat Tyrár, West'Texas A & M University; Sandy Jordan, University of
South Florida;
Houston; Mary Anne Reiss, Elizabethtown community & Technical college; Jeffrey
Abdo, The university of
schneider, st. Louis community college Meramec; Diana
County College; Shavawn M' Berry'
Texas at San Antonio; Gary S. Montanó, Tárrant
community and Technical college'
Arizona state universrqr; c"arl Rturyon, owensboro
KentuckyCommunity"andTechnicalCollegeSystem;{o'dTsanderson,Auburn
úniu"rriiy; Linda Gíadden, University of South Florida; Laura Gray-Rosendale'
and Brenda S'
Northern AnzonaUniversity; Amy Toáasi, Roger Williams lJniversity;
Martin, Kansas State UniversltY.

xxxvll
Xxxviii Acknowledgrrents

\\¡e are especially graieful to our editor, Lauren Finn, whose keen understanding
of the needs of argument instructors and whose commitment to producrng the most
useÍlil texts has gurded us with her support and professional expertise. Finally, we owe
our deepest thanks to Marion Castellucci, our development editor, without whom we
could not maintain the pace and quality of our textbook reüsions. Marion's invaluable
mastery of both the big picture and specific dimensions of this work and her calmness,
encouragement, and wit have shepherded this project at every point.
As always, we want to conclude by thanking our families. John Bean thanks his
wife, Kit, also a professional composition teacher, and his children, Matthew, Andrew,
Stephen, and Sarah, who have grown to adulthood since he first began writing text-
books. June Johnson thanks her husband, Kenneth Bube, a mathematics professor and
researcher, and her daughter, Jane Ellen Bube, now completing her high school expe-
rience. Ken and Janie have played major roles in the ongoing family analysis of argu-
mentation in the public sphere and of specific arguments on wide-ranging issues. They
have also made it possible for her to meet the demands and challenges of continuing
to infuse new ideas and material into this text in each reüsion.

John D. Ramage
John C. Bean
June Johnson
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f..lArrgü'ln€ ,,lffigd{¡¡t]on,, ¡,,,,'i,,,¡.¡..

..

2, r Ar$ú men¡, a9 ;¡.l:lqu L1{,:,:,Reádihg.an d'.EX ploiingi:

i

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These stills from the film Under the Same Mootl l2O07J depict the painfuf separation and long:ng for
connection of an immigrant mother in the United States ancl her young son, Carlitos, left behind in
Mexico. The telephone booth and the flrrtive, precious calls symbolize the plight of families divided by
econom¡cs and immigraiion policy. The film's appeals to olrr emotions are discussed in Michael Banks'
exploratory essay in Chapter 2, pages 52-57.
 &wgwrewm&x &wre ffimKwm#wmffiffiffiffi

At the outset of a book on argument, we ought to explain what an argument

is. Instead, we're going to explain why no universally accepted definition is
possible. Over the centuries, philosophers and rhetoricians have disagreed
about the meaning of the term and about the goals that arguers should set for
themselves. This opening chapter introduces you to some of these controver-
sies. Our goal is to show you various ways of thinking about argument as a
way of helping you become a more powerful arguer yourself.
We begin by asking what we mean by argument, suggesting what argu-
ment isn't as well as what it is. We then proceed to three defining features
of argument: it requires writers or speakers to justifz their claims, it is both
a product and a process, and it combines elements of truth seeking and
persuasion. Next, we explore more deeply the relationship between tr-uth seek-
ing and persuasion by asking questions about the nature of "h-Lrth" that argu-
ments seek. Finally, we give you an example of a successful arguing process.

& &m* Xlqs We &,$emsx Xxpr Argxxm?ex?f?

Let's begin by examinurg the uradequacies of two popular images of argument-
fight and debate.

Argunaem{ }s N*t a Fíght *r a Qr"rar"reá

To many, the word argument connotes anger and hostility, as when we say,
"I just got in a huge argument with my roommate," or "My mother and I
argue all the time." \\4rat we picture here is heated disagreement, rising
pulse rates, and an urge to slam doors. Argument imagined as fight
conjures images of shouting talk-show guests, flaming e-mailers, or fist-
banging speakers.
But to our way of thinking, argument doesn't implv anger. In fact, arguing
is often pleasurable. It is a creative and productir,e actit'i$ that engages us at
high levels of inquiry and cntical thinking. often in conversation wth people
we like and respect. For your primary image of zu'gument, we invite you to
think not of a shouting match on cable ne-nr,s but of a small group of reason-
able people seeking the best solution to a problem \\'e n'ill retum to this im-
age throughout the chapter.
 CHAPTER 1 Argument: An Introduction

Argument Is Not Pro-Con Debate

Another popular image of argument is debate-a presidential debate, perhaps, or a
high school or college debate toumament. According to one popular dictronary, debate
is "a formal contest of argumentation in which two opposing teams defend and attack
a given proposition." Although forrnal debate can develop critical thinking, its weak-
ness is that it can turn argument into a game of winners and losers rather than a
process of cooperative inquiry.
For an illustration of this weakness, consider one of our forrner students, a
champion high school debater who spent his senior year debating the issue of prison
reform. Throughout the year he argued for afid against propositions such as "The
United States should build more prisons" and "Innovative altematives to prison should
replace prison sentences for most crimes." We asked him, "\44:rat do you personally
think is the best way to reform prisons?" He replied, "I don't know I haven't thought
about what I would actually choose."
Here was a bright, articulate student who had studied prisons extensively for a
year. Yet nothing in the atmosphere of pro-con debate had engaged him in truth-
seeking inquiry. He could argue for and against a proposition, but he hadn't experi-
enced the wrenching process of clarifying his own values and taking a personal stand.
As we explain throughout this text, argument entails a desire for truth; it aims to find
the best solutions to complex problems. We don't mean that arguers don't passion-
ately support their ov,ryr points of view or expose weaknesses in views they find faulty.
Instead, we mean that their goal isn't to win a game but to find and promote the best
belief or course of action.

Arguments Can Be Explicit or Implicit

Before proceeding to some defining features of argument, we should note also that
argumenh can be either explicit or implicit. An explicit argument directly states its
controversial claim and supports it with reasons and evidence. An implicit argument, in
contrast, may not look like an argument at all. It may be a bumper sticker, a billboard,
a poster, a photograph, a cartoon, a vanity license plate, a slogan on a T-shirt, an
adverbisement, a poem, or a song lyric. But like an explicit argument, it persuades its
audience toward a cefiain point of üew.
Consider the striking photograph in Figure 1.1-a baby wearing a bib labeled
"POISON." This photograph enters a conversation about the safety of toys and other
baby products sold in the United States. In recent years, fears about toy safety have
come mostly from two sources: the discovery that many toys imported from China
used lead paint and the discovery that a substance used to make plastics pliable and
soft-called phthalates (pronounced "thalates")-may be harmful. Phthalates have
been shown to interfere with hormone production in rat fetuses and, based on other
rodent studies, may produce some kmds of cancers and other ailments. Because
many baby products contain phthalates-bibs. edges of cribs, rubber duckies, and
FIGURE 1.1 An implicit argument against phthalates

any number of other soft rubbery toys-parents worry that babies can ingest phtha-
lates by chewing on these toys.
The photograph of the baby and bib makes the argumentative claim that baby
products are poisonous; the photograph implicitly urges viewers to take action
against phthalates. But this photograph is just one voice in a surprisingly complex
conversation. Is the bib in fact poisonous? Such questions were debated during a
recent campaign to ban the sale of toys containing phthalates in California. A leg-
islative initiative (2007 California Assembly Bill 1108) sparked intense lobbying
from both child-advocacy groups and representatives of the toy industry. At issue
were a number of scientific questions about the risk posed by phthalates. To what
$-
extent do studies on rats apply to humans? How much exposure to phthalates s-
should be considered dangerous? (Experiments on rats used large amounts of ph-
thalates-amounts that, according to many scientists, far exceed anything a baby f,i.
could absorb by chewing on a toy.) Also at issue is the level of health risks
a free market society should be willing to tolerate. The European Union, operating \
on the "precautionary principle," and citing evrdence that such toys might be EIi6 L
 CHAPTER 1 Argument: An lntroduction

dangerous, has banned toys containing phthalates. The U.S. government sets less
strict standards than does the European Union. A federal agency generally doesn't
ban a substance unless it has been prouen harmful to humans, not merely sus-
pected of being harmful. In defense of free markets, the toy and chemical indus-
iries accused opponents of phthalates of using 'Junk science" to produce scary but
inaccurate data.
Our point in summarizing the toxic toy controversy is to demonstrate the per-
suasive roles of both implicit and explicit arguments. \Aihat follows-a photograph
and a short letter-provide examples. Figure 1.2 shows a speaker at a public hear-
ing surrounded by implicit arguments that many toys are unsafe-a poster labeled
"Trouble in Toyland" and potentially unsafe toys, many of them soft, pliable plastics
using phthalates.
In contrast, Dr. Louis W. Sullivan, who was secretary of health and human services
under the Clinton administration, makes an explicit argument in a letter to the governor
of California. Sullivan opposes the bill banning phthalates, claiming that scientific
agencies charged with public safety haven't found phthalates harmÍüI. Instead, he sup-
ports an altemative "green chemistry initiative" that would make public policy decisions
based on "facts, not fear."

FIGURE 1.2 Implicit arguments (the toys and poster) against phthalates
 PART 1 Overu¡ew of Argument

Let the Facts Decide. Not Feur: Bcn AB I lüS

LCUIS yt¡. suLtMH, ñ,I.D.

Dear Governor Schwarzenegger:

As a physician and public servant who has worked in the field of medicine
and public
health all my life, I am writing to urge your veto ofAB 1108,
a bill that would ban the use
of compounds used to make vinyl toys and childcare products soft and
flexible. AB I l0g
widely misses rhe mark on the most fundamental underpinning of all good
policy-sound
publi. h;;th
science.
AB I 108 ignores a recent, comprehensive review ofthe safefy ofvinyl toys
conducted
by the u.S. consumer product Safety commission. The cpsc iook
a long, hard look at
the primary softener used in children's toys and concluded that
vinyl toys containing this
compound are safe as used. In fact, its experts warned that using zubstitutes
could make
toys more brittle and less safe.
The CPSC's conclrrsions are reinforced by the findings of many
scientific bodies
around the globe-including the European union's European
cheáicals Bureau, the
U.S. National Toxicology Program, and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention. At a time when public officials are trying to deal with
the serious issue of lead
paint in toys imported from China, California lawmakers should
not confuse the safety of
these softening compounds in vinyl toys with that issue. Signing
AB 1l0g will do nothirrg
to resolve the lead paint in toys issue.
Californialeeds public health policies based on science. That's why I resoundingly
support your Green Chemistry Initiative. This is a coordinated, comprehensive
,trut"gy io,.
addressing possible risk from products-in a holistic, science-basei
fashion-that would
serve the interests of California families and their children.
s I urge you to reject AB I 10g and allow your health and safety experts, not legis-
lators, to make judgments about the chemicals in our
nn facts, not
fear. "rlironm"ntlbur"¿
Sincerely.

Louis W Sullivan, M.D.

U.S. Secretary of Health & Human Services lggg_1gg3
President Emeritus, Morehouse School of Medicine

I I ffi FOR CT ASS DTSCUSSTON tmpticit and Expticit Arguments

1' Aoy argument, whether implicit or explicit, tries to influence the audience's
stance
on an issue, moving the audience toward the arguer's claim. Arguments
work on
us psychologically al well as cognitively, triggering emotions *"*"tt
as thoughts
and ideas. How would you describe the differenc"r itr th" way that "and
the poster
toy display in Figure 1.2 andthe letter from Sr¡ilir-an .rvork on us,,?
 CHAPTER 1 Argument: An tntroduction

2' Assume that you are explaining implicit argrments to an international

exchange
¡tu{9nt who is not yet familiar with u.s. politics and popular culture. Each of the
implicit arg'ments in Figures 1.3-1.7
-ui"r a craim ónlts audience, hying to get
üewers to adopt the arguer's position, perspective, berief, or point
of üew on an
issue. For each argument, answer the fo[owing quesüons ro.
tional friend:
y* new interna-
a. what conversation does this argument join? what is the issue or controversy?
What is at stake?
b Y,hatis the argument's claim? That is, what value, perspective, belief. or position
does the argument ask its viewers to adopt?
c. \4/hat is an opposing or altemative view? rrA4rat üews is
the argument pushing
against?
d. How does the argument try to do its work on the brains or hearts of the
audience?

FIGURE 1.3 These colors don't run

 PART 1 Overview of Argument

FIGURE 1.4 Tlese colors don't run the world

FIGURE 1.5 Assisted suicide isn'i "natural"

 Argument: An lntroduction

. '
FIGURE 1.6 Ethanol versus food

FIGURE 1.7 Airplane baggage dilemma

10 PART 1 Overuiew of Argument

The Defining Features of Argument

(Unless we say otherwise, by
we turn now to examine arguments in more detail.
argumentwe mean explicit aiguments that attempt to supply r€asons and evidence
iá'r.rpport their claiás.) Tñ section examineÁ three defining features of such
arguments.

Argument Requires Justification of Its Claims

to a humble but universal site of disagreement:
To begin defining argument, Iet's tum
way and in what
the conflict between a parent and a teenager over r"ules. In what
circumstances do such conflicts constitute arguments?
Consider the following dialogue:

See you later.

front door while putting coat on)'.
youNc Bye.
PERSON (racing for the

PARENT: \44roal \44rat time are you planning on coming home?

youNc pERSON (cooltg, hand, stitl on doorknob): I'm sure we discussed this earlier'
I'll be home urorlnd 2 ¿..1r. (The second sentence, spoken uery rapidly, is barelg
audible.)
rzol staying out
pARENT (mouth tightening): we did nol discuss this earlier and you're
till two in the morning. You'll be home at twelve'

ex-
At this point in the exchange, we have a quarrel, not an argument. Quarrelers
any attempt to suppofi.them rationally' If the
change antagonistic asserlions without
a quarrel
dialogue never gets past the "Yes-you-wil1/Ño-t-won't" stage, it either remains
or degenerates into a fight.
L"et us say, howevei, that the dialogue takes the followng
turn:

YouNG PERSoN (tragicallg): But I'm sixteen gears old!

Now we,re moving toward argument. Not, to be sure, a particularly

well-devel-
an argument because one
oped or cogent one, brit an argumént all the same. It's now
of curfew is
oi th" qrruñ"lers has offered J r"uror', for her assertion. Her choice satis-

factory, she says, because she is sixteen yearc old, an argument

that depends on the
unstaüd assuÁption that sixteen-year-olds are old enough to make decisions about
such matters.
The parent can now respond in one of several ways that will
either advance the
*gu-"r.i or turn it back into a quarrel. The parent 9an. simglV.invoke parental author-
rvhich case argument ceases'
iti(l aon't care-you're still coming home at twelve"), in ("You
Or the parent can provide u r"*oi for his or her Vieiv
will be home at twelve
becausé your dad and I pay the bills around herel"). il
u'hich case the arg'ment takes
a new tum.
 CHAPTER 1 Argument: An Iniroductlon

So far we've established two necessary conditions that must be met before we're
willing to call something an argument: (1) a set of two or more conflicting assertions
w-raé) the attempt to resolve the conflict through an appeal to reason.
But good argument demands more than meeting these two formal requirements.
For the átgo*"it to be effective, an arguer is obligated to clari$ and support the
reasons práented. For example, "But I'm sixteen years old!" is not yet a clear support
for the assertion "I should be allowed to set my own curfew." On the surface, Young
Person's argument seems absurd. Her parent, of all people, knows precisely how old
she is. \&4rát makes it an argument is that behind her claim lies an unstated assump-
tion-all sixteen-year-olds are old enough to set their own curfews. \\4rat Young
Person needs to do now is to support that assumption.* In doing so, she must
anticipate the sorts of questions the assumption will raise in the minds of her parent:
Wfraf is the legal status of sixteen-year-olds? How psychologically mature, as opposed
mature, is Young Person? What is the actual track record of
to chronologróally"being
young perso"n in responsible? and so fofth. Each of these questions will force
Youn[ Person to reexamine and clarify her assumptions about the proper degree of
autonlomy for sixteen-year-olds. And her response to those questions should in turn
force the parents to reexamine their assumptions about the dependence of sixteen-
year-olds án parental guidance and wisdom. (Likewise, the parents will need to show
wtry "payingin" biltráround here" automatically gives them the right to set Young
Person's curfew.)
As the argument continues, Young Person and Parent may shift to a different line
of reasoning. For example, Young Person might say: "I should be allowed to stay out
until 2 A.M. because ali my fnends get to stay out that late." (Here the unstated as-
sumption is that the mles in this family ought to be based on the rules in other fami-
ties.i ttre parent might in turn respond, "But I certainly never stayed out that late
when I *á, you, age"-an argument assuming that ihe rules in this family should
follow the rules of an earlier generation.
As young Person and Paránt listen to each other's points of view (and begin realiz-
ing why thei initiat arguments have not persuaded their intended audience), both
pJrti"r nna themselves in the uncomfortable position of having to examine their own
Leliefs and to justifii assumptions that they have taken for granted. Here we encounter
one of the earliest senses of the t".- to argue, which is "to clariff'" As an arguer be-
gins to clari¡r her own position on an issue, she also begins to clarify her audience's
might accommodate her
[osition. Suón ctarincation helps the argr.rer see how she
audience's views, perhaps by adjusting her own position or by developing reasons
that appeal to her audience's values. Thus Young Person might suggest an argument
like ihis:

I should be allowed to stay out until tr'vo on a trial basis because I need enough space to
demonstrate my maturity and show you I won't get into trouble'

*Later in this text we will call the assumption unclerlying a Line of reasoningits wanant (see Chapter 4).
12 PART
.1 Overview of Argumeni

The assumption underlying this argument is that it is good to give teenagers

freedom to demonstrate their maturity. Because this reason is likely to appeal to
her parent's own values (the parent wants to see his or her daughter grow in
maturity) and because it is tempered by the qualifier "on a trial basis" (which
reduces some of the threat of Young Person's initial demands), it may prompt pro-
ductive discussion.
Whether or not Young Person and Parent can work out a best solution, the pre-
ceding scenario illustrates how argument leads people to clarifu their reasons and
provide justifications that can be examined rationally. The scenario also illustrates
two specific aspects of argument that we will explore in detail in the next sections:
(1) Argument is both a process and a product. (2) Argument combines truth seeking
and persuasion.

Argument Is Both a Process and a Product

As the preceding scenario revealed, argument can be viewed as a process in which
two or more parties seek the best solution to a question or problem. Argument
can also be viewed as a product, each product being any person's contribution to
the conversation at a given moment. In an informal discussÍon, the products are
usually short, whatever time a person uses during his or her turns in the conver-
sation. Under more formal settings, an orally delivered product might be a short
impromptu speech (say, during an open-mike discussion of a campus issue) or
a longer, carefully prepared formal speech (as in a PowerPoint presentation at a
business meeting or an argument at a public hearing for or against a proposed
city project).
Similar conversaüons occur in writing. Roughly analogous to a small-group discus-
sion is an exchange of the kind that occurs regularly through informal chat groups or
professional e-mail discussion lists. In an online discussion, participants have more
thinking time to shape their messages than they do in a real-time oral discussion.
Nevertheless, messages are usually short and informal, making it possible over the
course ofseveral days to see participants'ideas shift and evolve as conversants modifu
their initial views in response to others' views.
Roughly equivalent to a formal speech would be a formal written argument,
which may take the form of an academic argrment for a college course; a grant *:;ft:
proposal; a guest column for the op-ed* section of a newspaper; a legal brief; a letter
to a member of Congress; or an article for an organizahonal newsletter, popular
magazine, or professional journal. In each of these instances, the written argrment I
: --
:rÍ i;
*Op-edstands for "opposite-editorial." It is the generic name in joumalism for a signed argument that voices
-a,
the writer's opinion on an issue, as opposed to a news story that ú supposed to repoÍ events objectively, t-
uncolored by the writer's personal views. Op-ed pieces appear in the edrtonal-opinon section of newspapers,
which generally features editorials by the resident staff, opinion pieces bl sr-ndicated columnists, and letters
to the editor from readers. The term op-ed Á often extended to smdtcated columns appearing in news-
magazines, advocacy Web sites, and online news services.
 CHAPTER 1 Argument: An Introduction 13

(a product) enters a conversation (a process)-in this case, a conversation of readers,

many of whom will carry on the conversation by writing their own responses or by
discussing the wyiter's üews with others. The goal of the community of writers and
readers ls to nn¿ the best solution to the problem or issue under discussion'

Argument Combines Truth Seeking and PersuasiCIn

In thinking about argument as a product, the writer will find herself continually mov-
ing back ir¿ forttr bltween truth seeking and persuasion-that is, between questions
ab"out the subject matter (\A4rat is the best solution to this problem?) and about
audi-
ence (\A4rat db my readers already believe or value? \\lhat reasons and evidence will
most persuade thém?). Back and forth she'll weave, alternately absorbed in the subject
of her argument and in the audience for that argument'
Neitñer of the two focuses is ever completely out of mind, but their relative
importance shifts during different phases of the development of a paper' Moreover,
difterent rhetorical situations place different emphases on tmth seeking versus
persuasion. we could thus place arguments on a kind of continuum that measures
ih" d"gr"" of attention a writer gives audience. (See
to subject matter versus
Figure t.S.) et the far truth-seeking end of the continuum might be an exploratory
piéce that lays out several alternative approaches to a problem and weighs the
strengths and weaknesses of each with no concern for persuasion. At the other end
of the continuum would be outright propaganda, such as a political campaign ad-
vertisement that reduces a compléx issue to sound bites and distorts an opponent's
position through out-of-context quotations or misleading use of data' (At its most
ttut*t, propalanda obliterates truth seeking; it will do anything, including the
knowing'usé oÍ bog.rr evidence, distorted assertions, and outright lies, to win over
an audúnce.) In tñe middle ranges of the continuum, writers shift their focuses
back and forth between truth t"ákittg and persuasion but with varying degrees of
emphasis.
As an example of a writer focusing primarily on truth seeking, consider the case
of Kathleen, wná, in her college argument course, addressed the definitional question
"Is American Sign Languag" iASl) a 'foreign language' for purposes of meeting the

Persuasion
Truth Seeking

a'.:!';j::':l ::':.
I
I I

One-sided Aggressive Outright

Exploratory Argumentas Dialogic Classical
propaganda
essay inquiry, asking argument argument argument one-sided
arguments
examining audience to seeking aimed at a aimed at a
all sides of think out common neutral or friendly
an issue issue with with
ground possibly audience (often
writer aresistant skePtical for fund-raising
audience audience or calls to action)

FIGURE 1.8 Continuum of arguments from truth seeking to persuasion

 PART 1 Overview of Argument

university's foreign language requirement?" Kathleen had taken two years of ASL at
a community college. \\4ren she transfer-red to a four-year college, the chair of the
foreign languages department at her new college would not allow her ASL profi-
ciency to count for the foreign language requirement. ASL isn't a "language," the
charr said summarily. "It's not equivalent to learning French, German, or Japanese."
Kathleen disagreed, so she immersed herself in developing her argument. \Vhile
doing research, she focused almost entirely on subject matter, searching for what
linguists, neurologists, cogmtive psychologists, and sociologsts had saicl about the lan-
guage of deaf people. Immersed in her subject matter, she was only tacitly concemed
with her audience, whom she thought of primarily as her classmates and the professor
of her argument class-people who were fliendly to her views and interested in her ex-
periences with the deaf community. She wrote a well-documented paper, citing several
scholarly articles, that made a good case to her classmates (and the professor) lhat ASL
is indeed a distinct language.
Proud ofthe big red A the professor had placed on her paper, Kathleen decided
for a subsequent assignment to write a second paper on ASL-but this time aiming
it directly at the chair of foreign languages and petitioning him to accept her ASi
proficiency for the foreign language requirement. Now her writing task falls closer to
the persuasive end of our continuum. Kathleen once again immersed herself in
research, but this time focused not on subject matter (whether ASL is a distinct
language) but on audience. she researched the history of the foreign language
requirement at her college and discovered some of the politics behind lt (an oi¿
foreign language requirement had been dropped in the 1970s and reinstituted in the
1990s, partly-a math professor told her-to boost enrollments in foreign language
courses). She also interviewed foreign language teachers to find out whai they knew
and didn't know about ASL. She discovered that many teachers thought ASL was
"easy to learn," so that accepting ASL would allow students a Mickey Mouse way
to
avoid the rigors of a "real" foreign language class. Additionally, she learned ihat
foreign language teachers valued immersing students in a foreign culture; in fact, the
foreign language requirement was part of her college's effort to create a multicul-
tural curiculum.
This new understanding of her target audience helped Kathleen reconceptualize
her argument. Her claim that ASL was a real larguage (the subject of her firsi paper)
became only one section of her second paper, much condensed and abridgeá. bhe
added sections showing the difficulty of learning ASL (to counter her audiencé's belief
that learning ASL was easy), showing how the deaf community fomed a distinct
culture with its own customs and literature (to show how ASL met the goals of multi-
culturalism), and showing that the number of transfer students with ASL credits would
be negligibly small (to allay fears that accepting ASL r'voulcl threaten enrollments in
language classes). she ended her argument with an appeal to her college's public em-
phasis (declared boldly in its mission statement) on eraclicating social injustice and
reaching out to the oppressed. She described the isolanon of deaf people in a world
where almost no hearing people learn ASL, and she argued that thé deaf community
on her campus could be integrated more fully into canpus ljfe if more students could
 CHAPTER 1 Argument: An lntroduction 15

"talk" with them. Thus the ideas included in her new argument-the reasons selected,
the evidence used, the arrangement and tone-all were determined by her primary
focus on persuasion.
Our point, then, is that all along the continuum writers attempt both to seek
truth and to persuade, but not necessarily with equal balance. Kathleen could not
have written her second paper, aimed specifically at persuading the chair of foreign
languages, if she hadn't first immersed herself in truth-seeking research that con-
vinced her that ASL is indeed a distinct language. Nor are we saying that her sec-
ond argument was better than her first. Both fulfilled their puposes and met the
needs of their intended audiences. Both involved huth seeking and persuasion, but
the first focused primarily on subject matter whereas the second focused primarily
on audience.

Argument and the Problem of Truth

The tension that we have just examined between truth seeking and persuasion raises
an ancient issue in the field of argument: Is the arguer's first obligation to truth or to
winning the argument? And just what is the nature of the h-uth to which arguers are
supposed to be obligated?
In Plato's famous dialogues fuom ancient Greek philosophy, these questions were
at the heart of Socrates' disagreement with the Sophists. The Sophists were profes-
sional rhetoricians who specialized in training orators to win arguments. Socrates, who
valued truth seeking over persuasion and believed that truth could be discovered
through philosophic inquiry, opposed the Sophists. For Socrates, Truth resided in the
ideal world of forrns, and through philosophic rigor humans could transcend the
changing, shadowlike world of everyday reality to perceive the world of universals
where Truth, Beaufy, and Goodness resided. Through his method of questioning his
interlocutors, Socrates would gradually peel away layer after layer of false views until
Tiuth was revealed. The good pelson's duty, Socrates believed, was not to win an ar-
gument but to pursue this higher Truth. Socrates distrusted rhetoricians because they
were interested only in the temporal power and wealth that came from persuading au-
diences to l.he orator's üews.
Let's apply Socrates' disagreement with the Sophists to a modern instance.
Suppose your community is diúded over the issue of raising enüronmental staridards
versus keeping open a job-producing factory that doesn't meet new guidelines for
waste discharge. The Sophists would train you to argue any side of this issue on behalf
of arry lobbying group willing to pay for your services. If, however, you followed the
spirit of Socrates, you would be inspired to listen to all sides of the dispute, peel away
false arguments, discover the Truth through reasonable inquiry, and commit yourself
to a Right Course of Action.
But what is the nature of Truth or Right Action in a dispute between jobs and
the environment? The Sophists believed that truth was determined by those in
thus they could enter an argument unconstrained by any transcendent
16 PART 1 Overuiew of Argument

talked j"tti:: the Sophists

beliefs or assumptions' \\rhen Socrates "l:"t i^"11t1"'
couldreplyco,'temptoo',,ry'nu''n"'.werefictitiousconceptsinventedbytheweak
the years, thg Sophists', relativist beliefs
to protect themselves rrorJ tn" strong. over
became so repugnant to people that
the lerm íophistry became synonymous with
universal rruth
"*?T;:r:i:ffi".x,;* years the sophists, critique of .a {anscendent
other thinkers who
sociologists, and
has been taken serioui;ü;;;;dr,l"rophers, necessarily arrive
properlyignducted,
doubt Socrates, confident ¡euer tnat arguments, are often different de-
at a single Truth. Forin"rrtr-rmr."rr, ui
fo, trrá'soini.tt, there
or cultures' From this
grees of truth un¿ ¿ff"r""ikinds of
truths for different situations
perspective,*t't"r't*"'onsiderquestionsofinterpretationorvalue'wecannever
scientific observation' not
is tn-re-nof through
demonstrate that a belief or assumption to
*a
,tot through revelation' We get our beliefs' according
through reason, 'Lhgiot" particular cultures'
these contemporary ,'rrt "rr, Éo*
tñ" shared assumptioni of our
Wearecondemned(orliberated)toliveinapluralistic,multiculturalworldwith
competing visions of truth'
Ifweacceptthispluralisticviewofth.lworld'dowethenendorsetheSophists'
do we doggedly pursue
radical relativism, fr""il;^;;; aryue any side of any issue? Or
some modern equivalent of Socrates'
truth?
ourownsympathiesarewithSocrates,butweadmittoaviewoftruththatis
moretentativ","u'tio','"*dconflictedthanhis'Forus,truthseekingdoesnotmean
does it mean a valueless
,,Right errr\Vár,, to a disputed question, but neither
finding the
good' For us' truth seeking means taking
relativism in lvhich utt *'*"" aé "quulty
"¡eit u*.íe'" or "best solution" to the quesrion lor
responsibility lor detelrnining the
taking into consideration the interests of
all
the good of the whole'""Ári""tqr when This more ten-
itt th" fut" of uncertainty'
stakeholders. rt *""* -J"g huta decisions
you cannot use argument to 'prove" your claim, but
tative view of truth means that
claim' One contempomry philosopher says
only to make a ."ur""Jf" .are"fo, your
to ideas, not absolutelv convince
that argument ."" h;;;;;;l;-,,r"c.;:re,adherence" in a
ideas. Even though you can't be certain,
an audience or tt. ,rl""rrulry h-uth of available, you must
Socratic sense, that your solution to
the problem is the best one
ethicallytakeresponsibilityfortheconsequencesofyourclaimarrdyoumustseekjus-
must, in other words, forge a p-ersonal
tice for stakeholders;.ó"J yourself. iou
of all the evidence and your articulation of
values
stance based on yo*
"*ár-r-raiion
public and defend'
that you can make
Toseektruth,then,meanstoseekthebestormostjustsolutiontoaproblem
with an ápen mind to the views of
while observing all uruí"frf" evidence,listening o*lt values and assump-
to iustify
all stakehold"rr, .fuiifyhg and attempting -y-o.ttt
that truth seeking often
tions, and taking ,",poí'iñiuty for your "t!"-!1t.i1fblio$'s pressure of alternative
the
means delaying cloiure on an isrue, ucinowledging
in this *'av, learning to argue
views, and being *iili"; to "hurrg" one,s mind. Seen
effectivelyhasthedeepestsortofsocialvalue:Ithelpsconmunitiessettleconflicts
inarationalandhumanewaybyfinding,throughtheclialecticexchangeofideas,
or to other assertions of
io
the best solutions to problems without r"ror,ir'rg 'iolence
raw power.
 CHAPTFR 1 Argument: An Introduction

II ?# FOR CTASS DISCUSSION Role-Playing Arguments

of the complexity of living in a plural-
on any g,,,",' auy, prwide
"..id"''""
istic culture.irr*, '"wspapers homogeneous culture
tfrut .o"f¿ UL readily decided in a completely
assumptions' choose one of the fol-
raise questio.rr i" u society that has fewer shared
members present
lowing cases as the subjelt for a "simulation game" in which class
the points of view of the people involved'

Gase l: Gollege Athletes Caught in Tangled Web

As the following newspaper excerpt shows, social networking web
sites such as
the reputations of
ftlySpu"" and Ficeboot cieute .onfli"t" between free speech and
péopt" and institutions in the public domain'
for content they posted
college students across the country have been cited or disciplined
Facebook, including such things as
on solcial networking Web sites such as MySpace and
(at the University of Central Florida)' com-
criticism of a studerit govemment candidáte
department (Cowley College in Kansas) or rulgar comments about
plaints about the theate"r
a teaching assistant (SYracuse)'
*Co[Jge administrators are very nervous about this huge new fomm," said Greg
Lukianoff,"presidentoftheForrndationforlndiüdua]RightsinEducation.
whose student-
The most nelvous of those might be coaches and athletic directors,
under a more intense public spotlight than the general student body and who
athletes are
and of conriuct one distaste-
usually are required to adhere to more stringent policies
m-les-
player on thó Internet could be seen by anybody and
ful picture of a prominent footbalt
á It's why t9-9. departments have
mignt ena .rp o.t th. front page of newspaper' 1tll"li"
,tr"il"te, policies about such tit.l *¿ restrict usage as parl of
indiüdual team mles'

ofstudents'free speech
Your task Imagine an open meeting on yorr campus on the_issue
departments to
,ighO rr"tr* tñ".igntr'of yo*.ó["g"-or university and its attrlelc
establish rules and monitor students'án[ne social
network pages. Hold a meeting in
who has been warned to re-
which classmates play the following roles: (a) a student athlete
beer at fratemity party;
move from his Facebook profile a pnotograph of himself chugging
(b) students who are not ón attrletic teams but are concerned about
institutionally imposed
feels he has been libeled on a
restrictions on students' freedom; (c) a facub¡ member who
forbids student
former student's Myspace page; (d) a women's basketball coach who
athletes on her teams foom fr"ü"g personal online social
networking accounts; (e) a tennis
coach who establishes clear teari policies for postings
on students' sites; (f) the athletic
athletes' online social
director, who is considering buying tracking teóhnologt to,T9rut9r
;;;"rk"g pages; (g) r"pi"r.trtrtiue of the American Civil Liberties Uruon, who supports
"*a "t u ,p"".h; and (h) the dean of students, who is concemed for the
student rig'ht" ."
who might be embar-
,"pl.rtutio""of the institltion and for the futLue well-being of students
personal infomation'
raised by current postings or endangered by disclosing too much

Gase2:HomelessHitthestreetstoProtestProposedBan
peaceful but vocal protest yes-
The homeless stood up for themseives b}' silting clo$n in a
terday in lname of citYl.
18 PART 1 Ovelview of Argument

About 50 people met at noon to criticize a proposed set of cily ordinances that would
ban panhandlers from sitiing on sidewalks, put them in jail for repeatedly urinating in pub-
lic, and crack down on "intimidating" street behavior'
"sitting is not a crime," read poster boards that feature mug shots of [the city
attorneyJ who is pushing for the new laws. [. .. ] "tnls is city property; the police want to
tell us we can't sit here," yelled one man named R. C. as he sat cross{egged outside a

pizza establishment.

your task: Imagine a public hearing seeking reactions to the proposed city ordinance.
Hold a mock h;aring in which classmates play the following roles: (a) a homeless
person; (b) an annoyed merchant; (c) a shopper who avoids places with homeless peo-
pte; (d) a cittzen advocate for the homeless; (e) the city attortey'
rr::i X I

A Successful Process of Argumentation:

The Well-Functioning Committee
We have said that neither the fist-banging speaker nor the college debate team repre-
sents our ideal image of argument. The best image for us, as we have implied, is a
well-functioning rrnJl group seeking a solution to a problem. In professional life such
small groups usually take the fom of committees.
W" .,J" the word committee in its broadest sense to indicate all sorts of important
work that grows out of group conversation and debate. The Declaration of
Independence is essentially a committee document with Thomas Jefferson as the chair.
Simiiarly, the U.S. Supreme Court is in effect a committee of nine judges who rely
heavily, as numerous books and articles have demonstrated, on small-group decision-
making processes to reach their judgments and formulate their legal briefs.
To illustrate our committee or small-group model for argument, let's briefly con-
sider the workings of a university committee on which coauthor John Ramage once
served, the Univ"ersity Stanaatdi Committee. The Arizona State Universrf (ASU)
Standards Committee plays a role in university life analogous to that of the Supreme
Court in civic life. It's the final court of appeal for ASU students seeking exceptions to
various rules that govern their academic lives (such as registering under a different cat-
alog, waiving a required course, or being allowed to retake a course for the third time)'
The issues that regularly come before the committee draw forth all the argument
types and skategies discussed throughout this text. For example, the different argu-
mlnt claim typei discussed in Part Four regularly surface during commiüee delibera-
tions, as shown in the following list:

s Definition issues: Is math anxiety a "learning disabilif" for purposes of exempting

a student from a math requirement?
w Cause/consequence issues: \&/hat were the causes of tllrs student's sudden poor
performance during spring semester? What will be the consequences of approv-
ing or denying her appeal?
s Reiemblance issues: How is this case similar to a case from the same department
that we considered last semester?
 CHAPTER 1 Argument: An lntroduction 19

w Evaluation issues: \\4lat cntena need to be met before we allow a student to

graduate under a previotts catalog?
*q Proposal issues: Should rve make it a policy to allow course X to substitute for
course Y in the General Studies requirements?

On any given day, the committee's deliberations show how dialogue can lead to clari-
f,cation of"tÑnking. Ótr occasions, committee members' initial views shift as they
study the specifics of ^-y
indiüdual cases and listen to opposing arguments ffom their
colleagues. ü4rat allows this committee to function as well as it does is the fundamental
civiliqiof its members and their collective concem that their decisions be just. Because of
the importance of these decisions to students' lives, committee members are willing to con-
cede a point to another member in the name of reaching a better decision and to view the
deliberations as an ongoing process of negotiation rather than a series of win-lose debates'
To give you firsthand experience at using argument as a process of clarification'
*" .on.lrrdé this chapter with an actual case that came before the Universtty
Standards Committee in the early 1990s when Ramage was a member of the commit-
tee. We invite you to read the following letter, pretending that you are a member of
the University Stund*dr Committee, and then proceed to the exercises that follow.

Petitiotx tc Waive the univensity

Mcthemextics fi eqrxirerztent

Standards Committee Members,

I am a 43-year-old member of the Pawnee Tribe of Oklahoma and a very nontraditional

student currently pursuing Justice Studies at the Arizona State University (ASU) College
of Public Programs. I entered college as the first step toward completion of my goal-
becoming legal counsel for my tribe, and statesman.
I come before this committee in good faith to request that ASU suspend in my special
case, its mathematics requirement for undergraduate degree completion so I may enter
the
ASU college of Law during Fall 1993. The point I wish to make to this committee is this: I
do not need algebraic skills; I will never use algebra in my intended profession; and if
forced to with ASU's algebra requirement, I will be needlessly prevented from
"o*ply
graduating in time to enter law school next fall and face an idle academic year before my
next oppoitunis in 1994.I will address each of these points in turn, but a few words con-
cerning my academic credentials are in order first'
Two years ago, I made a vow of moral commitment to seek out and confront injustice.
In Septémber of tggO, I enrolled in college. Although I had only the benefit of a ninth
grade education, I took the General Equivalenc,"- Diploma (GED) examination and placed
in the top ten percant of those, nationwide. rvho took the test. On the basis of this score
PART 1 Overview of Argument

step made me the first in

I was accepted into Scottsdale community college (scc). This
During my first year at SCC
my entire iamily, and practically in my tribe, to enter college.
on the President's list twice, was active in the Honors
I Áaintained a 4.0 GPA, I was placed
program, received the Honors Award of Merit in English Humanities, and was conferred

an Honors Scholarship (see attached) for the Academic year of 199l-1992 which I
declined, opting to enroll in ASU instead'
ASU. I chose to graduate
At the beginning of the 199 I summer semester, I transferred to
in American Indian studies, an important field ig-
from ASU because of the courses offered
but necessary to my commitment. At ASU I currently main-
nored by most other Universities
taina3.6GPA'althoughmycumulativeGPAiscloserto3.g,lamamemberoftheHonors
"appoint"d
and Justice colleges, *as to the Dean's List, and awarded ASU's prestigious
Maroon and Gold Scholarship twice. My academic standing is impeccable' I will enter the
ASU College of Law to studyindian and criminal law during the Fall of 1993-if this petition
isapproved.Uponsuccessfulcompletionofmyjurisdoctoratelwillreturntooklahomato
as tribal attorney and advisor' and
become active in the administration of Pawnee tribal affairs
vigorouslyprosecuteourrighttosovereigntybeforetheCongressofthel]nitedStates.
schedule for the completion of
s When I began my "colllge experience," I set a rigid time
schedule, founded in my belief that I have al-
my goal. By the terms of tñat self-imposed
years, I allowed myself thirty-five months in which to
ready wasted many productive
in Justice Studies, for indeed justice is my con-
achiáve my Bachelor of Science degree
in which to eaÍl my juris doctorate-summa cum
cern, and another thirty-six months
all I fell upon this task with zeal' Ihave
laude. Consistent with áy app.oa"h to endeavors,
during fall' spring
willingly assumed the burden of carrying substantial academic loads
now lies in the fact that in order to satisfy the
and summer semesters. My problem
graduate I must still take MAT-106 and MAT1l7' I sub-
University,s math requireménito
are irrelevant to my goals, and present a barrier to my
mit that these mathematics courses
fall matriculation into law school.
Upon consideration of my dilemma, the questions emerged:
Why do I need college al.
necessary for studying American Indian law? Will I
geOra 6UAf-117)? Is collegá algebra
algebra in my ctrosen field? What will the University gain or lose, from my
ír"
"oil"g"
taking cilege algebtu-ór not? I decided I should resolve
these questions.

t üega' my inquiry with the question: "Why do I need college algebra (MAT1l7)?" I
this question to him' He
consulted Mr. Jim of the Justice College and presented
and delineated the following answer: I need college
referred to the current-ASU catalog
in my chosen field' and (2) to satisfy
algebra (1) for a minimum level of math competency
to graduate. My reply to the first answer is this: I
thi u.riu"rrity math requirement in order
practical and academic; and, I have no need for al-
already porrl* ample math skills, both
During the spring 1992 semester at ASU I
g"U.u i., -y chosen field. How do I know this?
algebra (MAT-077), scoring the highest class grade
Lrccesrfuliy completed introductory
on one test (see attached transcript and test). More notewothy is the fact that I was a
fifteen years. I used geometry and algebra commonly
machine and welding contractor fór
of computer Assísted
in the design of many welded structures. I am proficient in the use
drawing all m¡r orvn blueprints for jobs' My blue-
Design (CÁD) programs, designing and
by city planning deparrments. For example, my
printi and designs ur" ul*uy, uppioved
 CHAPTER 1 Argument: An lntroduction

and installation of one linear

most recent job consisted of the manufaclure, transportation
on Maui, Hawaii' I ap-
mile of anodized aluminum handrailing at a luxury resort condo
the amount of raw materials to order, the logistics
flied extensive use of math to caiculate
materials from Mesa to Maui, the
of mass production and transportation for both men and
jobs of this
job site installation itself, aná cash flow. I have successfully completed many
competency in my
nature-all without a mathematical hitch. As to the application of math
chosen field" I can guarantee this committee that there
will not be a time in my practice of
that I need algebra' I will
Indian law that I will need algebra. If an occasion evel occurs
engineering, or a surgeon if I
hire a mathematician, just as i would an engineer if I need
need an operation.
IthencontactedDr.-oftheASUMathematicsDepartmentandpresentedhim
ftwhy do I need college algebra?" He replied: (1) for a well
with the same question,
(3) to satisf,u the university math
rounded education; (2) to deveiop creative thinking; and
answer' I have a "well rounded
requirement in order io graduate. Responding to the first
education in justice and American Tndian law In fact'
education." My need is fár a specific
ofmy tribe, just the
I do not really need the degree to practice Indian law as representative
my creative thinking' It has
knowledge. Regarding the*secon4 I do not need to develop
as a steel contractor, I commonly
been honed to a keen ádg" tol. many years. For example,
create huge, beautiful and intricate stnrctures from raw materials' Contracting is not my
only experience in creative thinking. For twenty-five years
I have also-enjoyed the status of
of racebikes' Machines I have
being one of this country's foremo-st designers and builders
have topped some of Japan and
designed and brought inio existence from my imagination
EurJpe's best engineering efforts. To illustrate this point,
in 1984 I rode a bike of my own
over Honda, Suzuki, Laverda, BMW andY¿maha. I have
design to an inteinationaivictory

"*."-ll.datcreativethinkingmyentirelife-Icalleditsurvival. few friends who are

Expanding on the questioln oiwhy I need college algebra, I contacted
a

Ál responded to my question in similar mannef. one, Mr. Billy

practicing utt-orn.yr.
'n.q., follows: "when you
*h"or" law firm is in Tempe, answered my tvvo questions as
attended law school, were there any courses you took
-,
which required algebra?" His response
..no.,, ..Have you ever needed itgeAraduring the many years of your practice?" Again, his
was
response *u, ".rol'Ail agreed there was not a single occasion when they had need for algebra
in their professional careers.
10 Just to make sure of my position, I contacted the ASU College of Law, and among oth-
ers, spoke to Ms. Sierra
reply was, they knew of none'
encounter in which I will need algebra?" The unanimous
I am not proposing that the nrrlb", of credit hours I need for graduation be lowered. In
or two in its place' I am not trying
fact, I am more than íitti.rg to substitute another course
for that is certainly not my style' I am seeking
to get out of ary.thing ha.í o. distasteful,
ont], to dispose of a.rlrn r"cessary item in my studies, one which will prevent me from en-
teringlawschoolthisfall-breakingmystride.solittleholdsupsomuch.
that he needs alge-
I agree that a young adult directf out ofhigh school may not know
not knos' rvhat his future holds-but I am not that
braic skills. Understaidably, he doés
youngadult.Iclaimtheadvantage.Iknowprecisel¡'whatmyfutureholdsandthatfuture
irolds no possibility of my needing college algebra'
12 PART 1 Overuiew of Argumenl

Physically confronting injustice is my end. On reservations where government apathy

allows rapacious pedophiles to pose as teachers; in a country where a million and a half
American Indians are held hostage as second rate human beings whose despair results in a
suicide, alcohol and drug abuse rate second to no other people; in prisons where helpless
inmates are beaten like dogs by sadistic guards who should be the inmates-this is the
realm of my chosen field-the disenfranchised. In this netherworld algebra and justice ex-
ist independently ofone another.
In summary, I am convinced that I do not need college algebra for a minimum level of
math competency in my chosen field. I do not need college algebra for a well rounded
education, nor to develop my creative thinking. I do not need algebra to take the LSAT. I
do not need algebra for any courses in law school, nor will I for any purpose in the practice
of American Indian law. It remains only that I need college algebra in order to graduate.
15 I promise this committee that ASU's integrity will not be compromised in any way by
approving this waiver. Moreover, I assure this committee that despite not having a formal
accreditation in algebra, I will prove to be nothing less than an asset to this University and
its Indian community, both to which I belong, and I will continue to set a standard for
integrity, excellence and perseverance for all who follow. Therefore, I ask this committee,
for all the reasons described above, to approve and initiate the waiver of my University
mathematics requirement.

[Signed] Gordon Adams

I! + FOR CTASS DISCUSSION Responding to Adam's Argument

1. Before class discussion, decide how you would vote on this issue. Should this
student be exempted from the math requirement? Write out the reasons for your
decision.
2. Working in small groups or as a whole class, pretend that you are the University
Standards Committee, and arrive at a group decision on whether to exempt this
student flom the math requirement.
3. After the discussion, write for five to ten minutes in a journal or notebook describ-
ing how your thinking evolved during the discussion. Did any of your classmates'
views cause you to rethink your own? Class members should share with each
other their descriptions of how the process of argument led to clarification of their
own thinking.
We designed this exercise to help you experience argument as a clariffing process.
But we had another puryose. We also designed the exercise to stimulate thinking
about a problem we introduced at the beginning of this chapter: the difference
between argument as clarification and argument as persuasion. Is a good argument
necessarily a persuasive argument? In our opinion, this student's letter to the commit-
tee is a good argument. The student writes well, ta-kes a clear stand, offers good rea-
sons for his position, and supports his reasons with effectrve er.idence. To what extent,
 CHAPTER 1 Argument: An lntroduction

case? You know how you

however, is the letter a persuasiue argument? Did it win its
and your classmates ,á'td on this issue. But what do you
think the University
Standards Committee at ASU actually declded during
its deliberations?
in Chapter 4' iriII
We will return to this case again

Ccnelusion
argument, showing you
In this chapter we have explored some of the complexities of
not of fist banging or of win-lose debate but
why we believe that argurnent is a matter
of finding, through u iro."., of rational inqurry, the best solution to a problem or
closé of this introductory chapter? Briefly, to
issue. rr^4rat is ou"r advice for you at the
see the p.rrpor" of argument as tmth seeking as well as persuasion. we suggest that
throughóut ih. pro."ri of argument you seek out a wide range of views' that you espe-
these views respectfully,
cially welcom" ui"\M, different from your own, that you treat
rationally defensible' (Hence you must look
and that you see them as intelligent and
carefully Lt th" ,.urons and evidence on which they are based')
choose, you can
Oui goal in this text is to help you learn skills of argument' If you
we hope you won't'
use these skills, like the Sophists, io *gu" any side of any issue. Yet
for trulh seeking and that you will
We hope Urut, iit e SocratÁ, you will ise argument
some occasions, charrgrng your position on an
conseque,,tly find yourselves, on at least
of has compli-
issue while *ñg a rough draft (a sure sign that the process arguing
cated your ui"*r)lW" bJheve that the skills of reason
and inquiry developed through
the writing of arguments can help you get a clearer sense of who you are' If our cul-
can help you take a stand, to say' "These
ture sets you adilft in pluralism, argumánt
posttion to take on
things I believe." tn this text we will not pretend to tell you what
any given lrsrr". Brrt as a responsible being' you will often need to take a stand' to
that choice A is better than choice B' not
d""fin"e yorrrrelf, to say, "Here are the reasons
you base your commitments and actions
just foime but for yóu also." If this text helps
tn reasonable grounds, then it will have been successful'

i*Se;
writing reading; and research resources, g0 t0
t*flTTp : Hl For additional

H www.mycomplab.com
 &rgm.mwffi.. ffi$ ffimqmñry
R**d*#Rg. m*,#,,,W *$xxg'

In the previous chapter we explained that argument is both a process and a

product, both inquiry and persuasion. In this chapter, we focus on inquiry
as the entry point into argumentative conversations. Although our social
environment is rich with these conversations-think of the oral, visual,
print, and hypertext arguments that surround us-argument in the early
twenty-first century is often degraded into tark-show shouting matches or
antagonistic sound bites and "talking points." This reductive trend has
elicited the concern of many cultural critics, journalists, rhetoricians, schol-
ars, and citizens. Journalist Matt Miller recentry posed the questions, ,,Is it F
possible in America today to convince anyone of anything he doesn,t al-
ready believe?...lAlre there enough places where this mingling of minds
occurs to sustain a democracy?"* How can arg'ument's role as a commu-
nit¡z's search for the best answers to disputed questions be emphasized?
How can arguers participate in a 'mingling of minds" and use argument
productively to seek answers to problems?
we believe that the best way to reinvigorate argument is to approach the
reading and writing of arguments as an exploratory process. ro do so means
to position ourselves as inquirers as wel as persuaders, engaging thoughtfully
with alternative points of view, truly listening to other p"rrp"áuu""r,
our own values a-nd assumptions, and perhaps even changing our "*u-i"l"g.
views.
Rhetorician wayne Booth proposes that when we enter an argumentative
conversation we should first ask, "w4ren should I change my mi"nd?,' rather
than, "How can I change your mind?',f
In this chapter, we present some practical strategies for reading and
explor-
ing arquments in an open-minded and sophisticated-way. you wiil jearn to play
what rhetorician Peter Elbow calls the believing ana doubting game, in which
tlnrq systematically stretches her thinking by ,'iling n".sétito believe posi-a
tions that she finds threatening and to doubi positions that she instincdvely

*Matt Miller, "Is

Persuasion Dead?', New york Times,l Jrme2005. A29.
twayne Booth raised these questions in
a featurecl session $ith peter Elbow titled *Blind
skepticism vs. the Rhetoric of Assent: Implications for Rhetonc. -\rgu'ent,
and reaching,, pre-
sented at the CCCC annual convention, Chicago, illi.rois. ]larch 2002.
24
 CHAPTER 2 Argument as Inquiry 25

accepts.* The thinker's goal is to live rvith questions, to acknowledge uncertainty and
complexity, and to resist settling for srmple or quick answers. In this chapter, we propose
the following main exploratory shategies:

t* Placing a text in its rhetorical context

s Reading to believe an argument's claims
:q Reading to doubt an argument's claims
* Thinking dialectically
Although we present ihese strategies separately here, as you become familiar with them
you will use them automatically and often implement several at once. In this chapter,
we show how one student, Michael Banks, jumped into the puzzltng, complex problem
of illegal immigration and used these strategies to guide his thoughtful exploration of
various üewpoints and texts.

Finding Issues to Explore

The mechanisms by which you enter a controversy will vary, but most likely they will
include reflecting on your experiences or reading. Typically, the process goes like this:
Through reading or talking with friends, you encounter a contested issue on which
you ۟e undecided or a viewpoint with which you disagree. Your curiosity, confusion,
or concern then prompts you to learn more about the issue and to determine your
own stance. In this section we examine some strategies you can use to find issues
worth exploring.

Do Some Initial Brainstorming

As a first step, make an inventory of issues that interest you. Many of the ideas
you develop may become subject matter for argnments that you will write later in
this course. The chart on page 26 will help you generate a productive list.
Once you've made a list, add to it as new ideas strike you and return to it each
time you are given a new argumentative assignment.

Be 0pen to the Issues All around You

We are surounded by argumentative issues. You'll start noticing them everywhere
once you get athrned to them. You will be inüted into argumentative conversations by
posters, bumper stickers, blog sites, newspaper editorial pages, magazine articles, the
sports section, moúe reüews, song lyncs. and so forth. \44ren you read or listen, watch
for "hot spots"-passages or moments that evoke strong agreement, disagreement, or
confusion. As an illustration of how arguments are all around us, try the following ex-
ercise on the issue of illegal immigrahon.

*Peter Elbow, Writing without Teachers (New York: Orford Lmlersrtr. Press, 1973), 147-90.
26 PART 1 Overuiew of Argument
Brainstorming Issues to ExPlore
\4¡hat You Can Do
Make an inventory of the communities to which you
belong. Consider classroom communities: clubs and
organiladons; residence hall, aparlrnent, neighborhood'
or-family communities; church/synagogue or work
communities; communities related to your hobbies or
avocations; your city, state, region, nation, and world
communities.
Identify controversies within those communities'
Think both big and small:
# disagree about
Big issue in world community: \A4rat is the
best way to prevent destruction of rain
forests?
R Small issue in residence hail community:
Should quiet hours be enforced?
Narrow your list to a handful of problematic issues
for whicl you don't have a position; share it with
classmates. Identily a few issues üat you would like to
explore more deeply. \Vtren you share with classmates'
add their issues to Yours.
Brainstorm a network of related issues' Any given
issue is always embedded in a network of other issues'
To see how open-ended and fluid an argumentative
conversation can be, try connecting one of your issues
to a network of other issues including subissues and
side issues.
!
How It Works
Because a.rguments arise out of disagreements within
communities, you can often think of issues for argument
by beginning with a list of the communities to which
you belong.
To stimulate thinking, use prompts such as these:
s People in this communi[i frequently
.
# Within my work communitY, Person X
believes - however, this view troubles
me because
-',
s In a recent residence hall meeting, I didn't
know where I stood on
m fne situation at could be improved if
-
Sharing your list with classmates stimulates more thinking
and encourages conversations. The more you explore your
views with others, the more ideas you will develop Good
writing grows out of good talking.
Brainstorm questions that compel you to look at an issue
in a varie[u of ways' For example, if you explored the
controversy over whether toys with phthalates should be
banned (see Chapter 1), you might generate questions
such as these about related issues:
ff How dangerous are Phthalates?
is Is the testing that has been done on rats
adequate or accurate for detemining the
effects on humans?
# Is the European "precautionary principle"
a good principle for the United States to
fo11ow?
. To what extent are controversies over phtha-
lates similar to controversies over steroids,
geneticaliv modified foods, nitrites in cured
meat. or nlercun in dental fillings?
 CHAPTER 2 Argument as lnqulry 27

I ffi r FOR CTASS DTSCUSSION Responding to Visual Arguments about lmmigration

Suppose, in your casual reading, you encounter some photos and political cartoons
o11th" U.S. pioblems with illegai rmmigration (see Figures 2.I-2.4). Working individu-
ally or in smatt groups, generate exploratory responses to these questions:
1. What claim is each cartoon or photo making?
2. \\4rat background inforrnation about the problems of illegal immigration do these
cartoons and Photos assume?
3. What network of issues do these visual texts suggest?
4. \\4rat puzzlíngquestions do these visual texts raise for you?

g
-tr
I

FIGURE 2.1 Protest Photo

FIGURE 2.2 Protest photo

PART 1 Overview of Argument

E^Y -

r Fruit vft fo?ieK,

No DifcHEs r,F-r To ri6r
¡to Disl{ls rEfl ? wA6rt,,
s,lDütul ¡¡oy'¡ ArLlhEM
-fl{E
GRi$60É ARÉ Doi¡[6
ilARD, DiRfY lohg
-llig¡,ts€WE8,/,,,
*-

-ñfa
.ffi
9-2
-rfF =cr5
X
ry
(b.- h
FIGURE 2.3 Political cartoon 0n immigmtion and labor

ANTI. TIV1MIGRATION NATION :

HOIEI.S FUND ROBOTS TÓ
RFPLACE MIGRANT HOUSFKESPERS

FIGURE 2.4 Political canoon 0n immigrant labor -sf,l I tr

 CHAPTER 2 Argument as lnquiry 29

Explore ldeas bY Freewriting

rrA4ren you free-wnte' you put fin-
wnlnS process'
Freewriting isusefirl at any süage of the. to ten minutes
gers to keyboard fo, p""'to fiper)
and wnte rápidly nonstop,usually five
correctness' Your goal is to
at a stretch, without worrying about
structure"gt*"**' :i
without to edit your work. If you can't think
generate as many iaeus aJpo"ssible ?iopñing ou"t until new ideas emerge' Here
"l'm stuck" over ád
of any,thing to say, wnte ;"'1".'t or
ishowMichaelBalrksdidafreewriteinresponsetothecartooninFigure2.3.

Michael's Freewrite
Atfustwhenllookedatthiscartoonldidn,tquitesgew.rr.atltmeant.I.lnderstoodthewall
the wall' oK Now
connect tile $20 minimum wage to
keeping immigrants ililñ;t
raised the minimumwage to $2olhour'
I see. The *g"*""iir'rhu, lflarr. u.,it.d States
thenAmericanswou]dbewilüngtodothejobthatMexicansnowdomuchcheaper'But
thatseemstoreallysidesteptheentireissuesuroundingimmrgrarrtJabor-sure,there,dbe
and getting
lot more n-"¡.*, harder if they *"t! ."-ittg $20 an hour
*:Ulig-to *o.t
a who'd rather pay that
* if t¡.'*
benefits, but it isn't are a bulch of contactors out ttrere
the table, for much cheaper.-The
problem isn't f,nd-
than hire * i**gr}i**r..r, ""¿"r moti-
to work for subshnáard wages who's still
ing someone to work, it's finding someon_eg*-*- relax' I',m really puzzled
Relax relax relax
vated to work hard and for long hours. lot
growing yP i" S:"t|"* California that a
by the immigratlon question' I Jan remember took
I i'* i" á hlgh school group that
or rhe low puy *orrlili';;;; ;;MF;*r
serwice

,".ú;;;;i;g for work in front of i Ho-e Depot. They would take

free lunches t"
like really nice people' \Vhy won't our
any kind of job at re;il;il* puy' La.tf'"y,seemed jobs? Relax
ur the United States iake these low pay
homeless p.opr" o, ,riJrrriro¡iJ p"opr. be best to force im-
with rhe cartoon that it would
relax. I don,t rerny ü;;;;;tr,.i r "g.". wage for legal
U* I'm Tarrly certain that raising the minimum
migrants out of üe price of
"""""y, about i'b"tu"" thJ would drive up the
workers to $20.00 isn't the way to go
goodssomuchnobodycout¿affor¿'tobuyanythingand.theeconomywouldcometoa
"for
Immigrants *.;ld;; work, hard, m.tchle.t than the proposal in the cartoon'
halt. ben-
thanthey could make in Mexico and Americans
They benefit by
".ki;;;;." -o.r"y
efit by lower pr"";:ñ;;;;;É" oi tne íal raises concerns of mine-I',m aware of
that are all about walling off the entire southern
organizations lif<e ttle eo.á", n".t." iro¡ect
border or tn" y, bJ i r""*, like a really ineffective way to enforce the border'
"orrlt
whose "crazy fantasy" this cartoon really depicts'
I wonder

Explore ldeas bY Idea MaPPing

Anothergoodtechniqueforexploringideasisideamapping'\Arhelyoumakeanidea (a broad topic'
page and write to-" ttigg"t idea
map, draw a circle in ihe centei of thé Then record your
L.the center of the circle.
a question, o, *"rnü',lr"ri, ,iu,.-."r) As long as you
circle.
ideas on branches *; ;;;ches extending from the center.
But when that
pursue one train th";ñ; k""p recording v"our ideas on the branch. and forth
"f ;;r:;il
a ne* bran.ñ.brun your thoughts jump back
line of thinking glves you can see
of "picturing" your thoughts;
between branches. That's a major advantage ideas.
of unrelated
rrl them as part of * desig.n rather than as
"-á.grrrg
strings
PART 1 Overview of Argument

Have no rights
Hard workers I Depresses wages
\ CheaD Exploits workers Medical care? Schools?
Benef¡ts \ | ' Do imPortant work I I L---/
economy
\ I / jobs ruot eltn¡cal
ical Takes
Takes
T, jobs away from legal citizens l"''
\\
\\ Il/-,.
/-,,"".dirty"
Arguments for hiring illegals
i¡¡¿¿1

Argumentsljainst hiring - / Bringng lunches to immigrants

Bringing,tunches im
//
/ /.7 They were
werc afraid of autl
authorities
My memories--=- Told bad stories about bosses
\\ ' Friendly
Practiced my Spanish
Possible solutions
euitdtence / / Do somethingtemporary?
I \ \=.\\Donothing
rair emoroverí | \
I Deport them
Give them c¡tizenshiP

FIGURE 2.5 Michael's idea map

Idea maps usually generate more ideas, though less well-developed ones, than
freewrites. Figure 2.5 shows an idea map that student Michael Banks created on the
issue of illegal immigration after class discussion of the photographs and caltoons in
Fignres 2.1-2.4.

Explore ldeas by Playing the Believing and Doubting Game

The believing and doubting game, a term coined by rhetorician Peter Elbow, is an ex-
cellent way to imagine üews different from your own and to anticipate responses to
those üews.
,*r As a believer, your role is to be wholly sympathetic to an idea. You must listen
carefully to the idea and suspend all disbelief. You must identiff all the ways in
which tire idea may appeal to differeni audiences and all the reasons for believing
the idea. The believing g€tme can be difficult, even frightening, if you are asked to
believe an idea that strikes you as false or threatening'
ffi As a doubter, your role is to be judgmental and critical, finding fault with
an idea. The doubting game is the opposite of the believing game. You do your
best to find counterexamples and inconsistencies that undernine the idea you are
examining Again, it is can be threatening to doubt ideas that you instinctively
want to believe.
\4/hen you play the believing and doubting game with an assertion, simply r'r'rite
two different t, one chunk arguing for the assettion (the believing game) and
"tt,tnt it (the doubting game). Freewrite both chunks, Ietting your ideas
one chunk opposing
flow without-."tttotittg. Or, altematively, make an idea map wrth belieüng and doubt-
ing branches. Here is how student writer Michael Banks played the believing and
aJrbting game with an assertion about stopping illegal rmmigration. "Employers of il-
legal immigrants should be jailed."
 CHAPTER 2 Argument as lnquiry

Michael's Believing and Doubting Game

jail employgrs who¡ire
Believe: If we really want to stop illegal immigration, then we should
draws iltegal immigrants to this counfly is the money they can make' so if the
illegals. \Á4rat
illegal immigration wortld
govemmenr eliminatedlhese joús by jaiiinglhe employers then
iilegal rmmigrants benefit by not having to pay
stop. This would be just b."u.,i. of
"-ployers urder the table so that they don't pay
a fair wage *¿ *nufr more they ot..t ao this hiring
tares. They *" u..urd"g laws ar.d deserve to go to
ja,l By avoiding ta'res and not providing
and it is not fair to law abid-
medical insurance etc., tñey cost every American taxpayer more,
have nobody to be
irg citlrerr. Emftoy"* atá often expioit immigrant laborers, because they
Their acüons can cause
held accountabü tá. rn.y also lower the wages of American workers.
troubled by an infiux of immigration. Like anybody else who
rifu in communities already
..rrploy.r, of illégal rmmrgrltion- should be jailed. If employers faced
suppofis U.g"f
"ltl"ity,
charges fo. liring ilegal i;rxgants, it seéms [kely that there would be much less of a market
more effective way to combat
for the seruice, óf u|--ig.*t workers. I could see this being a
than building fences or kying to deporl them all'
illegal immigration
people from
Doubt:'¡ailing employers oT negat immigration probably would stop some
solution'
hiring undolme"nted'immigrants, but I doubt it would be a reliable long-terrn
few immigrants at a time, it would likely be hard to
Espelialy for people wtro o"nly hire a
I'm not conünced there is anything necessarily wrong with the
prásecutá theá. Iiesides,
actions in hiring undocumented immigrants. If the government cannot enforce
employer's
its own immigration laws,lmployers shouldn't be forced to do so for them'
Many busi-
r"rr"r, in agnculture, ábsolutety depend on good workers who will work long
"rp..iily
hours in hot fielás to p"ick fruit and vegetatles. Employers can't possibly be expected to do
weren't avail-
background checks on every employ.". Mo..o,r"r, if undocumented workers
jail to hor-
able, the fr.uit wouldn't get picked. io send the employers to would mean cause

rible disruption to much o1 our food supply. We are lucky, to have these workers The
long history ofpeople capitalizing on good business opportunities when
United States has a
the opporlunity presenis itsett, an¿tnát's just what illegal immigrants are.
It does not make
sense io jail p.opt. for taking advantage of cheap and motivated labor.

Although Michael sees the injustice of paying workers substandard wages,

he sees
that much of our economy depends on this Cheap labor. Playing the believing and doubl
his dilemma and see the issue in more complex terrns'
ing game has helped him articulate

¡ E ;+ FOR CIASS DISCUSSION Playirag Éhe Eelieving and Doubting

Game

Individual task: Choose one or more of the following controversial claims and play
the believing and doubting game with it, through either freewriting or idea mapping.
Group task] Working in p-airs, in small groups, or as a whole class, share your results
with classmates.
1. A student should report a fellow student who is cheating on an exam or plagiariz-
ing an essay.
2. Women shouldassigned to combat dufi equaLly wth men'
be
3. Athletes should be allowed to take steroLds and human growth hormone under a
doctor's superwision.
4. Illegal immigrants already living in the United States should be granted amnesty
citizensllp. +ñg
and placed ón a fast track to U.S.
 PART 1 Overview of Argument

Placing Texts in a Rheto¡"ical Confext

In the preüous section, we suggested strateges for findrng issues and entering argumenta-
tive conversations. Once you join a conversation, you will typically read a number of dif-
ferent arguments addressing your selected issue. The texts you read may be supplied for
you in a textbook, anthology, or course pack, or you may find them yourself through li-
brary or Intemet research. In this section and the ones that follow, we tum to productive
strategies for reading arguments. We begin by explaining the rmportance of analyzing a
text's rhetorical context as a preliminary step prior to reading. In subsequent sections, we
explain powerfi.r1 strategies for reading ari argument-reading to believe, reading to doubt,
and placing texts in conversation with each other through dialechc thinking.
As you read arguments on a controversy, hy to place each text within its rhetorical
context. It is important to know for example, whether a blog that you are reading ap-
pears on Daily Kos (a liberal blog site) or on Little Green Footballs (a conservative blog
site). In researching an issue, you may find that one arlicle is a formal policy proposal
archived on the Web site of an economics research institute, whereas another is an op-ed
piece by a nationally syndicated columnist or a letter to the editor written by someone
living in your community. To help you reconstruct a reading's rhetorical context, you
need to understand the genres of argument as well as the cultural and professional con-
texts that cause people to write arguments. We'll begin with the genres of argument.

Genres of Argument
To situate an argument rhetorically, you should know something about its gerre. A genre
is a recuring type or pattem of argument such as a letter to the editor, a political cartoon,
or the home page of an advocacy Web site. Genres are often categorized by recurring fea-
tures, formats, and style. The genre of any given argument helps determine its length,
tone, sentence complexity, level of informality or formality, use of üsuals, kinds of eü-
dence, depth ofresearch, and the presence or absence ofdocumentation.
\44ren you read arguments reprinted in a textbook such as this one, you lose clues
about the argument's original genre. (You should therefore note the information about
genre proüded in our introductions to readings.) Likewise, you can lose clues about genre
when you dowrdoad articles Íiom the lntemet or from licensed databases such as
LexisNexis or ProQuest. (See Chapter 16 for explanations of these research tools.) \\4een
you do your own research, you therefore need to be aware of the original genre of the text
you are reading: was this piece originally a newspaper editorial, a blog, an organizational
white pape¡ a scholarly article, a student paper posted to a Web site, or something else?
In the chart on pages 33-35, we identifii most of the genres of argument through
which readers and writers carry on the conversations of a democracy.

Cultural Contexts: Who llbites Arguments and Wrtry?

A democratic society depends on the lively exchange of ideas-people with different
points of üew creating arguments for their positions. \ou' that you know something
about the genre of arguments, we ask you to consider rrho urites arguments and why.
 2 Argument as Inqulry 33
CHAPTER

Genres of Argument
Stylistic Features
Genre Explanation and ExamPles
g Style can range lrom a for-
iJ Letters or e-mail messages
Personal
iil mal business letter to an
correspondence OÍten sent to specific decision makers
(comPlaint letter' request for an informai note
action)

:a, Published in newsPaPers and

I Very shol1 (fewer than three
Letters to the editor hundred words) and time
some magazine
sensiüve
illr Proüde a for-um for citizens to volce
views on Public issues
; Can be summaries of longer
arguments. but often locus in
"sound bite" stYle on one Point

n: Published on the editorial or op-ed

s Usually short (500-1,000
NewspaPer editorials words)
("opPosite-editorial") Pages
and op-ed Pieces Vary lrom exPlicit thesis-
s Editorials Promote views of the
driven arguments to imPlicit
newspaper owners/editors
arguments with sfflistic flair
¡ti Op-ed pieces, usually written by
. Have a journalistic stYle
professional columnists or guest
(shofi ParagraPhs) without
writers. range in bias lrom
detailed evidence
ultraconservative to sociaiist
(see Page 362 in ChaPter 16)
tl Sources usuallY not
documented
r¡.l Often written in response to political
events or social problems in the
news

:.* Usually written by staff writers or rr Often have a jourrralisttc

Articles in Public style with inforrnal
affairs or niche freelancers
' documentation
magazines Appear in public alfairs magazines
i¡i Frequendy include narrative
tn.tt ut National Reuiew or The
jn niche magazines elements rather than exPücit
Progressiue or
thesis-and-reasons organization
for special-interest groups such as
Rolling Stone (PoPular culture)'
i* Often provide well-resea¡ched
coverage of various PersPectives
Minoritg Business EntrePrenanr
(business), or The Aduocafe (gay and
on a public issue

lesbian issues)
r1, Often reflect the political point of
view of the magazine

s Peer-reviewed articles published by

;{ Usually emPloY a fomal
Articles in scholarlY academic stYle
journals nonprofit academic journals subsi-
dized by universilies or schoiarly
* Include academic documen-
tadon and bibliograPhies
societies
F Characterized b¡' scmpulous atten-
* NIay reflect the biases'
in methods, and strategies
rion to complelPns:q ánd accuracy
associated with a sPecific
treatment of data
school of thought or theory
within a disciPline'
lContinued)
 PART 1 Overview of Argument

Genre Explanation and Examples Stylistic Features

Legal trriefs and court tr Written by attorneys or judges itr [5¿¿l]y written in legalese,
decisions g¡ "Friend-of-the-court,' briefs are
but use a logical reasons-
often published by stakeholders to and-evidence structure
influence appeals courts e Friend-of-the-cour1 briefs
il Couft decisions explain the are sometimes aimed at
reasoning ol justices on civic popular audiences
cases (and often include
minorify opinions)
Orgaüzational white !:¡: {¡-h6¿ss documenls or powerpoint ¡* Usually desktop or Web
papers presentations aimed at influencing published
organizational policy or decisions or s Often include graphics and
to give informed advice to clients other visuals
H Sometimes tritten for extemal audi_ q VaV in style from the dully
ences to influence pubtic opinion bureaucraric (sarirized in
favorable to the organization Dilbert cartoons) to the
.f.i Extemal white papers are often posted
cogent and persuasive
on Web sites or sent to legislators

Blogs and postings to l* Web-publishedcommentaries, tri Often blend sffles of jour-

chat rooms and usually on specific topics and nalism, personal narative,
electronic bulletin often intended to influence public and formal argument
boards opinion Often dilficult to determine
ir1 Blogs (web logs) are gaining
identity and credentials of
influence as a.ltemative commen_ blogger
taries to the established media * Often provide hyperlinks to
.t: Reflect a wide range of perspectives related sites on the Web
Public affairs ii Published as posters, fliers, Web :11 Use succinct "sound
advocacy bite,'
pages, or paid adveúisements style
advertisements ü:. Condensed verbal/r,,isual .€ Employ document design,
arguments aimed at bulleted lists, and visual
infl uencing public opinion elements (graphics,
# Often have explicit bias and ignore photographs, or drawings)
alternative views fbr rhetorical effect
Advocacy Wet¡ sites e Usually identified by the extension ttl Often contain many layers
".org" in the Web site address
with hlperlinks to other sites
li Often created by well-financed ; Use r.isuals and verbal
advocacy groups such as the NRA text to create an
(National Rifle Association) or
immediate visceral
PETA (People for the Ethical response favorable to
Tieahnent of Animals) the site owner's views
l'.i Reflect the bias of the site onner ,, Ethically responsible sites
i* For further discussion of reading announce their bias a¡d
and evaluating Web sites, see pliryose in an 'About Us,,
Chapter 16, pages 363-367 or "\,Iission Statement', link
on the home page
 CHAPTER 2 Argumeni as Inquiry 35

Explanation and ExamPles Stylistic Features

Visual arguments gs Political ca:1oons, usually drawn by
syndicated cartoonists
w Other visual arguments (photographs'
drawings, graPhics, ads), usuallY
accompanied bY verbal text
ffi Make stong emotional
appeals, often reducing com-
plex issues to one Powelfirl
perspective (see Chapter 9).

Speeches and ffi Political speeches, keynote speeches Usually organized clearlY
PowerPoint at professional meetings, informal with highlighted claim,
presentations speeches at hearings, intetwiews, supporting reasons, and
business Presentations transitions
M Often made available via transcrip- Accompanying PowerPoint
tion in newsPaPers or on Web sites slides designed to highlight
s In business or government setLings, struchrre, disPlaY evidence
often accomPanied bY PowerPoint in graphics, mark keY Points,
slides and sometimes Provide
humor

Documentary films w FormeÜ nonfiction reporting, docu-
mentary films now range widelY
from efforts to document realitY
objectively to efforts to Persuade
viewerc to adoPt the f,lmmaker's
perspective or take action
ffi Usually cost less to Produce than
commercial fllms and lack sPecial
effects
ffi Cover topics such as art, science,
and economic, political, and miiitary
crises
OÍten use extended visual
arguments, combined with
interwiews and voice-overs,
to influence as well as
infor"rn viewers
The filmmaker's angle of
üsion may dominate. or his
or her perspective and val-
ues may be more subtle.

any given writer

In reconstructing the rhetorical context of an argument, consider fow
i, spu*"d to wrrjte by a motivating occasion and by the desire to .lTg. the views of a
return to our example of illegal immigration'
furti",rtur audience. In this sectioir, we'lI filmmakers, and oth-
trr" rouo*ing list identifies the wide range of wdters, cartoonists,
ers who are áotivated to enter the conversation about immigration.

Who Writes Arguments about lmmigration and Why?

w Lobbgists and ad,uocqq groups. Lobbyists and advocacy groups commit themselves
at
to a cause, often witñ [*rion, and produce avidly parlisan arguments aimed
persuading VoteIS, legislators, goYgmment agencies, arrd other decision makers.
^ffr"y in newspapers
ott"-n maintain;dvocac)r Web sites, buy advertising space
the immigrant ad-
and magazines, and lobby legislators face to face. For example,
"gto"p rights' whe19* Federation for
vocacy La Raza ¿"fJ"¿t immrgrant t"
(FglR) fights to end illeg'al immigration and rallies
Ame¡cá lmmigration Reform
people to pressure businesses not to hfue undocumented workers'
PART 1 Overview of Argument

Legislators, political candidates, and gouernment officiak. \\¡henever new laws,

reg-
ulations, or government policies are proposed, staffers do research and write white
papers recoámending positions ott att itt.t". Often these are available on the Web'
b" tn" perplexing p.áft"- of illegal immigration, numerous staff researchers for
legislators, politiJJ candidates, and government officials have produced white
pJp.r, on tire practicality of extending a wall along the U.S.- Mgxican border, of
il"Ln"g up border patrol to increase national security, and of offering temporary
guest worker visas to immigrant laborers.
"Business
professionals, labor union leaders, and bankers. Business spokespeople often
try to infiuence public opinion in ways that support corporate or business interests,
*ir"r"". labor union offrcials support wage structures favorable to union members'
Typically businesspeople produce "corporate image" adverlisements, send white
pup"rc io legislators, oi.tit" op-ed pieces that frame issues from a business perspec-
tiul, *n"."á labor unions ptódu"e arguments favorable to workers. Professionals
that could profit from undocumented labor (fruit growers, winema]<9rs, landscapers,
construction companies, and so forth) or could be harmed by it (labor unions) are
active participants in the public controversy.
Lawgers oni¡udg"t.Immigration issues are f?equently entangledin legal matters.
Lau.{rers wriie briefs supporting their clients' cases. Sometimes lawyers or legal
not directly connácted to a case, particularly law professors, file "friend-of-
"*p"rb
thá-court" briefs aimed at influencing the decision of judges. Finally, judges write
court opinions explaining their decisions on a case. As more illegal immigrants ale
deported and otúers diJ trying to ffoss the border, more legal professionals are
owiting about these cases.
Med,iicommentators. Whenever immigration issues are in the news, media com-
mentators (journalists, editorial writers, syndicated columnists, bloggers, political
cartoonists) write articles and blogs or op-ed pieces on üe issue or produce edito-
rial cartoons, f,ltering their argrments through the perspective of their own politi-
cal views. For example, conservative commentator Lou Dobbs is known for his
strong stand on keeping illegal immigrants out of the country'
Profeísionat fre"toní" ol ttoff writers. some of the most thoughtful analyses of pub-
lic issues are composed by freelance or staff writers for public forum magazines
such as Atlantic Monthtg, The lVation, Ms., The National Reuiew, The l{ew Yorker,
and many others. Arguments about immigration policy reform and immigrants'
integration into American society surface whenever the the topic seems timely to
magazine editors.
Thlnk nnks. Because today many political, economic, and social issues are very
complex, policy makers and commentators often rely on research institutions or
think tanks to supply statistical studies and in-depth investigation of problems'
These think tanks range aüoss the political spech-um, from conservative (the
Hoover Institute, the Heritage Foundation) or liberlarian (the Cato Institute) to the
centrist or liberal (the Brookings Institution, the Pel' Foturdation, the Economic
Policy Institute). They usually maintain many-layered \\'eb sites-that include back-
gtorltra on research writers, recent publications. and archives of past publications,
Including policy statements and white papers. Recenth- the conseruative Center for
 CHAPTER 2 Argument as lnquiry 47

ImmigrationStudiespublishedarliclesolthecostoflegalandillegalimmigration
progress, a liheral think tank, outlined the
to Americans; the ceniter for American
immigration system'
3

t. i*p""*, features for a reform of the U'S'play l

a fublic role. through their scholarly
r w scholars and acad.emls C;f;g" professors
to.public debates' Scholarly
research, contrfffi Juo,-ttit¿i"t, a"a'uttAyies
3
argument rn its systematic attempt to
f research diff"r, .rruriLtially from advocacy
ón the full examination of relevant
arrive at the best *;;;r io qu"stions bÁed
data. Much scholarshif investigates the
paüerns of immigrant particrpa{o.1 .in
crime and immigration, possibilities
n American political m"h" relatiánship between
serwices if the United States were
of worker solidanty, ád the cost of products
and
,"urt*tiary. scholarly research is usually published in
L
!. to raise th. ,o-i-r-;;"
e refereed academic joumÑ rather than popular magazines'
popularity of film
w Independ,ent and, ,oÁ*nilot plmmakers.'Tás¡tying tó thegrowing
filmmakers often reflect on
t and its power r" i"*i;;ÉJpf" T issues, documéntary
often embed argrments within their
issues of the auy, *á .oio*"r"iul filmmakers
s. perspectives
dramatic rtoryt"ilirrg. it gtouul film industry is adding international
and dramatic films present the experience-" of
E
"
áo".rir""t*v
as well. tu*y ,"""rr:i
immigrarrtsandundocumentedworkersandtheirstruggletofitintoAmericanfilm
For instance' üe documentary
$.

ú society *tlt" pr"r"-i,tf ine{ gltura] roots'

immigrant day labor-
F Farmingaille,showno"?gs, follows the antagonism_lmong
on Long island,
ers, homeown"rr, *J oih"r residents of
the ówn of Farmingville
ts
york, the practicality of establishing a hiring
É New a]la a"fi"tr
town debating
the
E site to remove day laborers from the streets' con-
w Ciüzens and students.Engug"a citizens influence social policy through letters'
"w!¡ ,it"r, guest editorials for newspapers, blogs, and
tr tributions to advocacy
rl ,p"""rr", in publicfo*-r. students also write for university communities' present
and influence public.opinion
their work ut.r.ra"rgtuá"ate research conferences,
D,
makers. For example, shrdents involved
by writing to politicileaders and decision
üü-
of immigrant laborers might write to
k in a service r"u*i"g project tutoring children
rp*"¿ their knowlJdge bf immigrants' educational needs'

Analyzing Rhetorical Context and Genre

Thebackgroundwehavejustproüdedaboutthewritersandgenresofargumentwill
\\4:ren you encounter any argu-
help you litout" *go-"nt, in iheir rhetorical context.
mentative text, whether t"pf"t"a in a textbook
or retrieved through your owrl library
questions to analyze its rhetorical context:
and Web research, ,rr" ,lrJ-totlowing guide

and Genre
Questions about Rhetorical Context
of that genre help determine
^ \A4rat genre of argument js this? How do the conventions
1.
of the argument?
ut" á"[tn, complJ"ity, and even appearance . -.
and what is his or her invesünent
2. \Vho is the author? Vl/hat are t]'t" áúttlot't credentials
in the issue?
3. \\4rat audience is he or she writing for?
38 PART 1 Overview of Argument

4. \\4rat motivating occasion prompted the writing? The motivating occasion could
be a current event, a crisis, pending legislation, a recently published altemative
view, or another ongoing Problem.
5. \\4:rat is the author's purpose? The purpose could range fiom strong advocacy to
inquiring huth seekerianalogous to the continuum from persuasion to huth seeking
discussed in Chapter 1, pages 13-15).
6. \\4rat information about ine publication or source (magazrne, newspaper, advo-
cacy web site) helps explain the writer's perspective or the structule and style
of the argument?
7. \44rat is the writels angle of úsion? By angle of üsion, we mean the filter, lens' or
ur
selective seeing through which the uriter is approaching the issue. \A,4rat is left out
this argument? \\4rat does this author not see? (chapter 5, pages 94-96, drscusses
how aigle of vision operates in the selection and ffaming of eüdence.)

This rhetorical knowledge becomes importarrt in helping you select a diversity of voices
and genres of argument when you are exploring an issue' Note how Michael Banks makes
*" Jf nir u**"r"r, of rhetorical context in his exploratory paper on pages 52-57.

ilffi FOR CTASS DISCUSSION Placing Readiírgs in Yg¡eir R.Eaei*rieaE {*ntext

Find two recent arguments on the illegal immigration issue.* Your arguments should
(1) represent differént genres and (2) represent different kinds of alguers (syndicated
,r"*riup". columnists,"bloggers, fieelanie magazine writers, scholars' and so fofih)'
You can find your arguments in any of these places:

r In magazines: news commentary/public affairs magazines or niche magazines

r On thé Web: on Web sites for think tanks, advocacy organizations, or blogs
r In newspaPers: local, regional, or national
For each argqment, answel the "Questions about Rhetorical Context and Genre" on
pages 37-38. Then share your findings with classmates'
ffis

Reading to Believe an Argument's Claims

Once you have established the rhetorical context of an argument, you are ready to
be-
gn relding. We suggest that you read arguments in the spirit of the believing and
áoubting gu*", uegtroing with "believing," in which you practice what psychologist
Carl Ro[eis empathil listening. Empathic listening requires that you see the world
caJls
through"the author'i eyes, temporarily adopt the author's beliefs and values, and sus-
"your
-
pend skepticism and biases long enough to hear lvhat the author is saying.
To illustrate what we mean by reading to believe, rve ruill continue with our exam-
ple of illegal immigration. As you may have discovered through prior experience, read-
ing, and Jxamining the cartoons and photos at the begrrmlg of this chapter, this issue

+For help on how to find articles through Web or licensed databa-'e se¿:'ches. see Chapter 16'
 2 Argument as lnqulry
39
CHAPTER

includesmanyrelatedissues:\\hydoryil'9:'offoreigners-risktheirlivestocomeil-
the number of illegal
lesallv to the United si"*'i
H"'"'can the U"ill'¡t#t reduce the
il; the people- gunently living in
stote, ¿o uüout
irn:mis.rants? rnry,ut ,to,riJ;h" represented by
U'S' ^Jrti"i", the workforce
UnitJd States illegally? Does the "totolu ""ed'e-""rty?" by Roman catholic
foilowing
these undocumented *"rk;;rtThe in the March 10'
#ilildtt j_ohn. F ?"t*"rgh. appeared
priest and protessor "the onlv national
,l-'", ¿"*,?u"s'iLell as
)ooa, issue of n*rr¡ro.;i;Jüidtl."1i1l article careful$ in
catholic weekly *"gulirrl'r;
ilr"'unir"d st"t*" tl""se read this
that follow'
pt"p"t",l"" for"the úercises and examples

AmnestY?
Let Us Be Vigilant and Churitable
JOHNF'KAVANAUGH
They cannot com-
illegally-brought and their small rural communities'
Let's call her Marla' She was l"llil rt.""iru subsidized U'S' and Canadian
pro-
at the age-of 2' Now,27' many to
irr,o-,ft. United States
á;;rr. it is this phenomenon that drives so
and has three
rfr. it vital member of her parish to
the. United
;;;h.tt-h.*.i*nd fo' a livelihood inanti-humane
..".n ".hildten. María was recently15deported6oo ;;;;Ñ, tr" bishops put it"'its
ü;:ü;;*,'-h"', in the last Years' ^
have been kidnapped'.raped'
mur- *-if.
immigration Program" . .t :,-^ Ío1
c
;;;*;;.n U.S. Ui"'ttop', witnessing. ever¡hing
i.;;f ".,á ;;'ied in the desert' Luckil¡ she. was
States' again il- evictions in California to employment
ratds tn
able to find a way into the
United of their
ü^r".ñ"r."s, have stirred the io"sciences
;;i; .o ¡. *i'É her children' if she is discovered
stands in conscience of their
own'
five vears in a u'S' federal ;;;;.t and taken
10 of his pastors
"-t#1';;ii'p'"¿ il;rslrof"f Oklahoma Ciry and punitive state law
o"tül ir". professed dtfiance of a
Iesuit friend and neighbor'
Dick Vogt' has
",iUftiVi.io,t' of all who "aid' assist' or'ffansport
,rt"t itrr.*
,"t;';¿;;';."pi'lLl M"á "'''d manv others oF
of Missouri
ll "t"'dotumented aliens'" She is ,"1 un¿..r-ented person.'' The bishops
.Jrfl-ii *i'lliot' ;;L ;;;;Jin.i'i"'* over politicians "who vie to
masses who have ille-
l.*."tLffrypit"l of the
see who can be tougher ott itltg'l
immigrants'"
orllv entered rhis counrry' Some' no doubt'
^", are
on many fami-
for orher Cosnizant of tht etonámic pressures
á?"iü""J¿.rt.", -'ny a" inta'cetared have li.sl., rur^l Mexico, they call for a-more :om?asst:n
!.

I
.ri.*, ,n"n their immigrant smtus' But mos.t ait and realistic reform of our immtgratton
.;;;;;.."t risk to th"ti' li"t'' because their
lives
",.,
.tr,.* i"¿"¿ing educarion a¡d humanitarian xsis-
¡ at risk from poverty and dislla;¡m11t, :*i'r.'"ut regard to legal status"
h '".t. "ft.l¿y make a living' fórm a tamtly'
anct :l;:',;' il :;iiá?'*
They *ani to to the bishops'
t t-lo their families back home'
s There has been somt resisu-nce
.,rooosals and some
It is reminiscent of
oF Mexico pointed out in """t-tt"'
5i.'il;ii.-ui't'opt is a direcr lh.'ou,r"g. directed by anti-immigrant groups to-
rrluar-v tharüe of immigration ref'orm btll'ra verY
"ttnt 'u'gt Free Tlade Agreement' rvard last"year's immigration
.f*, áf the North American
harsh measure that t'ot"theless condemned
ót." ,*¿.' while benefiting the most.powerlul and 'h"tycalled amnesry'
for proposing what they
has threatened Poor farmers
,..hnologi."lly advanced'
 Some of the resentment is understandable' There
are householders, especially on the border, who have
had their land and yards trashed. Residents of some
towns feel flooded with immigrants they cannot en-
gage or manage. A few businesspersons who have
i.ftr.d to hire undocumented or cheaper labor have
lost sales and customers.
But this does not explain the seething hostiliry
that can be read in some nativist opinion columns
and popular books or heard on radio talk shows:
"They are criminals, felons; and that's that."
"They have broken the law." This is an interest-
ing standard ofethics, justice or charity for a nation
thát sees itself as Judeo-Christian and humane' It is
puzzlíng that we do not think of the Good
Sa-"rián or of the "least of our brothers and sis-
ters" in Matthew 25, or of the passage from
Leviticus that the Missouri bishops quote: "The
stranger who sojourns with you shall be to you as
the native among you, and you shall love him as
yourself."
As for making the law our boftom line, do
Christians know how many times Jesus was in trou-
ble with the law? Do they know that the natural law
tradition, a¡ticulated in the work of Thomas
Aquinas, holds an unjust law to be no law at all? Do
they forget that ou¡ nation was founded upon an aP-
p.á ,o high.. law than positive law an appeal
"
ihared by the labor movement, by Martin Luther
King Jr., and by Elizabeth Cady Santon and Susan
B. Anthony?
10 A nation has every right to secure its borders'
Unrestrained immigration will hurt our country the
immigrants, and their homeland. So let us indeed
pro,.., our borders (even though that will not solve
the problem of those who enter legally and overstay
theii visa). Let us also honestly face the multiple
cause of illegal immigration. As an excellent position
paper from the Center for Concern notes, illegal im-
migration involves many factors: trade negotiation,
thJ governments involved, the immigrants who
break the law by entering our country' employers
who take advantage of them, corporate leaders who
profit from them, and consumers who benefit from
lower food and service costs.
\7e must devise ways to offer legal status to any-
one who contributes to our common good,
whether as a future citizen or a temPorary guest
worker. If that means using the dirry word
"amnesty," so be it.
As to those who sojourn in our midst, let us be
vigilant ifthey are threats and charitable ifthey are
friends. It would be a good' if unusual, move if our
legislators had the imagination to call fot citizen
páels before which an illegal immigrant could re-
q.r.r. lenienc¡ and a path to citizenship
"-.t.ra¡
bas.d on his or her contribution to the community,
solid employment record, faithful payment of
taxes, family need, and crime-free record.
Instead of fearing some abstract horde of mil-
lions, we might see the faces of people like María
and hear their stories. Ifwe turn them away, we will
have to face the fact that we are not so much a na-
tion of Judeo-Christian values as a Punitive and
self-interested people hiding under the protection
of lesser, human-made laws.

Summary Writing as a Way of Reading to Believe

One way to show that you have listened well to an article is to summarize its argument
in your t*n words. A summary (also called an abstract. a précis, or a sgnopsis) presents
oniy u text's major points and eliminates supporting detat-ls. \\¡ters often incorporate
suámaries of other writer's views into their own argumet-rts. eiüer to support their own
views or to represent alternative üews that they mtend to oppose. (When opposing
 CHAPTER 2 Argument as lnqulry

'Although X contends that

someone else's argument, writels often follow the template
rd lsummary of X's argumentl, I argue that ."), Summaries can be any length, de-
they range from several sentences to one
penai"g fn the puryose, but usually
VE 'rritár's your summary should be as neu-
ty t. t*o"parugtaphs. To mainiain your own credibility,
,le tral and fair to that piece as posslble.
To help yor, *tit" an efiective summaty, we recommend the following
steps:
)n
il-
n, Stepl:Readtheargumentforgeneralmeaning'Don'tjudgeltPutyourobjec-
tions aside; just foliow the-writer's meaning, trying to:9"-lh" issue from
the
io
Try to adopt the writer's values and belief system' Walk in
rfS rriter's perspective.
10 the writer's shoes'
m each
Step 2: Reread, the at"ticle slowly, writing brief does and says statements for
identifies a
parágraph (or group of closely cinnected paragraphs)' A dols statement
view," "introduces a sup-
p*ultupfr'r fuirctián,-such ai "summarizes an opposing
d, to support the preüous
portiirg'."u.on," "gives an example," or "uses statistics
:st
point.; A sags staiement summarizes a paragraph's content. Your challenge in
rd trans-
writing sags statements is to identify the main idea in each paragraph and
late that idea into youl. own words, most likely condensing it at the same time'
be
This process -uy ú" easier with an academic article that uses long developed
journalis-
puragruph, headád by clear topic sentences than it is for more informal
LIe

i¡r less developed paragraphs'

tic articles such as kuuutru.rfh't that use shorter,
of
\Á4rat follow s are does and sags statements for the first six paragraphs
Kavanaugh's article:
11P

ry Does/Soys Analysis of Kavanaugh's Article

of
Paragraph l: Does: uses a vivid example to introdüce the injustice of the cur-
Lil- rent treatment of illegal immigrants. Sags; The U.S. government is separating
them,
ría productive, long-term- illegal immigrants from their families, deporting
¡-ill exposing them to dangeóus conáitiottt, and threatening them with felony
charges.
Paragraph 2: Does; Puts the problem of illegal immigrants in a larger
nd interta-
on tionicontext. Says.Although sáme illegal immigrants are involved in criminal activ-
ities, most have báen pushed here by poverty and loss of opporlLurity
in their own
and
countries and have come to the Unitéd St¿tes seeking a better life for themselves
their famües.
Paragraph 3: Does;Further explores the reasons behind the increase in immigra-
tion iates. Says: Catholic bishops have spoken out against the North American
Free Trade Agreement and corporate interests, which have sought
their or¡sn trade
benefits at thé expense of poor fan-ners and r-'ral communities.
Paragraph 4: Does: Presents a sketch of Catholic leaders protesting the recent
recent punilive
crackdowns on illegal immigrants. Says. U.S. bishops are protesting
for "a more compassionate, fair,
laws against illegi immigránts and advocating"
and realistic reform of our immigration sr-sterll
42 PART
.l Overview of Argument

Paragraplir. 5: Does: Sketches some opposing liews. Sogs: Antr-immigatron

groups and others object to humane treatment of illegal immigrants, seeing it as
akin to amnesty.
Paragraph 6: Does; Recognizes the validity of some opposing üews. ,says. The
problems of some groups of Americans, including homeowners living on the bor-
der and businesses hying not to hire illegally, need to be heard.

ñ K ,,., FOR CLASS DISCUSSI0N Writing DaestsaysStat€ments

Working indiüduatly or in small groups, wnte d¡tes and sags statements for the remaining
paragraphs of Kavanaugh's arficle. ,i1., & ts

Step 3: Examine gour does and says statements to determine the major sections of
the argument. Create a list of the major points (and subpoints) that must appear
in a summary in order to represent that argument accurately. If you are visually
oriented, you may prefer to make a diagram, flowchart, or scratch outline of the
sections of Kavanaugh's argument.
step 4: Turn gour list, outline, flowchart, or diagram into a prose summary.
Typically, writers do this in one of two ways. Some start by joining all their
says statements into a lengthy paragraph-by-paragraph summary and then
prune it and streamline it. They combine ideas into sentences and then revise
those sentences to make them clearer and more tightly structured. Others start
with a one-sentence summary of the argument's thesis and major supporting
reasons and then flesh it out with more supporting ideas. Your goal is to be as
neutral and objective as possible by keeping your own response to the writer's
ideas out of your summary. To be fair to the writer, you also need to cover
all the writer's main points and give them the same emphasis as in the original
article.
Step 5: gour summary until it is the desired length and is sufficientlg clear, con-
Reuise
cise, and complete. Your goal is to spend your words wisely, making every word
count. In a summary of several hundred words, you will often need transitions to
indicate structure and create a coherent flow ofideas: "Kavanaugh's second point is
that...," or "Kavanaugh concludes by " However, don't waste words withmean-
ingless transitions such as "Kavanaugh goes on to say.... " rr4/hen you incorporate a
summary into your own essay, you must distinguish that author's views fiom your
own by ustng attributiue tags (expressions such as "Kavanaugh asserts" or "accord-
ing to Kavanaugh). You must also put any directly bonowed wording in quotation
marks. Finally, you must cite the original author using appropriate conventions for
documenting sources.

W4rat follows are two summaries of Kavanaugh's arlicle-a one-paragraph version

and a one-sentence version-by student writer Michael Balks. N,{ichael's oneparagraph
version illustrates the MLA documentation system in rrhich page numbers for áiráct
 2 Argument as lnqulry 43
CHAPTER

com{1te bibliographic in-

quotalions arc plac€d in parenthest'.*:'I." O'*109"'and the paper. see chapter 17 lor
a
formation is placed u ftorrc cited list at the end o[
,
documentation svstems'
;;ü;;;t;pianation of the MLA and APA
of Kavanaugh's Argument
Michael's One-Paragraph Summary
Inhisarticle.Amnestv?,,fromAmericamagazineJohnF.Kavanaugh'aJesuitpriestand
proressor or pnlo""i'yv
"Jii";#i'ú-;l:""* ru:::;:'HT"i*H :,t'h!"1:i:'i l;t;
'treatment of undocumented immigrants an
are not
(+0). He points outthat most immigrants
muhiple causes of ,[.;;ñ;rd;n" He attributes recent mcreases
family-orientéd people.
criminals u.rt rutrr", nÍiá;;;*ñ, poverty it causes
to tr''"Ño'ttt Á','Jtitut' Éree Trade Agreement and the
',.:..aJ in immigratiott tnut U'S' bishops have
among rrrrut ltt¡"itt']"'nlt"' f<"tu"utgh t"po'tt" I'tt:Ttty"
"compassionate' fair'
,,antiiJmui"liir.ut*".t of i**tgiu"it and called foi
protested tne groups' residents on
mentions fhe anti-immigration
and realistic refbrm,, (3g). He also treatment that
the border, and b;in;s;'owners
*tto nu""l"'lti"á tn" utñops and any
resembles..amnesty.,'Kavanaugh,spiececulminateswithhisargumentthatanationthat "higher
.,iudeo-Christian a1$ n rnlun"; tftould foltow biblical teaching'
identifies itself as Martin Luther King, Jr., in challeng-
ot t"u¿"., ,.."t,, as
Iaw,,, and the courageous example
immigration would help nobody'
Á¿rriitlirg that ,rrl."rt*in.¿
ing unjust f"*, t+"01.
Kavanaughexhortsthecountrytomoveconstructivelytoward..legalstatusforanyone
new solution to the
goo¿" (¿oÍ u"d t"gg&: a'radically
r
who contribut., to"""t t""'t:-"'" legal status. He concludes bv
I problem: u .ittr"r'i;"i;;ñ;;-.-.*.¡1""-i--uñ*t's is an"immoral act motivated by
,¡
stating that turmng away undocumented
;;ñ;;tt
t self-interest.
I
$ Work Cited
writing Argumtnts: A Rhetoric
h
Kavanaugh, John F.
,Amne America ro n4*. áóos' B. Rpt. in
sty?,,
r 8th ed New York: Pearson
with Readings'John D Ramage' John C' Bean' and June iohnson'
ü Longman, 2010 39-40' Print'

of Kavanaugh's Argument
l" Michael's One-Sentence summary
ü
In his article tn America,Jesuit professor
of philosophy Joh" | 1*TTel:"*ti:i:-t:
immigrants in the Uniied States'
argung
b morality of U". t of ,rndocuménted
"rrrr..ri "át-.nf *n" """*u"í.s positively to their community
is that in a Judeo-christian nation anyone
F strout¿ ¡e afforded some level of legal status'
P

PracticingBelieving:WillingYourownBeliefintheWritefsViews
listened
of an argum"lt +oY: that you have
Although writing an accurate summary that you
summary *í*g by itself .do-esn't
mean
to it effectively and understood it' tum in the next section
have actively t i"a to the writer's *orídü"*' ñefóre we
""t"r to ,t'"rs ine importance of belieüng
it' Rhetorician
to doubüng an argument, we want trv to "dwell with"
peter Elbow reminds us that before *. .#;;";text,
we.should
"earn" our right
,dwell in,, the writer,s ideas-play th" ;ü;"-g gu-"-in order tó
and
44 PART 1 Overview of Argument

to criticize.* He asseús, and we agree, that this use of the believing game to engage
with strange, threatening, or unfamiliar views can lead to a deeper understanding and
assumptions, and values. To
-uy prouiá" u n.." ,r*iuge point on our own knowledge,
¡elieve a writer and dweil with his or her ideas, find places in the text that resonate
(however few), and
positively for you, look for values and beliefs you hold in common
search fór peisonal experiences and values that affirm his or her argument.

Reading to Bor¡bt
After willing yourself to believe an argument, will yourself to doubt it' Turn your men-
tal energies ioward raising objections, asking questions, expressing skepticism, and
withholding your assent. \ ¡l'r.tt you read as a doubter, you question the writert
logrc,
and the writer's strategies for developing the
the writer's evidence and assumptions,
what is notinthe argument by noting what the author
argument. You also think about
hai glossed over, unexplained, or left out. You add a new layer of marginal notes, artic-
ulatl"ng what is bothering you, demanding proof, doubting eüdence,
challenging the
author's assumptions *Jud.r"t, afid so forttr. W¡ting your own notes helps you read
a text actively, ttingitrg your own voice into conversation with the author.

Kffi FOR CtASS DISCUSSION Raising #oubts *l¡o*¡t Kavas"aauglt's Argue'meart

Returrr now to Kavanaugh's article and read it skeptically. Raise questions, offer
objec-
tions, and express doub-"ts. Then, working as a class or in small groups, list all the
K
doubts you háve about Kava-naugh's argument'
F€
":

Now that you have doubted Kavanaugh's article, compale your questions and
doubts to some raised by student writer Michael Banks'

Michael's Doubts about Kavanaugh's Article

¡¡ Kavanaugh's introductory paragraph seems sensational. Maria's situation
is disturbing,
but I doubt that every aépórt"a immigrant is likely to be "kidnapped, raped, murdered'
and buried in the deserl" as he seems to be insinuating'
oppo-
* His argument often seems to be based too much upon vague statements about the
"some tov,rrs," "a few people," and "some hate-
sition. He talks about "some resenhnent,"
He also doesn't proüde any speciflc data
ful columns," but he doesn't provide specifics.
which seems like something he realiy should have provided.
about the effects of NAFTA,
# In his second paragraph, he says that María's story "is r.rot necessarily typical of the
''manv are incarcerated for other
masses who have iff"g"ffy enteied" the U.S and that
crimes than their imñigrant status." However, he never cousiders the rate of criminal
behaüor of illegal immlgranm in fur1her detail. Are illegal imnigrants more likely
to
commitcrimes?Thismightbethestartofanargumelltagau"rsthim.

-p*r. E1b"* "B""grng the Rhetoric of Assent and üe Belier itrs G¿¡rtt' Together-Into the Classroom " In
Cctllege English 674 (March 2005)' p. 389'
 CHAPTER 2 Argument as ¡nquiry 45

11 His references to opinion columns and popular books and radio talk shows seem to sug-
gest that the majorily of opposition to immigration reform is simplistic and ignorant. He
óniy pays lip service to a ferv "understandable" objections. There must be more to the
oppositi,on than this. It would be pafticularly interesting to find an ethical justification for
an anti-immigration stance.
e Perhaps because he's a member of the Society of Jesus, he draws hardly any line at all
between church and state. However, most U.S. citizens I know believe that government
should be secular. This contrasts harshly with his notion that the U.S. self-identifies as
'Judeo-Christian" and limits his audience to people who would probably already agree
with him. If we remove religion from the equation, the capitalistic values behind NAFTA
and immigration policy seem much more understandable. I would need to investigate
the economic impact of iilegal immigration. Who really benefits the most from it? \44ro's
really harrned?

These are only some of the objections that might be raised against Kavanaugh's argu-
ment. The point here is that doubting as well as believing is a key part of the exploratory
process *á pu.pore. Bekeuinglakes you into the üews of others so that you can expand
your views and perhaps see them differently and modiff or even change +Jtem. Doubting
helps protect you from becoming overpowered by others' arguments and teaches you to
sta¡d back, consider, and weigh points carefully. It also leads you to new questions and
points you might want to explore fui1her.

TE
Thinking Dialectically
This chapter's final strategr-thrnking dialectically to bring texts into conversation with
each other-encompasses all the preüous strategies and can have a powerful effect on
your growth as a thjnker and arguer. The term dialectic is associated with the German
phrlosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, who postulated that each thesis prompts an
opposing thesis (which he calls an "antithesis") and that the conflict between these views
can lead thinkers to a new claim (a "synthesis") üat incorporates aspects of both r,rews.
Dialectic thinking is the philosophical underpinrring of the believing and doubting game,
pushing us toward new and better ideas. As Peter Elbow puts it, "Because it's so hard to
iet go of an idea we are holding (or more to the point, an idea that's holding us), our best
hope for leverage in leanring to doubt such ideas ís to take on dffirent ideas."*
This is why expert thinkers actively seek out alterrrative views-not to shout them
down but to listen to them. If you were an arbitrator, you wouldn't settle a dispute be-
tween A and B on the basis of As testimony only. You would also insist on hearing B's
side of the story (and perhaps also C's and D's if they are stakeholders in the dispute)'
Dialectic thinking means playing ideas against each other, creating a tension that
forces you to keep expanding your perspechve. It helps you achieve the "mingling of
minds" that we discussed in the introduction to this chapter.

*Peter Elbow, "B.irgulg the Rhetoric of Assent and the Beherr¡g Game Together-Into the Classroom." In
College English.674 (Nlarch 2005), p. 390.
46 PART 1 Overview of Argument

a-mong ar-
As you listen to differing üews, try to identiff sources of disagreement
of the case
go"rr, .hi.h often fall into two categories: (1) disagreement about the facts
We saw these
á,'¿ tZl disagreement about underlying values, beliefs, or-assumptions'
in children's toys' At
disagreements in Chapter 1 in the óonlersation about phthalates
baby might in-
the level of facts, disputants disagreed about the amount of phthalates
a
chewing a rubber toy or about the quantity of ingested phthalate^s needed
gest when
"the
to be harmful. At level of árr"t, disputants disagreed on the amount of risk that
should ban a
must be present in a free market economy before a. government agency
issue, consider what re-
substance. As you try to determine your own position on an
search you migtrt have to do to resólve questions of fact; also
try to articulate your
own underlying values, beliefs, and assumptions'

Questions to Stimulate Dialectic Thinking

As you consider multiple points of view on an issue, try using the
following questions
to promote dialectic thinking:

Questions to Promote Dialectic Thinking

1. \Vhat would writer A say to writer B?
Z. AfterI read writer A, I tirought after I read writer B, my thinking
on this issue had changed in these ways:
3. To what extent do writer A and-;however, disagree about facts and interpretations
writer B--'
of facts?
4. To what extent do writer A and writer B disagree about underlying beliefs,
as-

sumptions, and values?

b. Can I find any areas of agreement, including shared values and beliefs, between
writer A and writer B?
6. \\4rat new, significant questions do these texts raise for me?
7. After I have ri¡restled with the ideas in these two texts, what are my current üews
on this issue?

Responding to questions Like these-either through class discussion or through

ex-

ploratory r*itirig-"ut help you work your way into u plbl" controversy. Earlier in this
chapter yor r"uá John Kavanaugh's arúcle expressrng a Catholic,
pro-immigrant, anti-cor-
poát" ü"* of immigrarrts. Nor,i consider an arlicle expressing a quite ditrelen! point of
üew "why Blame Mexico?" by freelance journalist Fred Reed' published n The
We ask you to read the article and then use
Amerban Conseruatiueon March tO, ZOOS.
Reed.
the preceding questions to stimulate dialectic thinking about Kavanaugh versus

I I ffi FOR CTASS DISCUSSION Practicing Dialectic Thinking with Two Articles
questions, in- which
Individual task: Freewrite your lesponses to the preceding
Kavanaugh is writer A and RLed is *iit". B. Group task: Working as a
whole class
or in sma-ll groups, share your responses to the hvo articles, guided by the dialectic
questions. ffi t I

W}*y Blcm* fflexis*?
FRg* RgfüF
To grasp American immigration polic¡ one
needs only remember that the United States
frowns on smoking while subsidizing tobacco
growers.
'We
say to impoverished Mexicans, "See this
river?Dont cross it. If you do, we'll give you good
jobs, drivers licenses, citizenship for your kids
born here, school for said kids, public assistance,
governmental documents in Spanish for your con-
venience, and a much better future. There is no
penalry for getting caught. Now, don't cross this
river, hear?"
How smart is that? '!7eie baiting them. It's like
putting out a salt lick and then complaining when
deer come. Immigrant parents would be irresponsible
not to cfoss.
The problem of immigration, note, is entirely
to let them in.
self-inflicted. The U.S. chose
It didn't have to. They came to work. If
Americans hadn't hired them, they would have
gone back.
; We have immigration because we want immigra-
tion. Liberais favor immigradon because it makes
them feel warm and funy andfrom a genuine streak
of decency. Conservative Republican businessmen
favor immigration, frequently sotto uoce, because
they want cheap labor that actually shows up and
rvorks.
Itt a story I ve heard many times-from a Mexican-American kids, possessed of ciúzen-
landscaper, a construction firm, a junkyard owner,
a group of plant nurserymen. "\7e need
Mexicans." You could yell "Migral" in a lot of principle.
restaurants in \flashington, and the entire staff l0 People complain that Mexico doesn't
rvould disappear out the back door. Do we expect
businessmen to vote themselves out of business?
That's why we don't take the obvious steps to con-
trol immigration. (A $1,000 a day fine for hiring
illegals, half to go anonymously to whoever in-
formed on the employer would do the trick.)
¡l
CHAPTER 2 Argument as lnquiry 47
In Jalisco, Mexico, where I live, crossing illegally
is regarded as casually as pirating music or smoking
a joint and the coyotes who smuggle people across
as a public utiliry like light rail. The smuggling is
frequently done by bribing the border guards, who
are notoriously corrupt.
\7hy corrupt? Money. In the book De Los Maras
a Los Zetas, by a Mexican journalist, I find an ac-
count ofa tunnel he knew ofthat could put 150 il-
legals a day across the border. (I cant confirm this.)
The price of passage is about $Z,OOO a person.
That's $300,000 a da¡ tax-free. tü4rat does a bor-
der guard make? (And where can I find a shovel?)
The author estimated that perhaps 40 tunnels were
active at any given time. Certainly some are. A
woman I know says she came up in a restaurant
and just walked out the door. Let's hear it for
Homeland Security.
There is much noise about whether to grant
amnesty. The question strikes me as cosmetic.
\7e are not going to round up millions of people
and physically throw them across the border.
\Thether we should doesn't matter. It's fantasy.
Too many people want them here or don't care
that they are here or don't want to uproot fami-
lies who have established new lives here. Ethnic
cleansing is ugly. Further, the legal Latino popu-
lation is just starting to yote. A bumper crop of
ship, are growing headlong toward voting age.
These people cannot be thrown out, even in
seal the
borders. Huh? Mexico is a country, not a prison.
It has no obligation to enforce American laws
that America declines to enforce. Then there was
the uproar when some fast-food restaurant in the
U.S. began accepting pesos. 'S7'hy? Mexican bor-
de¡ towns accept dollars. Next came outrage
 PART 1 Overview of Argument

against Mexico because its consulates were issu-
ing ID cards to illegals, which they then used to
g.i dri r.tt licenses. \7hy outrage? A country
évery right to issue IDs to its citizens. America
doesn't h",r. to accePt them' If it does, whose
problem is that?
If you \Mant to see a reasonable immigra-
tion polic¡ look to Mexico. You automatically
get a 90-day tourist visa when you land. To get
residency papers, you need rwo things apart
from photogiaphs, passport, etc. First, a valid
tourist visa to show that you entered the country
legally. Mexico doesnt do illegal aliens. Second,
a demonstrable income of $1,000 a month. You
are welcome to live in Mexico' but you are going
has to pay your own way. Sounds reasonable to me'
Vor, -"t, a Mexican passport? Mexico allows
dual cidzenship. You (usually) have to be a resident
for five years before applying. You also have to
speak Spanish. Itt the national language' \lhat
,i.r. do.. it make to have citizens who cant talk to
anybody?
It looks to me as though America thoughtlessly
adopted an unwise polic¡ continued it until.rever-
sal beca-e approximately impossible, and now
doesn't like the results. It must be Mexicot fault.

Three Ways to Foster Dialectic Thinking

In this concluding section, we suggest three ways to stimulate and sustain the process
of dialectic thinkiig: Effective discussions in class, over coffee, or online; a reading log
in which you make texts speak to each other; or a formal exploratory essay' We'll look
briefly at each in turn.

Effective Discussions Good rich talk is one of the most powerful ways to
stimulate dialectic thinking and foster a "mingling of minds." The key is to
keep these discussions from being shouting matches or bully pulpits for those who
like to dominate the airtime. Discussions are most productive if people are willing
to express different points of view or to role-play those views for the purpose of
advancing the conversation. Try Rogerian listening, in which you summarize
(See Chapter
someone"else's position before you offer your own different position.
7 for more expianation of Rogerian listening.) Probe deeply to discover whether
disagreements are primarily about facts and evidence or about underlying values
and beliefs. Be respectful áf other's views, but don't hesitate to point out where
you see problems ár weaknesses. Good discussions can occur in class, in late-night
toffee rhopt, or in online chat rooms or on discussion boards'

Reading Logs In our classes, we require students to keep reading logs or journals
in whicñ tháy use freewriting and idea mapping to erplore their ideas as they
encounter *úttipt" perspectivás on an issue. One part of a journal or reading log
should include summaries of each article you read -\nother part should focus on
 CHAPTER 2 Argument as lnqulry

your own dialectic thinking as you interactwith your sources while you are reading
You
ihem. Adapt the questions for promoting dialectic thinking on page 46.
..
going the story of
o me,
A Formal Exploratory Essay A forrnal exploratory e.ssly
-t91ls.
an

intellectual journey. tt is uotn á *uy of promoting dialectical thinking and a

way of
allows The keys to writing successful
narrating ore', struggte to negotiatl multiple views.
sident have an
exploratory essays a.re (1) choósing an issue to explore on which you don't
r\¡e to your mind); (2) wrestling
V'trat *i*"t or"positián (or on which yóu are open to changing
n'rth an isrue o1" problem by resisting quick, simple answers and by exploring
diverse
¡alk to on the
perspectives; *¿ (S) letting your thinking evolve and your own stance issue
grow out of this exPloration.
rdessly
Exploratory eisays can be powerful thinking and writing experiences in their
Iever-
I now
o*r, ,ight, bui tney can also be a valuable precursor to- a formal argument'
Many iístructors assign a formal exploratory paper as the first.stage of a course
Luit.
-argument we
,eseár.h project--wliat might cáll a "thesis-seeking" stage. (The second stage
is a formal that converts your exploratory thinking into a hierarchi-
cally organi t"á urgu^"nt using reasons aná evidence to support your claim.)
Altúougñ often useá as part of á research project, exploratory. essays can also be
lowstaies reflective pieóes narrating the evolution of a writer's thinking during a
class discussion.
An exploratory essay includes these thinking moves and parts:

m The essay is opened and driven by the r,r,riter's issue question or research
problem-
not a thesis.
s The introduction to the essay presents the question and shows why it interests the
writer, why it is significant, and why it is problematic rather than clear-cut or easy
to resolve.
m The body of the essay shows the writer's inquiry pl.ocess. Tt demonstrates how
on
the writer has kept thL question open, sincerely wrestled with different views
the question, accepted uncertainty and ambiguity, atd possibly redefined the
question in the midst of his or her reading and reflection^on multiple perspectives'
* ttr" body of the essay includes summaries of the different views or sources
that the writer explored and often includes believing and doubting responses
to them.
w In the essay's conclusion, the writer may clarifu his or her thinking and discover
be developed and supported in a subsequent argument. But the con-
a thesis to
clusion can also ,"-uin open because the writer may not have discovered his or
her own position on the iisue and may acknowledge the need or desire for more
exploration.

paper'
One of the o*ititrg assignment optiors for this chapter is a formal exploratory
Michael Barrks's explóratory essay on pages 52-57 shows how he explored different
voices in the controversy over illegal immigration'
 50 PART 1 Overview of Argument

Conelusion
of
This chapter has focused on inquiry as a way to enrich your reading and writirrg
five main for deep reading: (1). Use a
*go-"nl. This chapter has offlreá strategies
(2) place readings in
vaiiety of questions and prompts to find an issue to explore;
their rhetorical context; (á) teáa as a believer; (4) read as a doubter; and (5) think
arbicle and incor-
dialectically. This chapter has also shown you how to summarize an
porate summaries intá your own writing, using atbributive tags to distinguish the.ideas
you are summarizing fro- yo,-rt own. If has explained why a reading's rhetorical con-
must be considered itt aty thoughtful response to
iext (purpose, audieice, aná genre)
un *guáent. Finally, it has é-mphasized the importance of dialectic thinking and has

offered the exploratory essay as a way to encourage wrestling with multiple

perspec-

tives rather than seeking early closure'

WRITING ASSIGNMENT An Argument Summary or

a Formal ExploratorY EssaY
a 25o-word summary of an argument
*4¡* t
option 1: An Argument summary write
seiected by your irstructor. Then write a one-sentence summary of
ment. Use as models Michael Banks' summaries of John
the same argu-
Kavanaugh's argument on
immigration (page 43).
iill:1'iÍ'ilx;l
option 2: A Formal Exploratory Essay write an exploratory essay in which
your
you narrate in first-person, chronoiogical order the evolution through time of
inint ing about an isiue ol. problem. Rather than state a thesis or claim, begin with a

'i'ir;il'iili questioír or problem. Then describe your inquiry process as you worked
your way
Follow the guidelines for an exploratory paper
tirrougtmo,ri.., or different views.
you cite the sources you have considered, be sure to
"¡,i,i¡i' showí on page 48-49. \44.ren
use attribuiirr" tug, so that the ieader can distinguish between your own ideas and
use MLA
those of the sources you have summarized. If you use research_sources,
and quotations and for creating a Works Cited at the
documentation for citing ideas
end (see Chapter l7).

Explanation and Organization

An exploratory essay could grow out of class discussion, course readings, field work
and interviewi, or simply the"writer's role-playing of altemative views.
In all cases, the
pup". is not to state and defend a thesis. Its purpose is to-
frrpor" of an exploratory
itirri A¿".tically about á"ftlpf" perspectives, narrating the evolution through time of
^M*y
the writer's thought process. students are inspúed by the open, "behind-the-
scenes" feel of anl*pioratory essay. They enjoy takrng readerc on
the same intellectual
journey theyhave just traveled. A rypical organization plan for an ex-
and emotional
ploratory essay is shown on the next page' I
 CHAPTER 2 Argument as lnqulry 51

Organization Plan for an Exploratory Essay

. Establish that your quest¡on is complex, problematic,

and significant.

lntroduction . Show whY You are interested in it

(one to . Present relevant background on your issue'
several paragraphs)
Begin with your question or build up to ii, using it to
end
your introductory section.

lntroduce your first source and show why you started with
it'

Provide rhetor¡cal context and information about it'

Summarjze the source's content and argument'

offer your response to this source, including both
Body section 1: believing and doubting Points.
First view or source Talk about what this source contributes to your
understanding of your question: What did you learn? What
value does th¡s source have for you? What is missing from this
source that you want to consider? Where do you want
to go
from here?

Repeat the process with a new source selected to advance

the inquirY.
Explain why you selected this source (to find an alternative
view, pursue a sub-question, find more data, and so forth)'
Body section 2: Summarize the source's argument.
Second view or source
Responcl to the source's ideas. Look {or points of agreement
and disagreement with other sources.

Show how your cumulative reading of sources is shaping

your thinking or leading io more questions.

Body sections 3, 4, 5, etc. Cont¡nue exploring views or sources.

. Wrap up your intellectual journey and explain where you

are now in your thinking and how your understanding of your
problem has changed.

Conclusion . Present your current answer to your question based on all

that you have learned so far, or explain why you still can't
answer your question or exptain what research you might
pursue further.
 PART 1 Overview of Argument

subject of illegal immigraüon'

\Ahat follows is Michael Banks's exploratory essay on the
and Reed that you have already
rti, ,"r"*"n begins with the arlicles by Kavanaugh
read and discussed' He then moves off in his own direction'

$houtd the United Ststes Grant legal

Ststus to Undocumented
Immigront Slorkers?
MICIIAEL BANKS {STUDEIVT}

Having grown up in the California Bay Area, I have long been aware
of
Introduction shows
I volunteered through a school pfogram
ihe writer's interest illegal immigration. In high school,
jobs at popular
and investment in to d'eliver frée lunches to Mexican workers waiting for day
the issue, which, in hiring sites such as local hardware stores. one time we even went out to
this case, began with
personal exPerience. on"ofth"farmfieldstodeliverlunches,andsomeoftheworkersscattered
police or im-
when they saw us coming. Apparently they thought we were
migration officials' Although the relationships were not deep or lasting' I
of the workers in my stumbling high-
nai tne opportunity to talk with some
tell me about some of their bad experiences
school Spánish, and they would
such as who wouldn't pay them what was promised' They had no
"roploy.r,
recourse to tlte a complaint because they lacked legal status' Our
program
supervisoroftenstressedtheimportanceofrecognizingtheworkersas
frilnds or equals rather than as charity cases. I often wondered how they
my
could work with such low wages and still live a dignified life. However,
experiences did not push me to consider deeply the reality of being an ille-
gal immigrant.
Writer presents the With this background, I entered our class discussions sympathetic
problem he is going towards the immigrants. However, I also recognizedthat the cheap labor
to investigate. He they provided allowed Americans to keep food prices affordable or to
shows why the
problem is comPlex,
fini workers for any kind of hard day-labor job such as landscaping
significant, and ordiggingupabackyardsepticsysfem.Iamstil]notsufewhethetille-
difficult to resolve. gal immigrants ate taking away jobs that Ameticans want, but I do
The introduction know that I and most of my college friends would not be willing to work
shows his genuine low-paying summer jobs picking tomatoes or weeding lettuce' For this
perplexity. essay, I wanted to look more deeply into this compli-
"*ptótátoty
cated ethical and economic dilemma. I set for myself this question:
what is the best way for the united States to handle the problem of ille-
Writer states his
research question. gal immigration?
 CHAPTER 2 Argument as Inquiry 53

Writer exPlains his Myexplorationbeganwithanarticlethatourinstructorassignedtothe

starting Po¡nt, rvholé chss: "Amnesty?" from America magazine by John
F Kavanaugh'
introduces his first of philosophy at St. Louis university. In this arti-
a Jesuit priest and professor
source, and gives morality of the current U.S. treatment of undoc-
cle, Kaüaugh quistions the
some rhetorical that most immigrants are not criminals
umented immigrants. He points out
context for it. recent in-
but rather hard-working, family-oriented people. He attributes
North American Free Trade Agreement and the
Writer summarizes creases in immigration io the
that anti-immi-
ihe article. poverty it causes among rural Mexican farmers. He also notes
hostility" (40) for these persons and strongly
g*tion groups have a.(eething
or legal status. Kavanaugh disagrees with these
iesist añ granting of amnesty
and hu-
groups, utgo*g tñat a nationthat identifies itself as "Judeo-Christian
teaching, "higher law," and the courageous ex-
irarre,' should follow biblical
ampleofleaderssuchasMarlinLutherKirtg,Jr.,inchallengingunjustlaws
Attirough admitting that unreshained immigration would help
nobody'
1+O;.
i<uí*urgf, exhorts the cáunffy to give "legal status to anyone uüo contributes
be used to re-
to our coirmon good,' (a0). He recommends thatac,ítizenpanel
view an immigrant's status and make recommendations for amnesty.
Writer includes
believing and i found Kavanaugh's article to be quite persuasive. This article could par-
agreeing with
cloubting Points as ticularly inspire its Catholic readers, and I too had an easy time
he discusses what he In fact, he reminded me of the director of my
much of what Kavanaugh says.
learned from this
article and how it highschooloutreachp.g'u-.Iliketheargumentthatpeoplewhocontribute
to'the community should not be labeled as "illegal" as if they are
inthe same
influenced his
category as thieves or welfare cheaters. But I wasn't
thinking on his yet convinced that the
research question. laws"governing immigration were "unjust" in the same way that segregation
country has the right to control who en-
laws were unjust. It seems to me that a

tersthecountry,butdoesn,thavetherighttomakecertainpeoplesitinthe
back of the bus. So the references to Martin Luther KingS
fighting unjust laws
I was still caught in the dilemma. Also, I saw
Here the writer didnl quite connect with me. So
argument' First' it may-not be
doubts the article ,o*" oth", major problems with Kavanaugh's
and challenges some fairtoapply¡udeo-C¡ristianethicstoevefyoneinthecountry,especiallycon-
of its ideas. to reli-
siderinjour Constitutional separation ofchurch and state. His appeal
to persuade christians to volunteer for a
gious üeüefs may be appropriate
of having a
Iause but not to change á secular nation's laws. Also, his solution
especially for handling the number of illegal
citizen panel seemed impractical,
doesn't address the economic side of this ar-
immigrants. Finally, Kavanaugh
would be to granting
g,r_;. He didn'ihelp me see what the disadvantages
á*tt.tty to millions of undocumented workers'
Writer moves to his s My next article, which the class also read togethe4 was from The
next source and . American Conservative titled "Why Blame Mexico?"
by Fred Reed'
provides some AccordingtoReed'sbiographicalsketchontheWeb(..FredonEverything:
rhetorical context, and world
Biograph|,,), Reed is un .*_.narirr., former scientist, wanderer
Including information Times, and
about the author. travéter, io*", law_enforcement columnist for the washington
journalist currently living in Mexico' He is known for his
a freelance
54 PART 1 Overview of Argumeni

Writer summarizes provocative columns. Reed's article was hard to summarize because it
the article. jumps around and is very sarcastic. His overall view is best exemplified by
t ir,r".y first statement: "To grasp American immigration policy, one needs
only rernember that the United States frowns on smoking while subsidizing
tobacco growers" (47). Reed argues that illegal immigration occurs not
mainly bécause there are millions of impoverished Mexicans in need of
work, but because liberals feel good about tolerating them and because
..fc]onservative Republican businessmen favor immigration...because
they want cheap labor that actually shows up and works" (47). Reed points
orri thut Mexico itself is clear and consistent in its own immigration poli-
cies: Immigrants into Mexico must possess clear residency papers, must
have regular monthly earnings, and must be fluent in Spanish. In contrast to
Kavanaugh, who focuses on immigrants, Reed focuses on the Americans
who hire them; withoutAmericans wanting cheap labor, immigrants would
have no reason to cross the border. He takes it for granted that illegal immi-
grants should not be given legal status. Reed offers no solutions for the tan-
gl.d *"rr of u.S. treatment of illegal immigrants, but underscores the fact
that it is this country's self-created problem.
Writer shows his Reed's article pulled me back away from Kavanaugh's call for amnesty' It
dialectical thinking, made me see more clearly the entangled economic issues. Many American
as he weighs the citizens want a source of cheap labor. Reed in contrast, wants to eliminate
ideas of this source
cheap labor. If we followed the logical path thal Reed seems to propose,
against those in his
first article. He we'üstart jailing employers in order to cut offthe job supply. At this point in
explores points of my research, the status quo seemed to be a better situation. If cheap labor is
disagreemeni so important to Americab economy and if a low paying job in the United
between these two States is better than no job, perhaps some kind of legal status other than
sources.
amnesty and citizenship would help resolve the situation. My head was spin-
Wriier shows how ning because I could picture all my classmates who would disagree with my
he is wrestling with last sentence! At this point, I felt I needed to explore other approaches to this
the ideas in this controversy.
source.
The day after I read the Reed article, I was talking with a friend who
suggested I watch a recent movie about immigration calledunder the same
Móán. I figured it would be a fun diversion, if nothing e1se, and rented it.
Writer explains his The movie tells the tale of a nine-year-old boy, carlitos, who lives with his
movement to his grandmother until she dies and then sets out to cross the border illegally to
next source. iin¿ frir mother, who has been working several jobs at once as an undocu-
He summarizes the mented immigrant for four years in Los Angeles. The dramatic story-
ploi of the film. shown from the dual perspective of mother and son-highlights many of
the dangers faced by the immigrants themselves: separation from family
membeis and support networks, exploitatioa by border-crossing agencies,
INS raids onjob sites, and dangerousjobs such as picking pesticide-coated
tomatoes, just to name a few. The main characters' immigrant laborer status
also draws attention to the undeniable humanity of immigrants'
 2 Argument as lnquiry 55
CHAPTER

synpathy for illegal immigrants but

:'iter discusses and This film works powerfu1ly to create
.',
p'ouiO"O by Kavanaugh' I cannot help
:ralyzes the ideas in without the explicit ,"ligi'o"; touting
:'-e film by but admire the sacrifices *lá"lt
l--igra* rloikers who leave behind chil-
::eseniing believing pto'iid" a brighter tuture for their''l:ved
dren and familv in
"tdJ;;;;io are separated from their young children'
ones. In cases where t;úá-
doubting Points.
'':d
granting these parents l";fftatus;uld
he$uite families more quickly and
,','lter mentions comes with being separated. while
allowing
:'oblems the source could ease the great puin-tt''ut
': ses for him' them the opporlunity t" i"tg" '
ú"o"tlife' On the other hand' families would
great sympathy
were sent back to Mexico' The
also be reunited if trre parerits
mean that granting amnesty
I feel for illegal immig'uni' ¿o"*n't necessarily in-
while the film evokes compassion for
and citizenship is the u.ri,ár",i*. problem'
the magnitude of the
dividual immigrants' it does not address
a **U"t oifim, about iúegal immigration a1d. immi-
,',riter exPlains his I had heard about film' so i headed
continue with another
-- ¡ice of another grants' experiences u"i t""tt¿ to *-
one of the workers O l-t'":"]d l:-tli::
' 'li. back to Blockbuster u"¿ ustt"¿
immigration' What I came up with
wards a recent docum"itu'V-ot'iff"gal
documentary or "mockumentary)'
was A Day Wthout o Un*i'on'a
m*oct<
r l'ief summary complete disappearance of the entire
Latino
:':pares for his The movie's plot imagines the grinds to a com-
The state
, sct-tssion. ;;;il"; in Curiro*iu, uottr tegai and.111eea1'
1 plete halt, widespread;il:;cír;' * !i.:t' restaurants' supermarkets'
0 orchards,farms,schools,andconsfuctionservicesarecompletelydysfunc-
e tional. The story and t;;;"
oitit" fim viciously sattize anti-immigrant
and waffling politicians' I
the news media, the border patrol'
,','r:er Presents some organizations, for ñrther information, as I was
curi-
n -'¡rnrátion about visited the movie,s w;;r" ,"'*arch hit; it took in
saw this film as a
Latino audience
is "-¿rhetorical ous about its reception' The in Southern
d : - -;iext of this film, the second best per uo"'uge the weekend it was released
m
- iruding statements '"'"""
accorOinglo tht g";t'ut sales manager
of Televisa Cine' A Day
California.
-'--:r.n the directors
thaf there is not only a broad
t-
.'-i details about Without a Mexican'st""t*J:t"¿erscores
- :','. it was first Hispanic audience *tto tu"t'
to see this film' but also a significant
ry
while the director' Sergio Arau' and lead
ús ¡elved' crossover audience," change
=
add "we still believe we can
actress/screenwrit"t, Yat"liLizmendi'
('Missing Jose Found")
ho *"ü"Jtiffii'[T#J
the world one screen at a time"
ofrice suggests to me
a rorr qnrl
+L^+ Arau
-^^ ^ that and
ne L ,n. üox
tn"t Latino immigration
it. Arizmendi huu" ,"u"uúi itte important rytftworks bv exaggeration' but
his makes california a uettei!l;;;'
iÉcomtc film
without immigrants is easy to believe'
to its image of a helpless'Citiio"tiu
tfte rest of the country'
;u- Since California, and ptJt"-lufv :11t:,::i?:ttt
iiwould make very little sense to create new lmmlgra-
lie in
of "ÑrÁl"t-rgránts,
that made ";;"tht;"*tquo worse' Perhaps a solution might
tion policies
ú1v somehow recognizing
;"t'dof immigrants' as '4 Day Without a
ii" the status quo of paying
ies, Mexícansuggests l' i*üt-t"tt'-*f 'rru*tu*ining
A moral dilemma remains'
red them wages lorver thullq;;¡"u" 'tun¿u'ds justice'
places economics above
howeveq because this approach
 PART 1 Overview of Argument

Writer takes stock of At this I decided to review some of the possible "solutions" that I
stage,
solution,
his develoPing had encounteied so far to the illegal immigration problem. One
views, sorting out humanity of immigrants, is to offer them amnesty,
based on our valuing the
what he has learned legal status, and evenfual citizenship. Another, based on our valuing
the eco-
so far and what he is the quo. Still another solu-
nJnic benefits ofcheap labor, is to keep status
currently thinking. or by
tion is to get rid of illegal aliens altogether either by deporting them
jailing their employers and thus eliminating their source of income. None of
ihese options appealed to me. In search of another approach, I decided to
head foi the library to do more research. A friendly reference librarian
sug-
He explains whY he
thinks he needs to gested that I start with a couple of overview articles ftom cQ Researcher.
continue exPloring Íhese articles, which I just skimmed, provided some background informa-
the issue and tion, statistical data on immigration, and summaries of different bi1ls before
expand the diversity I be-
of views he Congress. I found my head swimming with so many little details that
examines. gan iosing the big picture about an actual direction I wanted to go. However,
óne idea that kept emerging from the CQ Researcher was the possibility
of
He narrates his guest worker programs. I decided I wanted to find out more about what
research path and these programs were. with the reference librarian's guidance, I used
explains his Academic search camplete to find a number of articles on guest worker
selection of sources.
programs. I also entered "guest worker program" into Google and found a
number of bloggers supporting or attacking guest worker programs'
Writer introduces his I focused first on al editorial "That's Hospitality" from The Nau Republic,
next source and a news commentary magazine that is in the political center, neither domi-
summarizes it. nantly liberal nor conservative. The editorial opposes a congressional bill that
would establish a guest worker program wherein businesses could hire for-
eigners as "guest workers" for up to six years. These workers would be
granted temporary legal status, but they would have to return to their home
country when the six years were up. Although supporters of the bill called it
..humane,, and ..compassionate," the editorial writer opposes it because it is
..un-American." No other group of immigrants, the editorial states, has been
treated this way-as second class transients who had no opportunify to make a
full life in America. The article compares this proposed guest worker program
to similar programs in Europe after WWII where workers from Eastem
Europe or Turkey came to countries like Germany or Netherlands and stayed
but never assimilated. What the article supports instead is an alternative bill
Writer responds to ,.temporary worker" status but allows workers to apply for a green
that grants
this source and
card after six years and for citizenship after five more years'
explains the current
siatus of his thinking This article excited me because it seemed to promote a compromise that
about his research tumed undocumented workers who were aflaid of getting caught and deporled
question. He looks hto persois with legal status and with the hope of eventually becoming citi-
for points of ,"nr. It shared the pro-immigrant spirit of Kavanaugh wtd under the same
agreement among Moonbut didn't directly undermine the economic benefits provided by cheap
this source and
others he has labor. Rather than offering direct amnest.v. it specified a waiting period of at
consulied. least eleven years before a person could appl¡' lor citizenship. Although this
article did not speciff how the United States might manage the volume and rate
 CHAPTER 2 Argument as lnquiry 57

ofpeople seeking guest worker and then citizen status, I thought that this pro-
posal would be the position I would like to argue for in a later persuasive paper.
,'.',ter decides to But I decided next to look at the negative side ofa guest worker program
:- rtilrue exploring and was amazed at how many anti-immigration groups hated this bill. one
' s qLrestion by
provocative blog "Guest worker Program Illusion" is by a freelance writer
_ -.king at a source
. :i opposes his Frosty wooldridge, who maintains his own web site aimed at combating "over-
- :ceding one. He population and immigration." According to his blog site he has wriften hun-
: . es informatlon dreds of articles for seventeen national and two international magazines and
r--.ut ihe rhetorical has been an invited speaker on environmental issues at many universities.
-:rrext of this wooldridge favors shict border enforcement and deportation of anyone who
j, rrce. particularly
,-:iut the blogger. has illegally entered the country. He sees all forms of guest workerprogftrms as
arffiesty that will lead to overpopulation and an increasing welfare burden on
- = sumrnarizes the middle-class Americans who try to provide services for the guest workers. He
-"=as in his blog. also argues that the guest workers will suppress wages for American workers.
, 'iier shows how His strategy is to point out all the problems that the guest worker program will
r s solrrce has open up: Can the guest worker bring his or her family? Will children born to
:alienged the ideas guest workers automatically be u.S. citizens? Must the states provide tax-payer
' ine preceding
supported schools and hospital services for the guest workers? If so, must the
-:rce, complicated
'e issue, and raised schools be bilingual? will guest workers pay social security taxes and thus be-
-':ortant questions come eligible for social security? Will they be eligible for Workers
hir.rr. compensation if they get hurt on the job? will their older children get in-state
rates at public universities? will their younger children be covered by child
: :lrough he has not labor laws? will they actually leave after six years or simply revert back to
v worked out his undocumented illegal status?
;ri'er to
>!r,cr [u rhis
il> .15
All these problems raised by woolridge were never mentionedinthe New
=searCh question, Republic editorial, and they severely dampened my spirits. As I end this ex-
sunrs Lrp how h¡s
':ir.,s have evolved. ploratory paper, I still have a number of articles left to read and much reft to
:= explains how his learn, but I think I have a pretty good grasp ofwhat the issues and disagree-
=ac'ing and thinking
';'"'e ments are. I definitely think that the plan supporting a guest worker program
deepened and with the chance of eventual citizenship is the best approach. But it has to be
- erified his views on
. ' s issue,
linked with other approaches also, including ways to improve the economies
of Mexico and other Latin American countries so that poor people wouldn't
-1. sketches a path have to come to the united states to find work. My hope is that many of the
-: might follow in objections raised by woolridge are solvable. rhave reabzed from my inquiry
'-.:ther exploration that my heart is with the immigrants and that I don't share woolridge's de-
-'nis question. sire to close America off from future immigration.

Works Cited
: Wcrks Cited page A Day Without a Mexican. Dir. Sergio Arau. Xenon pictures, 2004. DVD.
: MLA format lists Kavanaugh, John F. 'Amresfy?" Atnerica 10 March 2008: 8. print.
:-- e sources "Missing Jose Found: Walks His tr/ay to Box Office Success Throughout
-rnsulted and
: scussed in tlris Southern California." ADWAM Netus. A Day Without a Mexican, n.d.
:sSay. Web. 12 July 2008.
58 PART 1 Overv¡ew of Argument

Consett¡ative l0 March
Reed, Fred. "Why Blame Mexico?" The American
2008: 35. Print.
"That's Hospitality." New Republic 17 April 2006: 1' Academic Search
Complete' Web' 30 August 2008'
(Jnder the same Moon. Dir] patricia Riggen.
perf.AdrianAlonso, Kate del
2O08' DVD'
Castillo, Eugenio Derbez' Twentieth Century Fox'
s' c om'
Woolridge, Frosiy. "Guest Worker Program Illusion'" Newswithviqw
2 Dec. 20A5. Web. 22 MaY 2008'

For additional vwiting readin& and research resources, g0 t0

www.mycomplab.com
 ..l -.sil$ng. lvieendEtrécti\retyr.:,r,..''.,,....1,,,,,
.,r, A .frAwingm¡f*ud,ien ce: Et!]ggi F,o{k},s,:' a*ú:,Kaf
:: ray :

,':'7,.,Résponding to,Ob¡ections d, Alternative'Views

Lara croft engaged ¡n one of

.1.is still from lneTomb Roidervideo game series features main character
.rer iyprcal combats with humans, beasts, or supernatufal creatures. Lara, an adventuref and archeologist'

:epresents lloth a sexualized ancl an empowereci wonlan. \./cmen ancl

violent video games are the focus
gender roles
lÍ student carmen Tieu's argument cleveloped in chapters 3-5; hcwever, carmen explores
jrom perspective of a woman playing a "n¡ale" video game' Halo'
the
 ffi?s'€$ff# $#' ffi f # t
& Cla*x,tx ,w,** e&$&ffi$,'.

In Pafi One we explained that argument combines kuth seeking with persuasron.
Part One, by highlighting the importance of exploration and i"qu"y, emphasizes
the truth-seeking dimension of argument. The suggested *itirg assignments in
Part One included a variety of exploratory tasks: freewriting, pluyitg the believ-
ing and doubting game, and *iting a formal exploratory essay. In Part Two we
show you how to convert your exploratory ideas rnto a thesis-govemed classical
aqgument that uses effective reasons and eüdence to support its claims. Each
chapter in Pafi Two focuses on a key skill or idea needed for responsible and
effective persuasion.

The Classical Structure of Argument

Classical argument is pattemed after the persuasive speeches of ancient Greek
and Roman orators. In traditional Latin terminologr, the main parts of a persua-
sive speech are the uordium, in which the speaker gets the audience's attention;
the narratin, which proüdes needed background; th'e propositio, which is
the speaker's claim or thesis; the pañüio, which forecasts the maln parts of the
speech; tJte confirmatio, which presents the speaker's arguments supporting
the claim; the confutatio, which summarizes and rebuts opposing üews; and the
peroratio, which concludes the speech by summing up the argument, calling for
action, and leaving a strong, Iasting impression. (Of course, you don't need to re-
member these tongue-twisting Latin terms. We cite them only to assure you
that in *itirg a classical argument you are joining a time-honored tradition that
links back to the origins of democracy.)
Let's go over the same territory again using more contemporary terms.
We provide an organization plan showing the structure of a classical argu-
ment on page 61, which shows these typical sections:
w The introduction. Writers of classical argument ffpically begin with an
attention grabber such as a memorable scene, illustrative story, or star-
tling statistic. They continue the introduction by focusing the issue-often
by stating it directly as a question or b}, briefly summarizing opposing
views-and providing needed background and context. They conclude
the introduction by presenting their clarm (thesis statement) and forecast-
ing the argument's shucture.

60
 CHAPTER 3 The Core of an Argument 61

Organization Plan for an Argument with a Classical Structure

. Exordium . Attention grabber (often a memorable scene)

. Ngrrgtio Introduction . Explanation of issue and needed background

(one to
. Propositio . Writer's thesis (claim)
several paragraphs)
, Partitio . Forecasting passage

j,
. Main body of essay

Presentation cf writer's . Presents and supports each reason in turn

. Confirmotio
position . Each reason is tied to a value or belief held
by the audience

i;¡ ,

Summaryof opposing Summary of views differing from writer's

views (should be fair and complete)

i
. Confutatio l;
Refutes or concedes to opposing views
Response to opposing Shows weaknesses in opposing views
views
May concede to some strengths
j
',n
Brings essay to closure

Often sums up argument

. Peroratio Conclusion Leaves strong last impression

Often calls for action or relates topic

to a larger context of issues

The presentation of the lwitet's position. The presentation of the writer's own
position is usually the longest part of a classical argument. Here writers present the
reasons and evidence supporting their claims, typically choosing reasons that tie into
their audience's values, beliefs, and assumptions. Usually each reason is developed in
its ov¡n paragraph oI sequence of paragraphs. \&/hen a paragraph introduces a new
reason, writers state the reason dit".fly and then suppolt it with evidence or a chain
of ideas. Along the way, writers guide their readers with appropriate hánsitions.
The summary and critique of alternative üews. \\{hen summaruingand respond-
ing to opposing üews, writers have several options. If there are several opposing argu-
ments, writers may summarize all of them together and then compose a single
response, or they may summarize and respond to each argument in turn. As we will
explain in Chapter 7, writers may respond to opposurg views either by refuting them
or by conceding to their strengths and shifturg to a different field of values.
62 PART 2 Writing an Argument

#Theconclusion.Finally,intheirconclusion,writersSumuptheirargument,often
callingro',o*"kindofacfon,therebycreatingasenseofclosureandleavinga
strong final imPression'

Inthisorganization'thebodyofaclassicalargumenthastwomajorsecüons-the al-
and the Jther summarizing and critiquing
one presentini the writer's own position writer's own posi-
ternative,t"*1jñ;;;;*J"li"i pr* *Jo,n discussion
have the
tol"""t order. (In chapter 7 we consider the
tion coming first, but it is possible "tnat
factors affecting this choice')
Forallitsstrengths,analgumentwithaclassicalstructuremaynotalways by de-
some cases' you may be more effective
be your most persuasive strategy',In or by showing great
views altogether,
laying yo,r, ifi"rir, by ignorinf'altlrnative however' the
7)' u""'l these cases'
sympathy fb;Jiñ;itg-"'i"*ti'""-Cttupter jts -- and a
call for a thesis statement
classical structure is a useful ptun.rirrg'tool. whole of your argu-
helps you
forecasting statement in the introducíion ::: 'h"
mentinminiature.Andbyrequiringyoutosummarizeandconsideropposing
views, trr" .iu"itur structure "l¿;;?;
to the limits of your position and to the
show, the classical stmcture cre-
need for further reasons and evidenóe. As we will or
-áJ" or u.gument when you address a neutral
ates is a particularly persuasive
undecided audience'

Classical Appeals and the Rhetorical

Triangle
Besidesdevelopingatemplateorstructureforanargument,classicalrhetori
cians analyzJ;;;r";iiiat effectiv"
rp"..'"t-persuadld their audiences' They
identifiedthreekindsofpersuaslv"upp.ur',*nicht]re¡calledlogos,ethos,and
a rhetorical context illustrated
pathos.Th"r"";;;;ñ "J u" ,rn¿át.iJtJ within speaker, and audience (see
by a triangr" *iir, p"i"ts labeled message, writer--or
to all thróe points on this rhetorical
Figure 3.1). Effeciivé arguments p"y ui[ír-n
to one of the three
"oo"{Jur*r"3.1 shows, each point on the triangle corresponds
Persuasive aPPeals:

wtrogos(Greekfor..word,,)focusesattentiononthequalilyofthemessage_thatis,on
logic of its reasons
trr" .t"*J."*irt"".v and of the argument itself and on the
clanf
and support. The impact of logosár
* is referred to as its logbal appeal'

w Ethos (Greek for

;character") focusesattention on the writer's (or speaker's)
",r¿l""nce
It refers to the credibility of the
character as it is projected i" th; Á"rrug".
writer. Ethos is often conveyed through
the tone and style of the m€ssage'
alternative views' and through
through ú;;r;" with which ifr" r*it"tZonsiders
thewriter,sinvestmentinhisorherclaim,Insomecases,it'salsoafunctionof
expertise rndependent of the message'
trre *ritárt ,"prrorrn for honesty and
to as its ethicql appeal or appeal
rhe irrrpa"i or'ithoron an audienáe is referted
from uedibilitY
 CHAPTER 3 The Core of an Argument 63

Message
LOCOS: How con I make the argument
intern ally consistent on d logical ?
How can I find the best reasons ond
support them with the best evidence?

Audience Writer or SPeaker

ETHOS: How can t Present mYself
J
: PATHOS: How can I make the reoder
et'fectivelY? How can I enhonce mY
open to mY message? How con I best
cr edib¡tity and tr ustwo rthin ess ?
: aiippeol to mY readef s values and
interests? How can Iengage mY
,I
reader emot¡onotly and imaginat¡vely?

FIGURE 3.1 The rhetorical triangle

the values and be-

¡a Pathos(Greek fbr "suffering" or "experience") focuses attention on
It is often associated with emotional appeal' Bl]if pathos
liefs of the intended audien"ce.
sympathies;their capacity to
.J ;ñ";" -or. ,p""ifi.uily to an uudi"rrce's imaginative
'Ihj.rr, we tum the abstractions of
feels and
feel and see what tt e ,r.ite, ,""r. when
story' we are making a pathetic ap-
iágr"ul discourse rnto a tangble and immediate
cu'tfurther an audrence's intellectual assent
peal. \\rylereas upp"ufr to tígo, ethos
^rd imagination and feelings, moving the audi-
to our claim, upp"ur, iopo rio,
"ngug"the significance'
ence to a deepei appreclation of the argument's
s of logos, e,thos, and pathos' is
A related rhetorical concept, connected to the appeal
"right dmé,; "t"uson," or "opportunity'" This
that of kairos,from the G.""t *-d for
persuasive, its timing must be effectively
concept suggests that for an argument to bá
or measure. Jou may have.had
chosen and its torr" arrJ structíre in right próportion
then hesitating before click-
the experien." or .o-porirf * *go-á"tative e-mail and
message? Is my audience
i"g ih;;t""a,, button. Is tni", tfr" ilht moment to send this
be more effective if I waited for a
ready to hear what rrrrsuy-gz woit¿ my argument
I change its to19 and content? This
couple of days? tt r s"náiniso*"rrug" noiu, súould
aftentiveness to ttre unfolái"g of dli" is
nüat is meant by-kairos' W9 will return to this
in Chapter 6, when íe consider ethos u:rd pathos in
more depth'
"""."p, appeali, let's turn now to logos-the logic
Given this background on the classical
and structure of arguments'
64 PART 2 Wriiing an Argument

Issue Questions as the Origins of Argument

At the heart of any argument is an issue, which we can define as a controversial topic
area such as "the labeling of biotech foods" or'racial profiling," that gives rise to differing
points of üew and conflicting claims. A writer can usually focus an issue by asking an is-
sue question that invites at least two altemative answers. Wittdn any complex issue-for
example, the issue of abortion-there are usually a number of separate issue questions:
Should abortions be legal? Should the federal govemment authorize Medicaid payments
for abortions? \\4ren does a fetus become a human being (at conception? at three
months? at quickening? at birth?)? \44rat are the effects of legalizing aborlion? (One per-
son might stress that legaltzed abortion leads to greater fleedom for women. Another
person might respond that it lessens a society's respect for human life.)

Difference tretween an Issue Question

and an Information Question
Of course, not all questions are issue questions that can be answered reasonably in two or
more differing ways; thus not all questions can lead to effective arguments. Rhetoricians
have traditionatly distingushed between upkcation, which is rwiting that sets out to inform
or explain, and argumattation, which sets out to change a reader's mind. On the surface, at
least, this seems like a useful distinction. If a reader is interested in a writer's question
mainly to gain new knowledge about a subject, then the writer's essay could be considered
explication rather than argument According to this üeW the following questions about
teenage pregnancy might be called information questions rather than issue questions: lt
How does the teenage pregnancy rate in the United States compare \ dth the rate in
Sweden? If the rates are different, why?

Although both questions seem to call for information rather than for argument, we
believe that the second one would be an issue question if reasonable people disagreed
on the answer. Thus, different writers might agree that the teenage pregnancy rate in the
United States is seven times higher than the rate in Sweden. But they might disagree
about why. One writer might emphasize Sweden's practical, secular sex-education
courses, leading to more consistent use of contraceptives among Swedish teenagers.
Another writer might point to the higher use of oral conhaceptives among teenage girls
in Sweden huttly a result of Sweden's generous national health program) and to less re-
liance on condoms for preventing pregnancy. Another mrght argue that moral decay in
the United States or a breakdown of the traditional family is at fault. Thus, undemeath
the surface of what looks like a simple explication of the "huth" is really a controversy.

How to ldentify an Issue Question

You can generally tell whether a question is an issue question or an information ques-
tion by examining your purpose in relationship to your audience. If your relationship to
your audience is that of teacher to learner, so that vou¡ audience hopes to gain new
 CHAPTER 3 The Core of an Argument

your question is prob-

information, knowledge, oI understanding that you possess, then
is that of advo-
ably an information question. But if your relationship to your audience
or jury, so that your audience needs to make up its mind on
cate to decision maker
question you address is an
somethlrrg and is weighing difietetrt points of view, then the
issue question.
oftenthesamequestioncanbeaninformationquestioninonecontextandanis-
sue question in another. Let's look at the following examples:

question, be-
e How does a diesel engine work? (This is probably an information
peopie who know about diesel engines will probably agree on
cause reasonable
'quertlon
how they *ork. ihi, would be posed by an audience. of new learners')
w Why is a diesel engine-more fuel efficient than a gasoline engine? (This also seems
to be an informatlon question, because all experls will probably agree on
the
seems to be new learners, perhaps students in
answer. once again, thé audience
an automotive class.)
(This
w \&4rat is the most cost-effective way to produce diesel fuel from crude oil?
addressing new
could be an infomation question if experts agree and you ale
and one engineer says process X is the
learners. But ifyou are addiessing engineers
*guét for process Y, then the question is an issue
most cost-effective and another
question.)
a Should the present highway tax on diesel fuel be increased? (This is certainly an is-
sue question. Orre peñon ,uy, y"'; another says no; another
offers a compromise')

a a =,. FOR CTASS DIS(USSION lnformation Questions vefsus lssue Questions

questions
working as a class or in small $oups, try to decide whic\ of the following
could be ei-
are information qrr"rtion, a"a ihicn ur" itt.t" questions. Many
of them
create hypothetical con-
ther, dependirrg ot the rhetorical context. For such questions,
texts to show Your reasoning'
failing?
1. \44rat percentage of public schools in the united states are
2. \44rat is the cause off'itittg public schools in the United States?

3. What is the effect of üolent TV shows on children?

4. Is genetically modified corn safe for human consumption?
5. Should u *ó** with newly detected breast cancer opt for a radical mastectomy
(complete removal of the bieast and surrounding lymph tissue) or a lumpectomy
(removal of the malignant lump without removat of thé whole breast)? ffi I I

Difference tletween a Genuine Argument and a Pseudo-Argument

answers, not every
Although every argument features an issue question with altemative
dispute orr"I. *r*ér, is a rational argument. Rational arguments
require two additional
of reasonable
factors: (1) reasonable participants who operate within the conventions
starting place or
behaüor *¿ iZ) poteniiatty sharable assumptions that can serve as a
disagreements
foundation fot tfrá argumeni. Lacking one or both of these conditions,
remain stalled at the level of pseudo-arguments'
66 PART 2 Writing an Argument

pseudo-Arguments: Fanatical Believers and Fanatical skeptics A reasonable

disputants may modify their
argument assumes ttr" p"*i¡llty o{ Sr9u,'tfr and
change;
,fféttgth-t in an alternative üew or weaknesses in their
üews as they acknowüag"
degenerates to pseudo-
own. such $owth beco'm", iripossible-and argument
disputants are fanatically committéd ,o their positions. Consider the
*gorn*t-*ñen
caie ofthe fanatical believer or the fanatical skeptic'
Fanatical believers believe that their claims are
true because they say so, p"log
knee-jerk predictability' their
often fanatical believers follow some parly line with
texts' Web
ideological conuictiorrs often shaped Uy tftét favorite,
not-to-be-disputed
their butions on global warming,
sites, blogs, or radio shows. once you,ve pushed
other issue' you can expect only
welfare, abortion, gun control, gay marriagá, or some is
with a fanatical believer
a banage of never-changi,,g p'á"outtt"-é"t¡
Disagreeing
crashing wave'
tiü ora?ring the surf to!"i".i down' The only respons"1:..Toth-"t of proving anything' So
The fanatical skeptic, in contrast, dismissls th-e possibility
That's proof that it will rise
what if the sun has rir"" L*ty day of recorded history? 1o
proof, *nch never exists, fanatical skeptics accept noth-
tomorrow. Short of
"U*f"t" can hope for is increased audience adherence to
-g, r" a world where the mást we logical demonstration of our
our ideas, the fanaticJ rt"ptl" demands an ironclad, genuine arsr-
;1"-,r rightness. In üe presence of fanatical believers or skeptics, then'
ment is imPossible.

Assumptions A reasonable
Another source of Pseudo-A¡guments: l¿ck of shared
the participants share common assumptions on
ffient is difficutt to conducíunless geomehy, these shared assumptions
which the argument can be grounded. Like u"io-t in
the following conversation' in which
serve as the starting p"-if"? the argument. Consider
Randall refi-ses to accept Rhondas assumptions:

RHoNDA: Smoking should be banned because it causes

cancer'
that?
RANDALL: So it causes cancer' \A4rat's so bad about
suffering and death'
RHoNDA: Don't be perverse, Randy' Cancer causes
suffering and death are just
RANDATL: Rhonda, my dear girl, don't be such a twinkie'
pafi of the human condition'
But that doesn't make them desirable, especially when
they can be avoided'
RHONDA:
for a whjle, but in the long run'
RANDALL: Perhaps in particular cases they're avoidable
what's inevitable anyway?
we all suffer urr¿ *"'all die, so who cares if smoking causes

This,wewouldsuggest,isadoomedargument.Withoutarrysharedassumptions
and death de-
(for example, ttrat canZJr is bad, that suffeñng should be minimized
*bottom" to this argument, regress of reasons based
iayed), thére,, no ¡ust an endless
is a legitimate way to
on more reasons. Although calling aisumptions into
question
complicate orlr understanding of an issue, unrvilLingness to accept any as-
á".p"n and
sumption makes argument impossible'
 CHAPTER 3 The Core of an Argument 67

Lack of shared assumptions often dooms arguments about purely personal opinions-
for example, someone's clarm that opera boring or that puzais better than nachos' Of
js

course, a pizza-rrersus-nachos argument might be possible if the disputants agreed on a

criterion such as the value of bJanced nutrition. For example, a nutritionist could argue
I)^rat pizzais better than nachos because it proüdes more balanced nutrients per calorie.
But if one of the disputants responds, "Nah, nachos are better than pizza because nachos
taste better," then hé makes a different assumption-"My sense of taste is better than your
sense of taste." This is a wholly personal standard, an assumption that others are urable
to share.

f a",; FOR CTASS DISCUSSION Reasonable Arguments versus Pseudo-Arguments

The following questions can all be answered in alternative ways. However, not all of
them will lead tó reasonable arguments. Try to decide which questions will lead to
rea-
sonable arguments and which will lead only to pseudo-arguments.
1. Are the Star Wars frlms good science fiction?
2. Is postmodern architecture beautiful?
3. Should cities subsidize professional sports venues?
4. Is this abstract oil painting by a monkey smearing paint on a canvas a hrre work of art?
5. Are nose rings *a to"gu" ttudsatfractive? ffi f I

Frame of an Argument: A Claim supported by Reasons

We said earlier that an argument originates ín an issue question, which by definition
is any question that prouok"t disagreement about the best answer. \Vhen you write
un uigo-"nt, your tásk is to take a position on the issue and to support it with rea-
sons ánd evidónce. The claim of your essay is the position you want your audience
to accept. To put it another way, your claim is your essay's thesis statement, a one-
sentence summary answer to yáur issue question. Your task, then, is to make a claim
and suppoft it with reasons.

\[&at Is a Reason?
A reason(also called a premise) is a claim used to support another claim' In speaking or
rwiting, a reason is usually linked to the claim with connecting words such as because,
since,"for, so, thus, conseqiently, and therefore, indicating that the claim follows logically
foom the reason.
Let's take an example. In one of our recent classes a female naval ROTC student
argued that women shóuld be allowed to serve on submarines. A heated discussion
qr-ickly followed, expanding into the more general issue of whether women should be
ulto*á to join military units. Here are frameworks the class developed for
two alternative positions
"o-but
on that issue:
68 PART 2 Writing an Argument

joining mititary combat units.

:ffJt"#"men should be barred from
or endurance for
part don't iave the strength
nsason 1: woln"r, for the most
bv introducing
wourd hurt unit morale
;Tlfi ;:t"t;,,'"" in close-knit combat units
have the
beel sociarized into fighters and wouldn't
l"#fi:-tr;men haven't
f"y"""t' spirit that men can get'
"Kill them with a

REASON4:Womenwoulduelessreliabletoacombatunitiftheybecamepregnant
or small children'
or had to care tor infants

AlternativeView units in the military'

allowed io join combat
cL{IM: Women should be
nERsoNl:MillionsofwomenarlstrongerandmoreOll:tutt'fitthanmost
men;women'"i:;;ii";;;*¡*¿"'vl3il¿nuu'theitrengthandendurance
for the job. would help society over-
as combat sold'iers
nsRsoN 2: The image of women
:ome hannrul gender stereotypmg'
harrriful gencrer "*'":"::::' the lraq war'
combat effectiveness in
come
already nr^\/en
proven col
Rg¡,son 3: Women
have
*fl"t"
where there are no o"ttt
front tl'1":^_,ó
lines' in
ñ^re nnnorbr,rnities for career advancement
nsasox r' women 1"]1d h"Y: combat
Kx't¡uLr 4: l:T":T-?i"
unrts'
ld serve in
the military if theY cou
';lil*"r.**"' to ser-ve in combat units
promotes equai righis'
|""^il|'il
in narts In the
,, j;:T"_;;.'r;a.i*;il;;;'v*'
Formulatingalistofreasonsinthis.waybreaksyourargrrmentativetaskintoa
"'g"111t combat suggests
series or subtasks
f'u*á lor the uput"1ü'ppá'ting y"t':l ]i
nrevious example' il-'" wriier tigLi'pltt".t;l *ti'"l^tight use all live
iive different tjnes "t ;;;;;irg a
which reasons would
most per-
atp*di;;;"
reasons or select otlv';;;;;'ltti*" tin*'ort"ur.""'i"g would be developedin
its own
Éu.r1
suade rhe intended "r#;;:
;;n;;X,i"i;ffil":ltr;if,fflJi* onl,se.cjion or your argument with the ro'owing
: itl í* :,lllnJT:T:""1i"J" lili
"
senre nce : " wom en J;;11 ñ"'uno*"¿

l*ii'¿r*:'üff Tr"':T.:::+:*"#xiru ::r*s;i,::il1Jf; ll':fiJl

en' s
g ion Lh a L w o m
u Ja r'' n a ss umpt

f *,'"',",*:lttIrf ;#T":T'fJ'id;:iüF "' rransferred to

in ti;Ro;;'ttrtt: "g'1'¡e assumptions oI
combal, etfectivenesi'"i"i"""'"ted ancl rhe trnderlying
,iijpor,,
combar units. (How';*';;;;i;tes
 CHAPTER 3 The Core of an Argument 69

an argument will be developed in Chapter 4 when we discuss warrants and

backing.) You would then proceed in the same way for each separate section of
your argument.
To iummarize our point in this section, the frame of an argr-rment consists of a
claim (the thesis statement of the essay), which is supported by one or more reasons,
which are in turn supported by evidence or sequences of further reasons.

Expressing Reasons in Because Clauses

Chances are that when you were a child the word because contained magical explana-
tory powers:

DOROTHY: I want to go home now.

ToMMY: \44ty?
DOROTHY: Because.
ToMMY: Because why?
DORoTHY: Just because.

Somehow becauseseemed decisive. It persuaded people to accept your view of the

world; it changed people's minds. Later, as you got older, you discovered that because
only introdu.éa y-ort arguments and that it was the reasons following because thal
maáe the difference. Stlll, because introduced you to the powers potentially residing in
the adult world of logic.
Of course, there are many other ways to express the logical connection between a
reason and a claim. Our language is rich in ways of stating because relationships:

to join combat units because they don't have the

'u Women shouldn't be allowed
strength or endurance for combat roles.
rr Women don't have the strength or endurance for combat roles. Therefore women
should not be allowed to join combat units.
sj Women don't have the strength or endurance for combat roles, so they should not
be allowed to join combat units'
*¡ One reason *ily *o-"n should not be allowed to join combat units is that they
don't have the strength or endurance for combat roles'
* My argument that women should not be allowed to join combat units is
básed lainly on evidence that women don't have the strength or endurance
for combat roles.

Even though logical relationships can be stated in various ways, writing out
one or more because clauses seems to be the most succinct and manageable way to
clarify an argument for oneself. We therelore suggest that sometime in the writing
process you create a working thesis statentent fhat summarizes your main reasons as
70 PART 2 Writing an Argument

becauseclauses attached to your claim.* Just when

you compose your own working
Some-writers like to plan
thesis statement depends largely on your writing process.
out their whole argument from the stad and oftett .o-pose their working thesis
write their rough drafts' Others dis-
statements with because clauses before they
it is a combination of both'
cover their arguments as they write. And sometimes
they might
For these writers, an extendéd working thesis statement is something llll
their argument
write halfway through the composi.tg pio""tt as a way of ordering
of control' Or they might compose
when various branches seem tó be giówing out
way of checking the unity of the fi
a working thesis statement at the ve"ry end-as a
nal product.
\Arhenever you u,rite your extended thesis statement, the
act of doing so can be
because clauses can be
simultaneously irustrating and thought provoking. compo-s11g
many different kinds of arguments
a powerful discovery tooi causing yá,t io think of
your ideas into the because
to support your claim. But it is o'ften difficult to wrestle
tidy for the complex network of
clause'shape, which sometimes seems to be overly
trying to summarize your argument
ideas you are trying to work with. Nevertheless,
more clearly what you have to do'
* u ,irrgt" claim wñh reasons should help you see

IIE*iFoRclAssDlscussloNDevelopingClaimsandReasons
can be a discovery
Try this group exercise to help you See how r,r,'riting because clauses
Each group member.should contribute an issue
prácedui". oiviae into small groups.
issue at a time' help each
that he or she would like to eiploie. Discussing ótt" p"ttott't
each reason as a
member develop a claim supported by several .reasons. E,xpress
because clause. Then write o,ri ttte *oikitg thesis statement for each person's ar9u-
ment by attaching ttle becauseclauses to the claim. Finally,
try to create because clauses
select two or three
in support of an áternative claim for each issue. Recorders should I I
as a whole' #
working thesis statements from the group to present to the class

Conclusion
to the.rhetorical
This chapter has introduced you to the structure of classical argument,
audience) and to the classical appeals of logos'
triangle 1-"rru!", writer or speaker, and
how arguments originate in issue questions, how
ethos, utd potíor,.It has also shown
issuequestionsdifferfrominformationquestio"',Tghowargumentsdifferf|om
that the frame of an argu-
pseudo-arguments. At the heart of this chapter we explained
mentisaclaimsupportedbyreasons.Asyougeneratereasonstosupportyourown
clauses attached to the claim'
arguments,,t i, ol""i'fr"lpful to articulate thLm as because

re *o-.ting th".i. .tutement for an argument opposing women i¡ combat units

might look ltke this: women,
and'fighting spirit" needed
should not be allowed to join combat uíit, brrouii th"ylack
the strength, erLdurance,
make thetn unrelíable for combat at a nxoment's
in combat; because being pregnant or haDing smalt children uould
contbat urzils. You might not put a bulky
notice: ancl because women,s prrr"n , wouid hurt morate of tight-knít
your itself; raüer, a working thesrs statement is a behind-the-scenes way
thesis statement like this into essay
it irhole a¡d clear'
of summarizing you urg.ttrt"nt for yourself so that you can
see
 CHAPTER 3 The Core of an Argument 71

In the next chapter we will see how to support a reason by examining its logical struc-
hrre, uncovering its urstated assumptions, and planning a strategy of development.

WRITING ASSIGNMENT An Issue Question and Working

Thesis Statements
Decide on an issue and a claim for a classical argument that you would like to write.
Write a one-sentence question that summarizes the controversial issue that your
claim addresses. Then draft a working thesis statement for your ploposed argument'
Organize the thesis as a claim with bulleted because clauses for reasons. You should
have at least two reasons, but it is okay to have three or four. Also include an
opposing thesis statement-thü is, a claim wlth because clauses for an alternative posi-
tion on your issue.
Recall that in Part One we emphasized exploratory o*ititg as a way of resisting clo-
sure and helping you wrestle with multiple perspectives. Now we ask you to begin a
process of closure by developing a thesis statement that condenses your argument into a
*itft supporting reasons. However, as we emphasize throughout this text, drafting
"tuim
itself is ut exploratory process. Writers almost always discover new ideas when they urite
a first draft; as they take their ,*ititg project through multiple drafu, theil üews may
change substantially. Often, in fact, honest writers can change positions on an issue by
discovering that a counterargument is stronger than their own. So the working thesis
statement that you submit for this assignment may evolve substantially once you begin
to draft.
In this chapter, as well as in Chapters 4 and 5, we will follow the process of stu-
dent writer Carmen Tieu as she constructed an argument on violent video games.
I During earlier exploratory writing, she wrote about a classroom incident in which
her prófessor had described video game playing as gendered behavior (overwhelm-
ingly male). The professor indicated his dislike for such games, pointing to their an-
tisocial, dehumanizing values. In her freewrite, Carnen described her own enjoy-
ment of violent video games-particularly first-person-shooter games-and explored
the pleasure that she derived from beating boys at Halo 2. She knew that she
wanied to write an argument on this issue. W4rat follows is Carmen's submission for
this assignment.

Carmen's lssue Question and WorkingThesis Statements

Issue Question: should girls be encouraged to play first-person-shooter üdeo games?

My claim: First-person-shooter (FPS) r4deo games are great activities for girls

I because beating guys at their own game is empowering for girls

I because being skilled at FPS games frees guls from feminine stereotypes
r because they give girls a different u-a1' of bonding with males
I because they give girls new insights into a male subculture
72 PART 2 Writing an Argument

opposing claim: First-person shooter gafnes are a bad activity for anyone, especially girls,

r because they promote antisocial values such as indiscriminate killing

r because they amplify the bad macho side of male stereotypes
¡ because they waste valuabie time that could have been spent on something
constructive

r because FPS games could encourage women to see themselves as objects

I

PtcRSuN
r*r\ tr"g*h $'a ffi: For additional writin& readin& and research resources, g0 to
LL'l I lH iW www.mycomplab.com
Tfuffi fuffiWffiffi& S rsxs&
*€ ffimm*s

In Chapter 3 you leamed that the core of an argument is a claim supported

by reasons and that these reasons can often be stated as because clauses
aitached to a claim. In the present chapter we examine the logical stmcture of
arguments in more dePth.

An Oven'ier,r'of Logos: What Do We Nfean

by the "Logical Structure" of an Angument?
As you will recall from our discussion of the rhetorical triangle' /ogos refers to
the strength of an argument's suppod and its internal consistency. Logos is the
urgo-"ri,, logical structure. But what do we mean by "logical structure"?

Formal Logic versus Real-Wbrld Logic

First of all, what we don't mean by logical structure is the kind of precise cer-
tanty you get in a philosophy class in formal log¡c. Log¡c classes deal with
ry*úoii. asiertions that are universal and unchanging, such as "If all ps are
qs and if r ís a p, then r is a q." This statement is logically cedain so long as p,
q, and. r are pure abstractions. But in the real world, p, q, aJld r tum into actual
ihitrgs, and the relationships among them suddenly become fuzzy. For exam-
pte, p mignt be a class of actions called "Sexual Harassment," while q could be
ine ctasJcatled 'Actions That Justifz Dismissal from a Job." If r is the class
*Telling
off-color stories," then the logic of our p-q-r statement suggests that
telling off-color stories (r) is an instance of sexual harassment (p), which in
turn is an action justiffing dismissal foom one's ¡ob (A)
Now, most of us would agree that sexual harassment is a serious offense
that might well justify dismissaj from a job. In turn, we might agree that telling
off-coloi stories, if the jokes are sufficiently raunchy and are inflicted on an
unwilling audience, constitutes sexual harassment. But few of us would want
to say categorically that all people who tell off-color stories are harassing their
Iisteners and ought to be fired. Most of us rvould want to know the particulars
of the case before making a final judgment.
In the real world, then, it is difñcult to sa1' that rs are always ps or that
every instance of a p results in q. That is rtl-Lv rve discourage studenls fiom
73
74 PART 2 Writing an Argumeni

usingtheword'proueinclaimstheywriteforarguments(asin..Thispaperwillprove
proue anytling' They can
that eutharrasia is wrong"). Real-world *go-"tttt seldom more or less
is more or less strong'
only make a good case fir something, a case that
the resolve of those who
prá'¡"[r". Oftin the U"ri y* can ho"pe for is to strengthen
who oppose you'
igree with you or weaken the resistance of those

The Role of AssumPtions

A key difference, then, between forma] logic and real.world a.rgument is that real-
worldargr.rmentsare,'otg,o..''aedinabstract,universalstatements.Rather,as
granted by the
we shall see, they U" giounded in beliefs' assumptions' or values
-.,rt
audience. A second t-Ñil difference is that in reJ-world arguments these beliefs'
as writer and. audience share the
assumptions, o, uut.r".'ur" often unstated. so long
But if these underlying assumptions
same assumptions, it,s fine to leave them unstated.
aren't shared, the writer has a problem'
Toillustratetttenato,"ofthisproblem'consideroneoftheargumentsweintro-
duced in the last chaPter.

Womenshouldbeallowedtojoincombatunitsbecausetheimageofwomenincombat
would help eliminate gender stereotypes'

is persuasive only if the

on the face of it, this is a plausible argument. But the argument
that it is a good thing to eliminate gender
audience agrees with the'*titer', asstimption
(for example, seeing men as
;;""b,pd The writer assumes that gónder stereotyping
back home) is harmf¡l and that
the fighters who are protecting the women and childien
gender roles. But whSt if Vou believed that
society would be better off wiírout such fixed
divinely intended', or otherwise culturally es-
some gender ,ol"s u1." niotoglcalty based,
these gender roles rather than dismiss
sential and that ,o"i"ty ,nout'a strirre to maintain
you mrght believe asla consequence that
them as "stereotypes"i tf such were the case,
be nurtLrerr, ,rót fighters, and that some essential
our culture sho'ld socialize women to
,,womanhood" would be at risk if women served in combat' If these were your
trait of
you would reject its underlying
beliefs, the argument wouldn't work for you because
.lb
persuade you wrtt, trris of reasoning, the writer wo'ld have to show
assumption. -tné.
help eliminate gender stereotypes but also why
not only how women in áombat would
would be better off without them.
these sáreot¡,pes are harmful and why socióry

The Core of an Argument: The Enthymeme

The previous core argument ("women should be alloived
to join combat units
would help eliminate gender stereotypes") is
because the image of #omen in combat
anincompletelogicalstructurecalledanenthymeme.Itspersuasivenessdependsonthe
an underlying or belief that the urrdi"n.. must accept. To complete
"*"-p;;
enthymeme an¿ mai.e it effective, the audience
mnst rrillingly supply a missing
are hamftrl and should be eliminated'
premise-in this case, that gender stereotypes
 CHAPTER 4 The Logical Structure of Arguments 75

The Greek philosopher Aristotle showed how successful enthymemes root the
speaker's argrment in assumptions, beliefs, or values held by the audience. The
word, enthymeme comes from the Greek en (meaning "in") and thumos (meaning
"mind"). Listeners or readers must have "in mind" an assumption, beliel or value
that lets them willingly supply the missing premise. If the audience is unwilling to
supply the missing premise, then the argument fails. Our point is that successful ar-
guments depend both on what the alguer says and on what the audience already
has "in mind."
To clariff the concept of "enthymeme," let's go over this same territory again more
slowly, examining what we mean by "incomplete logical structure." The sentence
"Women should be allowed to join combat units because the image of women in com-
bat would help eliminate gender stereotypes" is an enth¡''rneme' It combines a claim
(women should be allowed to join combat units) with a reason expressed as a because
clause (because the image of women in combat would help eliminate gender stereo-
Wpes). To render this enthymeme logically complete, the audience
must willingly supply
a missing assumption-that gender stereotypes are harmful and should be eliminated. If
your audience accepts this assumption, then you have a starting place on which to build
an effective argument. If your audience doesn't accept this assumption, then you must
supply another argument to support it, and so on until you find common ground with
your audience.
To sum up:

1. Claims are supported with reasons. You cari usually state a reason as a because
clause attached to a claim (see Chapter 3).
2. A because clause attached to a claim is an incomplete logical structure called an
enthymeme. To create a complete logical structure from an enthymeme, the
underlying assumption (or assumptions) must be articulated.
3. To serve as an effective starting point for the argument, this underlying assump-
tion should be a belief, value, or princrple that the audience grants.

Let's illuskate this structure by putting the preüous example into schematic form.

ENTHYMEME
CLAIM Women should be allowed to join combat units i
REASON because the image of women in combat would i
n:l!-'l'1.'-'l-'_9":d.':T:.:"tvp:::
-.-.. - -"i

Audience must supply this ossumption ------7

76 PARI 2 Wriiing an Argument

I I ffi FOR CTASS DISCUSSION ldentifying Underlying Assumptions

Working individually or in small groups, identifi the unstated assumption that the
audience must supply in order to make the following enthymemes persuasive.

Example
EnthJ'rneme: Rabbits make good pets because they are gentle.
Underlying assumption: Gentle animals make good pets.

1. We shouldn't elect Joe as committee chair because he is too bossy.

2. Drugs should not be legalized because legalization would greatly increase the
number of drug addicts.
3. Airport screeners should use racial prof,ling because doing so will increase the
odds of stopping terrorists.
4. Racial profiling should not be used by airport screeners because it violates a per-
son's civil rights.
5. We should strengthen the Endangered Species Act because doing so will preserve
genetic diversity on the Planet.
6. The Endangered Species Act is too stringent because it severely damages the economy. ff# I I

Adopting a Language for Describing Arguments:

The Toulmin System
Understanding a new field usually requires us to learn a new vocabulary. For example,
if you were taking biology for the first time, you'd have to memorize dozens and
dolens of new terms. Luckily, the field of argument requires us to learn a mere hand-
ful of new terms. A particularly useful set of argument terms, one we'll be using occa-
sionally throughout the rest of this text, comes from philosopher Stephen Toulmin. In
the 19-50s, Toulmin rejected the prevailing models of argument based on forrnal logic
in favor of a very audience-based courtroom model.
Toulmin's courlroom model differs from formal logic in that it assumes that
(1) all asserlions and assumptions are contestable by "opposing counsel" and that
(2) all final "verdicts" about the persuasiveness of the opposing arguments will be ren-
dered by a neutral third party, a judge or jury. As writers, keeping in mind the "oppos- Grou
ing counsel" forces us to anticipate counterarguments and to question our assumptions. the rt

Káping in mind the judge and jury reminds us to answer opposing arguments fi.rlly,
without rancor, and to present positive reasons for supporting our case as well as nega-
tive reasons for disbelieving the opposing case. Above all else, Toulmin's model reminds
us not to consfluct an algument that appeals only to those who already agree with us.
In short, it helps arguers tailor arguments to their audiences.
The system we use for analyzing arguments combines Toulmin's language with
Aristotle's concept of the enthymeme. It builds on the system you have already been
practicing. We simply need to add a few key terms from Toulmin. The first tern is
Toulmin's warrant, the name we will now use for the r-rnclerlf ing assumption that tums
an enthymeme into a complete logical structure as sho$I at the top of page 77.
Toulmin derives his term warrantfromthe concept of "u-ananf" or "guarantee." The
warrant is the value, belief, or princrple that the audience has to hold if the soundness of
 CHAPTER 4 The Logical Structure of Arguments 77

ENTHYMEME
CLAIM Women should be allowed io join combat units

REASON because the image of women in combat would :

help eliminate gender stereotypes.

i:{r¡ :.e::-i¡,:it\:Í.:i:a.-.1- j: =

similar use of this

the argument is to be guaranteed or warranted. we sometimes make
mearung
word il ordinary l*goug" when we say, "That is an unwarranted conclusion,"
to a conclusion about that situation
orre fra, leaped-florriinfórmation about a situation
"warrant" üat move. Thus the warrant-
without any sort of general principle to justify or
orr"" u"""pt"d by the audience-"guarantees" the soundness of the argument'
are simply
Ell tsut argu.ments need more Íran claims, reasons, and warrants. These
not a developed argument' To
one-sentence statements-the frame of an argument,
them convincing, we need what
give body and weight to our arguments and make
T"i-i" "calls grouids and, backiig. Let's start with grounds. Grounds arearethefacts,
support-
data,
ing evidence úat cause an audience to accept your reason. Grounds
blood and muscle that flesh
stítistics, causal links, testimony, examples, anLcdotes-the
that grounds are "what
out the skeletal frame of yod enthymeme. Toulmin suggests
before a
yo., huu" to go on" in an argum"trt-ttt" stuff you can point to and present
jury. Hete is ñow grounds fit into our emerging argument schema'

I
i
], ! ENTHYMEME i
,,'ti CLAIM Women should be allowed to join combat units i
I

i L^ -^-A^- -¡ '
elim¡nate gender stereotypes'
]- nfnSOru because the ¡mage of women in combat would help

Grounds supPort
the Íeoson
.lr¡,txu*4er!{pwini now the imageór:w-qÍen. inb..:¿j .pqd{t}cá:ri,,{f¡ !V¡c:tu:K .
,:.,, ¡srá hing, gun from a toxrrore;,eii raá¡oing¡¡,,árti.lterv .1'Ve4ri.'{o.qq!F hg;pfqqi, ,l,' ,. i
9t¿ré¿.typeir.or'r{aman as soft and nqturing,r,,,,...,,.

r..,,,¿rqr nshowthe rh*k i*Ñ;rü;¿i@* *;ü¡

gender stereotyPes.

In many cases, successfi-rl arguments require jrst these three components: a

claim, a
assumption behind the
reason, and grounds. If the audiáce already accepts the unstated
reason'(the,íal.rarrt), then the warrant .- iut t¡'remain in the background
unstated and
chance that the audience will question or doubt the warrant'
unexamined. But if there is a
it up by providing an argument in its support ' Backingts lhe
then the writer needs to back
or two sentences or
argument that supports the warrant. It may require no mole than one
 as much as a major-section in your argument. Its goal is to persuade
the audience to
accept the warant. Here is how backingis added b óur schema:

.WARRANT
/,/ Cender stereotypes are harmful and should be €liminat€d. . ., , ..
Backing supports the warrlnt
:*#[:; .owing why gender stereotypes are harmrui. . :
\ . Macho mate steregtypes keep men:from devel_o)ping
theil nurtuiíng side: ,

' ' Girly'girr stereotyperhinder women from devetoping'power and

autonomy. ,

' Exampfes of benefits that would corne from eiiminaiing gender

stereolypes such as
promoting equality between genders

Toulmin's system next asks us to imagine how a resistant audience

would try to
refute our argument. Specifically, the advársarial audience might
challerg" or'. í"u-
son and grounds by showing how letting women become
.ombut soldieñ wouldn,t j
do much to end gender stereotyping. orine adversary might attack
our warrant and
backing by showing how some gerrá", stereotypes u.é *olh keeping.
In the case of the argument supporting .á-"n in combat, an ?dversary
might
offer one or more of the followirrg ,"buttulr,-

Writer must anticipate these attocksfrom skeptics

ENTHYMEME
CLAIM Women should be allowed to join combat units ü
CONDITIONS OF REBUTTAT
REASON because the ¡mage of women in combat would
A skeptic cqn attackthe reason and grounds
eliminate gender stereotypes.
t&l
Arguments that letting women serve in combat
wouldn't eliminate gender stereotypes
:-
CROUNDS
. Examples showing how the image
. Few women would join combat units. u
:--.-
of women in comlrat
. Those who did would be considered
gear packing a rifle. driving a tanlt firing a machine gun freaks.
from a foxhole, or radio¡ng in artillery would counter the . Most girls would still ¡dentify with
Barbie
prevailing stereotypes of women as sofi and nurturjng. dolls, not women as combat sold¡ers.
. Arguments showing how the
shock impact of these .}
combai images would help elimlnate gender stereoiypes

WARRANT
POSSIBLE CONDITIONS OF REBUTTAL
Gendet Stereotypes are:harmful and,should be el¡minated.
A skeptic can attock the
worront ond bocking
BACKING Arguments showing that it is important to
:,Argumelts showing why:gender stereotypes are harrnful ma¡nta¡n tradit¡onal distinct¡ons between men
. Macho rnale stefeqtypes keep men from and women
deve¡opifig
their nurturing side . These role differences are
biologically
determined. divinely inspired, or otherwise
I Grly.girl sterectypes hináer women from developing
important cuiturally.
power and autonomy
. Women s strength is in nurturing,
I Examples of benefits thaf would come from eliminating not fighting.
gender stereotypes such as,prómot¡ng equality betwben . \atrr-e of rvomanhood woufd be
sullied by
genders D-1;t'e r,onten ¡n combat.

78
 As this example shows, adversadal readers can question an argument's reasons
and grounds or its warrant and backing or sometimes both. Conditions of rebuttal
remind writers to look at their arguments lrom the perspective of skeptics. The same
principle can be illustrated in the follorving analysis of an argument that cocaine and
heroin should be legalized.

CONDITIONS OF REBUTTAL
ENTHYMEME
Attacking the reason and grounds
CLAIM Cocaine and heroin should be legalized ,
. Arguments showing that legal¡zing cocaine
REASON because legalization would elim¡nate the black ' and heroin would not eliminate the black
market in drugs. . market in drugs
a

. Perhaps taxes on the drugs woufd keep the

GROUNDS costs above black market prices
Statistjcal evidence and'arguments showing how legalimtion . Perhaps new kinds of illegal designer drugs
would end black market: 'r would be developed and sold on the black
. Statisti(s and data show¡ng the size of the current tllack market market

. Exarnpies,'anecdotes; facts Showing how the btatA ma¡ket

works

:eptics . Causal expfanation showing that selllng coqaine and heroin

legálly in stale-controlled stor€s would lower price and
eliminaie drug dealers CONDITIONS OF REBUTTAL
Attscking the utarrsnt and bocking
nds WARRAIIIT:, . 'r ' ,',..' ,.' :r,,
"':,maltgt Arguments showing that ihe benefits of
bat Elimina-tJng th._e. ¡n'drugs,ii good eliminating the black market are outweighed
,bláck
by the costs
BACKING
. The number of new drug users and add¡cts
statistics,and exámpl€s, about ihe.ifl:.effecis of :the blárk,nla{kFf
would be unacceptably high.
. The high cost of the black market to crime viÁims
. The health and economic cost of treating
. The high cost to taxpayers of waging the war aga¡nst drugs
addiciion would be too high.
. The.h$fi eosf.olprjsoni to house incarcerated drug oeáleÉr,. . The social costs of selling drugs legally in
. Évigénce that, hügepiófitqmáke {rug'deafing:moré,attlactivq liquor stores would bring harmful change
than ordinary jobi to our cultural values.

.AL

1<ing Toulmin's final term, used to limit the force of a claim and indicate the degree of
its probable truth, is qualifier. The qualifier reminds us that real-world arguments
tn almost never prove a claim. We may say things such as uery likelg, probablg, or maybe
to indicate the strength of the claim we are willing to draw from our grounds and
warrant. Thus if there are exceptions to your warrant or if your grounds are not very
strong, you will have to qualify your claim. For example, you might say, "Except in
rare cases, women should not be allon'ed tn combat units," or "With full awareness
riing. of the potential dangers, I suggest r,r'e consider the option of legalizing drugs as a
ry way of ending the ill effects of the black market." In our future displays of the
Toulmin scheme we will omit the quahfiers. but vou should always remember that
no argument is 100 percent persuasive.
80 PART 2 Writing an Argumenl

I ffi ' FOR CTASS DISCUSSION üevelop*;rg fimtÉ"rrya*c,*rcs *",¡!th tlst 3h¡*!mÉ¡: $ei¡em¡a
Working individually or in small groups, imagine that you have to write arguments
developing the six enthymemes listed in the For Class Discussion exercise on
page 76. Use the Toulmin schema to help you determine what you need to
consider when developing each enthymeme. We suggest that you try a four-box
diagram structure as a way of visualizing the schema. We have applied the
Toulmin schema to the first enthymeme: "We shouldn't elect Joe as committee
chair because he is too bossy."

CONDITIONS OF REBUTTAL
ENTHYMEME
Attocktng the reason and grounds
CLAIM We shouldn't elect Joe as committee chair
Evidence that Joe is not bossy or is only
REASON because he is too bossy.
occasionally bossy
. Counterevidence showing his collaborative style
GROUNDS
. Testimony from people who have liked Joe as a
Evidence of Joe s bossiness
Ieader and claim he isn't bossy; testimony about his
. Examples of the way he dominaies meeiings-doesn't cooperativeness and kindness
call on people, talks too much
. Testimony that anecdotes about Joe's bossiness
. Testimony aboui his bossiness from people who have
aren't typical
served w¡th him on committees
. Anecdotes about his abrasive style

WARRANT CONDITIONS OF REBUTTAT

Bossy people make bad committee chairs.
BACKING
Problems caused by bossy committee chairs
. Bossy people don't inspire cooperation and enthusiam
. Bossy people make others angry.
. Bossy people tend to make bad decisions because
they don't inmrporate advi€e from others
Attocking the warrant and backing
. Arg,uments that bossiness can be a good trait
. Sometimes bossy people make good chairpersons.
. Argument that this committee needs a bossy person
who can make decisions and get things done.
. Argument that Joe has other traits of good
Ieadership that outweigh his bossiness

ffiN

{Jsixrg Tomlmi¡l's $c}rerna to tr}etermine

a Stratery of Suppoxt
So far we have seen that a claim, a reason, and a warrant form the frame for a line of
reasoning in an argument. Most of the words in an argument. however, are devoted to
grounds and backing.
For an illushation of how a writer can use the Torülu-r schema to generate ideas
for an argument, consider the following case ln \pri1 2005, the Texas house of
 CHAPTER 4 The Log¡cal Structure of Arguments 81

Across the nation,

representatives passed a bill barrring "sexually suggestive" cheerleading.
nut bill, while newspaper editorialists debated
t"l",ri"ián show comics potéa at the
"ulning of our however, several students, including
its wisdom and constitutionaliqt. In one classes,
defended the
one who had eamed a high scirool varsity letter in competitive cheerleading,
moves hurt the athletic image of cheerleading' In
bill by contending that próvocative dance
ideas developed in class disryssion, we create a hy-
the following exñrple, which draws on
of the Texas bill'
pothetical stirdent ri¿riter (we'll call her Chandale) who argues in defense
thandale's argument is based on the following enthyneme:

The cheerleading bill to ban suggestive dancing is good because it promotes a view of
female cheerleaders as athletes rather than exotic dancers'

Chandale used the Toulmin schema to brainstorm ideas for developing

her argument'
Here are her notes:

Ghandale's Planning Notes Using the Toulmin Schema

Enth5nneme: The cheerleading bill to ban suggestive dancing is good because
it promotes
a üew of female cheerleaders as athletes rather than exotic dancers.

Grounds: First, I've got to use eüdence to show that that cheerleaders are athletes'

ffi Cheerleaders at my high school are carefully chosen for their stamina
and skill after
exhausting two-week trYouts.
m We begin all practices with a mile run and an hour of warm-up exercises-also ex-

pectedio work out on our own for at least an hour on weekends and on days without

. fil"ilfi.o comperitive routines and stunts consisting of litu, tosses, flips, catches, and
for hours
gymnastic *ou.r. This requires athletic ability! We'd practice these stunts
ons.
each week.
erson ffi Throughout the year cheerleaders have to atiend practices, camps, and workshops to
learn new routines and stunts.
& Our squad competed in competitions around the state'
of
{* Competitive cheerleading is a growing movement across the counhy-University
Maryland has made it a varsity sport for women'
eaa sl Skimpy uniforms ald suggestive dance moves destroy this image by
making women eye
candy like the Dallas Cowboys cheerleaders'

warrant: It is a good thing to üew female cheerleaders as athletes.

Backing: Now I need to make the case that it is good to see cheerleaders as athletes rather
than as eye candY.

# Athieüc competition builds self-esteem. inclependence, a powerful sense of achievement-

contributes to health' strength, conditiontng'
of both
w competitive cheerleading is one of the fe$ sporls where teams ale made up
men and women. (Why is this good? Should I use this?)
82 PART 2 Writing an Argument

ffi The suggestive dalce moves turn women into sex objects whose function is to be gazed
at by men-suggests that women's value is based on their beauty and sex appeal.
ffi We are talking about HIGH SCHOOL cheerleading-very bad early influence on girls to
model themselves on Dallas Cowboys cheerleaders or sexy MTV üdeos of rock stars.
sü Junior high girls want to do what senior high girls do-suggestive dance moves promote
sexuality way too early.

Conditions of Rebuttal: Would anybody try to rebut my reasons and grounds that cheer-
leading is an athletic actiüty?

ffi No. I think it is obüous that cheerleading is an atlrletic actir,rty once they see my evidence.
ffi However, they might not think of dreerleading as a sport. They might say that the
University of Maryland just declared it a sport as a cheap way to meet Title IX federal
rules to have more women's sports. I'11 have to make sure that I show this is really a sport.
p TheY also might say that competitive cheerleading shouldn't be encouraged because it is
too dangerous-lots ofserious injuries including paralysis have been caused by mistakes
in doing flips, lifu, and tosses. If I include this, maybe I could say that other sports are
dangerous also-and it is in fact danger that makes this sport so exciting.

Would anyone doubt my walrant and backing that it is good to see female cheerleaders
as athletes?

e Yes, all those people who laughed at the Texas legislature think that people are being
too
prudish and that banning suggestive dance moves violates free expression. I'I neéd to
make my case that it is bad for young girls to see themselves as ser objects too early.

The information that Chandale lists under "grounds" is what she sees as the facts
of the case-the hard data she will use as eüdence to support her contention that
cheerleading is an athletic actiüty. The paragraph that follows shows how this argu-
ment might look when placed into written form.

First Part of Chandale's Argument

Although evening teleüsion show comedians have made fun of the Texas legislature,s
desire to ban "suggestive" dance moves Í?om cheerleading routines, I applauJ this bill
because it promotes a healthy view of female cheerleaders as athletes rather than show-
grrls. I was lucky enough to attend a high school where cheerleading is a sport, and I
earrred a varsity letier as a cheerleader. To get on my high school's cheerleadingsquad, stu-
dents have to go through an exhausting two-week tryout of workouts and instruction in the
basic routines; then they are chosen based on their stamina and skill. Once on the squad,
cheerleaders begin ail practices with a mile run and an hour of grueling warrn-up exercises
and are expected to exercise on their own on weekends. As a result of this regimen, cheer-
leaders achieve and maintain a top level of physical fihess. In addition, to get ón the squad,
students must be able to do handstands, cartwheels, handsprings, high jumps, and the splits.
Each year the squad bülds up to its complex routines and strurh .or.iirting of lifu, tosses,
flips, catches, and gymnastic moves that only trained athletes can do. In tough competitions
at the regional and state levels, the cheerleading squad demonstrates its athletic talént. This
 83
CHAPTER 4 The Logical Structure of Arguments

viewofcheerleadingasacompetitiv",!olisalsospreadingtocolleges.Asreported
y of üarytaná has made cheerleading
a
if-'. Ü"i".*t
recently io u n,rmber'ñ"*."p'qi"*. of this
are ?"iá*"g ,oit. Athl.ti. performance
varsity spor1. and many oil1.i *iu.rriiies g'ls with
dancing. thal ;;t hi'gh school often associate
cauber is a far cry troá tne sexy routines. the Texas legislah'e
¿*.rg.in .n.átf.íahg
cheerleading. By b**.;';;gg"Jo".
* oppo't'-t*tf r;t tTn"""rt t" empniize the athleticism of cheerleading'
creates

Asyoucansee,Chandalehasplentyofevidenceforarguingthatcompetitive
sexy dani'rg' But how effective
cheerteading i, * utnáilu|f,;bñri,g. alfferent from Toulmin schema encourages
all she needs? The
is this argument as it ,áJrilrir"r support for their war-
tne inten¿eA audience-explicit
writers to include-ir ""1J"á rát national
for rebuttal. Becauseihe overwhelming
rants as well as the legislators'
"tt"rrd;;;;;;i*",
response to the Texas i"*
*"r-áiic'le at the perceived prudishness of

Chandate decides to expand her argument as follows:

Gontinuation of Chandale's Argument

for women'
as a sport ,"rry dancing is a1 important issue
\Arhether we see cheerleading 9r T incorporate into their routines
The erotic dan." *;;;;;r*y f"g¡ *hg"l "tt"Éd*d".r".tow pop sta]S on MTV' Our
show that they are ffi"d;.
iiarl g1rr"vr cheerleadSl .or
clothing marketed to liiile girls)
already sexually fthink of tri"'*d"$iu. lt wor'rld be far
'";;;*á*;
pushes girls *a *ori.i*tl .l**"
th"i, uutu. uy tt1?i, beauty and sex appeal' aih-
cÉerleaders were identified as
dgh tthool
healüier, boü physrcally and psychologitdy 'f pride in team-
letes. For women *ál-]"" uott,.
.orp.tltrve chee?teading can build sell-esleem, fihress'
strength' and
as well as prámote health,
work, and a powerlul sense of achievement, by saying'that cheerleading isn't
Some people might object to-cgmqgtitive tn"JJ"¿*e a var-
-nuu" of makins cheerleadi-ng
i..*"4 üe'University of MarylanJ
really a ,porf . So*. But anvJne who has watched
;;; ;;;;i;**,s ii
sity sporl only as a 1i'ri ¡t "qui'átnr'
;;iJ be [ke to o: high into the air'
*'a 9:*
competibive
"r""náoii!' ^ug*ti*h"t
dangeto"' JU" f*"ntial ior "-t: t:**
knowsinstinctivelythat-thisisasportindeed.tnfact.otherpersonsmightobjecl,tocompeti.
injuries including
tive cheerleading because it is too grrn-
fooiball'
paratysis.Obri"*ü;;#I á.d*s-but so are many sports, isincluding part of its appeal' Part
nastics, diving, or tmmpoline.
The danger *á am.rrltv of the sport as
for girls than cheerleaders
of what can make ;;;'."d.r, * uü-tl.t. U"tt". tof. tn"deh
of course' the Texas legislators
courage and training ,r""J.á for success'
erotic dancers is the
l.raá á,lrl.ri"J* i" **d #;;"v u*".¿ suggestive dancing' They mighi
might not have models we set for
or r".rrrüi"iat slake |i" me _t()t"
only have been promobing their üsion every time'
over a Dallas cowboys cheerleader
;,itü;;t'fr"rt'* "tir*e
can use the Toulmin schema to
generate
Our example suggests how a writer on her personal ex-
ideas fbr * **,"",ii?;;;";.;,
¿h*d"l" draws primarily
of pttnular culture' She
periences u, u .t
*a on n". knowiedge
""rt"ud"r/u,H","
reading o[ several o"*rpup.r, aniclás abour'the universiff of
also draws on her rather than a
making ;;;;;";t"g a varsity tfi* on - academic,paper
Maryland's through formal cita-
newspaper ,ñ"'*""f¿?""¿ to áo.rrm"nt these sources can be supported
"¿itoriA, depeld on research' mary
tions.) Altho,rgft -uttf arguments so don't neglect the wealth of
wholly or in parr *"*ty"ffH;;;;;J;"p"¡""""r,
84 PART 2 Writing an Argument

evidencefromyourownlifewhensearchingfordata.Amoredetaileddiscussion
5'
of evidence in arguments occurs in Chapter

II:i+ÍFoRctAssDls(UssloNReasons,Warrants,andConditionsofRebuttal to
1. Working -;;ilrily;r in small $oups, consider ways you could use evidence
following paltial arguments.
support"ttre stated réason in each of these
a.Anotherreasontoopposeastatesalestaxisthatitissoannoying.
b.Rapmusichasabadinfluenceonteenagersbecauseitpromotesdisrespect
for women'
c.Prof'essorXisanoutstandingteacherbecausehe(she)generouslyspends
so much time outside of class Jounseling
students with personal problems'
in each of the partial argumenLs in
2. Now create arguments to support the warr;ts
are stated below'
exercise f . ff'E *utt*tt foiéach of the arguments
taxes that are annoying'
a. Support this warrant: We should oppose
for women'
b. Support this warrant: It is bad to promote disrespect
c.Supportthiswarrant:Timespentcorrnselingstudentswithpersonalproblemsis
teachers'
an important criterion for identi$ing out¡tanding
out a strategy for refuting either the
3. Using rori-lr', conditions of rebuúal,-work
I I
of the p."óéamg arguments' fffi
stated reasons or the warrants o, uotn in each

The Power of Audience-Based Reasons

and Toulmin's concept
As we have seen, both Aristotle,s concept of the enthymeme
create what we will now call "audience-
of the warran; f;t on the arguer's '-t""d to
based reasonr.i !,Á*"u"'^ yoit ask whether
a given piece of writing is persuasive'
"Persirasive to whom?" \44rat seems like a
the immediat"'.qoirra". rftála always be,
Finding audience-based rea-
good reason to you may not te a goád reason to others.
audience üll accept-that is'
sons means #j|g uigu-"rrt ..ihor" warrants the
and values.
arguments effecnvíty,Jot"a in your audience's beliefs

Difference tretween writer-Based and Audience-Based Reasons

audience-based reasons' consider the
To illustrate the difference between writer-based and
followinghypotheticalcase.Supposeyoubelievedthatthegovemmentshorrldbuildadam
by. several environmental groups'
on the ,r"*uy nupia River-a iroject bitterly opposed
,se to address environmentalists?
\\4rich of the following two argumónts might you

River because the only altema-

1. The govemment should build a dam on the Rapid
tiu"po*",,o',cesarecoal-firedornuclearplants,bothofwhichposegreaterrisk
to the environment than a hydroelectric dam'
2.T\egovernmentshouldbuildahydroelectric{amontheRapidRiverbecause
this area needs cheap power to attract healy indusür'
 85
CHAPTER 4 The Logical Structure of Arguments

Clearly,thewarrantofargumentl(..Choosethesourceofpowerthatposesleastnsk
of environmentalists' whereas
the
r""i"f - the values *Ju"tl"rt
to the environment,) ir them wince' To
warrant of argument ,'fó;"**;r -i*uy '' g""d"l is likely tosmokesl"acks'
make
and more
means to'" tJng"'O-*'T?l:
environmentalists. new indushy or to the business
may appeal Lo oitof *otL
laborers
oolluhion. However, argument'2 and a boomins economv'
n-"* indushy means more iobs
ffi;ffi:;;;;; t
u'gt'*"ntt and2 are both sourd' They are ur-
From the pe"pettiu" of logic alone' they will affect different
ternally consistent
ft"*ito.lut
*añg4e,il;"#1y1" p'*"'
Neither argument that the government should build
audrences very differeniiy' lor example' might
rhe dam; both are "rr,ri.on*""üIsb' any power plant at
why the S11--*'needs to build
"O#1"';;jijioi."e*rionolt"
counter argument 1 by asking power
would obviate the need for a new
all. They could argue ,í;""":rso "or-r""Ñution in ways unfore-
hurts the environment
plant. or they might "td;;?ffid-t ",9.¡ afgument 1 will nersuade environ-
point. then. i*iL thuL
seen by dam supporr"rS. orrr more p"rrua,iui than argument
2
is ihat argument I willbe
mentalists. Rather. o* poi* audrence shares'
because ir is rooted ü;li;;r-;JrJi"r that the intended
- chapter 1 and student Gordon
uy r"tu*itrg to
Let,s consider a second example as you
Adams,s petition ," h; -"in *á""ement.-Gordon's centralInargument'
;;;; Toulmin's terms'
would hurr" ,ro need for algebra'
will reca', was that as a lawyer he
this:
Gordon's argument looks like

V:lI ;;.¡ii;!i4 -!e+iP4",e+"J

Stated expl¡citly in Gordon's argumenl

ENTHYMEME
CLAIM:lshouldbeexemptedffomthealgebrarequirement
have no need for algebra
REASON: becausein my chosen field of law I will :
eli':::"'::i ".".:'i'-j:il::i:li:::
""i i'''rei-:r':' 11-'e-'lt

Fully developed in Gordon's

arqument
GROUNDS
. Testimony,frofi1-r,"voy51r, ütlte'-{q a e':s' use€l.gJ-qrl1

Left unstated in Gordon's argument

Missing Jrom Gordon's argument

generally vote to sup-

In our discussions of this with students and faculty, students
case
the Llniversity
g"ne.aity*rroáug"it;t it' And itt tatt'
port Gordon,s request, *#;f""rlry áehyrng nls eltrv into law school'
Standards comrruttee rejected Gordon's petirlon. rr,*
differ on this issuei IUarnty they
diller because
\Mhy do faculty aiJ students should serve stu-
general_ education requirements
faculty ieject Gordorr'r-r,Ju-*t-rfrat courses'
ftl"U facult¡'believe thJt general education
dents, individ,rA .*"". iii"t"*.
86 PART 2 Writing an Argument

including math, provide a base of common learning that links us to the past and
teaches us modes of understanding useful throughout life.
Cot
Gordon's aqgument thus challenges one of college professors' most cherished beliefs-
that the liberal arts and sciences are irurately valuable. Further, it threatens his immediate
audience, the committee, with a possible flood of student requests to waive other general
education requirements on the grounds of their irrelevance to a particular career choice.
How might Gordon have created a more persuasive argument? In our view, Gordon
might have prevailed had he accepted the faculty's belief in the value of the math
requirement and argued that he had fulfilled the "spirit" of that requirement through
altemative means. He could have based his argr-rment on an enthymeme like this:

I should be exempted from the algebra requirement because my experience as a contractor

and inventor has already proüded me with equivalent mathematical knowledge.

Following this audience-based approach, he would drop all references to algebra's WR]
uselessness for lawyers and expand his discussion of the mathematical sawy he acquired
on the job. This argument would honor faculty values and reduce the faculty's fear of set-
ting a bad precedent. Few students are likely to have Gordon's background, and those
who do could apply for a similar exemption without threatening the system. Again, this
argument might not have won, but it would have gotten a more s1'rnpathetic hearing.

f atÉ'. FOR cl_AsS DlscussloN Audience-Based Reasons

Working in groups, decide which of the two reasons offered in each instance would be
more persuasive to the specified audience. Be prepared to explain your reasoning to
the class. Write out the implied warrant for each because clause and decide whether
the specific audience would likely grant it.

1. Audience: people who advocate a pass/fail grading system on the grounds that
the present grading system is too competitive
a. We should keep the present grading system because it prepares people for the
dog-eat-dog pressures of the business world.
b. We should keep the present grading system because it tells students that certain
standards of excellence must be met if individuals are to reach their frrll potential.
2. Audience: young people ages fifteen to twenty-five
a. You should become a vegetarian because an all-vegetable diet will help you
lower your cholesterol.
b. You should become a vegetarian because doing so wiJl heip eliminate the suffering
of animals raised in factory farrns.
3. Audience: conservative proponents of "family values"
a. same-sex marriages should be legalized because dorng so will promote public
acceptance of homosexuality.
b. Same-sex marriages should be legalized because dorng so will make it easier
for gay people to establish and sustain iong-term. stable relationships. iíi.{ I I
 CHAPTER 4 The Logical Structure of Arguments 87

Conclusion
that the
chapters 3 and 4 have provided an anatomy of argument. They have shown
that usually can be summarized in one or
core of an argument is á claim with reasons
more because clauses attached to the claim. Often, it is as important to articulate and
support the underlying assumptions in your argumen]-lwarrants) as it is to support
the stated reasons b".u'nt" a successful argument should be rooted in
your audience's
beliefs and values. In order to plan an audience-based argument strategy, alguers can
writers discover grounds, warrants, and backing
use the Toulmin schema, whicú helps
for their arguments and to test them through conditions of rebuttal' Finally' we
helps you keep your audience in
showed how the use of audience-based reasons
mind from the start whenever you design a plan for an argument'

WRITING ASSIGNMENT Plan of an Argument's Details

t'''... This assignment asks you to return to the working thesis statement that you created
,' for the bñef writing assignment in Chapter 3. From that thesis statement extract one
of
,', 1"

your enthym"*"r fuont with one of your because clauses). Write out the walrant
"f'o. "laim
yor,, Lnthymeme. Then use the Toulmin schema to brainstorm the details you
.'.,:, ,1.,- might use (grounds, backing, conditions of rebuttal) to convert your enthymeme
into a
''...,','1,
fl"íh"d-o.ri"*g,.-ent. Use ár yo.n model Chandale's planning notes on pages 81-82'
Like the ürief assignm"ni for Chapter 3, this is a process-oriented brainstorming
You
task aimed at helping fou generate ideas for one part of your classical argument'
may end up cfr*gt"gyoni id"ur substantially as you compose the actual argument'
What follows is Carmen's submission for this assignment' I
Carmen's Plan for PaÉ of an Argument
girls because
Enth5nneme: First-person-shooter (FPS) video games are great activities for
playing these games gives girls new insights into male subculture'

Grounds: I,ve got to show the insights I learned into male subculture.

m The guys who play these video games are intensely competitive'
mTheycanplayforhourswithoutstopping-intenseconcentration.
m They don't multitask-no small taik during the games; total focus on playing.
6 They take delight in winning at all costs-they boast with every kitl; they call each
other losers.
6 The/ often seem homophobic or misogynist'
m They put each other down by cailing opponents "faggot" and "wussy," or other
similar names that are totally obscene'
ru They associate victory with being macho'

wamant: It is beneficial for a girl to get these hsights into male subculhrre.
II Backing: How can I show these benefits?
88 PART 2 Writing an Argument

s Although I enjoy winning at FPS games, as a girl I feel alienated from this male subculture.
ffi I'm glad that I don't feel the need to put everyone else down'
ffi It was a good learning experience to see how grls'way of bonding is very different from
that ofdoys; girls tená to be nicer to each other rather than insulting each other.
rH The game atmosphere tends to bring out these traits; guys don't talk this way so much
when they are doing other things.
w This experience helped me see rnüy men may progress faster than women in a competi-
tive business environment-they seem programmed to crush each other and they devote
enornous energy to the Process.
ss \A,¡hat else can I say? I need to think about this fufther'

Conditions of Rebuttal: would anybody lry to rebut my reasons and grounds?

s:¡ evidence is pretiy convincing that males put each other down, concentrate
I think my
intensely, use homophobic or misogynist insults, etc'
es However, some guys may say "Hey, I don't talk that way," etc'
s Maybe people would say that my sample is biased'

Would anyone try to rebut my warrant and backing?

ffi Skeptics may say that girls are just as mean to each other as guys are, but they display
their meanness in a different way

For additional writing, reading, and research resources, g0 t0

www.mycomplab.com
 '
t$s*:mffi ffiwffi#wmcm K##ffi wffi$

In Chapters 3 and 4 we introduced you to the concept of /ogos-the logical

structuie of reasons and eüdence in an argument-and showed you how an ef-
fective argument advances the writer's claim by linking its supporting reasons to
one or more assumptions, beliefs, or values held by the intended audience. In
this chapter, we tlrm to the uses of eüdence in argument. By "eüdence," we
mean aÍ the verifiable infonnation a writer might use as support for an argu-
ment, such as facts, observations, examples, cases, testimony, experimental find-
ings, survey data, statistics, and so forth. In Toulmin's terms, evidence is palt of
thé "grounds" or "backing" of an argument in support of rea.sons or warrants.
I" thlr chapter, ." rho* you how to use evidence effectively. We begtn
by explaining ró-. general principles for the persuasive use of eüdence. Next
we d-escribe and illustrate various kinds of eüdence and then present a
rhetorical way to think about evidence, particularly the way writers select and
frame evidence to support the writer's reasons while simultaneously gurding
and limiting what the reader sees. By understanding the rhetorical use of evi-
dence, yorr"-ltt better understand how to use eüdence ethically, responsibly,
and peisuasively in your own arguments. We conclude the chapter by sug-
gesting straiegiés to help you gather eúdence for your arguments, including
adüce on conducting interviews and using questionnaires'

The Persuasive [Jse of Evidence

Consider a target audience of educated, reasonable, and careful readers who
approach an issue with healthy skepticism, open-minded but cautious. \44rat
demands would such readers make on a writer's use of evidence? To begin to
answer that question, let's look at some general principles for using evidence
persuasively.

Apply the STdR Criteria to Evidence

Our open-minded but skeptical audience rrould first of all expect the evidence
to melt what rhetorician Richard Fulkerson calls the STAR criteria:*

-nt.fr*a e"ff.".-., Z aching the Argument in Wrítírtg rLi'-¡::l:- IL: \ational Council of Teachers
of English, 1996), 44-53. In this section, we are i¡debiel : :-üenon's discussion.
89
PART 2 Writing an Argument

Sufficiency: Is there enough evidence?

Typicality: Is the chosen eüdence representative and t¡pical?
Accuracy: Is the eüdence accurate and up-to-date?
Relevance: Is the eüdence relevant to the claim?

Let's examine each in tum.

Sufficienry of Evidence How much eüdence you need is a fi.rnction of your rhetorical
context. In a court trial, opposing attomeys often agree to waive eüdence for points that
aren't in doubt in order to concentrate on contested points. The more a claim is contested
or the more your audience is skeptical, the more evidence you may need to present. If
you proüde too little eüdence, you may be accused of hasty generalization (see
Appendix 1), a reasoning fallacy in which a person makes a sweeping conclusion based
on only one or two inst¿nces. On the other hand, if you provide too much evidence your
argument may become overly long and tedious. You can guard against having too little or
too much eüdence by appropriately quaiifring the claim your eüdence supports. Rh
Strong claim: Working fulI time seriously harms a student's grade point average. (much
data needed-probably a combination of examples and statistical studies)
Qualified claim: Working full time oÍten harms a student's grade point average. (a few rep-
resentative examples may be enough)

Typicality of Evidence \A/henever you select evidence, readers need to believe

the evidence is typical and representative rather than extreme instances. Suppose
that you want to argue that students can combine fuIl-time work with full-time
college and cite the case of your friend Pam who pulled a straight-A grade average
while working forty hours per week as a night receptionist in a small hotel. Your
audience might doubt the typicality of Pam's case since a night receptionist can often
use work hours for studying. What about more typical jobs, they'll ask, where you
can't study while you work?

Accuracy of Evidence Eüdence can't be used ethically unless it is accurate and up-to-
date, and it can't be persuasive udess the audience believes in the writer's credibility. As
a writer, you must be scrupulous in using the most recent and accurate eüdence you can
find. Faith in the accuracy of a writer's data is one fi.mction of ethos-the audience's
confidence in the writer's credibility and trustworthiness (see Chapter 6, page 111).

Relevance of Evidence Finally, eüdence will be percuasive only if the reader

considers it relevant to the contested issue. Consider the following student argument: "I
deserve an A in this course because I worked exceptionally hard." The student then cites
substantial eüdence of how hard he worked-a log of study hours, copies of multiple
drafu of papers, testimony Íiom foiends, and so for1h. Such eridence is ample support for
the clarm "I worked very hard" but is irrelevant to the claim "l deserve an A." Although
some inshrrctors may give partial credit for effort, the critena for grades usually focus on
the quality of the student's performance, not the student s time spent studying.
 CHAPTER 5 Using Evidence Effectively 91

Use Sources That Your Reader Trusts

Another way to enhance the persuasiveness of your evidence
is to choose data'
questions
*h.rr"rr"r póssible, from sources you think your readers will trust. Because
of fact are often at issue in arguments, readers may be skeptical
of certain sources'
participants in the con-
\\4ren you research an issue, yór root get a sense ofwho the
the political biases of
versation are and what their reputatioñs tend to be. Knowing
personal investment in the
sources and the extent to which a source has financial or
that both you and
outcome of a controversy will also help you locate data sources
journal is often more per-
your readers can trust. Óltittg u peer-reviewed scholarly
a c,onservative magazine
suasive than citing an uduo.icy W.¡ tit.. Similarty, citing
audiences, just as citinq a
such as t}Ie National Reuiew -uy U" unpersuasive to liberal
(See Chapter 16 for
Sierra Club publication may bá unpersuasive to conservatives.
perspective')
further discussion ofhow to evaluate research sources from a rhetorical

Rhetorical Llnderstanding of Evidence

use of evi-
In the previous section we presented some general principles for effective
how persuades by
dence. We now want to dÉ"pe.r your understanding of
evidence
in which evidence operates'
árf.it g you to consider -or" .lot"iy the rhetorical context
you how
We,ll"lóok first at the kinds of evidence used in arguments and then show
writers select and frame evidence for persuasive effect'

Kinds of Evidence
can use in an argument,
writers have numerous options for the kinds of evidence they
research findings, and hypothetical examples' To
including personal e*p"rien.e data,
different kinds of
explain ihfse options, we present a sele: of charts that categoize
might be worked into an argument, and comment
.rrid".r"", illustrate how each kind
on the strengths and limitations of each'

Data from Personal Experience one powerful kind of eüdence

comes from
personal experience:

Example Strengths and Limitations

Personal-experience examples help

Despite recent criticism that Ritalin is
readers identifu with writer; theY
overprescribed for hyperactivity and
show writer's personal connection to
atlention deficit disorder, it can oÍten seem
the issue.
like a miracle drug. My little brother is a
:.: \'ivid stories capture the imagination.
perfect example. Before he was given Ritalin
r,': Skepfcs may sometimes argue that per-
h. ** u terror in school.... lTell the "before"
sonal-experience examples are insufficient
ar,d "after" story of your iittle brother'l
{uriter is gurlty of hasty generalization),
not t1pica1, or not adequately scientific
o¡ r'erifiable.
92 PART 2 Writing an Argument

Data from Observation nr Field Research you can also develop eüdence by
personally observing a phenomenon or by
doing your ovm field research:

Example
Strengths and Limitations
The intersection at Fifth and Montgomery is
pariicularly dangerous because pedestrians w Field research gives the feeling ofscientific
almost
never ñnd a comfortable break in the hear.y credibüty.
flow of
cars. On Apnl 29, I watched fifty_seven peáestrians itr It increases ffpicaiity by expanding
cross the street. Not once clid cars stop database beyond example ofone
in both
directions before the pedestrian stepped off person.
the
sidewalk onto the street. lContinue ,,r.it]r observed s It enhances ethos of the witer
data about danger.l as personally invested and
reasonable.
{t Skeptics may poinl to flaws in
how obserwations were
conducted, showing how data
are insufficient, inaccurate. or
nontypical.

Data from Interviews, euestionnaires, surveys you can also gather data by
interviewing stakeholders in.a controv".ry,
questionnaireq or doing surveys.
(see pages 101 103 for advice
- "r"atirg
on how tá conduct*this kind of fi"la ."s"a.cn.)

Example
Strengths and Limitations
Another reason to ban laptops from classrooms
is the ffi Interviews, questionnaires, and
ertent to which laptop rsers dishrb other
shrdents. In a srilveys enhance the sufficiencv anrj
questionnaire that I disfibuted to fifty stirdents
in my tifircalif of eüdence Uy
residence hall, a surprising 60 percent
said that thev the database beyond the ""p"rrai,rg
experiences
were annoyed by fellow students'sending
páying of one person.
"_-uil,
their bills, or surfing the Web while p."t"oaing
tolt .' tr Quantitative data í|om
notes in class. Additionally, I interviewed
five students, questionnaires and survevs
who gave me specific examples of how these
oíten increase the sciendác feel
distractions interfere with leaming.
[Report the of the argument.
examples.J
w Surveys and questionnaires often
uncover loca-l or recent data not avail_
able in published resea¡ch.
b lnterviews can proüde engaging per_
sona.l stories enhutcrtg pathos.
4 Skeptics can raise doubts about
resea¡ch methodology,
questionnaire design, or typicality
of i¡ten-ierv subjects.

Data from Library or Internet Research

For man- arguments, eüdence is derived
Ílom reading, particularly foom library or Internet pat
research. Five of this text helps
you conduct effective research and incorporate
research sources into your arguments:
 CHAPTER 5 Using Evidence Effectively 93

Example Strengths and L\rÑ\a\\ons

)l-
Researched eüdence is often powerful, especially
The belief that a high-carbohydrate-
low-fat diet is the best way to lose weight
lüen sources are respected by your audience;
has been challenged bY research
l,nters can spotlight source's credentials through
attributive tags (see Chapter 17, pages 370-371)
conducted by Waiter Willeti and his
Researched data may take the form of facts,
ific colleagues in the deparhnent ofnutrition
examples, quotations, summaries of research
in the Haward School of Public Health'
studiés, and so forlh (see Chapters 16 and 17)'
Willetts research suggests that complex
as pasta and potatoes Skeptics might doubt the accurary of facts, the
carbohydrates such
credentials of a source, or the research design
spike giucose levels, increasing the risk of
of a study. They might also cite studies with
Áabetes. Additionally, some fats-especially
monoursahuated and polyursaturated fats
different results.
fourd in nuts, fuh, and most vegetable oils-
K Skeptics might raise doubts about sufftciency'
help lower "bad" cholesterol levels (45)'
typicalify, or relevance of your research data'

Testimony writers frequently use testimony when direct data are either unavailable
iechnical or cáilffe*lTestimonial can come from research or from
fr*nf' "rrid"tt."
"'.
interuiews:

Example Strengths and Limitations

'o1'

:rs. By itsell testimony is generally less persuasrve

Although the Swedish economist Bjorn
than direct data.
Lomborg claims that acid rain is not a
Persuasiveness can be increased if source has
significant problem, many environmentalists
impressive credentials, which the writer can state
disagree. According to David Bellamany,
president of the Conser-vation Foundation'
through attributive tags introducing the testimony
;A.id..itt (see Chapter 17, Pages 370-371)'
does kill forests and people
Skeptics might undermine testimonial evidence by
arormd the world, and it's still doing so in
qar"rtiottittg .tadendals of source, showing source's
the most polluted places, such as Russia"
(qtd.n BBC News). bias, or quoting a countersource'

heavily on statistical data,

Statistical Data Many contemporary arguments rely
graphs' (See Chapter 9
t"ppf.*ented by graphia such as tables' pie charts' and
"tt""
for a diüssion of the uie óf graphics in argument')

Example Strengths and Limitations

Statistics can give powerfül snapshots of aggregate

Americans are delaying marriage at a
data from a wide database.
surprising rate. In 1970, 85 percent of
Americans between ages fifteen and
They are often used in conjunction with graphics
(see pages 191-197).
tr,venty-nine were married. In 2000,
T-hey can be calculated and displayed in different
however, only 54 percent were married
(U.S. Census Bureau). rvaysto achieve different rhetorical effects, so the
reader must be wary (see pages 99-100)'
Skeplics might question statistical methods,
research design, and interpretation of data'
nved
on system See ChaPter 17 for a
helps
ents: full discussion of how to cite a¡d document sources
94 PART 2 Writing an Argument

H¡pothetical Examnles, cases, and scenarios

hypothetical e*^ampres, cases, Argumenh occasionany use
or scenarios, particurarry to illustrate conjectured
consequences of an event or to test "
philosophical frypotfreier.

Example
Strengths and Limitations
Consider what might happen if we continue
to H Scenarios have strong imaginative
appeal.
use biotech soybeans that are resistant
to 6 They are persuasive only ifthey seem
plausible.
herbicides. The resistant gene, through
cross_ ffi A scenario narrative often conveys a sense of
pollination, might be transferrecl to
an "ineütability,,'even if the actual
ordinary weed, creating an out-of_control scenario is
unlikely; hence rhetorical effect may
superweed that herbicides couldn,t kill. be illogcal.
Such ffi Skeptics might show the implausibilitv
a superweed could be an ecological oT the
disaster. scenario or offer an alternative scena¡it.

Reasoned sequence of ldeas sometimes aqguments are supported

sequence of ideas mther than with with a reasoned
concrete facts or other fonrs of
The writer's concem is to support a empirical eüdence.
point th.owh a logical progression of
arguments are conceptuar, supported ideas. such
by rinked idéas, ratñer trr* EJá""dal.
support occurs Ílequently in arguments This kind of
and is often int"r--gü;th
liaa"rrtiury support.

Example
Strengths and Limitations
Embryonic stem cell research, despite
its promise in ff These sequences are often used in
fighting diseases, may have negative social causal
arguments to show how causes are
consequences. This research encourages linked
us to place to effects or in definitional or values
embryos in the category of mere celhilar argu_
rnutt.. tfrut ments to show links among ideas.
can be manipulated at will. Currently
we reduce 6 They have great power to clarifu
values
to this category when we genetically
T*qt
them for human purposes, such *1"g.i"".r;g
alter and show the belief sh-ucture on
which
pig. a claim is fourded.
to grow more humanlike heart valves
for,rr"Irl " g The! can sketch out ideas and connec_
transplanh. Using human embryos in üe same
way_ tions that woulcl otherwise remain latent.
as material that can be a.ltered and
deshoved at m Their effectiveness depends on the audi_
will-m1y benefit society materially, but this
quest for ence's acceptance of each link in
greater knowledge and conhol involves the
a sequence of ideas.
reclassifting of embryos that corlld potentially
lead to s Skeptics might raise objections at
any link in
a devaluing of human life.
the sequence, often by pointing to
different
values or outlining djfferent consequences.

Angle of vision and the selection and Framing

of Evidence
You can increase your ability to use
eüdence effech'ely-ald to analyze how
arguerc use eüdence-by becoming other
more aware of a lrnter's ,t etJcJ choices when us_
ing eüdence to support a claim. \AÁere
of our own criticar thinking i"q"t y, "u.r,
or*
stands on ñ;;; pady a function
*a
."rá.r,-our search r* t¡"'u"rt solution to a
 CHAPTER 5 Using Evidence Effectively 95

as people-our values and beliefs as

nroblem. But it is also partly a function of $üo we are
our family history, education, gender
ffi;;ñ;p-"ili; áf our existence such as
words' we dont entet the argu-
and sexual orientation, age, class, and ethnicrry. ln
oüer
at our claims through a value-free
mentative arena like disembodied computers atti rittg
values, and guiding assumptions'
calculus. We enter üth our own ideologres, beliefs,
work together to create a writer's
These guiding assumptions, belieis, and.values
"u"gi" of 'angle of vision," we could also use other words or
"iririon."'1krrt"uh that our way
_"ápho^ such as perspectiue, biÁ,lens, or filter-allterms that suggest of vision'
of ,""irrg the world i, itrup"i by our values and beliefs.) A writer's angle

EXAM IN INC VISUAL ARCU M ENTS

Angle of Vision
Because of nationally reported iniuries
and near.death experiences resutting
from stage diving and crowd surfing at
rock concerts, many cities have tried to
ban mosh pits. Critics of mosh pits have
pointed to the injuries caused by crowd
surfing and to the ensuing lawsuits
against concert venues. Meanwhile,
Crowd surfing in a mosh Pit
supporters cite the almost ecstatic
enjoyment of crowd-surfing rock fans
"festival
who seek out concerts wiih
seating."
These phoios display differeni angles
of vision toward crowd surfing. Suppose
you were writing a blog in support of
crowd surfing. Which image would you
n include in your posting? Why? Suppose
rt alternatively that you were blogging
i against mosh pits, perhaps urging local
officlals to outlaw them. Which image
would you chobse? WhY?
Analyze the visual features of these
photographs in order to explain how
lr they are constructed to create alternative
s- angles of vision on mosh Pits. An alternative view of a mosh Pit
)n
a
 PART 2 Wriiing an Argument

like a lens or filter, helps determine what stands out for that writer in a field of
data-that is, what data are important or trivial, significant or irrelevant, worth focus-
ing on or woflh ignoring.
To illustrate the concept of selective seeing, we ask you to consider how two hy-
pothetical speakers might select different data about homeless people when present-
ing speeches to their city council. The first speaker argues that the city shóuld in-
crease its services to the homeless. The second asks the city to promote tourism more
aggressively. Their differing angles of vision will cause the two speakers to select dif-
ferent data about homeless people and to frame these data in different ways. (Our use
of the word frame denves metaphorically from a window frame or the fiame of a
camera's viewfinder. When you look through a frame, some part of your field of vi
sion is blocked off, while the material appearing in the frame is emphasized. Through
framing, a writer maximizes the reader's focus on some data, minimizes the readei's
focus on other data, and otherwise guides the reader's vision and response.)
Because the first speaker wants to increase the council's sympathy for the
homeless, she frames homeless people positively by telling the story of one home-
less man's struggle to find shelter and nutritious food. Her speech focuses primarily
on the low number of tax dollars devoted to helping the homeless. In contrast, thl
second speaker, using data about lost tourist income, might frame the homeless as
'panhandlers" by telling the story of obnoxious, urine-soaked winos who pester
shoppers for handouts. As arguers, both speakers want their audience to sáe the
homeless from their own angles of vision. Consequently, lost tourist dollars don't
show up at all in the first speaker's argument, whereas the story of a homeless
man's night in the cold doesn't show up in the second speaker's argument. As this
example shows, one goal writers have in selecting and framing evidence is to bring
the reader's view of the subject into alignment with the writert angle of vision. Thé
writer selects and frames evidence to limit and control what the reader sees.
To help you better understand the concepts of selection and framing, we offer the
following class discussion exercise to give you practice in a kind of controlled labora-
tory setling. As you do this exercise, we invite you to observe your own processes for
selecting and foaming eüdence.

r r ffi FoR cl-Ass DlscussloN creating an Angle of vision by selecting Evidence

Suppose that your city has scheduled a public hearing on a proposed ordinance to ban
mosh pits at rock concerts. (See the Examining Visual Arguments feature on page g5,
where we introduced this issue.) Among the possible data available to variousipéuk".t
for eüdence are tn'e following:
r some bands, such as Nine Inch Nails, specify festival seating that allows a mosh
pit area.
r A female mosher writing on the Internet says: "l experience a shared energy that
is like no other when I am in the pit with the croud. It is like we are all a bunch of
atoms bouncing off of each other. It's great. He1', some people get that feeling from
basketball games. I get mine from the mosh pit."
 CHAPTER 5 Using Evidence Effectively 97

on her campus who had attended

r A student conducted a survey of fifty_students Bb percent thought that
the respondents,
rock concerrs - th"l;;;;áonths."Of
at concerls'
mosh pits should be allowed
included the following:
r Narrative comments o"ttt"'" questionnaires
get an amazing rush¡vhgl crowd sur{ing'
I Mosh pits are a passion for me' I
t,itn"g. But I love festival seating
r I don,t like to be in a mosh pit or do crowd pits-are part of the ambience of
For me, mosh
and like to watch the mosh pits.
she'lt never do one again. But
. ifiLiil'*r, who was groped in a mosh pit, and
I have never had anv oroblems'
they shouldle outlawecl.
. ftl"rtt plo ur" a*!lío"s and stupid' I think
Nobody forces vou to go into a
r If you are afraid 3i mosh pits iust stay away'
mosh pitl ft i, t¿JJo"' ¡"" them tecause they are totally voluntary' They
'J
shouldjustpostbigsignssaying..Cityassume,'ó,.'po'''ibitityforaccidents
occurrilrg in mosh Pit area"' concert
and memory loss at a 1998 Pearl Jam
r A teenage gi.f ,uf"*iU*i" damage h"di'l intended to body
to her attámey' she
in Rapid Ctty, S""th;'k;;' Át"otái"g
"g"t r".i.a in while rn" ** standing at its fringe'"
surf or enter the #üil; closest
I Twenty-four concelt deaths *"á ,".orded in 2001, most of them in the area
á tn" ttug. where people are packed in'
^ n,T^+
-1 a
cardiac arrest at Meiallica concert m
r A twenty orr"_y"*_oia man suffered
indianaandisnowinapermanentvegetativestate.Becausehewasiammedinto
he was in distress'
the mosh pit area, nobody noticed
nose on an elbow; another described
In 2005, bl"gg*;;;';; bt"""*e¡:s
;

; r " blogger on th.e tq: ti!" described

having
having his lip ring purii¿ ot"' Anothei 78
ár i"uutt guitar' The iqury required
I

l his tip nearty sticJd iit üt'*"'"..¡

stitches'InMay200s,fiftypeopleweretreatedatemergencyroomsformoshpit
"*¡"ti"t
ut Bambáozle concert in New Jersey'
e
".q"i.ád "
groups' complete the following tasks:
Tasks: Working indiüdually or in small
t-
rr
to ban
supporting the proposed crty ordinance
1. Compose two short speeches' one i' up to you, but be able to
yo., ..," íh",".dutu
mosh pits and one opposing it- How your
yot,
explain iñ tne way you select and frame them' Share
'"u'on'l"g
n sPeeches with classmates' that
different speeches, gxplain the approaches
2. Afteryou have ,t _of If n-
5. "r"J "**plesrn'n* principle of selection was used? arguers
different it' to it'
rS
"l*r-";;;;by"á- ttreir positionr, ho* did the¡ ryq"
cluded evidence ;;r;-i"
respond
effect?
channel its rhetorical
minimize lts importance,L oUtt"t-it" the
two different angles of vision-one supporting
sh
3. In the first task, we assigned you on a pro-
ordinance *¿ o"l * If you had to create your own argument
rat
posal to
"pf'?"-gir
u* -ofipi['*á y* i"t for foLirself a tmth-seetting goal-that is' find-
of irosh pit danger, one-for which you would
ing the best solutioi-ior rf.r" pioblemof use
lm would you argue? How would vour argument
take ethical ,"rp"iri¡fray-lnat
add? ¡S I I
the list of data we provided? \&4rat "l'e -ight"tou
98 PART 2 Writing an Argument

Rhetorical Strategies for Framing Evidence

What we hope you learned foom the preceding exercise is that an arguer consciously
selects eüdence from a wide field of data and then foames these data through rhetori-
cal strategies that emphasize some data, minimize others, and guide the reader's re-
sponse. Now that you have a basic idea of what we mean by framing of evidence, here
are some strategies writers can use to guide what the reader sees and feels.

Strategies for Framing Ev¡dence

w Controlling the space giuen to supporting Dersus contrary euidence: Depending on
their audience and pulpose, writers can devote most of their space to supporting
evidence and minimal space to contrary evidence (or omit it entirely). Thus peo-
ple arguing in favor of mosh pits may have used lots of evidence supporting mosh
pits, including enthusiastic quotations Ílom concertgoers, while omitting (or sum-
marizing very rapidly) the data about the dangers of mosh pits.
w Emphasizing a detailed stoty uersus presenting lots of faas and statistics.' Often, writers
can choose to support a point with a memorable individual case or with aggregate
data such as statistics or lists of facts. A memorable story can have a strongly per-
suasive effect. For example, to create a negative üew of mosh pits, a nriter might
tell the hearhending story of a teenager suffering permanent brain damage from
being dropped on a mosh pit floor. In contrast, a suppofter of mosh pits might tell
the story of a happy music lover tumed on to the concert scene by the rush of crowd
surdng. A different strategr is to use facts and statistics rather than case narratives-
for example, data about the frequency of mosh pit accidents, finaricial consequences
of lawsuits, and so forth. The single-narrative case oÍten has a more powerfirl rhetor-
ical effect, but it is always open to the charge that it is an insufficient or nonrepre-
sentative example. Viúd anecdotes make for interesting reading, but by themselves
they may not be compelling logically. In contrast, aggregate data, often used in schol-
arly studies, can provide more compelling, logical eüdence but sometimes make the
prose wonkish and dense.
w Prouid,ing contextual and interpretiue comments when pruenting data: When clfing
data, writers can add brief contextual or interpretive comments that act as lenses
over the readers' eyes to help them see the data from the writer's perspective.
Suppose you want to support mosh pits, but want to admit that mosh pits are dan-
gerous. You could make that danger seem irrelevant or inconsequential by saying:
"It is true that occasional mosh pit accidents happen, just as accidents happen in
any kind of recreational actiüty such as swrmming or weekend softball games." The
concluding phrase frames the danger of mosh pits by comparing them to other
recreational accidents that don't require special laws or regulations. The implied
argument is this: banning mosh pits because of an occasional accident would be as
silly as banning recreational swimming because of occasional accidents.
w Putting contrary euidence in subordinate positiorn, Just as a photographer can place
S
a flower at the center of a photograph or in the background, a writer can place a
piece of data in a subordinate or main clatse of a sentence. Note how the structure \
of the following sentence minimizes emphasis on the rari{z of mosh pit accidents: d
 CHAPTER 5 Using Evidence Effectively

,,Although mosh pit accidents are IaIe, the danger to the crty of multimillion-dollar
them for reasons of
liability"lawsuits means that the city should neverüeless ban
;11' n,"ap'ua""ce.''Thefactualdatathatmoshpitaccidentsarg.Preissummarized
the writer's own
,ri- briefly and tucked away in a subordinate atthough clause, while
re- poritián is elaborated in ¡ae main clause where it receives grammatical emphasis'
"Although some cities may occa-
lre h *tit", with a different angle of üsion might say,
from mosh pits are
sionally be threatened with; lawsuit, serious accidents resulting
of music fans to conduct con-
,o l.utá that cities shouldn't interfere with the desires
certs as theY Please."
to data: of the most
w Choosing nnát o"A names that guid.e the reader's response -One
on to labels and names
subtle ways to control yorr r"ud"tt'response to data is choose
ing like pits, you might refer
that prompt them to sée the issue as you do. If you mgsh
eo- "festival seating, where concelt-
to the seaiing arangements in a concert venue as
rsh pit." you don't like
goers have iir" opp-orr,rrrity to create a free-flowing mosh ,If
as "an accident-rnviting use
irosh pits, yo., migirt ,efer io the seating arrangements
or ,p""" *ñ"r" rowdies can crowd together, slam into.each other, and occa-
ETS "-pty
,.rraiy"prrr.ch and kick." The labels you "hoot", along with the
connotations of
Iate your angle of üsion'
ttt" *ord, you select, urge your reader to share
Fr- * Utl"g f*ig^ (photogrípis, drawings) to guid'e the reader's response to data'
is to
_tEht
mm
Anotier stlategy for"miving your áudience toward your angle of vision
your per-
include a photograph or drawing that portrays a contested issue from
tell mosh pit photographs that
spective. io.,'uJ4r"udy tried yout ftu"a.at ieleciing
l*d people agree
,rluk. urgo,,'ents through theii angle of vision. (See page 95.) Most
es- The crowd looks
that the first photo srippots a positive view of mosh pits.
and the young woman
huppy and reliled (rathér than rowdy or out of control)'
ü,CES

5Dr- relaxed, her arms extended' In

lifted above the crowd smiles broadly, her body
(rather than a smiling and
contrast, the second photo emphasizés muscular men
f' The crowd seems
relaxed woman) and threateni d*g". rather than harmony.
es
nol- g discussion of the
on the verge of turning ugly. (see Óhapter for a complete
l rire

inng
- H;::r:;i;:,:^TffffiiLt detetmines the writer,s setection and framing of dgta:
the system of values
Utimately, how a *ñter selects and frames eüdence is linked to
r-ies pits, you probably favor maxi-
that orgaile his or her argument. If you favor mosh
letting moshers
mizing"the pleasure of conórtgoers, promoting tndiüdyal choice,.and
tar- forbid pits, you probably
ass'me the rjsk of their own ¡"enarriór. If you want to mosh
fjlg: favor minimizing risl$,protecting the crty from lawsuits, and protecting
individuals
n u-l
flom the dangei of their own out-of-control actions. Sometimes you can foster con-
'The underlying values that you
nections with yout audience by openly addressing the
úer hope your shares with yo"' Yo" can often flame your selected data by stat-
p'üed "rrdi"n."
ing explicitly the values that guide your argument'
ht as

lirace special strategies for Framing Statistical Evidence

[ea Numbers and statistical data can be framed in so many ways that
this category of eü-
[:JIE how writers frame numbers
dence deserves its own separate treatment. B¡' recogntzing
Itnts:
100 PART 2 Writing an Argument

to support the story they want to tell, you will always be aware that other stories are lt
also possible. Ethical use of numbers means that you use reputable sources for your
basic data, that you don't invent or intentionally distort numbers for your own pur-
poses, and that you don't ignore alternative points of üew Here are some of the
choices writers make when framing statistical data:

w Raw numbers uersus percentages. You can alter the rhetorical effect of a statistic by
choosing between raw numbers or percentages. In the summer of 2002, marry
American parents panicked over what seemed like an epidemic of child abduc-
tions. If you cited the raw number of these abductions reported in the national
news, this number, although small, could seem scary. But if you computed the ac-
tual percentage of American children who were abducted, that percentage was so
infinitesimally small as to seem insignificant. You can apply this framing option di-
rectly to the mosh pit case. To emphasize the danger of mosh pits, you can say
that twenty-four deaths occurred at rock concerts in a given year. To minimize this
statistic, you could compute the percentage of deaths by dividing this number by
the totai number of people who attended rock concerts during the year, ceftainly
a number in the several millions. From the perspective of percentages, the death
rate at concerh is extremely low.
w Median uersus mean. Another way to alter the rhetorical effect of numbers is to
choose between the median and the mean. The mean is the average of all num-
Gatl
bers on a list. The median is the middle number when all the numbers are
arranged sequentially from high to low. In 2O06 the mean annual income for
retired families in the United States was $41,928-not a wealthy amount but
enough to live on comfortably if you owned your own home. However, the medi-
an income was only $27 ,798, a figure that gives a much more striking picture of
income distribution among older Americans. This median figure means that half
of all retired families in the United States had annual incomes of $27 ,798 or less.
The much higher mean income indicates that many retired Americans are quite
wealthy. This wealth raises the average of all incomes (the mean) but doesn't
affect the median.
w Unadjusted uersus adjusted numbers. Suppose your boss told you that you were
getting a 5 percent raise. You might be happy-unless inflation rates were run-
ning at 6 percent. Economic data can be hard to interpret across time unless
the dollar amounts are adjusted for inflation. This same problem occurs in
other areas. For example, comparing grade point averages of college graduates
in 1970 versus 2008 means little unless one can somehow compensate for
grade inflation.
w Basepointforstatisticalcomparisons. In2008,thestockmarketwasinprecipi
tous decline if one compared 2008 prices with 2007 prices. However, the
market still seemed vigorous and healthy if one compared 2008 with ZOO2.
One's choice of the base point for a comparison often makes a significant
rhetorical difference.
 CHAPTER 5 Using Evidence Effectively 101

II :i.r,i FOR CIASS DISCUSSION Using Strategies to Frame Statistical Evidence

A proposal to build a new bailpark in Seattle, Washington, yielded a wide range of
statistical arguments. All of the following statements are reasonably faithful to the
same facts:
r The ballpark would be paid for by raising the sales tax from 8.2 percent to
8.3 percent during a twenty-year period.
r The sales tax increase is one-tenth of 1 percent.
r This increase represents an average of $7.50 per person per year-about the price
of a moüe ticket.
I r This increase represents $750 per five-person family over the twenty-year period
of the tax.
l r For a family building a new home in the Seattle area, this tax will increase build-
ing costs by $200.
I r This is a $250 million tax increase for the residents of the Seattle area.
s
How would you describe the costs of the proposed ballpark if you opposed the proposal?
! How would you describe the costs if you supported the proposal? 11i'! I I
]'
h

o Gathering Evidence
:e
We conclude this chapter with some brief adüce on ways to gather evidence for your
arguments. We begin with a list of brainstorming questions that may help you think
)I
.rt
of possible sources for eüdence. We then proüde suggestions for conducting inter-
ti-
üews and creating surveys and questionnaires, since these powerful sources are often
overlooked by students. For help in conducting library and Internet research-the
of
most common sources of eüdence in arguments-see Part Five: "The Researched
úf
j.s.
Argument."
te
r't
Creating a Plan for Gathering Evidence
re As you begin contemplating an argument, you can use the following checklist to help
n- you think of possible sources for eüdence.
:SS

in
A Checklist for Brainstorming Sources of Evidence
.es
br m \4/hat personal experiences have you had with this issue? \4/hat details from your
life or the lives of your friends, acquaintances, or relatives might serve as exam-
pi- ples or other kinds of evidence?
he w What observational studies would be relevant to this issue?
)2. w ryVhat people could you interview to provide insights or expert knowledge on
mt this issue?
ru \4/hat questions about your issue could be addressed in a survey or questionnaire?
102 PART 2 Writing an Argument

What usefi.rl information on this issue might encyclopedias, specialized reference

books, or the regular book collection in your university library proüde? (See
Chapter 16.)
What eüdence might you seek on this issue using licensed database indexing
sources in magazines, newspapers, and scholarly joumals? (See Chapter 16.)
How might an Internet search engine help you research this issue? (See
Chapter 16.)
\A4rat evidence might you find on this issue from reliable statistical resources such
as U.S. Census Bureau data, the Centers for Disease Control, or Statistical Abstract
of the United States? (See Chapter 16.)

Gathering Data freim Intenriews

Conducting interviews is a useful way not only to gather expert testimony and impor-
tant data but also to learn about alternative views. To make interviews as productive
as possible, we offer these suggesüons.

w Determine Uour purpose. Think out why you are interviewing the person and what
information he or she is uniquely able to proüde.
w Do background reading. Find out as much as possible about the interwiewee before
the interview. Your knowledge of his or her background will help establish your
credibility and build a bridge between you and your source. Also, equip yourself
with a good foundational understanding of the issue so that you will sound
informed and truly interested in the issue.
e Formulate well-thoughtout questions but also be flexible. Write out beforehand the
questions you intend to ask, making sure that every question is related to the pur-
pose of your interview. However, be prepared to move in unexpected directions if
the interview opens up new territory. Sometimes unplanned topics can end up
being the most illuminating and usefirl.
e Come well preparedfor the interainw. As part of your professional demeanor, be sure
to have all the necess€uy supplies (notepaper, pens, pencils, perhaps a tape
recorder, if your interviewee is willing) with you.
w Be prompt and courteous. It is important to be punctual and respectfil of your inter-
üewee's time. In most cases, it is best to present yourself as a listener seeking clar-
ity on an issue rather than an advocate of a particular position or an opponent.
During the inierview, play the believing role. Save the doubting role for later, when
you are looking over your notes.
w Thke brief but clear notes.Try to record the main ideas and be accurate with quotations. Co
fuk for clarification of any points you don't understand.
M Tianscribe Aour notes soon after the interuiew. Immediately after the inter-
view, while your memory is still fresh, rewrite your notes more fully and
completely.

\Vhen you use interview data in your writing, put quotation marks around any direct
quotations. In most cases, you should also identi[- vour source by name and indicate
 CHAPTER 5 Using Evidence Effectively 1O3

his or her title or credentials-whatever will convince the reader that this person's re-
marks are to be taken seriouslY.

Gathering Data from Surveys or Questionnaires

A well-constructed survey or questionnaire can proüde lively, current data that give
your audience a sense of the popularity and importance of your views. To be effective
"*d
,"rponrible, howevet, a su*ey or questionnaire needs to be carefully prepared
ar-rd administered, as we suggest in the following guidelines'

* Include both closed-response questions and open-response questions. To give you use-
ful information and ávoid charges of bias, you will want to include a range of
questions. Closed-response questions ask patticipants to check a box or number
on a scale and yield quantitative data that you can report statistically, perhaps in
tables or graphs. Open-response questions elicit varied responses and often short
narratives thát alow participants to offer their own input. These may contribute
new insights to your perspective on the issue.
va Make golr surue7 or questionnaire clear and easg to complete. Think out the num-
ber, order, wording, and layout of the questions in your questionnaire. Your
questions should bé clear and easy to answer. The neatness and overall formal
appearance of the questionnaire will also invite serious responses from your
participants.
-Exptain
a the purpose of the quationnaire. Respondents are usually more willing to
participate if tfrey know how the inforrnation gained from the questionnaire will
benefii others. Therefore, it is a good idea to state at the beginning of the ques-
tionnaire how it will be used.
s Seek a random sample of respondents in gour distribution of the questionnaire. TYtrtk
out where and how you will distribute and collect your questionnaire to ensure a
random sampling of respondents. For example, if a questionnaire about the univer-
sity library went only to dorm residents, then you wouldn't leam how commuting
students felt.
ffi Conuert questionnaires into usable data bg tallging and summarizing responses.
'Iallying ihe results and formulating summary statements of the information you
gathered will yield material that might be used as eúdence'

Conclusion
Effective use of evidence is an essential skill for arguers. In this chapter we introduced
you to the STAR criteria and other strategies for making your data persuasive' We
showed you various kinds of eüdence and then examined how a writer's angle of ü-
sion influences the selection and framing of evidence. We also described framing
strategies for emphasizing evidence, de-emphasrzing it, and guiding your reader's re-
rporré to it. Finally we concluded with adüce on how to gather eüdence, including
the use of interuiews, surveys, and questionnaires'
 104 PART 2 Writing an Argument

WRITING ASSIGNMENT A Microtheme or a Supporting-Reasons

';;;-
1
",",;; -,1;.;l Argument
Option 1: A Microtheme Write a one- or two-paragraph argument in which you
support one of the following enthymemes, using evidence from personal experi-
'i'i;¡;¡it'1' t"tA observation, interviews, or data from a brief questionnaire or survey'
liil: r;i:;;1: Most of your microtheme should support the stated reason with evidence'
"tt.L,
1¡;¡ However, also include a brief passage supporting the implied warrant. The open-
li';i.:11;:;;ij, I' ing sentence of your microtheme should be the enthymeme itself, which selves
l' ,',i(/,""',ii' as the thesis statement for your argument. (Note: If you disagree with the
l¡ .il¡ ,tr ¡r" enthymeme's argument, recast the claim or the reason to assert what you want
'::i',;;'' to argue.)
'itt'
1. Reading fashion magazines can be detrimental to teenage girls because such
magazines can produce an unhealthy focus on beauty'
2. surfing the web might harm your studying because it causes you to waste
time.
3. Service-learning courses are valuable because they allow you to test course concepts
within re al-world contexts'
4. Summer interrrships in your field of interest, even without pay, ale the best use
of your summer time bLcause they speed up your education and training for a
career.
5. Any enthymeme (a claim with a because clause) of your choice that can be sup-
port"a without library or Internet research. (The goal of this microtheme is to
giu" yo., practice using data from personal experience or from brief field
ieseaich.) You may *utrt to have your instructor approve your enthymeme in
advance.

Option 2: A Supporting-Reasons Argument Write an argument that uses at least

tlvo reasons to support yóur claim. Your argument should include all ihe features of a
classical a.gomerrt excépt the section on summarizing and responding to opposing
views, whiÁ we will cover in Chapter 7. This assignment builds on the brief writing
4
assignments in Chapter 3 (create á thesis statement for an argrment) and Chapter
Toulmin schema)' We now
ftrJurstorm supporLfor one of your enthymemes using the
ask you to expand your argument frame into a complete essay'
A supporting-iroronr-orgrment is our term for a classical argument without a
"

section tñat summarizes and responds to opposing views' Even though alternative
views aren't dealt with in detail, the writer usually summarizes an opposing view
briefly in the introduction to provide background on the issue being addressed'
Folloi the explanations and oiganization charl for a classical argument as shown
on page ot, ¡ut omit the section called "summary and critique of opposing views."
'liie a complete classical argument, a supporting-reasons argument has a thesis-
governed structure in which you state your claim at the end of the introduction'
tegin body paragraphs with clearly stated reasons, and use effective transitions
 CHAPTER 5 Using Evidence Effectively 105

throughout to keep your reader on track. In developing your own algument, place
your áost importani, persuasive, or interesting reason last, where it will have the
greatest impact or yo.tr readers. This kind of tightly organized structure is some-
-l iimes called a self-innouncing or closed-form structure because the writer states his
i, or her claim befóre beginning the body of the argument and forecasts the structure
that is to follow. In contrast, an unfolding or open-form structure doesn't give away
l. the writer's position until late in the essay. (We discuss delayed-thesis arguments in
I. Chapter 7.)
S in writing a self-announcing argument, students often ask how much of the argu-
e ment to summarize in the thesis statement. consider your options:
It
r You might announce only your claim:

Women should be allowed to join combat units'

r You might forecast a series ofparallel reasons:

women should be allowed to join combat units for several reasons.

r You might forecast the actual number of reasons:

e Women should be allowed to join combat units for f,ve reasons'

a
r Or you might forecast the whole argument by including yottr because clauses with
)- your claim:
o
d Women should be allowed to ioin combat units because they are physically capable of do-
n ing the job; because the presence of women in combat units would weaken gender stereo-
t¡.{"r; b."ut,re they are already seeing combat in Iraq; because opening combat units to
women would expand their military career oppoúunities; ald because it would advance
st the cause of civil rights.

This last thesis statement forecasts not only the claim, but also the supporting reasons
d

that will serve as topic sentences fol. key paragraphs throughout the body of the
rg
rg
paper.
I No formula can tell you precisely how much of your argument to forecast in the
introduction. However theseiuggestions can guide you. In writing a self-announcing
argument, forecast only what is needed for clarity. In short arguments readers often
a
ne"ed only your claim. in longer arguments, however, or in especially complex.ones,
;e (claim
readers appreciate your forecasting the complete structure of the argument
d.
with reasons). I
a)

s-
Reading
n, \\4rat follows is Carmen Tieu's supporting-reasons argument. Carmen's earlier ex-
1S plorations for this assignment are shown at the end of Chapters 3 and 4 (page 71
and page B7).
 106 PART 2 Writing an Argument

why violent video Gqmes.f;,re Goad for Girrs

CANMEñ¡ TISU {STTJDEñIT¡

It is ten o'clock P'M., game time. My entire

' family knows by now that when I am home
on saturday nights, ten P.M. tt
night
-y_,gá-rng "seatedwl_ien I pray my r"".* first-person
shooter games, usually Hato 3, on Xbox
Live. in my mobiie
' familyb 42-irch flat screen HDTV I log onto "h"t;,in front
xbox tive. A small message the
of my
bottom
i of the screen appears with the words "Krlpl-3r
is online," alerting
I friends is online and already playing. ¿s -" ,irur-orr" of my male
ine gu-"-toudr, I send Krlp1-3r a game
I and he-joins me in the pre-game room lobby. invite,
' In the gameroo* táuoyiau the players
ího will be participating in the match are chat-
ting aggressively with other,.i'oh man, *";*^gorrnu own you guys
member of the opposing "u.ú so bad.,,when a
team notices.my gamer tai,,.embracingapathy,,,he
sult me by calling me various degradini,"gay-ass-o?ated begins to in_
ou*"i i,nÁirilog apa-what?
Man' it sounds so emo' Are you some f;gt
i bet you want me so bad. you,re gonna get
owned!" Players always assum€
-t !u^, tug tlrut r am agay male, never a fbmale.
loTtast-thlg
The possibilitv thatram a girl is the
girls seldom play first-person shooter gu."J. ""
rrr?¡ -j";;. ,;ffi* L", righr.that
"." that pro-
Girls are sociarized into activities
mote togetherness and talk, not high intensity
competition involving anárir"¿ shooting
and killing' The violent nature of ih, gu-",
t"n¿, io repulse girls. opponents of violent
video games typically hold that these gLes
u* ro gruphically viotentilr"airr.y will influ_
ence players to become amoral and
saáistic. reminiits arso argue that rrioienivideo
often objectify women by portraying them games
as sexualized toys for men,s gratification.
Although I understand these objecti*r, t
urgu" thui ptuying first-person shooter games
can actually be good for girls.
First' playing FPS games is surprisingly
empowering because it gives girls the chance
to beat guys at their own game- when iii.rt
ü.g"r ftuying Hato i,I wis horrible. My
male friends constantly put me down for
.y ru"t iirtills, cJnstantlyi"ilirf-" rhat I was
awful' "but for a girl, you're good." But it dldnl take
much practice until t llarned to oper-
ate the two joy sticks with precision
and with qui"t lnrtin.tual reactions.
girls can play many physical games togethe., rñit" guy, uno
such as basketball or touch r*ruutt, guy,
will always have the advantage be.uur"-in uu"tug"-th"y
are taller,fasteq and stronger than
females' However, when it comes to
video gamei girls can compete equally
ical strength isn't required just quick reáction because phys-
women possess in abundance. The adrenaline
tLe and manual dexterity-skills that
rush that I receive rrom u"utág a bunch
testosterone-driven guys at somethingfhey_supposedly of
excel at is exciting; I especially sa-
vor the look of horror on their fuces whenl
destroy them.
"o-pr.ó
Since female video gamers are so rare, playing
sháoter games allows girls to be freed
I
from feminine stereotvpes and increases
irr.i ."iri¿",r... Erl*, ;;#t;;;rtrays f.e_ I
males as caring, nonviolent, and motherly
games with their war themes and
b"id;;;; are not supposed to enjoy FpS
violent ultings. I u-
female values since I myself am a compassionate. - no way rejecting these traditional b
tree-hugging vegan. But I also like to
 CHAPTER 5 Using Evidence Effectively 1O7

break these stereotypes. Playing video games offers a great way for females to break the
social mold of only doing "girly" things and introduces them to something that males
commonly enjoy. Playing video games with sexist males has also helped me become more
outspoken. Psychologically, i can stand up to aggressive males because I know that I can
beat them at their own game. The confidence I've gotten from excelling at shooter games
may have even carried over into the academic arena because I am majoring in chemical en-
gineering and have no fear whatsoever of intruding into the male-dominated territory of
math and science. Knowing that I can beat all the guys in my engineering classes at Halo
gives me that little extra confidence boost during exams and labs.
s Another reason for girls to play FPS games is that it gives us a different way of bonding
with guys. Once when I was discussing my latest Halo J matches with one of my regular
male friends, a guy whom I didnl know turned around and said "You play Halo? Wow,
you just earned my respect." Although I was annoyed that this guy apparently didn't re-
spect women in general, it is apparent that guys will talk to me differently now that I can
play video games. From a guy's perspective I can also appreciate why males find video
games so addicting. You get joy from perfecting your skills so that your high-angle
grenade kills become a thing of beauty. While all of these skills may seem trivial to some,
the acknowledgment of my skills from other players leaves me with a pelverse sense of
pride in knowing that I played the game better than everyone else. Since I have started
playing, I have also noticed that it is much easier to talk to males about lots of different
subjects. Talking video games with guys is a great ice-breaker that leads to different kinds
of friendships outside the realm of romance and dating.
Finally, playing violent video games can be valuable for girls because it gives them insights
into a disturbíngparf of male subculfure. When the testosterone stafs kicking in, guys be-
come blatant$ homophobic and misogynistic. Any player, regardless of gender, who cannot
play well (as measured by having a high number of kills and a low number of deaths) is made
fun of by being called gay, a girl, or worse. Even when some guys finally meet a female
player, they will also insult her by calling her a lesbian or an ugly fat chick that has no life.
Their insults towards the girl will dramatically increase if she beats them because they feel so
humiliated. In their eyes, playing worse than a girl is embarrassing because girls are supposed
to be inept at FPS games. Whenever Iplay Halo better than my male friends, they often com-
ment on how "it makes no sense that we're getting owned by Carmen."
When males act like such sexist jerks it causes one to question if they are always like
this. My answer is no because I know, first hand that when guys like that are having one-
on-one conversations with a female, they show a softer side, and the macho side goes away.
They don't talk about how girls should stay in the kitchen and make them dinner, but rather
how they think it is cool that they share a fun, common interest with a girl. But when they
are in a group of males their fake, offensive macho side comes out. I find this phenomenon
troubling because it shows a real problem in the rvay boys are socialized. To be real "man"
around other guys, they have to put down women and gays in activities involving aggressive
behavior where men are supposed to excel. But they don't become macho and aggressive in
activities. like reading and writing, which they think of as feminine. I've always known that
108 PART 2 Writing an Argument

playing violent video games I

fr4
guys are more physically aggressive than women, but until
and homophobia' Perhaps
had never realized fro* ihll"uggression is related to misogyny
these traits aren't deeply ingraiired in men but come out primarily in a competitive male en- ff¡
ugly phenomenon' and I'm glad that I learned more
vironment. Whatever the carrse, it is an
má¿e me a more confident woman while being
about it. Beating g*ys at FPS games ttas
moreawafeorge,,¿",differencesinthewaymenandwomenaresocialized.Ijoinedthe
guysinplaying-Halo,butldidn'tjointheirsubcultureofridiculingwomenandgays'

writing readin& and research resources, g0 t0

Ff¡ü$oN

türnp iffi For additional

lffii wwwmycomplab'com

Fr,
\_r
ffimw&W wr&exd#w
fffss$;,ffif#ffi ffi Ks$r*s

In Chapters 4 and 5 we focused on /ogos-the logical stmcture of reasons and

eüdence in argument. Even though we have treated lagos m its own chapters,
an effective ۟guer's concern for logos is always corurected to ethos utd pathos
(see the rhetorical hiangle introduced in Chapter 3, p. O3). By seeking
audience-based reasons-so that arr arguer connects her message to the
assumptions, values, and beliefs of her audience-she appeals also to ethos utd
pathosby enhancing the reader's trust and by triggering the reader's sympathies
arid imagination. In this chapter, we tum specifically to ethos utd pathos. We
also introduce you to a related rhetorical concept, lzairos, which concerns the
timeliness, fitness, and appropriateness of an argument for its occasion.

Ethas and Ps#rCIs as Fersuasive ,A,ppeals:

-{n Overview
At first, one may be tempted to think of logos, ethos, eatd pathos as "ingredi-
ents" in an essay, like spices you add to a casserole. But a more appropriate
metaphor might be that of different lamps and filters used on theater spot-
lights to vary lighting effects on a stage. Thus if you switch on a pathos lamp
(possibly through using more concrete language or vivid examples), the result-
ing image wrll engage the audience's sympathy and emotions more deeply. If
you overlay an ethos filter (perhaps by adopting a different tone toward your
audience), ihe projected image of the writer as a person will be subtly altered.
If you switch on a logos lamp (by adding, say, more data for eüdence), you
will draw the reader's attention to the logical appeal of the argument.
Depending on how you modulate the lamps and filters, you shape and color
your readers' perception of you and your argument.
Our metaphor is imperfect, of course, but our point is that logos, ethos,
and pathos work together to create an tmpact on the reader. Consider, for
example, the different impacts of the follonrng arguments, all haüng roughly
the same logrcal appeal.

1. People should adopt a vegetarian diet because doing so will help prevent
the cruelty to animals caused by facton, famring.
2. If you are planning to eat chicken tonight. please consider how much that
chicken suffered so that you could have a tender and juicy meal.
Commercia-l growers cram the chickens so rightly together into cages that
109
110 PART 2 Writing an Argument

theyneverwalkontheirownlegs,seesunshine,orflaptheirwings.Infact,their
one way
them from pecking each other's eyes out'
beaks must be cut off to keep
and áore péople to becom-e vegetarians'
to prevent r,r"rt ,*ri}""gl' iát -ot" sentient crea-
3. people who eat;;;J" no better than sadists who torture other tyranny over oth-
tures to enhance ,r*i, preasure. unless you enjoy sadistic
"*.r a vegetarian'
átt, V"" have only one choice: become
;Ñt;;,* frre extent to which our love of eating
4. People committed :o":t9"tto a modem chicken factory-where chick-
vrsrt
meat require, U,r" wings-
"go;i;""r-?fr.,e
in tiny, darkened coops without room to spread their
ers live their entire-lives on sentient creatures'
might raise ¿""¡t, Já"t o*
.ignt to inflici such suffering
just altemative'
such a,i;c p;rr.rud"" us that vegetarianism is a more
Indeed,

logical core:
Each argument has roughly the same

ENTHYMEME
diet
CLAIM People should adopt a vegetarlan

REASON because doing so will help prevent

the cruelty to animals caused by factory
farming.

GROUNDS : ,

. Evidence of suffering in {ommerclal

chleken
farms, whére chiekenstare crammed together
, andJash out:at one allotlrer
''. Evidencé that onty widespread ádoptiÓn 9l '

. ,vegetariafijsm will end faclory farming ' ,

.tiü¡*ú¡i$*.,i:, t'r'.....-', 1rir ;-'';¡i:¡"''

animals
lf we have an altemative to making
,,,::.
gul.fg¡¡Úre.,sh'Óuj.$€1{r,:-.:,.: r,.','. :,' ."j', j :r'.'

Buttheimpactofeachargumentvaries.Thedifferencebetweenargumentslarrd
argument 2'
rr^/hereas
repotlis the gre.ater,.emotional power of
2, most of our students
to animals"'-argument 2 paints a
argument 1 refers
""ryiil"."u¡qito:" ",*tlty
viüd picture of chickeirs with their beaks cut
off io prevent their pecking each other
(not necessarily a stronger argu-
;i*d 'Á;g"-ent 2 makls a st onge, appgal lo pathosto the heart and to the head'
ment), stirring feelings ii 'i-ulta"^"o"'ly
"pp"¿iñg t utr¿ 3 conóems bo+Jt ethos and pathos' Argument
The djfference b"M¿;;g,r"át
-tt]?o"gtt and
3 appeals to U." "*otiál' highly charged rvords -such as- tortt¿re' sadist'
and most of our students reporl
tyranny.But argument á*j* ty"lSttei¡,Jn 1
its".ttitet.
notlikingthatwriterverymuch.Hisstancesseif-nghteousandinsulting'Ilcontrast'
 6 Moving Your Audience 111
CHAPTER

argument4'sauthorestablishesamolepositivgl/ftos,'Heestablishesrapportbyassuming
with conditional terms
his audience ir.;.;;J to¡**i"" andby quali*ring his argulSnt appeal to pathos-
19..h problem-an
such as might andperhaps.Healso invitesi5..rnp",lry
crammed into tiny coops'
by offering u.p""ifit description of chickens
tü;;gu#nts is best? rn"y ar have appropriate uses. Arguments 1 and
\&4rich
"f at receptive audiences ráonably op"" _to exploration of the issue'
4 seem aimed audiences or to rally a
whereas *gorn"rro z *ra s seem designed to shoák c^omplacent
groupofTirreBelievers'Even-g*",'t3,whuchistooabusivetobeeffectiveinmost
animal liberation actiüsts'
at a cot\/e''ttion of
instances, might work as a rallying speech
aspects of the same
Our point ,n", i*
is that"/ogás,^ ethos, and pathos ale.drfjerent
the light beam you.project onto the
whole, different lenses for intensifying or'roruóog
screen. Every choice you make as a
writer affects in some way each of the three appeals'
choices in more detail'
The rest of this chapter examines these

How to create an Effective Ethos: The Appeal

to CredibilitY
TheancientGreekandRoma-nrhetoriciansrecogrrizedthatanargrrmentwouldbe
more persuasive if the audience ü-Lrsted
the speaker' Aristotle argued that such trust
resideswithinthespeechitself,notinthepriorreputationofthespeaker'Inthe
d"liu"ry, tone, word .hti.", urrá tt*g"-ent
of reasons, in the
speaker,s manner *d
sympathywlthwhichheorshetreatsalternativeviews,thespeakercreatesatrustwor-
thypersona'Aristotlecalledtheimpactofthespeaker,scredibilitytheappealfrom
ethos.Howdoesawritercreatecredibility?wesuggestthreeways:

*BeKnowledgeableaboutYourlssue.Thefirstwaytogaincredibilrt.vis|obe
credible_thatis,toarguefiomastrongbaseoJknowledge,tohaveathandthe to
statisíics, and other empirical data needed
examples, personal experiences,
makeasounclcase.Ifyo.'huuedoneyourhomework,youwillcommandthe
attention of most audiences' , ,r ^-^- ^.^^*+^ rfa]I-
need to demonsfate
your issue, you
i* Be Fair. gád¿á, being knowledgeable about where
Because fine aryument Can occur only
ness and courtesy to altemative views.
peoplemayreasonablydisagreewithonearrother,yowethoswillbestrengthenedif
yo' d"-oirtate that you uñderstand and empathizá
*it' otlt"t points of view' There
But these
are times, of course, when you -ay appropriát"ly..o* an opposing -view'
to your
nd
times arer*, *a t¡"y *o.tty o.* *n"" yo' uádt"rt audiences predisposed
3as
.,1e,'.n"-on,t'"utl,'g"*pumvtoaltemativeüewsisgenerallythebest-shategl.'
of establishing credibr]irv-bs¿i"g
Build dftg" ; ?o.r",to¿iurr"". e u,roa means
SA
s
ner "
abridgetoyoulaudience-has¡.".,*u."¿atlengthinourearlierdiscrssionsof
gu-
audience-basedreasons.Bygroundingyouralgumentinsharedvaluesandassrrmp-
tions,youdemonstrateyotugoodwil"andenhanceyorrrimageasatrustworthy
rent
personrespectfi.rlofyouraudience,sr,rerr,s.\\¡ementionaudience-basedreasonshere
reasons that are most rooted in the
to show ;; thb;p ect of logos-finding the
and
rort asa pe6on respectful of yorrr readers, \rews.
audience,s va]ues_a]so affects your ethos
nast,
112 PART 2 Writing an Argument

How to Creat e Pathos; The Appeal to Beliefs

and Emotions
Before the federal government outlawed unsolicited telephone marketing, newspapers
published flurries of articles complaining about annoying telemarketers. Within this
context, a United Parcel Service worker, Bobbi Buchanan, wanted to create sympathy
for telemarketers. She wrote a IVew York Times op-ed piece entitled "Don't Hang Up,
That's My Mom Calling," which begins as follows:

The next time an annoying sales call interrupts your dinner, think of my 71-year-old mother,
LaVeme, who works as a part-time telemarketer to supplement her social security income. To
those Americans who have signed up for the new national do-not-call list, my mother is a
pest, a nuisance, an invader ofprivacy. To others, she'sjust another anonFnous voice on the
other end of the line. But to those who know her, she's someone shuggling to make a buck, to
feed herself and pay her utilities-someone who personifies the great American way.

The editorial continues with a heartwaming description of LaVerne. Buchanan's

rhetorical aim is to transform the reader's anonymous, depersonalized image of
telemarketers into the concrete image of her mother: a "hardworking, first generation
American; the daughter of a Pittsburgh steelworker; survivor of the Great Depression;
the widow of a World War II veteran; a mother of seven, grandmother of eight, greai-
grandmother of three.... " The intended effect is to alter our view of telemarketers
through the positive emotions triggered by our identif,rcation with LaVerne.
By urging readers to think of "my mother, LaVerne" instead of an anonymous
telemarketer, Buchanan illustrates the power of pathos, an appeal to the reader's emo-
tions. Arguers create pathetic appeals whenever they connect their claims to readers'
values, thus triggering positive or negative emotions depending on whether these val-
ues are affirmed or transgressed. Pro-life proponents appeal lo pathos when they
graphically describe the dismemberment of a fetus during an abortion. Proponents of
improved women's health and status in Africa do so when they describe the helpless-
ness of wives forced to have unprotected sex with husbands likely infected with HIV.
Opponents of oil exploration in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) do so
when they lovingly describe the calving grounds of caribou.
Are such appeals legitimate? Our answer is yes, if they intensifu and deepen our
response to an issue rather than divert our attention from it. Because understanding is
a matter of feeling as well as perceiving, pathos can give access to nonlogical, but not
necessarily nonrational, ways of knowing. Pathos helps us see what is deeply at stake
in an issue, what matters to the whole person. Appeals to pathos help readers walk in
the writer's shoes. That is why arguments are often rmproved through the use of sto-
ries that make issues come alive or sensory detarls that allow us to see, feel, and taste
the reality of a problem.
Appeals Lo pathos become illegrtimate, r.r'e believe, rvhen they confuse an issue
rather than clarify it. Consider the case of a student n'ho argues that Professor Jones
ought to raise his grade from a D to a C, lest he lose his scholarship and leave college,
shatiering the dreams of his dear old grandmother. To the extent that students' grades
 CHAPTER 6 Moving Your Audience 11 3

dear old grand-

should be based on performance or effort, the student's image of the
mother is an illegitimate appeal lo pathos because it diverts the reader
from rational
motive for
to irrational criteria. The wleping grandmother may provide a legitimate
the student to study harder but not for the professor to change a grade.
Ílom
Although it is amcult to classify all the ways that writers can create appeals
illustra-
pathos,*" i,'ilt focus on four strategiLs: concrete language; specific examples and
iorrr; l-taouti r"s; and connotations of words, metaphors, and analogies' Each of these
impact
strategies lends "presence" to an argument by creating immediacy and emotional

Use Concrete Language

increase the
concrete language-one of the chief ways that writers achieve voice-can
rr^/hen lsed in argument,
liveliness, intére; level, and personality of a writer's prose.
concrete language typically ñeightens pathos. For example, consider the differences
between the firsi and second drafu of the following student argument:

First Draft
-daily driüng
People who prefer a car to taking a bus think that taking the bus will increase the
stress of the commrite. Just the opposite is true. Not being able to find a parking spot
the bus gives a
when in a hurryrto be at work or school can cause a person stress. Taking
person time to iead or sleep, etc. It could be used as a mental break'

Second Draft (Concrete Language Added)

else behind the
Thking the bus cat be more relaxing than driüng a car. Haüng someone
They can balance their
wheel"gives people time to chat with friends or cram for an exam.
or get lost in a novel rather
checkb"ooks, do homework, doze ofl read the daily newspaper,
than foam at the mouth looking for a parking space'

pos-
In this revision, specific details enliven the prose by creating images that trigger
itive feelings. Who wouldn't want some free time to doze off or to get
lost in a novel?

Use Specific Examples and lllustrations

They provide
specific examples and illustrations serve two purposes in an argument.
ihat supports your reasons; simultaneously, they glve ygur argument pres-
"úd"rr."
ence and emotional l""rán*"". Note the flatness of the following draft
arguing for the
value of multicultural studies in a university core curriculum:

First Draft
Arother advantage of a multicultural education is that it will help us see our own culture in
a broader p"rrp.itiu". If all we know is olr o\!'n heritage, we might not be inclined to see
anyth*rg bad about this heritage because r.r'e u'on't know anything else' But if we study

other heritages, we can see the costs and benefits of our own heritage.

Now note the increase in "presence" when the uriter adds a specific example:
114 PART 2 Writing an Argument

Second Draft (ExamPle Added)

Another advantage of multicultural education is that it raises questions about traditional
Westemvalues.Forexample,owningprivatepropertyGuc!asbuyingyorrrownhome)is
of Amencan Indians' students
part of the American ¿r.á. Ifo*"rrá,^lrr studyurf the beliefs
areconfrontedwithaverydifferentviewofprivateproperty..ut"lft"U.S.government
replied:
Sealth, he is alleged to have
sought to buv land rr the Í'acif,c Norlhwest Ílom Chief

ThepresidentinWashingtonsendswordsthathewishestobuyourlarrd.Buthowcan
us. If we do not own the fresh-
you buy or sell the sky? frre land? The idea is strange to
ness of the air and thl sparkle of the water, how
can you buy them?l ' ]We are parl of
'
the ea'th and it is part oi us.t. . .1This we know: The earth does not belong to man, man
belongs to the earth.
Western views of property-and
our class was shocked by the contrast between traditional
was initiated by this quotation from
Chief Sealth,s views. Oná of our best class discussions
Chiefsealth.Hadwenotbeenexposedtoaviewfromanotherculture,wewouldhave
values'
never been led to question the "rightness" of Western

The writer begins his revision by evoking a-!radi-qo1a1.re:':-

üew of private
to chief sealth's üsion of land as open,
propefy, which he"then questions uy_s-trittrng
th" use of a specific example, the writer
endless, and unobtainable as the sky. Thror.gh
of multicultural education'
U.irrg, to life his preüously abstraci point about the benefit

Use Narratives
either leads into your
A particularly powerful way to evoke, pathos is to tell a story that
feelings and imagina-
claim or embodies it r*priáttlv and that appeals to you1. readers'
particularly effective as opening
tion. Brief narratives-wlieth", t u" or hypbihetical-are
an introductory narrative (either a
attention grabbers fbr an argument. To iiustrate how
,,árv Jrrrief scene) pathetic appeals, consider the following first paragraph
". "* "i"ut"
to an argument oPPosing jet skis:
I could see the sun shin-
I dove offthe dock into the lake, and as I approached the surface
my a few feet away in a
ing through the water. As my head popp"a out, I located cousin
to swim across the mile-
rowboat waitrng to escott me as I, a twélve-year-old girl, attempted
to our dock. I made it, and that glorious summer day is one of
wide, pristine lake and back
attempt that swim' Jet
my most precious memories. Today, however, no one would dare
with my grandparents'
skis have taken over this small laká where I spent
many summers
ruining it for swimming, flshing, canoeing'
Dozens of whiningjet skis crisscross the lake,
More stringent state laws are nee.ded to control jet skiing
rowboating, u.r¿ eu"n waterskiing.
because it interferes with other uses of lakes and is cumently
very dangerous'

jet skis by winning our

This narrative makes a case for a parlicular point of view toward
that experience with
identification wrth the writer's exierien.". Sh" inútes us to relive
experiences that
her while she also taps into our own treasured memories of summer
have been destroYed bY change'
Opening narratives to eáke pathos can be pori'edully effective,
but they a].e also
risky. If they are too private, too self-indulgent, too sentimental,
or even too dramatic
 CHAPTER 6 Moving Your Audience 115

and forceful, they can backfire on you. If you have doubts about an opening narrative.
ú
read it to a sample audience before using it in your final draft.
-s
q
Use Words, Metaphors, and Analogies with Appropriate
rt
1:
Connotations
Another way of appealing Io pathos is to select words, metaphors, or analogies with con-
n
notations that match your aim. We have already described this strategr in our discussion
of the "fiaming" of eüdence (Chapter 5, pages 94-96). By using words with particular
1-

lf
connotations, a writer guides readers to see the issue through the writer's angle of vision.
ll
Thus if you warrt to create positive feelings about a recent city council decision, you can
call it "bold and decisive"; if you want to create negative feelings, you can call it 'haughty
rd and autocratic." Similarly, writers can use favorable or unfavorable metaphors and analo-
nt gies to evoke different imaginative or emotional responses. A tax bill might be üewed as
\e a "potentially fatal poison pill" or as "unpleasant but necessary economic medicine." In
each of these cases, the words create an emotional as well as intellechral response.

TC

In, fI .?-: FOR CTASS DISCUSSION lncorporat¡ng Appeals to Pathos

er Outside class, rewrite the introduction to one of your previous papers (or a current
)n. draft) to include more appeals lo pathos. Use any of the strategies for giving your argu-
ment presence: concrete language, specific examples, naratives, metaphors, analogies,
and connotative words. Bring both your original and your rewritten introductions to
class. In pairs or in groups, discuss the comparative effectiveness of these introductions
UI in t ying to reach your intended audience. iffi I I
la-
ng
td
Lsing Images for Emotional Appeal
ph
One of the most powerfi-rl ways to engage an audience emotionally is to use photos or
other images. (Chapter 9 focuses exclusively on üsual rhetoric-the persuasive power of
ül- images.) Although many writien arguments do not lend themselves to üsual illustrations,
1a we suggest that when you conshrrct arguments you consider the potential of üsual
ile- support. Imagine that your argument were to appea.r in a newspaper, in a magazine, or
,of
on a Web site where space would be provided for one or two üsuals. W4rat photographs
Jet or drawings might help persuade your audience toward your perspective?
1ts.
ng,
When images work well, they are atralogous to the verbal strategies of concrete
ing language, specific illustrations, narratives, and connotative words. The challenge in
using visuals is to find material that is straightfor"ward enough to be understood with-
out elaborate explanations, that is timely and relevant, and that clearly adds impact to
)ur a specific part of your argument. As an example, suppose you are r,witing an argument
iü supporting fund-raising efforts to help third-lr-orld countries. To add a powerful appeal
hat to pathos, you might consider incorporaü-ng into vour argument the photograph shov,rr
in Figure 6.1, a Haitian woman walking on a ncketl bridge over a vast garbage heap
üso in a Haitim slum. A photograph such as this one can create an almost immediate emo-
ltic tional and imaginative response.
116 PART 2 Writing an Argument

1!r'lgii ;., élÉ:s.*¡lE, Éi: ¡}::tf¡ll::.

F* FoR ctAsS DlScUssloN l.,.ifiaq]¡;:ifi1 to the following
gt"";'';;";; " *'t"r" class' share your responses
Working in small
questions:

l.Howwouldyoudescribetheemotional/imaqinativeimpactofFigure6.l? starv-
countr;s show pictures ol'big-bellied'
2. Many appeals r". r-l"rpi"g third-world to Figure 6'1
Africa' How is you"etpottse
ing children d"t;;tá'?Ii;;' o1t* - pictures of starving
similar to or dif.f?rent from
the commonly encountered
of poverly different from the
story uborlt th"-ruuages
children? How is Figure 6.1's
stories of starving children?

í¡,€ ffi
lll Poñ-au-Prince,
Slum in rurt-cru-rrrrrr Haiti
FIGURE 6'1 Saline' a slum
La Saline,

Fit.gaggs *xf An.gaax}e*Xets

sfud¡^gs: Y&ae T{xrae&áxae$s exed
Toincreaseyourargument'seffectiveness'youneedtoconsidernotonlyitsappealsto lor the
is. is rinring. is appropriateness
k";;jh;t
logos. ethos. and pothos,bur also itr (in this
wondei[]1"*otd'' adopted lrom anbther language
occasion. Kairosisone ol those it In
case ancient Greek), that is imposri¡r"'to
;;il, }'ei po.retful m what represents'
from the
"r"*t": ot "oipo,t',ttw'" it differs subtly
Greek, kairos means,,right time,"
th;;;;' tt.," .áát ol oiu" words "chronology" and
ordinary Cr"J-*"ra ío. ti-", watch' but you measure
"chronometer.;;;.; measure chronos by look'g 1t ].o": to situation
lmirosby sensing the opportun" d-;
ñ;;gh psvÁologcal attentiveness
 HXAXVX E N r Nü W$$L$&X- &$&ffi tiM ffi &jYS

ffin

{.mg*s, fff?ss, trs#?ma amd ff¿rgrcs

lncreasing sales of Toyota's Prius, a hybrid car that runs on both electricity and gasoline, confirm
that American consumers are willing to switch from SUVs to more energy-efficient cars. As this ad-
vertisement for the Prius shows, energy efficient cars are connected io a constellation of issues, in-
cluding the need to decrease carbon emissions because of pollution-caused health problems and
env¡ronmental concern for cleaner energy.
How cloes thls ad attempt to move its audience? Analtrze the ad's visual and verbal appeals to
logos. ethos. paLhos and kairos.

'l't7
118 PART 2 Writing an Argument

andmeaning.Tothinkkairoticatlgisto.beathrnedtothetotalt:l:ltofasituationin
consider a skilled base
to act in the right way at the right -ome,'t. By arralogy,
order
tJsteal J;;"J, a wise teácher who senses the right
mnner who senses ur".igdLo-ent or a successf'' psvchotherapist
moment to praise J;fl;":;.,[ül e.l*á"", session' Kairos
",
who senses the right ;;; to talk *tn", trr- listen in a counseling
but evolves as events unfold
reminds usthat u rt ,i*urior.r is not stabü and fixed,
and care' Here
or as audrenc",
"to¡l'ur prv.rr"r"gr.ur¡uur and flows of atlention
of insights contained by the t',rm
kairos:
are some examples
"*p"rl"'rrüu]"
#;'Ñ;¿-ín" t*!"
hlve a one- or two-day
'm If you write a letter to the editor of a newspaper' yo-u "YltV
;átá n"*r" and is no longer interesting' An
window before ;;;";; becomes
*g":1'lY
" betau'" it is poorly-written
't"'nbe rejected' "ot
out-of-date letter will of lost '9t
timeliness occur ln
because it misses ír"*
Áoáent. (similar instances
to
class discussions: On how many
ott*'o"' huue you w3nted to contribute an idea
When
hand?
doesn't acüowledge your raised
class discussion' but the professor
passed')
ott, ih" kairoticmoment has
ñfi""[y *" "uiláá"Don't Hang Up' Th"'b My Mom C-attl5''' which we used to
s Bobbi Buchanan's historical
have üá"" i'¡o"" only during a brief
illustrate pathos(page 112), could il" could have
debated. Moreover.
period when telemíketurg was being fublicly
beenwrittenonlylateinthatperiodafternumerouswritershadattackedtelemar-
keters. Th. pi""J;;;ilffiffi th; lr*
YorkTimesbecause the editor received

it at the nght kairotic moment'

w A sociology major is writing a senior capstone
pit".lirtg?"*ation' The due date
paper isn't at issue. But kairos is still
for the pup", ir"ri"ii, ,;lñ" ,t-"g itr,"
*irát ir appropriate for such a paper'
relevant. It urges the student to consider
u pup"t ut this.moment in the history
What is the "right way" to produce 'otiology
leudiíg ádgg_yersus trailing-edge questions
of the discipli".i i;;;d;, whar ur"
,ro[ue?"\Aaiat research methods would
in sociology? \A4rat theorists *" "o*'in a good capstone paper written in
most impress a judging committee?
uol*oil¿
earlier?
2010 diifer fooá oñe *tiu"tt a decade

Asyoucanseefoomtheseexamples,kairosconcer1sawholerangeofquestionscon-
a message within an
nected to the timini l*t appropriatene's' u"¿ proportions of
ttle kairotic
are ,ro"i.ri", io úap you-determine
evolving rhetorical'context. There
moment for your arg-rment, but being
*n"Jro ka¡ros'nilhelp you "read" your audi-
a dynamtc way'
ence and rhetorical situation in

trffieFoRctAssDls(UssloNAnalyzingAnArgumentfromthePerspective
of Kairos, Logos, Ethos' and Pathos
in small groups or as a
your instr-r-rctor will select an *go-"it for analysis. workrng and
from the ferspective of kairos
whole class, utalyzethe assigned ";;;;{ili
ethos' and pathos'
then fuom the perspectiv es of-logos'
l.Asyouulalyzetheargumentfromtheperspectir,eofkairos,considerthefollow.
ing questions:
a.IÁ41atisthemotivatingoccasionforthisargurrent?Thatis,whatcausesthis
kel'board?
writer to put pen to paper or fingers to
 CHAPTER 6 Mov¡ng Your Audience 119

b. What conve$ation is the writer joining? \\4ro are the other voices in
this con-
versation? rrA4rat are these voices saying that compels the writer
to add his or
for this
her own voice? How was the stage set to create the kairotic moment
argument?
c. \&4ro is the rvriter's intended audience and why?
trying to
d. \\hat is the writer's purpose? Toward what view or action is the writer
persuade his or her audience?
e. To what extent can various features of the argument be explained
by your
understanding of its kairotic moment?
pathos' How
2. Now anúyze thé same argument for its appeals to /ogos, ethos, and
successfulisthisargument"inachievingitswriter'spurpose?{$lilll

How Audience-Based Reasons Enhance

Iogos, Ethos, and Paffios
reasons that
We conclude this chapter by returning to the concept of audience-based
enhance logos because they are
we introduced in chapter 4. Audience-based reasons
built on underlying aisumptions (warrants) that the audience is likely to accept' But
iney utso enhaÁce"ethos Ád pathos by helping the writer identifu with the audience'
audience, you can
entáring into their beliefs and values. To consider the needs of your
ask yourself the following questions:

Questions for Analyzing Your Audience

\\tat to Ask \Vhy to Ask It

1. Who is your audience? Your answer will help you think about audience-based
reasons.

,# Are you writing to a single person, a committee, or the

general readership of a newspaper, magazine, blog site,
and so forth?
tr Are your readers academics, professionals, fellow
students, general citizens, or people with specialized
background and interests?
:* Can you expect your audience to be politically and
culturally libera"l, middle of the road, conservative, or
all over the map? What about their religious views?
5: Horv do you picture your audience in terms of social
class. ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, age, and
culnLral idenht¡'?
* To rthat erlent does your audience share your own inter-
ests arcl cultlu'al position? Are you u'riting to insiders or
outsiders rriü regard to your ortn values and beliefs?

(Continued)
120 PART 2 Wr¡ting an Argument

lVhat to Ask \Vhy to Ask It

2. How much does your audience knou or care Your answer can especially affect your introduction and
about your issue?
conclusion:

#i Do your readers need background on your issue or are

they alreadY in the conversation?
# If you are writing to specif,c decision makers' are they
cunently aware of the problem you are addressing? If
not, how can You get their attention?
-& Does your audience care about your issue? If not' how
can you get them to care?

3.I4hat is gour audience's cut'rent attitude Your answer will help you decide the stmcture and tone
touard your issue? of your argument.

# Are your readers already supportive of your position?

Undecided? Skeptical? Strongly opposed?
.# \ñ4rat other points of view besides your own will
your audience be weighing?
4. What will be your audience's likelg objections Your answer will help detemine the content of your
to gour argument?
argument and will alert you to extra research you may need

€ \\4aat weaknesses ü11 audience members find?

5. What ualues, beliefs, or assumptions about
the world do you and your audíence share?
ffi \4/hat aspects of your position will be most threatening
to them and whY?
s How are your basic assumptions, values, or beliefs dif-
ferent from Your audience's?
Your answer will help you find common ground with your
audience.

& Despite different points of view on this issue, where

can you find common links with your audience?
s How might you use these links to build bridges to your
audience?

ethos utd pathos, sup-

To see how a concem for audience-based reasons can enhance
than random selection) for determining r'r'hich
pose that you support racial profiling kather
ultpott Íl[ther tlrat you are writing a guest
i"opl" reóeive ini"rsiue scr;ning ut . Suppose
newspaper and imagine readerc_repulsed by the notion
ip éa -n,'' for a liberal campus
indeed yáu are repuised too in most cases)' It's important from the
profiling (as
"i.*i-f
start that you unáerstand and acknowleáge the interests of those opposed to your position-
for racial profiling, will object to your racial
Middle Eastem men, the most likely candldates
all people of Arabic or Semitic appeamnce into the category
stercotj,?ing, which lumps
tárrorists." eai"* ,Arn".i.*t and Hispanics, frgq"*! ücü.nt
of racial proñIing
b"t""á to further extension of this hated practice' Also, most
by police in u.s. cities, may object
moderates and consen'atives, may object to the racism
páfiri.rf liberals, as well as many
inherent in selecting people for airport screening on the basis of ethnicity.
 121
CHAPTER 6 Moving Your Audlence

those opposed to racial

yorl use to build bridges to
\A4rat shared values might your audience's fears
Y;;t"; tá develop *;t"gy tá reduce like ths:
profiling at airports? " go something
and to link yo,r ,"uro"J,o
irrli. uulrr"r. vo,-r, tr-ri"*i"g might

Problem:Howcanlcreateanargumentrootedinsharedvalues?Hou.can
Ireducefearthatracialprofilinginthissituationendorsesracismorwtllleadto
i.raft"t erosion of civil liberties?
like that it gittlot. Mv argumenL
Bridge-buildinggoals:lmusthltoshowthatmyargument'sgoalisl'oincrease must
airline sarety by ñ#il;;;ryá"r^r I must also show
í;;;ffi";lio, n u¡JanJsemitlc peoples'
show my respect
as normal police practice'
my rejection or ftoming
'utiuf
Possible strategies: ^^^^to frnrn
- - ^^'^+ people
innocent teronsm'
from tr
m Stress the share'i value of protecting
...Showhowracialprofilingsignilica:rtlyincreasestheelficiencvolsecondary
we waste time and
(lf searches are perform"i ;i ;";;"m' then
searches'
resourcessearchingpeoplewhoare**.i."uyunlikelytobeterrorists')
wArguethatarrports.,"*",,mustalsouseindicatorsothertharrracetoselect
terronst)'
rir", might indicate a domestic
people ro, ,"uf,.liJr"ü;;ñ, "rü
w Show mY respect for Islam' and acknowl-
searching via Scral profiling
)o
m Show sympathy for people *]:otd l:l
ff edgethatthi,,p,u.t.".wou]dnotmulyu.de"spicableexceptforlheexlreme
personal liberhes in this case'
imporlance
*t;n ouÉmd",
",r#l#,".,-ü,
wshowmyrejectionofracialprofilinginsituationsotherthanairportscreening-for
example'uop'i"gffticanÁmencaT'lo't'umtüolationsmoreoflenthanwhites
taIS fo' drugs or stolen goods'
and then
'"*ffitit"tr
wPerhapsshowmysupportofaffirmativeaction,whichisakindofracialprofiling
in reverse'
plan for your argument'
These thinkrng notes allow
you to develop the following
racial pro"-t random selection to
ux Aitport screeners should use -Tll:i^tnan
tLlp- intensive süeemng
determine which people undergo
rich
uest #becausedoingsowillmakemoreefficientuseofairportscreeners,time,
thus lead.to greater airhn"
tion increase the odds of finding :"f.:.ry:
"*áÁu,-""d
the IWARRAiT:-increasedairl|nesafetyisgood;or'atadeeperlevel.Theposltlue
,i;"rsh racial-profiling outweigh the
rion.
of increasing
consequences "iru";'í;ii;
acial n"goii" consequences)
ool"v tbecauseracialprotilinginthisspecificcasecloesnotmeanallowrngitin
ñling .u"'v¿uv'lofit""áttj"itl?' ""' d;:;;
;ptv al""'p"tL lor Islam or for Middle
in euerudag police
Ror:iol proiling is unaccep.table
most Eastern niaies twARRANT: Eastern males')
aoii)í't"ro' tTto* o' Míddle
aism p'o'tt"' li'";;;;;' 'no*
 122 PART 2 Writing an Argument

As this plan shows, your skategy is to seek reasons whose warrants

your audience
will accept' First, you r.3ll arque that racial profiling will lead to greater
airline safety,
allowing you to stress that safe airlines benefit a[ pássengers. you?
concern is the lives
of hundreds of passengers as well as others who might Ée killed
in a terrorist attack.
Second' you plan to reduce adversaries'resistance to your
proposal by showing that
the consequences aren't as severe as they might fear. úi'g
,".iJ;.oniirrg in aifoorts
would not justifu using it in urban porice woÁ (a practice "yo,,
n rj a"rpicabre) and it
would not imply disrespect for Islam or Middle Eastem mies.
As this example shows,
your focus on audience-on the search for audience-based
reasons-shapes the actual
invention of your argument flom the start.

r t ffi FoR cLAss DlscussloN Ptanning a^n Audience-Based Argumentative strategy

1' How does the preceding plan for an argument sup"porting
racial profríng make
appeal to ethos and pathos as well as to tlgofl
2' Working individually or in small groups,"plan an auclience-based
arglmentative
strategy for one or more of the following iur... Follow
the thinking p?á""r.""r"a
by the writer of the racial-profiling arguáent: (1) state several
problems that the
writer must solve to reach the uudi"n.e, and (2) develop possible
solutions to
those problems.
a' An argument for the right of software companies to continue
making and sell-
ing üolent üdeo games: aim the u.go-"ni at parents
who oppose jnet ctrlt-
dren's playing these games.
b' An argument to reverse grade inflation by limiting the number
of As and Bs a
professor can give in a course: aim the *gu-"nüt
students who fear g"nirrg
lower grades.
c' An argument suPPorting the legalization of cocaine: aim the
argument at
readers of Reader's Digest, a conservative magazine
that supports
tñ"
war on drugs. ".rr*rrt j+,,l
r r

Conclusion
In this chapter, wehave explored' ways that writers can
strengthen the persuasive-
ness of their argumelF uv creating appears to ethos and patltás, by being uii"rr,iu"
to kairos, and by building bridgei to-their readers thróugh audience-based
rea-
sons' Arguments are more persuasive if readers trust
the óredibility of the writer
and if the argument appeals to readers' hearts and imaginations
as well as to their
intellects' sometimes images such as drawings o. pnoiog.uphs
may reinforce the
argument by evoking strong emotional i"rponr"r, "tnr^
enháncing pathos.
Additionally, attentiveness to iairos keeps the writer attuned
to the dyna'mi;, ;i"
rhetorical situation in order to create the right message at
the right ti*á. pmurry, urr
come together when the writJr explicirl"y focuses
lT:",Try*
oased reasons.
on finding audience-
 CHAPTER 6 Moving Your Audience 123

WRITING ASSIGNMENT Revising a Draft for Ethas, Pathos,

' ' and Audience-Based Reasons
: ''
Part 1: Choose an argurnent that you have preüously written or that you are currently
drafting. Reüse the argument with explicit focus on increasing its appeals to ethos,

how you might improve ethos by building bridges to the audience or improve pathos
through concrete language, specific examples, metaphors, or connotations of words.
Imagine also how you might include an effective photograph or image. Finally, consider
the extent to which your reasons are audience-based.

Part2: Attach to your reüsion a reflective letter explaining the choices you made in
your revision. Describe for your insh-uctor the changes you made and explain how or
why these changes are intended to enhance your argument's effectiveness at moüng
its audience. I

For additional writing reading and research resources, g0 t0

www.mycomplab.com

:::. ¡a
 I,n the preüous chapter we discussed strategies for moving yotr audience
through appeals to ethos, pathos, and kairos.rnthis chapterr¡¡e skategies
for addressing opposing or altemative üews-whether to omit them,""a-ine
refute thém,
concede to them, or incorporate them through compromise and conciliation. We
show you how your choices about structure, content, and tone may differ
depending on whether your audience is syrnpathetic, neutral, or resistant to your
üews. The strategies explained in this chapter will increase your flexibility as an
arguer and enhance your chance ofpersuading a wide variety of audiences.

One-Sided, Multisided, and Dialogic Argurnents

Arguments are said to be one-sided, multisided, or dialogic:
Dete
w A one'sided argument presents only the writer's position on the issue
without summarizing and responding to alternative viewpoints.
w A multisided argument presents the writer's position, but also summa-
rizes and responds to possible objections and alternative views.
w A díalogic argument has a much stronger component of inquiry, in
which the writer presents himself as uncertain or searching, the audi-
ence is considered a paftner in the dialogue, and the writer's purpose is
to seek common ground perhaps leading to a consensual solution to a
problem. (see our discussion in chapter 1 of argument as truth seeking
versus persuasion, pages 13-15.)
one-sided utd multisided arguments often take an adversarial stance in that the
writer regards alternative views as flawed or wrong and supports his own
claim with a strongly persuasive intent. Although multisided arguments can be
adversarial, they can also be made to feel dialogc, depending on the way the
writer introduces and responds to altemative üews.
At issue, then, is the writer's treatment of alternative üews. Does the writer
omii them (a one-sided argument), summarize them in order to rebut them (an
adversarial kind of multisided argument), or summarize them in order to ac-
knowledge their validity, value, and force (a more dialogrc kind of multisided ar-
gument)? Each of these approaches can be appropnate for certain occasions, stronl
depending on your purpose, your confidence in own stance, and your au-
dience's resistance to your üews. 'our FIGU

t24
 CHAPTER 7 Responding to Objections and Alternative
Views 125

Howcanonedeterminethekindofargumentthatwoulrtbemosteffectiveina
arguments occur commonly when an issue
is
given case? A, ;;;;;J rule, one-sided to
óntested, then one-sided arguments tend
not highly .orrr"rr?á. ir the issue ir t"ghly
already in the writer's camp' but alienate
strengthen tfre cán rlctions of those *I-ro'*" a multisided
those who *"rr,t. l, for those rnrtially opposed to a writer's claim,
"ont*t, oth". ,ri"*, and thus reduces some initial
argument shows that the writer has "onfi"r.á
hostility.Anespeciallyinterestingeffectcanoccurwithneutralorundecidedaudiences'
Intheshortrun'one-sidedargumentsareoftenpersuasivetoaneutralaudience,butin
Neutral audiences who
the long *n-.tfi'l¿"d arffients have more staying powel' altema-
have heard only one side of an issue
tend to change theirminds when they hear
tivearguments.Byanticrpatingandrebutlingopposingúews'amultisidedargument
subsequeni counterarguments' If we move
from
diminishes tt ,,ripJr" *a fJr"" of ones-are
"
neukal t" hrghü;;"r;;;*l urdl.rr."s, adrrersarial
approache-s-even multisided

seldomeffectivebecausetheyincreasehostility-dh*d"''thedifferencesbetlveen
approaches have the best chance of
es-
writer and reader. In such cases, more dialogic
and consensus'
tablishing common ground for inquiry
In the rest;ft1;;;;; *;*i rrro* vo" how your choice of writing one-sided'
multrsided, or dialogic arguments rs a
funciion of how you perceive your audience's
in your own views'
resistance toyow uñ*, ui well as your level of confidence

Determining Your Audience's Resistance

to Your views
Whenyouwriteanargument,you.mustalwaysconsir]eryouraudience,spointof
üew.onewaytoimagineyo.,,,"tutio,,st'iptoyouraudienceistoplaceitonascale (see
yáu, position to strong opposition
of resistance ranging fiom strong support'of
Figure 7.1) d;f;lAc"ord" eniof ifiir
r"uf" are lie-minded people who basically
agree with your'fosition on the iss1e,
At the "Resistance" end aie those who strongly
becausg'thei1,l1alues' beliefs' or assump-
disagree *nt VJu p"tn"ps unconditionally'
'Accord" and. "Resistance" lies a range of
tions sharply áff., i.o* your own..BÑ;;
those leaning in your direction but with
less
opinions. cl"r;;;;;; ;*rtrg" will be will be those basically
conviction than you have. Close to the
resistance.-potlilott
opposedtoyour,üewbutwillingtolistentoyourargumentandperhapswillingto people who are
acknowledge iá-" its strengthi. In the middie are those undecided
"r feeling"s, ,."t lrrg additional information' and weighing the
still sorting *-in"ll.
views'
strengths a"nd weaknesses of alternative

Resistance
undecided,/Neutral

I
I
I
I

mostly oPPosed strongly oPPosed

ncerta n
strongly support¡ve supportive with conditions
u i

FTGURE 71 Scale of resistance

 126 PART 2 Writing an Argument

Seldom, how_ever, will you encounter an issue in which the

range of disagreement
follows a simple line from accord to resistance. Often resistant
üews fall into different
categories so that no single line of argument appeals to all those
whose views are dif'-
ferent from your own. You have to idéntify not'ónly your audience's
resistance ;; y;,r'.
ideas but also the causes ofthat resistance.
Consider, for example, the issues surrounding publicly financed
sports stadiums. In
one city, a ballot initiative asked citizens to raise iales taxls to
build á new retractable-
roof stadium for its baseball team. Supporters of the initiative faced
a complex ,*"v
resisting üews (see Fiqule 7.2). opponents of the initiative
could be ptaüa into íour "f ::
categories' Some simply had no interest in sports, cared nothing
about baseball, and F¡I
saw no benefit rn buildinga huge publicly financed sports faciliflAnother
gr""rpLr"d
baseball and followed the home team passionately, but was philtsopnl"afry'opfis"a
io
subsidizing rich prayers and ouners with taxpayer money. **
g.o"o *gu"á'tnut th.
whole sporh indushy needed to be reshrrctured so that itadiums
were paid for out of
sports revenues. Still anothgr group was opposed to tax hikes
ln generj It focused on
the principle of reducing the sjze of government and of using
tax revenues only for
essential serwices..Finally, another powelful group supported "baseban
ana ,uffirtea
the notion of public funding of a new stadiuñbut oppor"a
the kind of retractable-roof
stadium specified in the initiative. This gtoup r,vant"d an old-fashionea,
operr-ai,^ Ja-
dium like Baltimore's camden yards or cleveiand's
Jacobs Field.
writers supporting the initiative fourd it impossible to address
all of these resisting
audiences at once. If a supporter of the initiative wanted
to aim an argument at sports
haters, he or she courd skess the spinoff beneñts of
a new ballpark (for &ample,
ballpark would attract tourist trr"r.rr", renovate a deteriorating
th;;;
dor.mtor.m neighborhood,
create jobs, make sports lovers more likely to vote
for public iubsidies of the
forth)' But these arguments were firelevant to those who * it", *a
wanted an open-air stadium,
who opposed * categorically, or who objecied to pubüc
Another kindS": complexity occurs whén a wriier is positioned
subsidy oi-ittio.ruir"r.
.of between two
kinds of resisting views. consider the position of student w,riier
sam, a gay man who
wished to argue that gay and lesbiar p"_4" should
actively r"ppo.t legislation to Ie-
galize same-sex marriage (see Figur" z.á¡. Most
argum"it, trr", support same_sex
marriage hope to persuade conservative heterosexui
audiences who iend to disaf-
prove of homosexualit¡z and stress traditional family
values. But Sam imagined *úr|*

Undecided/Neutral Resistance
.\p,
On
I
strong support uninformed or uncertain
I

opposition 1 lno interest in sports]

for publicly funded
stadium opposition 2 fopposed to public funding of sports]
opposition 3 fopposed to ra¡s¡ng taxesl
opposjtion 4 lopposed to retractable roof]
FIGURE 72 Scale of resistance, baseball siadium issue
 Views 127
CHAPTER 7 Responding to Objections and Alternative

GAY AUDIENCE
HETEROSEXUAL AUDIENCE
Sam's Position Neutral Resistance
Resistance Neutral
,', I

ll
I Opposition from gaYs
Same-sex marriage
Opposition from ProPonents and lesb¡ans skePtical of
should be legalized
of "familY values" trad¡tional marriage as a
unconditionallY oPPosed model for gaY relationshiPs
to homosexual¡tY
same-sex marriage issue
FIGURE 7.3 Scale 0f resistance for

fbragaymagazineSuchaSlheHaraardGagandLesbi.anReuieworTheAduocate,and who opposed tradi-

at riueá"g6 uná to¡i*.activists
he wished to aim his argument traditional marriage
rnisá trtintters, critiquing
tional marriag" of partners' argued that
""'áiir¿-r""tgror'dr. *á-U*ltt the freedom
for the way it stereotypes gende*ot", in the gay community'
gooa *oJ"t for relationships
heterosexual marriage is not a
180 degrees':T,"l"d from the conservative
These peopl" *,tii't"¿ * u.'ái".'"" moral and religious
oppose same-sex marriage on
proponents or ru-fy values who
o""#;*g his e arlv dratu' sam, w"' :ry'-=1ll T,:^"*::*,
o;,#";"Éative "farnilv l:"fii:T: i:n""fand"
values" audience
ences at orr.". orrryát'"r he biocked was he able to
'1i¡eratlonist" gavs andiesbians
imagined *
""á':i;;i*iñ;;*á(You tu" Sam's ess-ay onpages 301-303')
develop u to"'üJ"i*go'oent' '9ua
ThebaseballstadiumexamplearrdtheSame-Sexmarriaqeexarnpleillustratethe
scale of resist-
difficulty of adapting your argume"t
;Ñ ;"dience's potiti"nt't on the your audience
U"t*J" yá" nlea 3 ¡]a!]e' vision of
ance. Yet doing so is important for your argument'
ur effective content' structure, and tone
befbre yo.,
"uria","r*in!
AsweshowedinChapter+,an"ffe.tiuecontentderivesfromchoosingaudience-
basedreasonsthatappealtoyouraudience,svalues,assumptions'andbeliefs.Aswe a function of
show in the rest of thti chapt.r,
* "r..rlu" structule and tone are oftenshow how you
next sections
where y"", uJi.rr." f",, á" the scale tf resistance. The

canadjustyourarguingStrates/a"p"'ai,'gonwhetheryouraudienceissupportive,
neutral. or hostile'

Appealing to a Supportive Audience:

Oir^e-Si¿ed Argument
one-sidedargumentscommonlyoccurwhenarrissueisn,thighlycontestedarrdthe \rÁ4ren an issue is con-
u ,'r"i' o, different point of view'
writer,s aim is merely to put forth of suppofiers-
are usecl -ait-rly to stir the passions
tested, however, one-sided arguments
;portsl
toconvertbeliefintoactionby-'pltl"guparq'melbertocóntributetoasenator's seminar'
tá r-th .tp rót a change-vour-life weekend
campaign o, u ¡or"¿ offrce wórker arguments
ale Structffed as one-sided
Tlpically, appeals to a supportiv. u.]di.,.." Filled with
reduce thern to "enemy" stereotypes'
that either ignore opposing views or
128 PART 2 Writing an Argument

motivational language, these arguments list the benefits that will ensue from your
donations to the cause and the hórrors just around the comer if the other side wins'
One
of the authors of this text recently received a fund-raising letter from an environmental
lobbying group declaring, "It's crunch time for the polluters and therl pals on Capitol Fü11."
ffr""".o."r{orat" polluteñ" and "anti-envfuonment politicians," the letter continues, have
"stepped up efforts to roll back our environmental protections-relying on large campaign
.ont ibntiottt, slick PR firms and well-heeled lobbyists to get the job done before
November's election." This letter makes the reader feel part of an in-group of good guys
fighting the big business "polluters." Nothing in the letter examines enüronmental issues
f¡ám ULinesst perspective or attempts to examine alternative views fairly. Because the
intended audienie already believes in the cause, nothing in the letter inütes readers to
consider the issues more thoroughly. Rather, the goal is to solidify support, increase the
feruor of beliel and irspire action. Most appeal aqguments make it easy to act, ending
with an 800 phone number to call, a Web site to üsit, a tear-out postcard to send in, or a
congressperson's address to wdte to.

Appealing to a Neutral or Undecided Audience:

Classical Argument
The in-group appeals that motivate an already supportive audience can repel a neutral
or undecided audience. Because undecided audiences are like jurors weighing all sides
of an issue, they dishust one-sided arguments that caricature other views. Generally the
best strategy for appealing to undecided audiences is the classically shuctured *g,t-
ment described in Chapter 3 (pages 60-62).
rñ4rat characterizes the classical argument is the writer's willingness to summarize
opposing views fairly and to respond to them openly-either by trying to refute them
or by conceding to their strengths and then shifting to a different field of values. Let's
look at these strategies in more depth.

Surnmarizing Opposing Views

The first step toward responding to opposing views in a classical argument is to sum-
maize them fairly. Follow the princtple of charity, which obliges you to avoid loaded,
biased, or "straw man" summaries that oversimplifu or distoft opposing arguments,
making them easy to knock over.
Consider the difference between an unfair and a farr summary of an argument. In
the following example, a hypothetical supporter of genetically engineered foods
intends to refute the argument of organic-food advocate Lisa Tümer, who opposes all
forms of biotechnology.

Unfair Summary of Turne/s Argument

In a biased arlicle lacking scientific understanding of biotechnologr, nahral-foods hud<ster Lisa
Tumer parrots the health food industry's pa$' line that genetically altered crops are
Frankenstein's monsters run amok. She ignorantly claims that consumption of biotech foods will
lead to worldwide destruction, disease, and death. igroring the wealth of scientific literahre
 CHAPTER 7 Responding to Objections and Alternative V¡ews 129

showing that genetically modjfied foods are safe. Her misinformed

attack are scare tachcs
on overpriced 'health food" products to be purchased at boutique
aimed at ,"1in!
"o.rrrráem
organic-food stores.

Fair Summary of TUrne/s Argument

in a nutrition magazine, health fo^od- advocate Lisa Türner
In an article appearing"our
warns

readers that much of food today is genetically modifled using gene-level techniques
potential, unfore-
that differ completely from ordinary crossbreeding. She argues that the
engineering offset the possible benefits of increasing
seen, harmful .o.rr.q,r.rl.", of genefic
,.rpply, reducing the ule of pestióides, and boosting the nutritional value of foods'
the fbod
irreversible,
Turner *r.#i¡u, g"rá" engineering is imprecise, untested, unpredictable,
andalsouncontrollablebecauseofanimals,insects,andwinds.

In the unfair summary, the writer distorts and oversimplifies Türner's argument,
creating a straw -* urgo-"nt that is easy to knock over because
it doesn't make the
opponát', best case. Iñ contrast, a fair iummary follows the 'principle of charity,"
uito-i"g the strength of the opposing üew to come through clearly.

aa FOR CLASS DISCUSSION Distinguishing Fair from lJnfair summaries

= Working in small goups o, u, u whole class, analyze the differences
between the two
summaries.

1. \&/hat makes the first summary unfair? How can you tell?
2. In the unfair summary, what tttut"gi"t does the writer use to make the
opposing
view seem weak and iawed? In the fair summary, how is the opposing üew made
strong a¡rd clear?
creden-
3. In the unfair summary, how does the writer attack Tirl.l]er's motives and
called an ad hominem argument ("against the per-
tials? This attack is sómedmes
son"-see Appendix 1 for a definition of this reasoning fallacy) in that it attacks the
arguer ratnéi tnan the argument. How does the writer treat Türner
differently in
the fair summarY?
4. Do you agree with our úew that argrments are more persuasrve I f the writer
sum-

marizes opposing üews fairly .athei than unfairly? Why? ffi f I

Refuting OpPosing Views

or concede
once you have summarized opposing views, you can either refute them
to their strengths. In refuting^ án opposing view, you attempt to convince readers
on erroneous
that its argum"ent is logically lawed, inadequately supported, or based
(1) the writer's stated reason
assumptio"ns. In refuting an argument, you_can rebut
and grounds, (Z) tt'e *lt"r', ñarrant ánd backing, or
(3) both. Put in less special-
ized language, you can rebut a writer's reasons and evidence or the writer's under-
lying asíum"ptións. Suppose, for example, that I'ou wanted to refute this argument:
We shouldn't elect Joe as committee chair because he is too bossy'

we can clarify the structure of this argument bv showing it in Toulmin terms:

130 PART 2 Writing an Argument

ENTHYMEME
CLAIM We shouldn'i elect Joe as committee
chair.

REASON because he is too llossy.

one way to refute this argument is to rebut the stated reason

that Joe is too bossy.
Your rebuttal might go ,o-"flri.rg like this:

I disagree that Joe is bossy lnfact, Joe is very unbossy. He's a good listener
who,s willing to
compromise, and he invorves others in decisions.
wasn't typical. It was a one-time circumstance
Thé examprJyo,, J" fo, his being o&sy
that doesn't ráR""i hi, nonnal behaüor. [The
writer could then proüde examples of
Joe,s cooperative nature.l

or you could concede that Joe is bossy but rebut the argument,s warrant
bossiness is a bad trait for committee chairs:" that

I agree that loe is bossy' but in ihis circumstance bossiness just

is the trait we need. This com-
mittee hasn't gotten any'thing done for six months
and time il we need a deci_
sive person who can come in, get the committee "-"-f""t.
organized, assign tasks, and get the job done.

Let's now illustrate these strategres in a more

complex situation. Consider the con-
troversy inspired by a New y9( rtmes Magazinearticre^titled
"Re.y.rhg Is Garbage.,, Its
author, John Tiemey, argued qnat is not
rycycrin! environmentaily sound and that it is
cheaper.to bury garbage in a landfilliharr"to recycre-it. In criticiz'ing.."cyctirg, Tiemey
that recycling wastes-money; he proüded eüdence
lsuea th"t {;;"ry time a sanitation
department crew picks up a load oi¡ottür and
cans from the
money." In Toulmin's terms, one of riemey's arguments
ñe. york city roses
"u.b,
is skuctured as fbnows:

ENTHYMEME
CLAIM Recycting is bad policy
REASON because it costs more to recycle
material than to bury it in a landfill.
:

GROUNEs,, ": :': ':'

. Evidencerof the high.e651 sq,¡s¿yrlihg:fTie¡ney
. says cósis.¡lewyork qú g2¡Om€ira.pér.ron
11.

for recyclables than trashJ

 CHAPTER 7 Responding to Objections and Alternative V¡ews 131

A number of environmentalists responded angnly to Tiemey's argument, challenging

either his reason, his warrant, or both. Those refuting the reason offered counterevidence
showing that recycling isn't as expensive as Tiemey claimed. Those refuting the warrant
said that even if the costs of recycling are higher than burying wastes in a landfill, recy-
cling still benefits the environment by reducing the amount of virgin materials taken from
nature. These critics, in effect, offered a new warrant: We should dispose of garbage in
the way that most saves the world's resources.

Strategies for Rebutting Evidence

.o
Whether you are rebutting an argument's reasons or its war-rant, you will frequently
I need to question a writer's use of evidence. Here are some strategies you can use:
re

Deng the truth of the data. Argoers can disagree about the facts of a case' If you
have reasons to doubt a writer's facts, call them into question.
rt Cite counterexamples and countertestimong.You can often rebut an argument based
on examples or testimony by citing counterexamples or countertestimony that
denies the conclusiveness of the original data.
1-
Cast doubt on the representatiueness or sfficiency of examples. Examples are power-
i-
ful only if the audience feels them to be representative and sufficient. Many envi-
e.
ronmentalists complained that John Tierney's attack on recycling was based too
largely on data from New York City and that it didn't accurately take into account
t-
the more positive experiences of other cities and states. rrA4ren data from outside
ts
New York City were examined, the cost-effectiveness and positive environmental
is
impact of recycling seemed more apparent.
t' Cast doubt on the releuance or recenq of the examples, statistics, or testimony. Tllre
n
best eüdence is up-to-date. In a rapidly changing universe, data that are even a
few years out-of-date are often ineffective. For example, as the demand for recy-
cled goods increases, the cost of recycling will be reduced. Out-of-date statistics
will skew any argument about the cost of recycling.
Call into question the credibilitg of an authoritg.If an opposing argument is based on tes-
ti-o.ry, you can undermine its persuasiveness if you show that a person being cited
lacks up-to-date or relevant erpertise in the field. (This procedure is different from the
ad hominem fallacy discussed in Appendix 1 because it doesn't attack the personal
character of the authority but only the authority's expertise on a specific matter.)
Question the acanracy or context of quotations. Eüdence based on testimony is fre-
quently distorted by being either misquoted or taken out of context. Often
scientists qualifz their findings heavily, but these qualifications are omitted by the
popular media. You can thus attack the use of a quotation by putting it in its orig-
inal context or by restoring the qualifications accompanying the quotation in its
original source.
732 PART 2 Writing an Argument

w Quertion the wag statistical data were produced or interpreted, chapter 5 pro-
vides fuller treatment of how to question statistics. In general, you
can rebut
statistical evidence by calling into account how the dataiere gathered,
treated
mathematically, or interpreted. It can make a big differenEe, for
example,
whether you cite raw numbers or percentages or wñether you choose
turgé o,
small increments for the axes of graphs.

Cnnceding to üpposing Views

In writing a classical argument, a writer must sometimes concede to an opposing
argument rather than refute it. Sometimes you encounter poúions
of an argumá"t tnu?
you simply can't refute. For example, ruppoi" you support ihe legalization
oIh*d d-g,
such as cocaine and heroin. Adversaries argue that leg;h"tlrgharíarugs
will increase tñe
number of drug users.and addic-ts you mrght dispute the süe of their
numbers, but you
reluctantly agree that they are right. your sñateg, in this case is not
to refute the oppo;ú
argument but to conce* t: i, by adrmtting thát legalization of hard
drugs will p.o-otE
heroin and cocaine addicüon. Having made that cáncession, your
task is then to show
that the benefits of drug legalization still outweigh the costs you've just
conceded.
_ fu this example shows, the strategr of a cóncessio" *g"-""1 is to switch Ílom the
f,eld of values employed by the writer you disagree with to a=different
field of values more
f-avorablg to your position. You don't ky to refute the writers
stated reason and grounds
{U¡ ar.sutnS that legalization will notlead to increased drug usage and addiction) or
the
writer's warrant (by arguing that increased d*g use aniaadiition
is not a problem).
Rather, you shift the argument to a new field of váues by introducing
a new wanr-anl one
you think your audience can share (that the benefits of legaiüa:tion-eliminating
Jfat the
black market and ending the crime, violence, and prison costs asiociated
with proc¡reirent
of drugs-outwetgh th" costs of increased addiction). To the extent
that opponents of legal-
ization share your desire to stop drug-related crime, shifting to
this new field of values is a
good strategr. Although it may seem that you weaken yo.,i orn position
by conceding to
an opposing arglunent, you may actually strengthen liby rrc.easing
your credibility ánd
gaining your audience's goodwill. Moreover, conceding to o.r" p*iit an opposing argu-
ment doesn't mean that you won,t refute other parts of that argunent.

Exarnple nf a sfudent Essay using Refutation strategi

The following extract from a,student essay is the refutation section
of a classical argu-
ment appealing to a neutral or undecided audience. In this essay,
student wriTer
Marybeth Hamilton argues for continued taxpayer suppoú of First place,
an alterna_
tive public school for homeless children that also p.ot'iá"r job counseling
and mental
health services for families. Because running Firsi Place is costly
and because it can
accommodate only 4 percent of her city's homeless children, ttlaryUetn
recognizes that
her audience may object to continued public fuiding. consequently,
to reach the neu_
tral or skeptical members of her audience, she der otes the iollowing portion
of her
argument to summarizing and refuting opposing vien-s.
 133
CHAPTER 7 Responding to Objections and Alternative Views

Frorn "Fi'rst Pl<xce: A Heqling School

t-
rt
d for Homeless Children'"
MARYFETH HAMILTOH {fTUBET{T}

...Asstatedearlier,thegoalofFirstPlaceistopreparestudentsforreturningtomainsfeam
public schools. Although there are mafiy reasons
to continue operating an agency like First
'piu.", that the school is too expen-
tt.r" are some who woul¿ argue against i1, one arsument is
child than a mainstream school' I can,nderstand
sive, costing many mofe O"pu'.t¿lU*Jper m
First Place is as a preventative action by the ciq'
o
ó this objection to cost, uut oni *uy to look at risk
Because all the students at First Place are at
rt reduce the future costs of crime and welfare. pro-
abuse, or numerous other long-term problems' a
F lor educational failure, drug and alcohol run, the city
before they start. In the long
e gram like First place ,*Á?rr, t" stop thg nrob]e1s jail costs'
ll could be saving money ulut such as drug rehabilitation, welfare payments' or
the
'n some of its funding on social services for
others might ciitrcízeFirst Place for spending city is
it al1 on educational needs' When the
students and their families instead of spending
providing a shelter for the families, why do they deserve
already making welfare p"y-;t and
a child become educated and have
;;)^ú;;"ó easicatiy,'tt e ¡"i "r ""v school is ro help
run deep, and their entire lamilies are in crisis.
Le social skills. At First Place, students, needs
rest of ttre family is still suffenng? The education
E What good is it to help just íhe child rÍhen the
poverly Therefore,.First.Place helps parents
ls of only the child win not hetp the family out of
assistance with résumés' They even supply
re look forjobs by p.ouloirg¡oU'rearch help including
place also pÑides a parent support gr9u9 for expfesslng
r). clothes to wear to an inte"rvie-. Fi¡st
helps parents deal with their struggles in a
re anxieties and leaming *t1g skil1s. This therapy
take out their fiustration on their child' All
re productive way, reducingirt"'"rtun"" trtut they will
rt ,,extras" are an attelmpt to help the family get back on its feet and become self-supporting'
these
Place
Another objection tolo ug..t.V like Firsi Place is that the short-term stay at First
'l
a doesnolong-termgoodfor-thestudent.However,intalkingwithMichaelsiptroth'a
receive helps
.o teacher at First Place, I leamed that the individual attention the students
Ld manyofthemcatch"pi'-.n""Lquitequickly.Hereportedthatsomesfudentsactually
y"ur. This improvement definitely con-
.r- made a three_grade-level improvement in otrl
especially in the area.of self-esteem' Also'
tributes to the long-ter* gooá of the student,
the students at First
pU"Jar" in desperate situati,ons. For most, any help is better than no
have to be
help. Thus First place ;;;tid"t extended day care for the children so they won't
unsupervisedathomewhiletheirparentsareworkingorlookingfor-work,Forexample,
that is overrun
some homeless children live in moiels on
Aurora Avenue, a major highway
i,l-
Aurora Avenue is not a safe place for children to play'
with fast cars, prostitut"r, u.t¿ drugs.
3r many of First Place's students'
so the extended day care is important for
removing students from mainstream
Finally, opporr"n r'-iglr-t iuestion the value of
d-

al
classrooms.Somemight*arguethatseparatingchildrenfromregularclassroomsisnot
children' Also'
m
good because it t.tnJr rtlgririsnts ttr9lidifferences from the mainstream
at when the First Place child does
the separation p"rio¿ rnigñi cíuse additional alienation children at
u-
return to a mainstream In reality, though. the effects are quite different.
,"tool.
er
134 PART 2 Writing an Argument

First Place are sympathetic to each other. Perhaps for the first time in their lives, they do
not have to be on the defensive because no one is going to make fun of them for being
homeless; they are all homeless. The time spent at First Place is usually a time for catching
up to the students in mainstream schools. When students catch up, they have one fewer
reason to be seen as different from mainstream students. If the students stayed in the main-
stream school and continued to fall behind they would only get teased more.
s First Place is a program that merits the community's ongoing moral and financial sup-
port. With more funding, First Place could help many more homeless children and their
families along the path toward self-sufficiency. While this school is not the ultimate
answer to the problem of homelessness, it is a beginning. These children deserve a chance
to build their own lives, free from the stigma of homelessness, and I, as a responsible citi-
zen, feel a civic and moral duty to do all I can to help them.

I I ffi FOR CTASS DISCUSSION Refutation Strategies

1. Indiüdually or in groups, analyze the refutation strategies that Marybeth employs
in her argument.
a. Summarize each of the opposing reasons that Marybeth anticipates foom her
audience.
b. How does she attempt to refute each line of reasoning in the opposing argu-
ment? Where does she refute her audience's stated reason? \Vhere does she
refute a wamant? Where does she concede to an opposing argument but then
shift to a different field of values?
c. How effective is Marybeth's refutation? Would you as a city resident vote for
allofing more public money for this school? \Vhy or why not?
2. Examine each of the following arguments, imagining how the enthymeme could
be fleshed out with grounds and backing. Then attempt to refute each argument.
Suggest ways to rebut the reason or the warrant or both, or to concede to the
argument and then switch to a different field of values.
a. Signing the Kyoto treaty (pledgfng that the United States will substantially
lower its emission of greenhouse gases) is a bad idea because reducing green-
house emissions will seriously harm the American economy.
b. Majoring in engineering is better than majoring in music because engineers
make more money than musicians.
c. The United States should reinstitute the draft because doing so is the only way
to maintain a large enough military to defend American interests in several
different trouble spots in the world.
d. The United States should build more nuclear reactors because nuclear reactors
will proüde substantial electrical energy u'rthout emitting greenhouse gases.
e. People should be allowed to own handgr-rns because owning handguns helps
them protect their homes against potenüallv riolent intmders. ffri,¡ I I
 7 Responding to Objections and Alternative
Views 135
CHAPTER

AppealingtoaResistantAudience:DialogicArgument
.r\4rereasclassicalargumentiseffectiveforneutralorundecidedaudiences,itisoftenless audiences
the r,r,ryiter's üews. Because resistant
effective for audiences strongly oppor"iio writer's, they are often
hold values, assumprions, or beliefs
;;;ly drtr"t"nt lrom the on many
unswayed by ;t"r;i:J;gr-ent,
which aL.r,r their worldview too directly'
role of religion in the
valuesladen issues such as abortion,
g* ;"*"1,
gay rights, or the

publicsphere,thedistancebetweenu*,i*""q"é'"tytaudiencecarrbesogreatthat
goal may be simply to open dialogue
uttt writer's
dialogue seems impossible. In these "ur", the writer and audience
uv wtrel
by seeking .o--i"gr"r"d-tha! ;r, n"¿rr"g nraies
agree.Forexample,gro-ch9i9ea1dpro-lifeadvocatesmaynevelagreeonawoman'sright
toarrabottion,buttheymightsharecornmongroundrrrwanjnstoreduceteenagepreg-
words, for conversation, if not for
agreement.
nancy. There i. ;;;;;d"; the goal-of dialogic argu-
Because of these differences in
¡usJ¡"t"fs and values,
mentisseldomtoconvertresistant,*¿.''tothewriter'sposition'Thebestawriter
resistance, perhaps by increasing
the
can hope f", i; ;; reduce somewhat the level of
reader,swillinEresstolisten*p,"p*u,ionforfuturediatogue.Infact,oncedialogue15 each
to each other and háve learrred to respect
initiated, purtiE, who genuinely hsten A recent example of
other,s views might begin finding
,"^r"riñ Jo shared problems'
Breaux's call for a common-
this process .;;;'r;; Louisiana senator John
rn formJr
medical
ground stratefr i"; ,;1u*g the u.s.h;Jth care crisis ch atactenzed'by soaring
objects to ca-
costs and ¡r-? eÁ"r.ans without medical insurance' Breaux"\&4ry not"' he
-shows
""-u"rr""'t other'
ble news talk in which potltl.ul opponents shout at each
,,hy a p-gru* ,i,ir"r. the moderator would inüte people of
asked in an interview, to address the health
opposing philosophies to seek t:l;; Ooutltt'- Brgaux hopes com-
liberals ád conservatiues, patients and insurance
care crisis by bringlng together to find
panies, ao.toJ, á?irrui11u.".rtl.¿
o""rrti""s, hospital managerc and nurses
begin a dialogl: sealch for solutions'
colnmon ground o" *hith they can and
this seition-the delayed-thesis strategr
*"
The dialogic strategies "rpfuin-ir. writer and a resistant
p-*{):tlng.*a"rc*ai",s betrveen a
Rogerian strategi-are ui-"a ut
f11_{::"0*
relect
audrence. Thev-work to djsarm n"rñr:ty"rry rnowing tñe wrltgr.s
her own Vrews'
üews and b;áJ;;;J;;"" with which the writer presents his or

Delayed-Thesis Argtrment
Inmanycasesyoucarrreacharesistantaudiencebyusingadelagedthes¿ssfirrcturern argu-
argument to reveJ your thesis' classical
which you wait until the end of your
mentasksyoutostateyourthesisintt-'"-t-¿...tlon,supportitwrthreasonsarrd it is
opposing views. Riretorically, however'
refute
evidence, and then rumrirurir" and
t31:tJyh*e"you stand at the start of your
argu-
not always uau*tug"ott' ;;;;ll t""t views' For resistant
ment or to separare ¿"rittLi*ly from alternative
;;;;*ff issue open' delaying the revelation
of your own
audiences, it may b" bJ;;;;" "ákeep the
position until the end of the essay'

Seattle Times 14 July 2005' 88

-n"-¿ g*ldrng Bipartisan Consensus on Healü-Care Solutrons"'
.:lIl S¡--------_-r"¿-,
136 PART 2 Writing an Argument

we
To illustrate the drfferent effects of classical versus delayed-thesis arguments,
Ellen
invite you to read a delayed-thesis argument by nationallysyndicated columnist
about
Goodman. The article appeared ln t-ggS at the height of feminist arguments
pornography. The kairotic moment for Goodman's article was the nation's shock at
a
ilrotaf"gág rape in New Bedford, Massachusetts, in which a woma-n was raped on a
pool table by patrons of a local bar.*

Minneapclis Parnogrüphy Ordinsnce

EN.LENGüOtsMAF¡

Mass., Hustler
Just a couple of months before the pool-table gang rape in New Bedfor4
magazine prilnted a photo feature that reads like a blueprint for the acfual
crime' There
Hustler and real life. ln Hustlet the woman enjoyed it'
weÁ ¡ust two differences between
In real life, the woman charged rape.
the
There is no evidence ttrat the four men charged with this crime had actually read
magazrne. Nor is there evidence that the spectators who yelled encouragement for two
growing sense
hours had held previous ringside seats at pornographic events. But there is a
that the violent pornog.uphy being peddled in this country helps to create an atmosphere
in which such events occur.
As recently as last month, a study done by two university of wisconsin researchers
by their
suggested that even "normal" men, prescreened college students' were changed
to violent pornography. After just ten hours of viewing, reported researcher
"^pó.rrr"
Edward Donnerstein, "the men were less likely to convict in a rape trial, less
likely to
likely to the victim as responsible." Pornography may
see injury to a victim, more see
"but it maintains a lot of very callous attitudes. It justi-
not causé rape directly, he said
fies aggression. It even says you are doing a favor to the victim'"
If ivl can prove that ptrnography is harmful, then shouldn't the victims have legal
rights? This, in u.ry is thé theory behind a city ordinance that recently passed the
"ur", before
M-inneapolis City Council. Vetoed by the mayor last week, it is likely to be back
vote, likely to appeat in other cities. other towns' What is
the Council for an overriding
unique about the Minneapolis approach is that for the first time it attacks pornography,
women'
not tecause of nudity or sexual explicitness, but because it degrades and harms
It opposes pornography on the basis of sex discrimination'
s ünirr"rrity of tvtinnesota Law Professor Catherine MacKinnon, who co-authored the
this tactic because
ordinance with feminist writer Andrea Dworkin, says that they chose
they believe that pornography is central to "creating and maintaining the inequality of
the sexes. . . . Just being a woman means you are injured by pornography'"

*The rape was later the subject of an Academy Alvard-u'innhg nto-r-te' The Accused' starring Jodie Foster'
 CHAPTER 7 Responding to Objections and Alternative Views 137

'e

n They defined pornography carefully as, "the sexually explicit subordination of r¡'omen'
rt graphióally depicied whether in pictures or in words." To fit their legal definition it must
u'omen
a átsó itr"tuá" one of nine conditions that show this subordination, like presenting
pleasure in being raped or. mutilated. . . . " Under this law, it
d who "experience sexual . .

would be possible for a pool-table rape victim to sue Hustler. It would be possible for
a
in movie. Indeed since the law
woman to sue if she weie forced to act a pornographic
woman to
describes pornography as oppressive to all women, it would be possible for any
sue those who traffic in the stuff for violating her civil rights'
In many ways, the Minneapolis ordinance is an appealing attack on an appalling prob-
lem. The authors have tried to resolve a long and bubbling conflict among those
who have
to pornography and a deep loyalty to the value of free speech' "To
both a deep aversion
date," says Professor MacKinnon, "people have identified the pornographer's freedom

tr with eveiybody's freedom. But we're saying that the freedom of the pornographer is the
e subordination of women. It means one has to take a side'"
t. But the sides are not quite as clear as Professor MacKinnon describes them. Nor is the
ordinance.
LC
Even if we accept the argument that pornography is harmful to women-and I do-
o then we must also recognize that anti-Semitic literature is harmful to Jews and racist
literature is harmful to blacks. For that mattef, Marxist literature may be harmful to
e government policy. It isn't just women vefsus pornographers. If women win the right
to sue publishers and produce.s, then so could Jews, blacks, and a long list of people
who rnay b" able to prove they have been harmed by books, movies, speeches or
.S
even
records. The Manson murders, you may recall, were reportedly inspired by the
ir
)I Beatles.
o 10 we might prefer a library or book store or lecture hall without Mein Kampf or the
would
Grand Whoevir of the Ku Klux Klan. But a growing list of harmful expressions
)
i_ inevitably strangle freedom of speech'
This ordinanae was carefully written to avoid problems of banning and prior restraint,
but the right of any woman to claim damages from pornography is
just too broad' It seems
it1

destined to lead to censorshiP.

'e What the Minneapolis City Council has before it is a very attractive theory' What
rs
MacKinnon and Dworkin have written is a very persuasive and useful definition
i'. ofpornography. But they haven't yet resolved the conflict between the harm ofpornogra-
l. phy and t=h" of free speech. In its present form, this is still a shaky piece of law'
"utu"

.e

Consider now how this argument's rhetorical effect would be different if Ellen
,e

rf
Goodman had revealed her ttresis in the introduction using the classical argument
form. Here is how this introduction might have looked:

Goodman's Introduction Rewritten in Classical Form

Jnst a couple of months before the
pool-table ga]]g rape in New Bedford, Mass" Httstlermaga-
just
rin" p.i.ri"a a photo feaflre that réads üke a blueprint for the actual crime' There were
138 PART 2 Writing an Argument

Hrctler u:rdreal life. In Hustler, the woman enjoyed it. In real life, the
tr,vo differences betr,veen
woman charged rape. Of course, there is no eüdence that the four men charged with this
crime had actually read the magazine. Nor is there eüdence that the spectators who yelled
encolragement for two hours had held preüous ringside seats at pornographic events.
But there is a growing sense that the üolent pornography being peddled in this counhy
helps to create an atmosphere in which such events occur. One crty is taking a unique ap-
proach to attack this problem. An ordinance recently passed by the Minneapolis City Council
butlaws pomography not because it contains nudity or sexualiy explicit acts, but because it
clegrades and harrns women. Unfortunately, despite the proponenfs' good intentions, the
Minneapolis ordinance is a bad law because it has potentially dangerous consequences.

Even though Goodman's position can be grasped morc qurckly in this classical
form, our studénts generally find the original delayed-thesis version more effective.
\4/hy is this?
Most people point to the greater sense of complexity and surprise in the delayed-
thesis veriion, a sense that comes largely from the delayed discovery of the writer's
position. \Arhereas the classical version immediately labels the ordinance a "bad law,"
ihe original version withholds judgment, inviting the reader to examine the law more
sympathetically and to identiff with the position of those who drafted it. Rather ihan
d'istancing herself fuom those who see pomography as a violation of women's rights,
Goodman shares with her readers her own struggles to think through these issues,
thereby persuading us of her genuine sympathy for the ordinance and for its feminist
proponentr. In the end, her delayed thesis renders her final rejection of the ordinafice
not only more surprising but more conüncing.
Clearly, then, a writer's decision about when to reveal her thesis is critical.
Revealing the thesis early makes the writer seem more hardnosed, more sure of her
position,hore confident about how to divide the ground into friendly and hoshle
iu*pr, more in control. Delaying the thesis, in contrast, complicates the issues,
increases reader sympathy for more than one üew, and heightens interest in the ten-
sion among alternative views and in the rwiter's struggle for clarity.

Rogerian Argurnent
An even more powerful strategy for addressing resistant audiences is a conciliatory
strateg¡r often called Rogerian argument, named after psychologist Carl Rogers, who
used ihis strategy to help people resolve differences.* Rogerian argument emphasizes
"empathic listening," which Rogers defined as the ability to see an issue sympatheti-
cally from anothei person's perspective. He trained people to withhold judgment of
until after they listened attentively to the other person, under-
-oth". person's idéas
stood thát person's reasoning, appreciated that person's values, respected that person's
humanity in short, walked in that person's shoes. \\4rat Carl Rogers understood is
fr
*See Carl Rogers's essay "Communication: Its Blocking and Its Facrlitalion" in his book On Becoming a Person
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1961), 329-37. For a fuller discussion ol Rogenan argument, see Richard Young,
Alton Becker, and Kenneth P1ke, Rhetoric: Discouetg and Change (\ert \brk: Harcoufi Brace,1972)
 CHAPTER 7 Responding to Objections and Alternative Views 139

Because Rogerian argu-

that traditional methods of argumentation are threatening.
of argument, and because
ment stresses the psychologrcalL weil as logical dimensions
an arg-rment, it
iiempnasire. ,"d.r.ing thrJat and building triidges rathgr -tha1 winning
is particularly effectivé when dealing with emotionally
laden issues'
Under liogerian strategy, the writer reduces the sense of threat in her arg,ment
qud'ience share mang basic ualues' Instead of
by showing ti¿ mtn wnteí" and resistant
the audience's
itucLlng tie audience as wrongheaded, the Rogerian writer respects
position before present-
views and demonstrates an undlerstanding of the audience's
asks the audience to capitu-
irrg h", own position. Finally, the Rogerian.writer seldom
views' By
iui. io the writer', ,ia"-¡.r.ito sffi somewhat toward the writer's
"ntir"ty views, the writer
that she has aheády shifted toward the audience's
"JL""J"Aáing of this negotiation ideally
makes it easier for the audience to accept compromise. AII
positions-
Ieads to a compromise between-or better, a synthesis of-the gqposing -.
listening, is the ability
The key to successful Rogerian argument, besides the art of
For
to point ú ur"* of agreeirent between the writer's and reader's positions' with
and you are arguing
example, if you support íwoman's right to choose abortion
opposed to abofuon, you're unlikely to conved your reader,
but
,o-"orr. completely
bysummarizing your
you mrght reduce the ievel of resistance. You begin this process
reader,s position sympathetically, stressing youi shared
values. You might say, for
yo,, Ará vatue babies; that you also are appalled by people who
treat
the easy acceptance of
abortion * u io* of birth conkol; that you also worry that
"ru*pfe,'tf.rut
and that you also agree
abortion diminishes the value society places on human life;
thut u.."pting abortion lightly can léad to lack of sexual responsibility Butlding
bridges like th"ese between lou and your readers makes
it more likely that they will lis-
ten to you when you present your own posttron'
has much in
In its emphaiis on establishing common ground, Rogeri^an argument
citícize classical
common with recent feminist theáries of argument. Marry feminists
*g**""t as rooted in a male value system and tainted by metaphors of war and com-
bai. Thus, classical arguments, with their emphasis on assefiion and refutation,
are
"power:frrl" or "forceful." The writer "defends" his position
typl"uly praised for báing
*a "uúu*r" his "opponelnt's" position using facts and data as "ammunition" to some
and rea-
theorists,
sons as "big guns" fo "Uto* away" his opponent's claim. According
playlng
viewing argument as war can lead to inauthenticity, posturing, and game
Wát"ri who share this distrust of classical argumentation oÍten find Rogerian
it stresses self-examination, clarification' and accommoda-
argument appealing because
negotiation
tion rather than refutation. Rogerian argument is more in hme with win-win
than with winlose debate'
An example of a student's Rogenan argr,rment is shown on pages t43-I44'

Conclusion
intending
This chapter has explained strategies for addressing alternative views' \A4ren
to engage supportive audiences-in a cause. $riters often compose one-sided argu-
ments. Neutral or undecided audiences generallr- respond most favorably
to classical
 140 PART 2 Writing an Argument

arguments that set out strong reasons in support of the writer's position yet openly
address alternative üews, which are first summarized fairly and then either rebutted
or conceded to. Strongly resistant audiences typically respond most favorably to
dialogic strategies, such as delayed-thesis or Rogerian argument, which seek common
ground with an audience, aim at reducing hostility, arid take a more inquiring or
conciliatory stance.

.r
WRITING ASSIGNMENT A Classical Argument or a Dialogic
r¡'r.l'.:;,,t,,-.,,.j.,

ll,:::il;l;';lt.illiiu' Argument Aimed at Conciliation

Option A
t;1.i1;i:.1;11,,1;1;ii' 1: Classical Argument Write a classical argument following the expla-
i{jl,,,ri';,','tii"'lli;;;ii nations in Chapter 3, pages 60-62, and using the guidelines for devel,oping such
,,'":i.,1.;ll, :,,r:j!;lll,
' an argument throughout Chapters 3-7. Depending on your instructor's preferences,
,' this argument could be on a new issue, or it be a final stage of an argument
,1,, ,,-rill.'l', ii,-Ll
' in progress throughout ParL 2. This assignmentcould expands the supporting-reasons as-
",.,-',1,','lii';iifl signment from Chapter 5 by adding sections that summarize opposing views
ll',:1lr:il']l,it;-
them through refutation or concession. For an example of a classical
',.f
"',',,,t',',.',',.," and respond to "'Half-Criminals'or
irt'',i"',,"' argument, see Urban Athletes? A Plea for Fair teatment of
¡t'u,r'' Skateboarders," by David Langley (page 141).
,l,n
Option 2: A Dialogic Argument Aimed at Conciliation Write a dialogic argu-
ment aimed at a highly resistant audience. A good approach is to argue against a pop-
ular cultural practice or belief that you think is \.^,Tong, or argue for an action or belief
that you think is right even though it will be highly unpopular. Your claim, in other
words, must be controversial-going against the grain of popular actions, values, and
beliefs-so that you can anticipate considerable resistance to your views. This assign-
ment invites you to stand up for something you believe in even though your view will
be highly contested. Your goal is to persuade your audience toward your position or
toward a conciliatory compromise. In writing and revising your argument, draw upon
appropriate strategies from Chapters 6 and 7. From Chapter 6, consider strategies for
increasing your appeals to ethos and pathos. From Chapter 7, consider strategies for
appealing to highly resistant audiences through delayed-thesis or Rogerian approaches.
Your instructor may ask you to attach to your argument a reflective letter explaining
and justifuing the choices you made for appealing to your audience and accommodat-
ing their üews. For an example of a Rogerian argument written in response to this
assignment, see Rebekah Táylor's "Letter to Jim" on page 143. a

Readings
Our first student essay illustrates a classical argument. This essay grew out of a class
discussion about alterrrative sports, conflicts betrveen traditional sporh and newer
sports (downhill skiing versus snowboarding), arld middle-age prejudices against
groups ofyoung people.
 CHAPTER 7 Responding to Objections and Alternative Views 141

"Hcxlf-Criminuls"' or Urbc¡n Athletes? A Plea

for Fair Treatment of Skatebonrders
{A Classicul Argument)
T}AVID LAHGLEY {5TUDTNT}

For skateboarders, the campus of the University of California at San Diego is a wide-
open, huge, geometric, obstacle-filled, stair-scattered cement paradise. The signs posted
all over aampus read "No skateboarding, biking, or rollerblading on campus except on
Saturday, Sunday, and holidays." I have always respected these signs at my local skate-
boarding spot. On the first day of 1999,I was skateboarding here with my hometown skate
buddies and had just landed a trick when a police officer rushed out from behind a pillar,
grabbed me, and yanked me offmy board. Because I didn't have my I.D. (I had emptied
my pockets so I wouldn't bruise my legs if I fell-a little trick of the trade), the officer
started treating me like a criminal. She told me to spread my legs and put my hands on my
head. She frisked me and then called in my name to police headquarters.
"What's the deal?" I asked. "The sign said skateboarding was legal on holidays."
"The sign means that you can only roll on campus," she said.
But that's not whaf the sign said. The police officer gave one friend and me a warning.
Our third friend received a fifty-dollar ticket because it was his second citation in the last
twelve months.
s Like other skateboarders throughout cities, we have been bombarded with unfair treatrnent.
We have been forced out of known skate spots in the city by storeovr'ners andpolice, kicked out
of every parking garage in dor¡mtov,n, compelled to skate at strange times of day and night, and
herded into crowded skateboard parks. However. after I was searched by the police and
detained for over twenty minutes in my own skating sanctuary the unreasonableness of the
treatment of skateboarders struck me. Where are skateboarders supposed to go? Cities need to
change their unfair treatrnent of skateboarders because skateboarders are not antisocial misfits
as popularly believed, because the laws regulating skateboarding are ambiguous, and because
skateboarders are not given enough legitimate space to practice their sport.
Possibly because to the average eye most skateboarders look like misfits or delinquents,
adults think of us as criminal types and associate our skateboards with antisocial behavior.
But this view is Lrnfair. City dwellers should recognize that skateboards are a nafural reaction
to the urban environment. If people are surrounded by cement, they are going to figure out a
way to ride it. People's different environments have always produced transportation and
sporls to suit the conditions: bikes, cars, skis, ice skates, boats, canoes, surfboards. Ifwe live
on snow, we are going to develop skis or snowshoes to move around. Ifwe live in an environ-
ment that has flat panels of cement for ground with lots of curbs and stairs, we are going to
invent an ingeniously designed flat board with wheels. Skateboards are as natural to cement
as surfboards are to water or skis to snow. Moreove¡ the resulting sport is as healthfiI, grace-
fuI, and athletic. A fair assessment of skateboarders should..rp""io* elegant, nonpoñuting
means of transportation and sport, and not consider us hoodlums.
142 PART 2 Writing an Argument

A second way that skateboarders are treated unfairly is that the laws that regulate
skateboarding in public places are highly restrictive, ambiguous, and open to abusive
application by police officers. My being frisked on the UCSD campus is just one exam-
ple. When I moved to Seattle to go to college, I found the laws in Washington to be
equally unclear. When a sign says "No Skateboarding," that generally means you will get
tióketed if you are caught skateboarding in the area. But most areas aren't posted. The
general rule then is that you can skateboard so long as you do so safely without being
ieckless. But the definition of "reckless" is up to the whim of the police officer. I visited
the front desk of the Seattle East Precinct and asked them exactly what the laws against
reckless skateboarding meant. They said that skaters are allowed on the sidewalk as long
as they travel at reasonable speed and the sidewalks aren't crowded. One of the officers
explained that if he saw a skater sliding down a handrail with people all aroun4 he would
definitely arrest the skater. What if there were no people around I asked? The officer
admitted that he might arrest the lone skater anyway and not be questioned by his superi-
ors. No wonder skateboarders feel unfairly treated.
One way that cities have tried to treat skateboarders fairly is to build skateboard parks.
Unforfunately, for the most par1 these parks are no solution at all. Most parks were
designed by nonskaters who don't understand the momentum or gravity pull associated
with the movement of skateboards. For example, City Skate, a park below the Space
Needle in Seattle, is very appealing to the eye, but once you start to ride it you realize that
the transitions and the vefticals are all off, making it unpleasant and even dangerous to
skate there. The Skate Park in Issaquah, Washington, hosts about thirty to fifty skaters at a
time. Collisions are frequent and close calls, many. There are simply too many people in a
small area. The people who built the park in Redmond, Washington, decided to make a
huge wall in it for graffiti artists "to tag Qt" legally. They apparently thought they ought to
throw all us teenage "ha1f-criminals" in together. At this park, young teens are nervous
about skating neaf a gangster "throwing up his piece," and skaters become dizzy as they
take deep breaths from their workouts right next to four or five cans of spray paint
expelling toxins in the air.
Of course, many adults probably don't think skateboarders deserve to be treated fairly.
I have heard the arguments against skateboarders for years from parents, storeowners,
friends, police officers, and security guards. For one thing, skateboarding tears up public
and private properly, people say. I can't deny that skating leaves marks on handrails and
benches, and it does chip cement and granite. But in general skateboarders help the envi-
ronment more than they hurt it. Skateboarding places are not littered or tagged up by
skaters. Because skaters need smooth surfaces and because any small object of litter can
lead to painful accidents, skaters actually keep the environment cleaner than the average
citizen does. As for the population as a whole, skateboarders are keeping the air a lot
cleaner than many other commuters and athletes such as boat drivers, car drivers, and
skiers on ski lifts. In the bigger picture, infrequent repair ofcurbs and benches is cheaper
than attempts to heal the ozone.
We skateboarders aren't going away, so cities are going to have to make room for us
somewhere. Here is how cities can treat us farly. \1'e should be allowed to skate when
 CHAPTER 7 Responding to Objections and Alternative V¡ews "143

others are present as long as we skate safely on the sidewalks. The rules and laws should
be clearer so that skaters don't get put into nrlnerable positions that make them easy tar-
gets for tickets. I do support the opening of skate parks, but cities need to build more of
them, need to situate them closer to where skateboarders live, and need to make them rela-
tively wholesome environments. They should also be designed by skateboarders so that
they are skater-friendly and safe to ride. Instead of being treated as "ha1f-criminals,"
skaters should be accepted as urban citizens and admired as athletes; we are a clean popu-
lation, and we are executing a challenging and graceful sport. As human beings groq we
go from crawling to walking; some of us grow from strollers to skateboards.

To illustrate a conciliatory or Rogerian approach to an issue, we show you student

writer Rebekah Taylor's argument written in response to this assignment. Rebekah chose
to write a Rogerian argument in the form of a letter. An outspoken advocate for animal
rights on her campus, Rebekah addressed her letter to an actual foiend, Jim, with whom
she had had many long philosophical conversations when she attended a different col-
lege. Note how Rebekah "listens" empathically to her Íiiend's position on eating meat and
proposes a compromise action.

S, tetter to lim
{A Ro,gerian Argurreni}
NEBEKAII TAYLOR {STUDEF{T}

Dear Jim,

I decided to write you a letter today because I miss our long talks. Now that I have
transferred colleges, we haven't had nearly enough heated discussions to satisff either of
us. I am writing now to again take up one of the issues we vehemently disagreed on in the
past-meat-based diets.
Jim, I do understand how your view that eating meat is normal differs from mine. In your
family, you learned that humans eat animals, and this view was reinforced in school where the
idea of the food p1'ramid based on meat protein was taught and where most children had not
even heard of vegetarian options. Also, your religious beliefs taught that God intended humans
to have ultimate dominion over ail animals. For humans, eating meat is part of a planned cycle
of nature. In short, you were raised in a family and community that accepted meat-based diets
as normal, healthy, and ethically justifiable whereas I was raised in a family that cared very
deeply for animals and attended a church that frequently entertained avegutas a guest speaker.
Let me now briefly reiterate for you my own basic beliefs about eating animals. As I
have shared with you, my personal health is important to me, and I, along with other vege-
tarians and vegans, believe that a vegetarian diet is much more healthy than a meat
diet. But my primary motivation is my deep respect for animals. I have always felt an
''44 PART 2 Writing an Argument

overpowering sense of compassion for animals and forceful sorrow and regret for the
injuries that humans inflict upon them. I detest suffering, especially when it is forced upon
creatures that cannot speak out against it. These deep feelings led me to become a vegetar-
ian at the age of 5. While lying in bed one night, I looked up at the poster of a silky-white
harbor seal that had always hung on my wall. As I looked at the face of that seal, I made a
connection between that precious animal on my wall and the animals that had been killed
for the food I ate every day. In the dim glow of my Strawberry Shortcake night light, I
promised those large, dark seal eyes that I would never eat animals again. Seventeen years
have passed now and that promise still holds true. Every day I feel more dedicated to the
cause of animal rights around the world.
I know very well that my personal convictions are not the same as yours. However, I be-
lieve that we might possibly agree on more aspects of this issue than we realize. Although
we would not be considered by others as allies on the issue of eating meat, we do share a
common enemy-factory farms. Although you eat animal products and I do not. we both
share a basic common value that is threatened by today's factory farms. We both disap-
prove of the ürnecessary suffering of animals.
s Though we might disagree on the morality of using animals for food at all, we do agree
that such animals should not be made to suffer. Yet at factory farms, billions of animals
across the world are born, live, and die in horribly cramped, dark, and foul-smelling barns.
None of these animals knows the feeling of fresh air, or of warm, blessed sunlight on their
backs. Most do not move out of their tight. uncomlortable pens until the day that they are
to be slaughtered. At these factory farms, animals are processed as if they were inanimate
objects, with no regard for the fact that they do feel fear and pain.
It is because of our shared opposition to animal suffering that I ask you t9 consider
making an effor1 to buy meat from small, independent local farmers. I am told by friends
that all supermarkets offer such meat options. This would be an easy and effective way to
light lactory farms. I know that t could never convince you to stop eating meat. and I will
never ffy to lorce my beliels on you. As your Friend I am grateful simply to be able to
write to you ,o about my beliefs. I trust that regardless of what your ultimate
"urráidly
this you will thoughtfully consider what I have written, as I will
reaction is to letter,
thoughtFully consider what you write in return.

Sincerely,

Rebekah

For additional writing, reading, and research resources, g0 t0

www.mycomplab.c0m
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Thls advocary poster fuses three big

Lontempordry public Lontroversie\ over
lf environmentalism, sustainability, ancl
r¡ vegetarianism. What tactics does this poster

.o use to appeal to viewers' emotions and

,1
dramatize its claim that meai-eating is
destroying the world? Chapters B and 9
:¡
provicle guidance for conducting rhetorical
analyses of verbal and visual texts that work
li in a complex way, as this one does.

ll ytu give a d¡mn nhtu¡ the planet, gn vegetar¡ail.

r45
 rere#px{:mffi rffiffiffiffiffi€s
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In Part Two of this book, we explained thinking and writing strategies for
composing your own arguments. Now in part Three we show you how to use
your new rhetorical knowledge to conduct in-depth analyses of other people's
arguments. To analyze an argument rhetorically means to examine closely
how it is composed and what makes it an effective or ineffective piece of pei-
suasion. A rhetorical analysis identifies the text under scrutiny, summarizei its
main ideas, presents some key points about the text's rhetorical strategies for l!
persuading its audience, and elaborates on these points.
Becoming skilled at analyzing arguments rhetorically will have multiple
payoffs for you. Rhetorical analysis will help you develop your ability to
read complex texts critically; speak back to texts from youi own insights;
apply the strategies of effective argumentation to your own arguments; and
prepare you as a citizen to distinguish sound, ethical arguments from manip-
ulative, unreasonable ones. By themselves, rhetorical analyses are common
assignments in courses in critical thinking and argument. Rhetorical analysis
also plays a major role in consfiucting arguments. Writers often work into
their own arguments summaries and rhetorica-l analyses of other people's
arguments-particularly in sections dealing with opposing views. This chap-
ter focuses on the rhetorical analysis of written argumenti, and the next one
(Chapter 9) equips you to analyze visual arguments.

Thinking Khetorically about a Texú

The suggested writing assignment for this chapter is to write your own
rhetorical analysis of an argument selected by your inshuctor (sel p. 1bg).
This section will help you get started by showing you what it means io think
rhetorically about a text.
Before we turn directly to rhetorical analysis, we should reconsider the
key word rhetoric, In popular usage, rhetoric often means empty or decep-
tive language, as in, "well, that's just rhetoric." Another .etatéa meaning
of rhetoric is decorative or artificial language. The Greek Stoic philosophei
Epictetus likened rhetoric to hairdressers fi-ring hair*-a view ihat iees
*chaim Perelman, "The New
Rhetoric: A Theorr of practic¿rl Reasoning.,, rn professing the Neu
Rhetorics;A Sourcebook, eds. Theresa Enos ancl ir,arr C. tsroun (Englei,ooa Cliif¡, NJ: prentice
Hall, 1994), 149.
t46
 CHAPTER B Analyzing Arguments Rhetorically 147

rhetoricians, however, adopt

rhetoric as superficial decoration. Most contemporary
Aristotle: the art of
the larger view of rhetoric articulated by Greek philosopher
Contemporary rhetorician
determining what will be persuasive in évery situation.
rhetoric in aition as "the function of adjusting ideas
Donald C. tsryant has desciibed
meaning of rheto-
to people u"a oi p"ople to ideas."* Focusing on this foundational
ric,thischapterwillshowyouhowtoana'Iyzeawriter,smotivation,purpose,and
rhetorical choices for persuading a targeted audience'
an effective rhetorical
Most of ,t" trro*t"age andskillslou will need to write
beEn proüded in Parts One and Two of the text'
You have
analysis h"t" ;;;;t
context (Chapter 2)' and from
aiready learned how to piace a text in its rhetorical
rhetorical concepts as audience-
for chapters s-z yor ur" already familiar with such key
use the STAR critéria for evidence, and the classical appeals
of logos, ethos,
based reasons,
rie's andpathos,Thischapterpreparesyoutoapplytheseargrrmentconceptstotheargu-
sely ments You encounter.
per-
:s its
I I ,: FOR CTASS DISCUSSION An Initial Exercise in Rhetorical Analysis
; for
consider the skategies used by_two different writers to
per-
In the following
"""r"ir", The first is from the opening para-
riple suade their u.doi"rr.", to act against climate "ñ-g".
graphs of an editorial in the magazine creatlon care:
A Christian Enuironmental
!to site of the sierra club, an environmental action
Quarterlg.The second is fuom the web
lhts; passage and then proceed to the questions that follow'
and group. Please ,tody
"uth
urip-
Passage I
mon
lvsis As I sit down to r¡rrite this column, one thing keeps coming
to me over and over: "Now is
into the time; now is the time."
is kairos' It means "right or
p1e's In the New 'lbstament the word used for this q¡pe of time
time as measured in sec-
hap- oppo*.,rl" moment." It is contrasted wilh chronos, or chronological
kairosis usually associated with deci-
one onds, days, months, or yeals. In the New Testament
sive actión that brings about delivera¡ce or salvation'
me over and over is that I was
The reason the phrase, "Now is the time" kept coming to
moment'
thinking of how to describe our cur-rent climate change
The world has been plodding along in chronological time on the problem of climate
change since around 1988. No more'
-*ii-pf' put: the problem of climate change has entered kairos tnne lIs kairos moment
o\,\'n
has arrived. How iong rvill it endure? until the time
of decisive action to bring about deliv-
r58). opportunif for decisive action
efance comes_or, more ominously, until the time when the
hink
tl*purr.a us by. \\4rich will we choose? Because we do have a choice'
_Rev.JimBa]l,Ph.D.,,,lI'sKaírosTimeforClinrateChange:TimetoAct,,'CreationCare,.
r the A Christian Enuironmentat Quañerlg (Summer 2008)' 28'
lcep-
uing
rpher
SEES
sDonaid C. Bryant, "Rhetoric: Its Functions and Its Scope." In Pro,fessing the New Rhetorics: A
:¿ \ew Sourcebook, eás. Theresa Enos and Stuat C'
Broll iEnq.ierrood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall,
=nlice t994),282.
148 PART 3 Analyzing Arguments

Passage 2
lAnother action that Americans must take to combat global warming is to transition] to a
clean energr economy in a just and equitable way. Global warming is among the greatest
challenges of our time, but also presents extraordinary opporhrnities to harness home-grotrr
clea:r energy sources and encourage technological innovation. These bold shifu toward a
clean energy future can create hundreds of thousands of new jobs and generate biltons of
dollars in capital inveshnent. But in order to maximize these benefits across all sectors of our
society, comprehensive global wanning legislation must auction emission allowances to pol-
luters and use these public assets for public benefit programs.
Such programs include financial assistance to help low and moderate-income con-
sumers and workers offset higher energy costs as well as programs that assist with adapta-
tion efforts in communities r,'ulnerable to the effects of climate change. Revenue generated
from emissions allowances should also aid the expansion of renewable and efflcient energy
technologies that quickly, cleanly, cheaply, and safely reduce our dependence on fossil fu-
els and curb global warming. Lastly, it is absolutely ütal that comprehensive global warm-
ing legislation not preempt state authority to cut greenhouse gas emissions more aggres-
sively ihan mandated by federal legislation.
-Sierra Club, "Global Warrning Policy Solutions," 2008, http://wr,r.w.sierraclub.orgl
energlr / energypolicy / .

Group task: Working in small groups or as a whole class, try to reach consensus
answers to the following questions:

1. How do the strategies of persuasion differ in these two passages?

2. How can you explain these differences in terms of targeted audience and original
genre?
3. How effective is each argument for its intended audience?
4. Would either a.rgument be effective for readers outside the intended audience?
\\4ry or why not? ffii I I

Questions for Rhetorical Analysis

Conducting a rhetorical analysis asks you to bring to bear on an argument your knowl-
edge of argument and your repertoire of reading strategies. The chart of questions for
analysis on pages 149-150 can help you examine an argument in depth. Nthough a
rhetorical analysis will not include answers to all of these questions. using some of
these questions in your thinking stages can give you a thorough understanding of the
argument while helping you generate insights for your own rhetorical analysis essay.

An lllustration of Rhetorieal Analysis

To illustrate rhetorical analysis in this section and rn the student example at the end of
the chapter, we will use two articles on reproductive technology, a subject that contin-
ues to generate arguments in the public sphere. By reproductiue technolog1we mean sci-
entific advances in the treatment of infertilify such as egg and sperm donation, artificial
insemination, in ütro fertilization, and surrogate motherhood. Our first arlicle, from a
 Rhetorically "149
CHAPTER B Analyzing Arguments

.r¡lesrions for Rhetorical Analysis

Applying These Questions
.oa ilrri-nar ro Focus on Questions to Ask
lest
\A/hat motivated the writer to produce -:'.: Is the unier responding to a bill pending
)\\'Tl "\tt nsírotic
this piece? ur Congress. a sPeech bv a Polihcal
da mrlr,f:,¿nt and
leader, or a local event that
;of rr.l;Ér-s motivating \A4rat socia-l, cultural, polifcai, legal, or
economic conversations does this argri- provoked controversY?
urll¿slon
OLII
ment join?
s Is the vriter addressing cultural
rol-
trends such as the impact of science
or technology on values?
0n-
)ta-
** g Is the writer uying to change readers'
th*:,rorical context: What is the writer's purpose?
led
s \&4ro is the intended audience? views by offering a new interpretation of
m7 'ilr:fiers purpose
tr \A.4rat assumptions, values, and beliefs a phenomenon, calling readers to action,
uc.] auüence
tu- or trying to muster votes or inspire fur-
would readers have to hold to find this
Ín- ther investigations?
argument persuasive?
res-
s How well does the text suit its particular *-* Does the audience share a political or
audience and purPose? religious orientation with the writer?
ro/
R¡etorical context: *É \A/ho is üe writer and what is his or her fr ls üre writer a scholar, researcher,
\\ riterrs identity profession, background, and expertise? scientist, policy maker, politician,
a-nd angle of il{ How does the writer's personal history, professional jourralist, or citizen blogger?
'i¡sion education, gender, ethnicity, age, class, -c1i Is the writer affiliated with
sexual orientation, and political leaning conservative or liberal, religious or
influence the angle of vision? lay publications?
lal
s \Vhat is emphasized and what is omitted # Is the writer advocating a stance or
in this text? adopting a more inquiry-based mode?
l* How much does the writer's angle of ffi \Vhat points of view and pieces of eü-
:el vision dominate the text? dence are "not seen" by this writer?
:i#TI
Rhetorical context: * \\4rat is the argument's original genre? rs How popular or scholarly, informal or
,tn¡e e \\4rat is the original medium of publica- forrnal is this genre?
tion? How does the genre and its place of s Does the genre allow for in-depth or only
publication influence its content, stmcture, sketchy coverage of an issue?
,r'1-
and style? (See Chapter 2, pp. 32-37, for detailed
[or explanations of genre.)
)a
of tr,:gos of the # \A/hat is the argument's ciaim, either {* Is the core of the argument clear and
¿¡gument explicitly stated or implied? soundly developed? Or do
he
t\.
& \\lhat are the main reasons in supporl of readers have to unearth or reconstmct
üe claim? Are the reasons audience-based? the argument?
# How effective is the writer's use of evi- $-t Is the argument one-sided, multisided, or
dence? How is the argumeni supported dialogic?
and developed? s Does the argument depend on assumptions
¡ii How well has the argument recogrized the audience may not share?
of :i1 \,\¡fi¿f evidence does the writer employ?
and responded to alternative vlet's?
in- Does this evidence meet ihe STAR
ci- criteria? (See pp. B9-90.)
iai
(Continued)
ta
 150 PART 3 Analyzing Arguments

\Vhat to Focus On Questions to Ask Applying These Questions

Ethos of th.e ffi writer project?
\ñ¡Lrat eflzos does the ff If you are impressed or won over by this
argument $* How does the writer try to seem writer, what has earned your respect?
credible and h"ustrvorthy to the fti If you are filled with doubts or skepti-
intended audience? cism, what has caused you to question
itr How knowledgeable does the writer this writer?
seem in recognizing opposing or altema- W How imporlant is the character of the
tive views and how failv does üe wúter writer in this argument?
respond to them?

Pathos of the $i How effective is the r,rriter in using audi- ti$ \\4rat examples, connotative language,
argument ence-based reasons? a:rd uses of narrative or analogy stand
ffi How does the writer use concrete lan- out for you in this argument?
guage,word choice, narrative, examples, ffi Does this argument rely heavily on
and analogies to tap readers' emotions, appeals to pathos? Or is it more brainy
values, and imaginations? and logical?

Writels style # How do the writer's language choices sÍ How readable is this argument?
and sentence length and complexity con- ¡.s Is the argument formal, scholarly, jour-
tribute to the impact of the argument? nalistic, infomal, or casual?
ffi How well does the writer's tone (attitude ffi Is the tone serious, mocking, humorous. TI
toward the subject) suit the argument? exhortafional, confessional, urgent, or {vi:l
something else? lr¡:'

Design and visual s How do design elements-layout, font iig Do design feahres contribute to the logr-
elements sizes and styles, and use of color-influ- ¡Tfu:
cai or the emottond/imag¡native appeals
ence the effect of the argument? (See 1,_:
of the argument?
Chapter 9 for a detailed discussion of is How would this argument benefit fronr
these elements.) visua-ls and graphics or some differen.
iffi How do graphics and images contribute to document design? ;.:ri
the persuasiveness of the argument? tür: f"
lT-r|
Overall a \\4-rat features of this argument con- ffi For example, are appeals to pathosle$h-
persuasiveness of tribute most to making it persuasive or mate and suitable? Does the quality and
the argument 'lfti:
not persuasive for its target audience and quantity of the eüdence help build a
:riii ::
for you yourselfl strong case or fall shorl?
ffi How would this argument be received by s W¡hat specifically would count as a
,lt.:
different audiences? strength for the target audience? ll u,i
# \\4rat features contribute to the rhetori- ¡ff Ifyou differ from the target audience,
cal complexity of this argument? how do you differ and where does the
w \\¡hat is particularly memorable, dis- argument derail for you?
turbing, or problematic about this ic \Vhat gaps, confuadictions, or Lu-lanswered
argument? quesüons are you left with?
sÉ \{4'rat does this argument contribute to i€ How does this a.rgument indicate that it ¡
its kairotic moment and the argumenta- engaged in a public conversation? Hor,
tive controversy of which it is a part? does it "talk" to other arguments you have
[1r -
read on this issue?
ll
'r'n
 CHAPTER B Analyzing Arguments Rhetorically 151

decade ago, springs foom the early and increasing popularity of these technologrcal
lons
options. Our second arficle-to be used in our later student example-responds to the
over by this recent globalization of this technology.
r respect? At this point, please read the following article, "Egg Heads" by Kathryn Jean
or skepti- Lopez, and then proceed to the discussion questions that follow. Lopez's article was
I question originally published in the September 1, 1998, issue of the biweekly conservative
news commentary magaztne National Reuiew'
¡acter of the

language,
ogy stand
EEg Hettds
l KIITHRYH ¡E*N¡ IOPTI
il1' on
re brainy Filling the waiting room to capacity and spilling A doctor then surgically removes the eggs from
-.'E¡ into a nearby conference room, a group of the donor's ovary and fertilizes them with the desig-
','¡'¡rle lvom€n listen closely and follow the instruc- nated sperm.
nt?
:..ns: Complete the forms and return them, with Although most programs require potential
larly, jour-
receptionist. Itt all just as in donors to undergo a series of medical tests and
=: clipboard, to theThen they move downstairs' counseling, there is little indication that most of
humorous, ;:-r..- medical office.
here the doctor briefs them. "Everything will be the young women know what they are getdng
rgent, or ' themselves into. They risk bleeding, infection, and
::¡m'much normal," she explains. "\(/omen com-
:-¿in ofskin irritation in the local area ofinjection scarring. \Mhen too many eggs are matured in one
: to the logi- nd bloating. You also might be a little emotional. cycle, it can damage the ovaries and leave the donor
rive appeals 3ur, basically, itt really bad PMS." with weeks of abdominal pain. (At worst, compli-
This is not just another medical ofiice. On a cations may leave her dead.) Longer term, the pos-
benefit Íiom sibiliry of early menopause raises the prospect of fu-
me different
r:üÍry night in Jul¡ these girls in their rwenties are
;rending an orientarion session for potential egg ture regret. There is also some evidence of a
jonors at a NewJersey fertiliry clinic specializingin connection between the fertiliry drugs used in the
\Within the walls of IVF New process and ovarian cancer.
-n-r'itro ferdlization.
tathos leg¡ti-
--=rse-v
and at least two hundred other clinics s But it's good money-and getting better. New
quality and --lroughout the United States, young \Momen an- Yorkt Brooklyn IVF raised its "donor compensa-
rbuild a :-¡-e¡ th€ call to give "the gift of life" to infertile tiori' from $2,500 to $5,000 per cycle earlier this
;auples. Egg donation is a quietly expanding in- year in order to keep pace with St' Barnabas
rtasa Medical Center in nearby Livingston, New Jersey.
Justry changing the way we look at the family,
.ce?
,-oung woment bodies, and human life itself' Itt a bidding war. "Itt obvious why we had to do
rudience,
. does It is not a pleasant way to make money. Unlike it,"says Susan Lobel, Brooklyn IVF's assistant di-
the
-.¡erm donation, which is over in less than an hour, rector. Most New York-area IVF programs have
¡rariswered -qg donation takes the donor some 56 hours and in- followed suit.
:iudes a battery of tests, ultrasound, self-administered Some infertile couples and independent brokers
cate that it is injecdons, and retrieva.l. Once a donor is accepted are offering even more for "reproductive material."
How into a program, she is given hormones to sdmulate The International Fertiliry Center in Indianapolis'
'ation?
nts you have *ie ovaries, changing the number of eggs matured India¡a, for instance, places ads in the Daily
Éom the usual one per month up to as many as fifty. Princetonian offering Princeton girls as much as
152 PART 3 Analyzing Arguments
$¡I,OOO per cycle. The National Fertility Registry
which, like many egg brokerages, features an online
catalogue for couples to browse in, advertises
$35,OOO to $50,000 for hy League eggs. While
donors are normally paid a flat fee per cycle, there
have been reports of higher payments to donors
who produce more eggs.
College girls are the perfect donors. Younger
eggs are likelier to be health¡ and the girls them-
selves frequently need money-college girls have
iong been susceptible to classified ads offering to
pay them for acting as guinea pigs in medical re-
search. One 1998 graduate of the University of
Colorado set up her own website to market her
eggs. She had watched a television show on egg do-
nation and figured it "seemed like a good thing to
do"-especially since she had spent her money dur-
ing the past year to help secure a country-music
record deal. "Egg donation would help me with my
school and music expenses while helping an infer-
tile couple with a family." Classified ads scattered
throughout cyberspace feature similar offers.
The market for "reproductive material" has
been developing for a long time. It was twenty
years ago this summer that the first test-tube
baby, Louise Brown, was born. By 1995, when
the latest tally was taken by the Centers for
Disease Control, 15 percent of mothers in this
country had made use of some form of assisted-
reproduction technology in conceiving their chil-
dren. (More recently, women past menopause
have begun to make use of this technology.) In
1991 the American Society for Reproductive
Medicine was aware of 63 IVF programs offering
egg donation. That number had jumped to 189
by 1995 (the latest year for which numbers are
available).
Defenders argue that itt only right that women
are "compensated" for the inconvenience of egg do-
nation. Brooklyn IVFt Dr. Lobel argues, "If it is
unethical to accept payment for loving your neigh-
bor, then we'll have to stop paying babysitters." As
long as donors know the risks, says Glenn McGee
of the Universiry of Pennsylvaniat Center for
Bioethics, this transaction is only "a slightly
macabre version of adoption."
10 Not everyone is enthusiastic about the
"progress." Egg donation "represents another rather
large step into turning procreation into manufac-
turing," says the University of Chicagot teon Kass.
"It's the dehumanization of procreation." And as in
manufacturing, there is qualiry control. "People
dont want to say the word any more, but there is a
strong eugenics issue inherent in the notion that
you can have the best eggs your money can bu¡"
observes sociology professor Barbara K tz
Rothman of the Ciry University of New York.
The demand side of the market comes mosdy
from career-minded baby-boomers, the frontiers-
women of feminism, who thought they could "have
it all." Indeed rhey can have it all-with a litde help
from some younger eggs. (Ironicall¡ feminists are
also among its strongest critics; The Nation's Katha
Pollitt has pointed out that in egg donation and sur-
rogacy once you remove the "delusion that they are
making babies for other women," all you have left is
"reproductive prosdtution. ")
Unfortunatel¡ the future looks bright for the
egg market. Earlier this year, a woman in Atlanta
gave birth to twins after she was implanted with
frozen donor eggs. The same technology has also
been successful in Italy. This is just what the egg
market needed, since it avoids the necessity of co-
ordinating donors' cycles with recipients' cycles.
Soon, not only will infertile couples be able to
choose from a wider variety of donor offerings,
but in some cases donors won't even be needed.
Young women will be able to freeze their own
eggs and have them thawed and fertilized once
they are ready for the intrusion of children in
their lives.
There are human ovaries sitting in a freezer
in Fai¡fax, Virginia. The Genetics and IVF
Institute offers to cut out and remove young
women's ovaries and cryopreserve the egg-con-
taining tissue for future implantation. Although
the technology was originally designed to give the
hope of fertility to young women undergoing
 CHAPTER B Analyzing Argumenis Rhetorically 153

'a slightly :riatment for cancer, it is now starting to attract and decided that John is the legai father, making
üe healthy. "\fomen can wait to have children him responsible for child support. By contracting
bout the :nril they are well established in their careers and for a medical procedure resulting in the birth of a
:rrring littie bored, sometime in their forties or
a child, the court ruled, a couple incurs "the legal
'rher rather
, manufac- :t-;.rj' explains Professor Rothman' "Basicall¡ status of parenthood." $ohn lost an appeai
Leon Kass. rotherhood is being reduced to a good leisure- in May.) For Jayceet first three years on earth'
" And as in ::me acrivity." these people have been wrangling over who her
rl. "People Early this summet headlines were made in parents afe.
tsiain, where the payment of egg donors is forbid- In another case, Villiam Kane left his girl-
lu there is a
rodon that :.n. when an infertile couple traveled to a friend, Deborah Hect, 15 vials of sperm before he
'can bu¡" i-,¿lifornia clinic where the woman could be insemi- killed himself in a Las Vegas hotel in 1991. His
rara Katz r,¿red with an experimental hybrid egg. The egg was two adult children (represented by their mother'
York. : ¡ombination of the recipient's and a donor's eggs' his ex-wife) contested Miss Hect's claim of own-
nes mostly lae cfnic in question gets its eggs from a Beverly ership. A settlement agreement on Kane's will was
: frontiers- niils brokerage, the Center for Surrogate Parenting eventually reached, giving his children 80 percent
:ould "have ;-rd Egg Don'¿tion, run by Karen Synesiou and Bill of his estate and Miss Hect 20 percent. Hence
:-iandel, a radio shock-iock in Los Angeles' Miss she was allowed three vials of his sperm. \lhen
a little help
!'.:resiou recently told the London Sunday Times she did not succeed in conceiving on the first two
:minists are
ion's Katha -:¿t she is "interested in redefining the family' tries, she filed a Petition for the other 12 vials'
lAart why I came to work here." She won, and the judge who ruled in her favor
on and sur-
rat they are ; The redefinition is already well under way' wrote, "Neither this court nor the decedent's
Btzzanca. After John adult children possess reason or right to prevent
Lhave left is -,¡nsider the case of Jaycee
r.1 Luanne Bttzzanca had tried for years to have a Hect from implementing decedent's pre-eminent
ght for the -:ild, an embryo was created for them, using interest in realizing his 'fundamental right' to
in Atlanta :¡erm and an egg from anonymous donors, and procreate with the woman of his choice." One
anted with ,:rplanted in a surrogate moüer. In March 1995, i"¡ do.tott may not even have to have lived'
,,,e *o.tth before the baby was born, John filed for Researchers are experimenting with using aborted
'gy has also tl','orce. Luanne wanted child support from John, female fetuses as a source of donor eggs.
hat the egg
:ssity of co- :i;¡ he refused-after all, het not the father' And the market continues to zip along' For
ü¿nne argued that John is Jaycee's father legally' looking for donor eggs, Rill
overseas couples
:nts' cycles.
be able to -1,r this poittt the surrogate mother, who
had agre-e{ Handel hat the scenario worked out. The couple
r offerings, ::, carv a baby for a stable two-parent household, would mail him frozen sperm of their choice

:;cided to sue for custody. (presumably from the recipient husband); his clinic
be needed.
"Nobody's Child" by the would use it to fertilize donor eggs, chosen from its
rheir own Jaycee was dubbed
jlized once :redia when a California judge ruled that John catalogue of offerings, and reply back within a
children in ;q á,{ r}ot the legal father nor Luanne the legal month with a frozen embryo ready for implanta-
:rorher (neither one was genetically related to tion. (Although the sperm does not yet arrive by
n a freezer l:'',-cee, and Luanne had not even borne her)' mail, Handel has sent out embryos to at least one
l:rte¡ Erin Davidson, the egg donor, who claims hundred international customers.) As for the young
and IVF
without her permission. Not to women at the New Jersey clinic, they are visibly
rove young =c egg was used upset by one aspect of the egg-donation process:
re egg-con- ¡e left out, th.e sperm donor jumped into the
r. Although :-ng, saying that his sperm was used without his tú.y cant have sexual intercourse for several weeks
,-Ái.tiott, a claim he later dropped' In March of after the retrieval. For making babies, of course' it's
I to give the
aJready obsolete.
undergoing -ris yea¡ an appeals court gave Luanne custody
154 PART 3 AnalyzingArguments

r I ffi FoR ctAss DrscussroN rdentifying Rhetoricar Features

Working in groups, develop responses to the following questions:
1' How does Lopez appeal to logos? What is her main claim and what
are her rea-
sons? W4rat does she use for eüdence? What ideas would you
have to include in
a short summary?
2' What appeals to pathos does Lopez make in this argument? How well are
these
suited to the conservative readers of the Nationat Reliew?
3' How would you- characteize Lopez's ethog Does she seem knowledgeable
and
credible? Does she seem fair to stakeholders in this controversy?
4. Choose an additional focus from the "Questions for Rhetárical Analysis"
on
pages 149-150 to apply to "Egg Heads." How does this question
yorr.
understanding of Lopez,s argument? ""purrd
5' \44rat strikes you as problematic, memorable, or disturbing in this argument?
ffi f I
A Rhetorical Analysis of *Egg Heads,,
Now that you have identified some of the rhetorical features of ,,Egg
Heads,', we offer
our own notes for a rhetorical analysis of this argument.

Rhetorical Context As we began our analysis, we reconstructed the rhetorical

context in which "Egg Heads" was published. Inihe late 1990s,
a furious debate about
egg donaüon rippled through college and public newspapers, popular journalism,
web
sites, and scholarly commentary. This debate had beán kickü
ni several couples
placing ads in the newsp^apel: of the counhy's most prestigious "n
coneges offering up to
$50'000 for the eggs of brilliant, atLractive, athletic coilele
-orn".rlCoincldinlg with
these consumer demands, advances in reproductive techniogy
proüded an incréasing
lumber of complex techniques to surmount the probleni" of inf"rtl[ty, includin[
fertilizing eggs in petri dishes and implanting them into women
through s.,r$.i
procedures. These procedures could use either a couple's
o\ m eggs *J ,p".ri o.
donated
!99! and spenn. Ali these social and medical factors üated the kairotb
moment for Lopez's article and motivated her to protest the increasing
use of these
procedures. (Egg donation, surrogate motherhood, and the potential
deñumanizingoi
commercial reproduction continue to be troubling and unresolved
controversies across
many genres, as you will see when you read Ellen Goodman's op-ed
piece at the end
of this chapter and student zachary Stumps's rhetorical analysis ár
it.)

Genre and Writer When we considered the genre and writer of this
article and its
site of publication, we noted that this article appeared in the National
Reuiew, wlich
describes itself as "America's most widely read and influential magazine
and Web site
for Republican/conservative news, commentary, and oprrion.,, It ieaches .,an
affluent,
educated, and highly responsive audience oi .o.poüt", financial
elite, educators,
joumalists' community and association leaders, as rvell
as engaged actiüsts all across
America" http:/ /w'ww.nationalreüew.com). According to our jniernet
search, Kathryn
JeNrLopez is knonm nationally for her conselative journalistic writing on social and
 CHAPTER B Analyzing Arguments Rhetorically 155

pubhshed
political issues. currently the editor of National Reuiew online, she has also
in the WalI Street Journal, the New York Post, afid the Washinglon Times.,T\tís
information told us that in her arlicle "Egg Heads," Lopez is definitely on
home
territory, aiming her article at a conservative audience'

Logas Turning to the logos Lopez's argument, we decided that the logical
of
is that egg
strücture of Lopez's argumént is clear throughout the article. Her^claim
donation and its ur.oiiut.d reproductive advances have harmful, long-reaching
consequences for society. Basically, she argues that egg donation and
reproductive
technoiogy represent bad scientific developments_ for society because they are
health-of egg donors and because they lead to
potentialiy harmru to the long-range
sexuality. She states a version of this last point
an unnatural dehumanizlng of human
"Egg donation is a quickly expanding industry,
at the end of the second p-aragraph:
'-,4
4f changing the way we loák ui tn" fu*iy, yo.,tg women's bodies, and human
life
itsetf" (page 151).
rnl uiay of her arbicle elaborates on each of these reasons. In developing her rea-
son that egg donation endangers egg donors, Lopez lists the risks but doesn't
supply
supportin{áüdence about the frequency of these problems: to the ovaries,
lamage
p"rrirt""t"pui", early menopause, possible ovarian cancer, and even death. She sup-
have
ports her Étaim u¡oút "the éxpanding industry" by showing how,the procedures
of procedures as well as their
t""o*" commercialized. To strow ttre popularity these
commercial value, she quotes a variety of expefts such as directors of in vitro clinics'
fertility centers, bioethicists, and the American Society for Reproductive Medicine she
also cleverly bolsters her own case by showing that even liberal cultural critics
agree
with her views about the big ethical questions raised by the reproductive-technology
numbers and
business. In addition to quoñng experts, Lopez has sprinkled impressive
üüd examples throughout the body of her argument, which give her argument mo-
harm to young egg donors to a number of
mentum as it progresses foom the pótential
case studies tliat depict increasingly disturbing ethical problems.

Pathos Much of the impact of this argument, we noted, comes from Lopez's appeals
to pathos. By describing L a"tuit the waiting rooms for egg donors at fertility
clinics,
to move her audience to see the physical and
Lopez relies heavily oripathetic appeals
,oÉid dung"r, of egg donatio". Sfr" conveys the growing commercialism of
reproductivi technology by gving readers an inside look at the egg donation process
u, th"r" young colleg"e *áñ"n ámbark on the multi-step process of donating their
eggs. These yorlng women, she suggests in her title,
"Egg Heads," are largely unawale
o?ifr. pot.rrtial ihysical dangers-to themselves and of the ethical implications and
of^thLir acts. Sñe asserts that they are driven largely by the desire-for
"onr"q.,"n."s of emotionally loaded and often
-or"y. Lopez also appeals to pathos in her choiceopposing reproductive technology:
cynicá lan'guage thai^creates an angle of vision
"iutning pró.rátion into manufacturing"; "reproductive prostitution"; "the intrusion of
to a leisure-time activity"; "aborted
childrei ln their lives"; "motherhood.'.reduced
female fetuses as a source of donor eggs"; and intercourse as an "obsolete" way to
make babies (pages 152, 153)'
156 PART 3 Analyzing Arguments

Audience Despite Lopez's success at spotlighting serious medical and ethical

quesüons, her lack of attention to alternative views and the alarrnism of her language
caused us to wonder: \4/ho might find this argument persuasive and who would
challenge it? \&/hat is noticeably missing from her argument-and apparently from her
worldview-is the perspective of infertile couples hoping for a baby' Pursuing our
question, we decided thut u plovocative feature of this argument-one worthy of
d""p"t analysis-is the disparity between how well this argument is suited to its target
audience and yet how unpersuasive it is for readers who do not share the assumptions,
values, and beliefs of this primary audience.
To Lopez's credit, she has athrned her reasons to the values and concerns of her
conservative readers ol the National Reuiew who believe in traditionai families, gender
differences, and gender roles. Opposed to feminism as they understand it, this audi-
ence sanctions careers for women only if women put their families first. Lopez's choice
of evidence and her orchestrating of it are intended to play to her audience's fears that
science has ¡ncontrollably fallen into the hands of those who have little regard for the
sanctity of the family or traditional motherhood. For example, in playing strongly to
the vJues of her conservative readers, Lopez belabors the physical, social, and ethical
dangers of egg donation, mentioning worst-case scenarios; however, these appeals to
patios will móst Lkely strike other readers who do some investigation into reproduc-
tive technology as overblor¡n. She emphasizes the commercialism of the process as her
argument moves from college girls as egg donors to a number of sensationalist case
rtudi"r that depict intensifying ethical ambigutty. In other words, both the logos and
pathos of her argument skillfully focus on details that tap her target audience's values
and beliefs and feed that audience's fears and rer'rrlsion.

Use of Evidence For a broader or skeptical audience, the alarmism of Lopez's

appeals lo pathos, her use of atypical evidence, and her distortion of the facts
*éuk"n ttre logos and ethos of her argument. First, Lopez's use of evidence fails to
measure up to the STAR criteria (that evidence should be sufficient, typical,
accurate, artd relevant). She characterizes all egg donors as young women seeking
money. But she provides little evidence that egg donors are only out to make a buck.
She aiso paints these young women as shortsighted, uninformed, and foolish' Lopez
weakens her ethos by not considering the young women who have researched the
process and who may be motivated, at least in part, by compassion for couples who
ian't conceive on their own. Lopez also misrepresents the people who are using egg
donation, placing them all into two groups: (1) wealihy couples eugenically seeking
designer babies with preordered special traits and (2) feminist career women' She
direóts much of her criticism toward this latter group: "The demand side of the
market comes mostly from career-minded baby-boomers, the frontierswomen of
feminism, who thought they could 'have it all"' (page 152). However, readers who
do a little research on their own, as we did, wll learn that infertility affects one in
seven couples; that it is often a male and female problem, sometimes caused by an
incompatibility between the husband's and wife's reproductive material; and that
most couples who take the big step of investing in these expensive efforts to have a
baby have been trying to get pregnant for a number of years. Rather than being
 CHAPTER B Anafyz¡ng Arguments Rhetorically 157

ical
casual about having children, they are often deeply desirous of children and
€e depressed about their inabilify to conceive. In addition,
uld
and quick fix that Lopez suggests, reproductive technoiogy
f*
foom being the sure thing
ter has a sucüss rate of only
)ur 50 percent overalr and involves u h.rg" investment of iime, money,
u.rJ pnys"ur
of discomfort for women receiving donor eggs.
Another way that Lopez iolates the ST,qn criteria is her
3et choice of extreme cases.
For readers ouhide}er target audience, her argument
ns, appears riddled with skaw man
and slippery-slope fallacies. (See Appendix t,:T.rfo.mal'Failacies,',
pages +gt_+os.)
Her examples become more bizarr:i as her tone becomes
rer more hysterical. Here are
some specific instance of extreme, atypical cases:
ler
di-
w her focus on career women casually and selfishly using the service of young egg
Lat
donors
ss the notorious case_ of
ne Jaycee Buzzanca, dubbed ,,Nobody,s chfld,, because her
to adoptive parents who commissioned her creation divorced
before she was born
m the legal contest between a dead man's teen
:al girlfriend and his ex-wife and adult
to children over his üa_ls of spern
c-
w the idea of taking eggs from aborted female fetuses

By keeping invisible the vast of ordinary couples who come to fertility clinics
ie _majority
of last-hope desperation, Lopez uses extreme cus"i to create "brave
Ld 9ut a new world,,
intended to evoke a vehement rqection of these reproductive
-'5 advances. rnes" st epti"a
readers would offer the altemative üew of the saá,
orainary couples of all ages sitting
week aÍter week in fertilrty clinics, hoping to conceive
u .nia thrfugh ttre ,1flraclei of
these reproductive advances and gtut"flrl to the young
S
their eggs. -á-"n who have contributed
5
o
I. concluding Points In short, we conclude{ that Lopez's
angle of vision, although
ó effectively in sync with her conservative readers of the
Natiolat Reüiew,
i. and distorts her case against these reproducüve advances. "rug*.rur",
Lopez's traditionjiralues
z and slanting of the eüdence undermin e her ethos,Iimit
the value of url, *guÁ"ni fo.
e a wider audience, and compel that audience to seek
out alternative views for a more
l complete üew of egg donation.
J
)
t
l Conclusion
¡I To analyze a text ¡hetorically means to determine how
it works: what effect it has on
readers and how it achieves or fails to achieve ih persuasiveness.
) Assignments involv-
ing rhetorical analysis are present in cou¡ses across
I the curriculum, *í*ayrirrg.t"r*"
rhetorically is a major step in constructing your own
I *go-"rrt . In this chapter, we
showed you howto apply your understandlng of *g.,-";i"án."pt
, such as the influ-
ence of genre and appeals to logos, ethos, uti patho"s,
to examining the strength oirr".-
bal texts' We conclude with a student's rhetorical *atyris
in this chapter.
,*itt"i for. tne isl*nment
 158 PART 3 AnalYzing Arguments

WRITING ASSIGNMENT A Rhetorical Analysis

jlil.l';'1'1-ll;i:ij;:: Wnte a thesis-driven rhetorical analysis essay in which you examine the rhetorical
tr i:ll. 'lllll,i;,' ,,,;: eff"ctiu"n"rs of an argument specifiedby yoü
inskuctor. Unless otherwise stated direct
1l,l:.::ll;i,illiltl vo* unayrir to an áudience of your classmates. In your introductio.n,^establish the
1,:,"1; i;'.tr',,;'i:l;'il
i 'rr*-"rtutirre
conversation to which this argument is contributing. Briefly summarize
and present your thesis nighlighting two or more rhetorical features of
*go**t
',',",:;j,ll::i ll;':l;,:;' UoE
r.' ,,";"i¡ll1r';;,1,1 Ur" ar[ument that you find central to the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of this argu-
,1.ír":'ilt,llii';' develop and support your own points, you will need to include textual
-"rr."f"
llt;,lll;:' or short q-uotations from the argument. Use attribu-
'."1),r,1,r,,'',"' ""i¿"""", in the form of examples
i','llr
from thoie of the writer of the article. Use MLA
tiu" tug, to distinguish your ideas
,lit:l,it'' to-cite
áo.rr-""ntution póint" quotations
-a in your essay and in a Works Cited list at
',t,rl' the end. Think of youi rhetorical analysis as a way to shine a sgothgl-rt. on important
aspects of this argument and make thé argument understandable
and interesting for
your readers. A siudent paper written for this assignment is shovn_at the end of this
cbapter-Zachary Stumpis analysis of Ellen Goodman's "Womb for Rent."

Generating ldeas for Your Rhetorical Analysis

To develop ideas for yoü essay, you might follow these suggested steps:

Stepl How to Do It

Familiarize yourself with the article you are Read your article several times.
analyzing. Divide it into sections to understand its structure'

Place the article in its rhetorical context. Follow the strategies in Chapter 2 and use the
"Questions for Fhetorical Analysis" on pages 149-150'

Summarize the article. Follow the steps in Chapter 2 on pages 4l-42.You

Reread the article identifuing "hot spots."
Use the "Questions for Rhetorical Analysis" on
page 149.
may warit to produce a longer sunmaq/ of 150-200
words as well as a shoft one-sentence summary.
Note hot spots in the article-points that impress you,
disturb you, confuse you, or puzzle you.
Choose several of these questions and freewrite
responses to them.

From your notes and freewriting, identifu the
focus for your alalysis.
Choose several features of the article that you find
particularly important and that you want to discuss in
depth in your essay. Identiff points that will bring
something new to your readers and that will help
them see this article with new understanding. You
may want to list your ideas and then look for ways to
group them together around main points.

Write a thesis statement for your essay. Articulate your imporlant points in one or two
sentences. setting up these points clearly for your
audience.

In finding a meaningful focus for your rhetorical analysis essay, you will need to
"This
create a focu'sing thesis-statement thát avoids uishr.-rvashy fonnulas such as,
 CHAPTER 8 Analyzing Arguments Rhetorically "t59

a-rgument has some strengths and some weaknesses." To avoid a vapid thesis state-
ment, focus on the complexity of the argument, the writer's strategies for persuading
the target audience, and the features that might impede its persuasiveness for skep-
tics. These thesis statements articulate how their writers see the inner workings of
these arguments as well as the arguments' contribution to their public conversations.

Lopez's angle of vision, although effectively in sync with her conser¡¡ative readers of the
National Review, exaggerates and distorls her case against these reproductive advances,
weakening her ethos and the value of her argument for a wider audience. lThis is the the-
sis we would use if we were writing a stand-alone essay on Lopez.l

In his editorial, "\4hy Blame Mexico?" published tn The American Conseruatiue, Fred Reed's
irony and hard-hitfing evidence undercut his desire to contrast the United States'h¡,pocriticai
and flawed immigration policies with Mexico's successful ones.

In his editorial, "Amnesty?" in the Jesuit news commentary Ameríca, John F. Kavanaugh
makes a powerful argument for his Catholic and religious readers; however, his proposal
based on ethical reasoning may fail to reach other readers.

To make your rhetorical analysis of your article persuasive, you will need to develop
each of the points stated or implied in your thesis statement using textual evidence,
including short quotations. Your essay should show how you have listened carefully
to the argument you are analyzing, summarized it fairly, and probed it deeply.

Organizing Your Rhetorical Analysis

A stand-alone rhetorical analysis can be organized as shown below I
Organization Plan for a Rhetorical Analysis of an Argument

. lntroduce the issue and set the context for the

argument you are analyzing.

lntroduction . Explain your interest in the argument if

appropriate-
. State your thesis.

.,.i!,,,
'1,1+,

. Provide a brief summary of the argument to help

Summaryof Argument
readers undersiand your analysis.
i
rir
.";l¡i,

. Develop your thesis by presenting and evaluating

the rhetorical strategies used by the writer to appeal
Rhetorical Analysis
to his or her target audience in light of the author's
rhetorical context and purpose.
t!

-i.
Wrap up your analysis and comment on the
Conclusion
sign¡f¡cance of ihe argument. ¡f appropriate.
 160 PART 3 Analyzing Arguments

Readings
Our first reading is by journalist Ellen Goodman, whose columns are syndicated in
u.s. newspapgT ¡v the washington post writers Group. This corumn, which ap-
peared in 2008, is analyzed rhetorically by student Zaciary Stumps in our second
reading.

Womb for Fent-For s Frice

ETLENGOCDMAN

BOSTON-By now we all
have a story about a job out-
sou¡ced beyond our reach in the
global economy. My own favorite
is about rhe California publisher
who hired rwo reporrers in India
to cover the Pasadena city
govefnment. Really.
There are times as well when the
offshoring oF jobs rakes on a quire
literal meaning. tVhen the labor we
are talking about is, well, labor.
In the last few months weve
had a ftril nursery of internarional
stories about surrogate mothers.
Hundreds of couples are crossing
borders in search of lower-cost
ways to fill the family business. In
rurn, theret a new coterie of inter-
national workers who are gesrating
for a living.
Many of the stories about the
globalization of baby production
begin in India, where the govern-
'
ment seems to regard this as, Iiter-
all¡ a growth industry. In the little
town of Anand, dubbed "The
Cradle of the \7orld," 45 women
were recendy on the books ofa 1o-
cal clinic. For the production and
delivery of a child, they will earn
$l,OOO ro $Z,OOO, a decadet
worth of womenk wages in rural
India.
s But even in America, some
women, including Army wives,
are supplemenring their income
by contracting out their wombs.
They have become surrogare
mothers for weafthy couples from
European counrries that ban the
pract ice.
This globalization of baby-mak,
ing comes at Lhe peculiar inrersec-
tion of a high reproductive tech-
nology and a low-tech work force.
The biotech business was created
in rhe same petri dish as Baby
Louise, the first I\T baby. But
since then, we've seen conception
outsourced to egg donors and
sperm donors. \fleve had mother-
hood divided into its parts from
genetic morher ro gestational
mother to binh mothe¡ and now
contract mothe¡.
\feve also seen rhe growth of
an international economy. F¡ozen
sperm is flown from one conrinenr
to another. And patients har.e be-
come medical tourists, searching
for cheaper health care whether it's
a new hip in Thailand or an IVF
treatmenr in South Africa that
comes with a photo safari thrown
in fo¡ the same price. \ü4ry not
then rent a foreign wombi
I don't make light of infertil-
ity. The primal desire to have a
child underlies this multina-
tional Creation, Inc. On one
side, couples who choose surro-
gacy want a baby with at leasr
half their own genes. On the
other side, surrogate mothers,
who are rarely implanted with
their own eggs, can believe that
the child they bear and deliver is
not really theirs.
As one woman put it, "\7e
give them a baby and they give
us much-needed money. Irk
good for them and for us." A
surrogare in Anand used the
money to buy a hearr operarion
for her son. Another raised a
dowry for her daughter. And be-
fore we talk about the "exploita-
tion" of the pregnant woman,
consider her alte¡native in
 CHAPTER B Analyzing Arguments Rhetorically 161

Anand: a job crushing glass in
factory for $25 a month.
Nevertheless, there is-and
there should be-something un-
comfortable about a free market
a ily that simply contracted for a
child have to its birth mother?
What control do-should-con-
tractors have over their "employ-
ees" lives while incubating "their"
not sell our children. But the su¡-
rogacy business comes PerilouslY
close to both of ¡hese deals' A¡rd
international surrogacy tips the
scales.

approach to baby-making. It's children? \¡(/hat will we tell the So, these borders we a¡e

easier to accept surrogacy when offspring of this international crossing are not just geograPhic
it's a gift from one woman to an- t¡ade? ones. They are ethical ones.

other. But we rarelY see a rich
woman become a surrogate for a
poor family. Indeed, in Third
tüorld countries, some women
sign these contracts with a finger-
"National boundaries are com- Today the global economy sends
ing down," says bioethicist Lori everyone in search of the
And¡ews, "but we cant stoP hu- cheaper deal as if that were the
man emodons. We are expanding single common good. But in the
families and dont even have terms biological search, humanitY is

print because they are illiterate' to deal with it." sacrificed to the economY and
:hing For that matter, we have not It's the commercialism that is the person becomes the Product.
er it's troubling. Some things we cannot And, step by step, we come to a
yet had stories about the contract
rIVF workers for whom PregnancY was sell no matter how good "the stunning place in our ancient
that
a dangerous occupation, but we deal." ¡Ve cannot, for examPle, creation story. It's called the
-rown
wiil. \)flhat obligation does a fam- sell ourselves into slavery. \le can- marketplace.
,- not

:ertil-
ave a Critiquing "Womb for Rent*For a Frice"
Itina- 1. \44rat is Goodman's main claim and what are her reasons? In other words, what
one ideas would you have to include in a short summary?
;uIro- 2. What appeals to pathos does Goodman make in this argument? How do these
least
appeals function in the argument?
r the 3. ihoose an additional focus from the "Questions for Rhetorical Analysis" to apply
rhers, to "Womb to Rent-For a Price." How does this question affect your perspective of
rvith Goodman's argument?
r that 4. \A4rat strikes yo., ur problematic, memorable, or disturbing in this argrment?
rver is

"\te Our second reading shows how student wnter Zachary Stumps analyzed the Ellen
; give Goodman article.
. It's
s." A
I the
ration
sed a
rd be-
rloita-
)man,
ein
 , Pfrf
*¡ In
'*' L t-!

162 PART 3 AnalYzing Arguments

& Rhetaricul S.nclysls oü Hllen Goodmün's

"'EIornb {*r Rent*F*r ü Frice"'
r*{fi AnY sTuililF5 {STt¡ütf{T}

..Womb for Rent-For a Price,,'published in the

lntroduction With her op-ed piece
provides context and seattle Times-onApril 11, 2008 (and earlier inthe Boston Globe), syndi'
poses issue to be cated columnist Ellen Goodman enters the murky debate about reproduc-
addressed
tive technology gone global. Since Americans are outsourcing everything
else, "Why not then rent a foreign womb?" (161) she asks' Goodman, a
Provides background pulitzer Prize-winning columnist for the washington Post writers Group,
on Goodman is known for helping readers understand the "tumult of social change and
its impact on families," and for shattering "the mold of men writing exclu-
sively about politics" ("Ellen Goodman"). This op-ed piece continues her
tradiiion of examining social change from the perspective of family issues.
Summarizes the Goodman launches her short piece by asserting that one of the most re-
op-ed piece cent and consequential'Jobs" to be outsourced is having babies. She ex-
plains how the "globalization of baby production" is thriving because it
trings together the reproductive desires ofpeople in developed countries
and the bodily resoufces of women in developing countries like India.
Briefly tracing how both reproductive technology and medical tourism
have taken advantage of global possibilities, Goodman acknowledges that
the thousands of dollars Indian women earn by carrying the babies of for-
eign couples represent a much larger income than these women could earn
in any other available jobs. After appearing to legitimize this global ex-
change, however, Goodman shifts to her ethical concerns by raising some
mora'í questions that she says are not being addressed in this trade. She
concludes with a full statement of her claim that this global surrogacy is
encroaching on human respect and digniry exploiting business-based sci-
ence, and turning babies into products'
In this piece, Goodman's delay of her thesis has several rhetorical bene-
Thesis paragraPh fits: it gives Goodman space to present the perspective of poor women' en-
hanceJby her appeals to pathos, and it invites readers to join herjourney
into the complex contexts of this issue; however, this strategy is also risky
because it limits the development of her own argument'
Develops first point Instead of presenting her thesis up front, Goodman devotes much of the
in thesis: use of first part of her argument to looking at this issue from the perspective of
pathos in exPloring foreign surrogate mothers. using the strategies of pathos to evoke sympa-
perspective of Poor
women
thy for these women, she creates a compassionate and progressively
minded argument that highlights the benefits to foreign surrogate mothers.
She cites iactual evidence showing that the average job for a woman in
Anand India, yields a tiny "$25 a month" gotten through the hard work of
"crushing glass in a factory," compared to the "$5,000 to $7,000" made
 CHAPTER 8 Analyzing Arguments Rhetorically 163

carrying a baby to term (160). To carry a baby to term for a foreign coupie
,"pr"r"ttt "a decade's worth of women's wages in rural India" (160)'
Deepening readers' understanding of these women, Goodman cites one
woman who used her earnings to finance her son's heart operation and
an-

other who paid for her daughter's dowry. In her fair presentation of these

women, Góodman both builds her own positive ethos and adds a dialogic
dimension to her argument by helping readers walk in the shoes of other-
wise impoverished surrogate mothers.
The second rhetodcal benefit of Goodman's delayed thesis is that she
5
Develops second
noint in thesis: the invites readers to explore this complex issue of global surrogacy with
lomptex contexts of her before she declares her own view. To help readers understand and
this issue-
think through this issue, she relates it to two other familiar global topics:
cutsourcing and
medical iourism outsourcing and medical tourism. First, she introduces foreign surrogacy
as one of the latest forms of outsourcing: "This globalizatíon of
baby-
making comes at the peculiar intersection of a high reproductive tech-
notogy and a low-tech work force" (160)' Presenting these women as

rvo.["rr, she explains that women in India are getting paid for "the pro-
duction and delivery of a child" ( 1 60) that is analogous to the production
and delivery of sneakers or bicycle parts. Goodman also sets this
phe-
nomenon in the context of global medical tourism. If people can pursue
lower-cost treatment for illnesses and health conditions in other coun-
tries, why shouldn,t an infertile couple seeking to start a family not also
have such access to these more affordable and newly available means?
This reasoning provides a foundation for readers to begin understanding
the many layers of the issue.
Shows how the ttre iesuit of Goodman's delayed-thesis strategy is that the first two-
delayed'thesis thirds of this piece seem to justify outsourcing surrogate motherhood.
structure creates two Only after reading the whole op-ed piece can readers. see clearly that
perspectives in her
Goodman has been dropping hints about her view all along through
conflict how outsourcing surrogacy
choice of words. Although she clearly sees
can help poof women economically, her use of market language such
as

"producti,on," "delivery," and "labor" catty a double meaning' On first

reading of this op-ed piece, readers don't know if Goodman's punning
is
meant to be catchy and entertaining or serves another purpose' This
other purpose becomes clear in the last third of the article when
Goodman forthdghtly asserts her criticism of the commercialism of
the
for a "cheaper
global marketplace that promotes worldwide searching
..humanity is sacrificed to the economy and the person becomes
áeal',:
the product" (161). This is a bold and big claim, but does the final third
Restates the third ofher article supPort it?
poini in his thesis: In the final five paragraphs of this op-ed piece, Goodman begins to de-
lack of space limits velop the rational básis of her argument; however, the brevity of the op-ed
development of
Coodman's genie and her choice not to state her view openly initially have left
óoodman with little space to deveiop her own claim. The result is that
she
argument
 164 PART 3 Analyzing Arguments

presents some profound ideas very quickry.

Some of the ethicarly comprex
ideas she introduces but doesn,t explore Ách
are these:
. The idea that there are ethical limits on what
can be ..sold,,
. The idea that surrogate motherhood might be .,dangerous
. work,,
The idea that children born from this ,tnternational
trade,,may be con_
fused about their identities.
Discusses examples Goodman simply has not reft herself enough space
of ideas raised by to develop these issues
and perhaps leaves readers with questions rather than with changed views. t am
Coodman but not
developed particularly struck by several questions. Why have
European cJuntries banned
surrogacy in devel0ping countries and why has
the unite¿ States not banned
this practice? Does Goodman intend to argue that
the united States should fol_
low Europe's read? she could explore morl how
this business orrinoinglniter_
ate women to bear children for the wealthy continues
to exploit thiri world
citizens much as sex tourism exploits women
in the very salne corur-tries. It
seems to perpetuate a tendllcy for the developed
world to regard developing
countries as a poor place of lawlessness where practices
outlawed in the rest of
th9 world (e.g. child prostitution, slave-like
-orhng conditions) u.. ,o-"t o-
tolerable' Goodman could have developed her
arg,ment more to state explicitly
that a womanwho accepts paymentfoi beanng
ibuby b""o^es an indenfured
servant to the family. yet another way to think
órthi, irru" is to see that the old
saying of "a bun in the oven" is more literar than
metaphoric when a woman
uses her womb as a factory to produce
childreq a body business not too dis-
similar to the commerciarism of prostitution. Goodmarronly
mentioning these complexproblems withoutproducing
:- ¡y
teases ,"uio,
an u.grr_"n .
still, although Goodman does not punJ her criticism
of outsourced sur_
rogate motherhood or expl0re the issues " of human dignity and
Conclusion rights, this ar-
gument does introduce the debate on surrogacy
in
ine itouat ñurt"rprr.",
raise aw.areness, and begin to direct the
towaid u proo.r.-t-iá"na
"onuJrrutioo
of seeking a responsible, healthy, and ethical future. Her op-ed piece lures
readers into contemplating deep, perplexing
ethical and pro'i._,
and lays a foundation for readers tá create ai
informed view".ooo*i"
ofthis issue.

Works Cited
Uses MLA format to "Ellen Goodman." postwritersgroup.com. washington post
Iist sources cited in writer,s Group,200g. web.
May 19,2008.
the essay Goodman, Ellen' "womb for Rent-For a p¡ice."
Seattre Tímes 1l April 200g: 86. Rpt.
in Writing Arguments. John D. Ramage" John C. Bean,
and June Johnson. gth ed.
New York: pearson Longman, 20 1 0. print.

PrARs(rN r 3:
i :r i ;,, üÜfYT u. - ilWl
ffii For additional writing reading and research resources, go to
F, www.mycomplab,com
 &mmffiWffi&ffireffi W€sase€

&wgwwreww&ru

Toseehor,vimagescanmakepowerfularguments'considertherhetoricalper-
suasiveness of the 'polar beari marching in a
small town parade (Figure 9'1)'
aqainst global,warrning'
Sfor1ror"a by local environmcntalists advocating action
from /ogos (drawing on audience knowledge that
the polar bear uses arguments
Ut: b9q:'r'ulnerabilrty)'
climate change threatens pol ar bearc)l pathos.(evokittg
of the citizens group) Delighting children
and. ethos(coiveying the ámmrtrnent
a memorable environmental argument'
and adults alike,-the bear created
your abiliqr to analyze üsual argumenls
This chapter is aimed at increa^sing
your own work' We begin with some basic compo-
and use them rhetorically in
Wc then examine geffes of lr¡ual argument
nents of document and rrlr.t.ia"ttgn'
explain how you can use I'rsufs in your own
rangng from posters to Web pages,
graphically.
*g"-3"o, and conclude ¡V tú"mL how to Ásplay numeric data

.f-
if-

rd
iS
iS

'1.

t_.

l.

Figure 9.1 A visual algument about climate change

165
166 PART3 AnalyzingArguments

Understanding Design Elements in visual

Argument
To understand how üsual images
can produce an argument, you need
the design elements that work" together to understand
to create a*üsual text. In this section
explain and ilustrate the four basíc we,ll
components of visuar design:
space and layout, use of color, use of type, use of
and ,rr" of i_ug", g"pilr.
""a
{Jse of Type
Type is an important visual element
of written argrments. variations
i, typ", such as
size, boldface, ita-rics, or ail caps,
can direct a riaderb-att"rrtio., to
structure and highrrght main points. an argument,s
in urg.u-r"t, a"rrü", specifically for üsual
impact, such as posters or advocacy
adveftisémeno, ,yp"l?^"ten used
and meaningfuly,itr; In choosin! in eye_catching
style, the size of-the type, *a ñ", yo., need to consider the typeface
or font
roi-áiung
options. rrr"
classified as serif, and specialry"typ" s"librp" rrl,
-J"
typefaces or fonts are
Ietters' (This text is"unr-rl.if, ,rnr" extensions on the
set in serif type.) sans serif type
type includer r"tr,l d&s these extensions. specialty
*g
w.iur symbors. rn á¿¿itro' to iont style,
type comes in
different sizes. Ir is _lo"u
measured ü points,,with 1 point
i, ;of
an inch. Most text_
based arguments consisting "jia
-uinty oi'ooay *"r".L-ri^n",iTn r0_ to 12-point rype,
whereas more image-bas"á utguments
may use a müture of type sizes that
with the images for persuasive"effect. rype interact
can u" i"rroted using bold, italics,
fffJf#f,#il]Ít"t ror emphasis. ratie g r "rr" J"'"ñ;ñ' ortype-styres:'";;;i
The following basic principles for
choosing type for visual arguments
achieve your overall goais of readability, can help you
ui.,ri upp"uf, *á ,oilnif4r.

Tbble 9.1 Examples and Uses of T¡pe Fonts

Font Stvle Font Name Example

Serif fonts Times New Roman Use type wisely. Easy to read: good for long
Courier New Use type wisely. documents. good for bod¡1
Bookman Old Style Use type wisely. Iype. or lhe main verbal parls
of a document
Sans serif fonts Arial Use type wisely. Tiring to reacl lor
Ceniury Gothic Use type wisety. long sretches: good for displa.t¡
tgpe such as headings,
titles, slogans
Specialty fonts Zapf Cfinrcery Ase rype zuke[y. Difficult to read for long
0¡n llT
hp rilrlr.
I'sr
stretches; effective when usecl
sparingly for playful or
decorative effect
 CHAPTER 9 Analyzing Visual Arguments 167

Visual Arguments
Principles for Choosing Type for
adverdsement' you wrll need to
decjde
1. lf you are creating a poster o'..?guo:lt{
d
howmuchofyouiargumenttrxb¡displavedinwordsandhowmuchinimages. fonis for htles'
tgp,e"(sans serif) or specialty
For the text potionsl"noor" dispku
11

passages of text'
)f
headings, and slogans, and, bodg ir.text tgpe (serif) for longer
upp""aing uy'nring only two or
three font styles per
2. Make type functioi; il
type styres, sizes, and fo'-ats) to indicate
, *::T:l!enr patrerns of type (similar levels of importance'
relationships *""g similar items
or different
structured combination of serif and
15 4. Choose lype to propct a specific i*pr"rtiállu businesslltre impression; sans serif
or
sans serif type to ittut" u formal' '""ot''
or playtul impreision' and so forth)'
:S
al and specialty typ" ;;';;; a ta"'ul' i"fo;ul'
rg
nt Besidesthesegeneralprinciples'rhetoricalconsiderationsofgenreandaudience
re exoecrarions should g;;,{ ;;;t"ion, ut out typ" relt;u514 argumenl.s in scholarly
1e ;lffi'"ffi :;";Jl'useoain,c-11'"TT:,t:H;.'Hl[Jil"":Ti,S:'tr;5;:
tv oJ"í''ni"''*¿
in ia:ffi rr;::.ffJ5l1#1t'i1"""'#T;*go*""t""t'u'f
aelherrc potential of tvpe'
rt- ;ñ,;;ñ ua, .*ptoii the
)e,

Use tlf SPace tlr Layout

rct
CS,

e11 Asecondcomponentofvisualdesignis.layout'whichiscritigalforcreatingthevisual
appealol'anargumentandlorconveyirrgmeaning.E'venvisual.algumentsthalare mean all
purpor"fullt. ñy spacing anct layout we
mainly textual should use space u.ry
of the following Points:

m Page size and tYPe ofPaPer

w PróPortion of text to white sPace
* graphics
etá'p"ttion of text to image(s) and spaces
oiil"t Gpu+, marglns, columns, size of paragraphs'
m Aruangem"rrt
"" fug.
betweenparagraphs' jusrifióation of margins) boxes
highlighJig such as buiíeted lists. tables' sidebars'
ry. Use of 'aiJ;tLt;t
"ür"no;"-s text into úsual elements
# of breaking
Use of headings

Inargumentsthatdon,tusevisualsdirectly'thewriter's'primaryvisualcon- ol a
th" ;;;; íri*s Lo meet the conventions
cern is documenr clesign. in which jntended audience' For example' Megan
genre and tt ;¡ the
on pug;' 3g4-4OO' is designed to meet
the
" "^p"t?"ti;t
Matthews's researched argument the
e"y.nologicat As,sociation (APA)' Note
document .onu"ntioi, oi-it,-" n."ri.un
(f".;;;;;"u?ing); double spacing and 1-inch
use of a plain, -"r""it""J^,r*t*." title page'
marking'and noátions); and special
margins (to leave ;;;;iiltorial of readers familiar with
headers, and page;;;; io.utio,-r, tm -.3t "rpectations
the same)'
APA documents-which all look exactly
168 PART 3 Analyzing Arguments

But in moving from verbal-only arguments to visual arguments that use visual
,
elements for direct persuasive effect-for example, posters, ñi"rr, ot. advocacy
ads-
creative use of layout is vital. Here are some ideas to help you think about the layout
of a visual argument.

Principles for Laying Out parts of a Visual Text

1. Choose a layout that avoids clutter and confusion by limiting how much
text and
how many üsual items you put on a page.
2. Focus on creating coherence and meaning with layout.
3' Develop an ordering or stmcturing principle that clarifies the relationships among
the parts.
4. Use layout and spacing to indicate the importance of items and to emphasize key
ideas. Because westem readers read from left to right and top to bottám,
top aná
center are positions that readily draw readers' eyes.

tu_ryulyris of a Visual Argument [_ising Type

and Spatial Elements
To illustrate the persuasive power of type and layout, we ask you
to consider Figure 9.1,
which shows an advocary ad sponsored by a coalition of orgárizations aimed
uínghdrrg
illegal drugs.
This ad, warning about the dangers of the drug Ecstasy, uses different
sizes of
type and layout to present its argument. The huge word "Écstasy" first catches
the
reader's attention. The first few words at the top of the ad,
pleasure, lull
the reader with the congruence between the pléasurable message ""rrdirrg
u.ra tn" playfur
type. soon, however, the reader encounters a dissonance beiween ttie ptayrut
type and the meaning of the words: dehydrate, hailucinate, paranoid, and,
dead
name unpleasant ideas. By the end of the ad, readers realize they have
been led
through a downward progression of ideas beginning with the youth culture,s
belief that Ecstasy creates wonderfuily positive Íeennis and ending with
the ad,s
thesis that Ecstasy leads to paranoia, áepression, and áeath. The playful
informal-
ity_ of the font styles and the unevenly scattered layout
of the type convey the
seductiveness and unpredictability of the drug. Thó ad concedes
that the first
effects "falling in love with the world" bui implies that what comes
.are next is
increasingly dark and dangerous. At the end of thé ad, in the lines
of type near
the bottom, the message and typestyle are congruent again. The question ,,Does
that sound harmless to you?" marks a shift in type "design and layout. The
designer composed this section of the ad in conventional fo-nts centered
on the
page in a rational, businesslike fashion. This type design signals
a metaphoric
move from the euphoria of Ecstasy to the oraeié¿ struclure áf everyday
reality,
where the reader can now consider rationally the drug,s harm. The information
at the bottom of the ad identifies the ad's sponsors and gives both
a web address
and a telephone number to call for more information ábout Ecstasy
and other
illegal drugs.
 CHAPTER 9 Analyzing Visual Arguments 169

Ads
lal It trÉ FoR CTASSDISCUSSION (omparing the Rhetorical Appeal of Tvuo Advocacy
This exercise asks you to examine Figure 9.2, an advocacy ad sponsored
by common
.o-[*"it to the ad in Figure 9'1. Figrue 9'2 a]so
ut Sense for nrug Pólicy, and to

ffiffi& &eesss# &www$wss €w Wwse?

Tltere ix a w!¡*le new g*n*reti*n nf ill*gel drus* ¡o*t tf¡sr*'
lsnT ¡i time Yeu learn*d *b*ut th* risk*?

FIGURE 9.2 Advocacy adveñisement warning against Ecstasy

 tlllhst We KnowAbout EcSory
Who| is Ecstasy?
MDMA,i is a scmi-s¡,rthetic drug patented b¡' Mcrck pharmaccutical Company in l9I4 ndabancloned
Ecsta,sy,
for 60 years. In the late 1970s and early 1980s psychiat¡ists and psychotherapists in thó US usecl it to facilitate
psychotherapy.r ln 1985 its grou ing recreational use crused the DEA to criminalize it.

Ecstasy's ellbcts last 3 to 6 houn. It. is a mood elevator that prodr-rces feeling,s of enrpathl', openness
and well-being.
People who take it at all night "rave" dances say they enjo¡' drmcing and f'eeling closé to otnérs. lt
does not protluci
vioience or physical addiction.l

Whal ore ffie greofesf risks from Ecstasy?

Death is^a posibility when usingMDN44 According to coroner repofts, there \4eie nine Ecstas¡r-related
deaths
(dtee.ofthese.involved Ecstasy alone) in 1998.1 Some olthese deaths a¡e related to overheating.
MO\4,A
slightly raises body temperature. This is potentially lethal in hot environnents where there is viloro¡s dancing
and the lack ofadequate_fluid replacement.: Many ofthese tragic deaths werc preventable
with"simple harm
'
reduction techniques such as having fiee water available and róms rüere people can rest and rel¿x.

One olthe recent risks associated with Ecstas]' is the posibiliry* ofobtaining adulterated d¡ugs that ma),
be more
toxic than MDMA. Some of the reported deaths a1tri6üed to Écstasy are lilelv caused by o-ther, more'dangerous
drugs.e Deathsliomadulteratcddrugs_areanotherconsequenceofazerotoleránceapproach. Wtlilcrverlonot
encourage Ecstasy use, we recommend that the drug be tested fbr puriqr to minimize-tie risk
ftorn aclulterated
drugsbythosewhoconsumeit.T However,MDNIAitsellhasriski. Fórexample,itraisesbloodpressureand
heart rate. Pelsons with known cardiovascular or hearl disease shoLrld not take'MbMA.

Reccnt studics havc i¡dicated that individuals who have used MDNIA ma1, have decreased perfomance
iu rnemory
tests conlpared t0 nonusers. These tP{fut g: presently controversial becáuse they involved people
rvho used a
variety of other drugs. Furthennore, it is dil}lcult to ruie out possible pre-existing dilhrences
b.**een ,.sear.h
subjects and controls.s

Whst is d r^/e?
Raves are. all-night dance parties po.pular with
1'oLurg people that feature electronic music. A variety ol drug use,
from alcohol to nicotine, and including ecstasy, occuri at raves. Hystena is ieading to criminaljzation
of raies, tius
pushing them underground and into less safe and responsible settings.

lefs deslwilh legal md illegcl drugs knowledgeubly, undersund

lheil relstiye dongers, ad prudently und svoi¿ fiyderio.
Keün for Drug poliq,3220 N srreer, Nw#141, woshington, Dc2o0o7
B. Zeese, Presidenr, common sense
ww.csdp.org*www.DrugWorFocts.org*u¡¡/.AddictintheFomily.org*info@csdplorg
202-299-9780 * 202-518-4028 (fox)
l. -l & t tr(lh)lerFdiu\,\rrethampher¡r¡ nc. 2 - crcer G and lolbeÍ R., A verhod ofconducring tterapeüric
Scssio¡s q,i¡h N,fDMA ln.Jounrat of
P\lchu¿ili\cDr1r9lo(loo8)4171.174 toresemhonthetherapeúic;seolMDI\{Aseet *w*imaps.orp.
-j-tseckJ.andl{osenbau¡M..t1Nujrof
f.\1a..:lTML,\IAlrp(i<"ceAlb¿n\:\d.t.ürcri¡or \euyur^pr.::.t,,qt. t-Dr!Aol*-Uirrqres"r,Ortc."o,,ii.o.,.¡i"..
Suh,.,rc(A'.r nJ\y'enr,,Hedlr's.aie\ \J,r,ni.r"r, .f.p" I \4ar.tr'._000.r',,i
includcsdmsswherelherewereovcrl0deaths) ^-., r".,'l;;;,".:.i..1¡.n,,"1,i]¿',"ru",,,
5 c.M.Mil;y:J.c.crark:AR\rrForesrp",r-És"ra-""1i,."-.üi",.j,i^¡'1...,i".1-*a="¡.
misuse JNmal ofclinic"l Paúolos\ vol 49 (1996) 149 I5l. 6 - l-abonton ¡iu Anahsis prcsrarn. Dl*s"r¡. ¡¡i,..rii,,¡ii,i^"".ü""."s"r¿...g.
s<!so.B)rl.r R\\!rrl,\r¡phrhnrin<JerilativefbtalitiesinsourhAusmlia is-lÁr:x¡ rñe.Jp.ie.i..ri."r¡".*"t
Parholoql dqs i sepl lq{ l)i 2ol j 7 Dürcesal¿ pm,vides lering equipment md a rcsrirg ser"ic. ,it¡c¡ .ar ¡. uscj "iri.r.ffi.¿t*l
ili ¿e""u]r,.;il; *¿-t*"" ir.
srrsbsl)ni<\'üForuE-1.üoL/oui-Ma)r"^,t.o.'r*' .. 1-lu.h,rJ.i:\.pet. id...c:.t.r.k,n<n: Bri-i,il ..,..-l","*¡"ot,,,,.
peno,n,-nce ,d'Ji-ri<e,ts(r,or ,e.reari^nJr e, Á),vDM\Lb,.ro,,rr \e,, o r.," -r'.i -,,.i-;i.1.;;i",,.-r,\:.''l-ñ';';,r,1 D
l\'fccann: cA- Ricaute: Menor] impahnent i¡ abst;¡ent MDMA('Ecshsy-) ua. b] \*rórog1 \t'r i1. Dcc 199s. r53r-i5i7.

FIGURE 9.3 Common Sense for Drug policy advocary ad

t70
 CHAPTER 9 Analyzing Visual Arguments 17'l

focuses on the drug Ecstasy and also uses type and layout to convey
its points' (This ad
upp"ur"a in the lib"eral migatine The Progressiue.) Individually or groups, studJ' this
in
ud,ro.u"y ad and then answer the following questions'
course of
1. What is the core argument of this ad? \Vhat üew of drug use and what
action is this ad promoting? \44rat similarities and differences do you see between
the argument about Ecstasy in this ad and the ad in Figure 9'1?
2. \\4:rat'are the main differences in the type and layout of the two ads in Figures
9'1
layout match
and 9.3? To what extent do the ad mak"tt' choices about lype and
the argrments made in each ad?
3. How irould you analyze the use of type and layout in Figure 9.3? How does
this
ad use typesiyles to ctnvey its argument? How does it use layout and spacing?
4. Tlre aa in nig,,." g.2 appéared iñ the weekly entertainment section of the Seattle
Iimes, anewspaper wiih a large general readership, whereas the ad in Figure 9.3
appeared in á liberal news commentary magazine. In what ways is each ad
a!tig""a to reach its audience? fitl I I

[Jse of Color
A thfud important element of üsual design is use of color, which can contribute signifi-
imagina-
cantly to the visual appeal of an argument and move readers emotionally and
by genre
tively tn considering cátor in úsual arguments, writers are especially conkolled
whereas popular
conventions. For example, academic arguments use color minimally,
magazines oÍten use coior laüstrly. The áppeal of colors to an audience
and the associa-
tion"s that colors have for an audience are also important. For
instance, the psychedelic
colors of 1960s rock concert posters would probably not be effective in
poster argu-
ments directed toward voters. Color choices in üsual arguments often have
"on "*átirr" when color
cmcial importance, including the choice of making an image black-and-white
makers of
is possible. As you will ,"" ii o* discussions of color throughout this chapter,
(using colors
o"rual urgoments need to decide whether color will be primarily decorative
to create"üsual appeal), fi.inctional (for example, using colorc to indicate relationships),
(for example, using colors that
realistic (using coiors like a documentary photo), aesthetic
are soothing,'exciting, or disturbing), oI some intentional combination
of these'

Use of Images and GraPhics

The fourth design element includes images and graphics, which can powerf-rlly 9on-
dense information into striking and memorable visuals; clarify ideas; and
add depth' live-
liness, a.nd emotion to your-arguments. A major point to keep in mind when
using
images is that a few simpt. iáug"r may be more powerful than complicated and
image to work in
,rrrri"rom images. Other kéy considerations are (1) how you intend an
emotional
yárr, *go*"nt"(for examplé, to convey¿n_idea illustrate a point, or evoke an

ffi"ril and (z) how yáu will estabúsh the relationship between the image or graphic
*á *r" verbal text. Beóause using images ancl graphics effectively is especially challeng-
can
ing, we devote the rest of this cñapter to explaining how images and graphics !e
in the
inEorporated into üsual arguments.-We treat the r-rse of photographs and drawings
next main section and the use of quantitative g?phics in the final section'
172 PART 3 Analyzing Arguments

An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using

All the Design Components
Before we discuss the use of images and graphics in detail, we would like to illustrate how
all four of the design components-use of type, layout, color, and images-can reinforce
and support each other to achieve a rhetorical effect. Consider the "Save the Children"
advocacy ad appearing as Figure 9.4. This advocacy ad combines type, Iayoul color, and
image skillf,rlly and harmoniously through its dominant image complemented by verbal
text that interprets and applies the ideas conveyed by the image. The layout of the ad
divides the page into three main parts, giving central focus to the image of the mother
standing and looking inio the eyes of the child she is holding in her arms. The blank top
panel leads readers to look at the image. Two color panels, mauve behind the child and
iose behind the mother, also higlrlight the two figr.res, isolate them in time and space, and
concentrate the readers' attention on them. The large Wpe in the black borders ('SHE'S
THE BEST QUALIFIED TEACHER FOR HER CHILDREN'' ANd "IMAGINE IF SHE
F1AD AN EDUCATION") frames the image, atffacts readers' eyes, and plants the main
idea in readers' minds: mothers should be equipped to teach their children.
This advocacy ad, which appeared in Newsweek, skillfully blends familiar, univer-
sal ideas-a mother's love for her child and the tenderness and strength of this bond-
with unfamiliar, foreign associations: a mother and child from a third-world country,
wearing the traditional clothing of their country depicted by the head scarf the
mother is wearing and the elaborate design on her sleeve. In addition to the familiar-
unfamiliar dynamic, a universal-particular dynamic also operates in this ad' This
woman and baby are euery mother and child (after all, we don't know exactly where
she is from), but they are also from some specific third-world country. The two figures
have been posed to conjure up Western paintings and statues of the Madonna and
Christ child. With this pose, the ad intends that readers will connect with this image
of motherly love and devotion and respond by supporting the "Every Mother/Every
Child" campaign. Color in this ad also accents the warm, cozy, hopeful impression of
the image; pink in Western culture is a feminine color often associated with women
and babies. In analyzing the photographic image, you should note what is nof shown:
afry surroundings, any indication of housing oI scenery, any concrete sense of place
or culture. The text of the ad interprets the image, proüdes background information,
and seeks to apply the ideas and feelings evoked by the image to urglng readers to
action. The image, without either the large type or the smaller type, does convey an
idea as well as elicit sympathy from readers, but the text adds meaning to the image
and builds on those impressions and applies them.
The ad designer could have focused on povedy, illiteracy, hunger, disease, and
high mortality rates but instead has chosen to evoke positive feelings of identification
and to convey hopeful ideas. \44rile acknowledgrng their cultural difference from this
mother and child, readers recognize their common humanity and are moved to 'give
mothers and children the best chance to survive and thnve." The large amounts of
blank space in this ad help convey that the main points here are important, serious,
elemental, but also simple-as if the ad has gotten to the heart of the matter. The
bottom panel of the ad gives readers the logo and name of the organization "Save the
Children" and a phone number and Web address to use to show their support.
 'l!i;t,r-:_;
.¡j j

Y***o*r.
FIGURE 9.4 Save the Children advocaaT ad
173
174 PART 3 Analyzing Arguments

Thg Compositional Features of Photographs

and Drawings
Now that we have introduced you to the four major elements of visual design-type,
layout, color, and images-we turn to an in-depth discussion of photographic images
and drawings. used with great shrewdness in product adveÉisements, photos and
drawings can be used with equal shrewdness in posters, fliers, advocacy ads, and
Web sites. rrA4ren an image is created specifically for an argument, almost nothing is
left to chance. Although such images are often made to seem spontaneous and 'hat-
ural," they are almost always composed: designers consciously select the details of
staging and composition as well as manipulate camera techniques (filters, camera an-
gle, Iighting) and digital or chemical development techniques (airbrushing, merging
of images). Even news photography can have a co-pored- feel. For p"uti"
"ru-pl",
officials often try to control the effect of photographs by creating 'photo ops" (photo-
graphing opporhrnities), wherein reporters are allowed to photograph an event only
during certain times and from certain angles. Political photographs appearing in
newspapers are often press releases officially approved by the politician's staff. (See
the campaign photographs later in this chapter on page 180.) To analyze a photo-
graph or drawing, or to create visual images for your own arguments, you need to
think both about the composition of the image and about the camera's relationship
to the subject. Because drawings produce a perspective on a scene analogous to that
of a camera, design considerations for photographs can be applied to drawings as
well. The following list of questions can guide your analysis of any persuasive image.

w Tupe of photograph or drawing:Is the image documentary-like (representing a real

event), fictionlike (intended to tell a story or dramaize a scene), or conceptual (il-
lustrating or symbolizing an idea or theme)? The two photos of mosh pits-a girl
shown crowd surfing and an unruly, almost menacing mosh pit crowd (chapter 5,
page 95)-are documentary photos capturing real events in action. In contrast, the
drawing of the lizards in the Earthjustice ad in Figure 9.5 is both a fictional narra-
tive telling a story and a conceptual drawing illustrating a theme.
w Distance from the subject: Is the image a close-up, medium shot, or long shot?
Close-ups tend to increase the intensity of the image and suggest the importance
of the subject; long shots tend to blend the subject into the background. In the
baby photograph opposing phthalates in children's toys (Chapter 1, page 4), the
effect of the baby'r wearing a "poison" bib is intensified by the close-up shot with-
out background. In contrast, the photograph of the young woman crossing the
bridge in Haiti (chapter 6, page 117) is a long-range shot showing her blending
into the poverty-stricken background, suggesting the devastating effect of pover{2.
w orientation of the image and camera angle; ls the camera (or artist) positioned
in front of or behind the subject? Is it positioned below the subject, look-
ing up (a low-angle shot)? Or is it above the subject, looking down (a high-
angle shot)? Front-view shots, such as those of carlitos and his mother in the
stills from under the same Moon (page 1). tend to emphasize the persons
being photographed. In contrast, rear-vierv shots often emphasize the scene
)S

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tT'$ lugr NoT THE $AfiAI WITHOUT

On{e rJpon a time there rere Gver ¡00.000 g{izzly be"¿r$ in
rhe tcleer 48 sr¿ies. Now there are less rhan * ihousand
grizzly bears lefr. The he¿lrh oF rhe grizzly ¡s dependenr on
vast. undisturbed. wild lands. When bea6 d¡sppedt orher
spec,es w¡l¡ follo\\: Bears arc such an impon¿nr pan of our
wrlderness. lristory and o:llure rhar ir's hard to imáqine a
world withour rhern ¡n f he picrurc.
Grrzzly beam arc ¿ thre¡(ened spmies. prorrorcd bv rhe
Endangered Species Ácr. Bur some speci¡l inreresls are
pushing rhe U.5. F¡sh and Wildlife SÉrvice to remove
Yellow$one grizzl¡es from ¡he endangered species lisr.
\{hy? They wañt tó open up w¡}d lands ¿round Ye¡jowsrone
Nadonál Park aó
BEARS.
deÉ{ructive l$gging, rniñing, olf.roád
vehicle use ¿nd developmenl.
Y+u can help protecr oü¡ wildemeÉs and griz¿ly trears.
Please take a ftornenf m cüntacr SecrÉ¡Ary Bruce Babbifi.
Sepafim€nt of lnt*r¡or" 1B4t C 5r. Nw' W¿shtn$on nC
?0240, or effiail Bruce*Babbitt@os.dci-güv * Te¡l hifi ró
k*ep gri?zly b€ars ón Jhe Endangered spÉcies Lisr l}ñd
rhar grizzly bears need rflor€ prótr{tion, n+[ less.
f;arthjustice Leg¿l úf,fense l--und i6 w4rkifig rimie$ly to
Protect lhe Étv.zly bea"s and rhe wiidernesr they srand
fon lf rve all w<¡rk rógerher, rhe gri¿¿ly bears will live
happrly ever a[{rr

HILP KEEP FEARS IN THE P| TURE r& r A RT H I U S T I C I

ircri pe ilnsr FurrD
www.eafrhjustice.org \ffi
r-80G584-ó4óO
dnhldta d

FIGURE 9.5 Earihjustice advocacy ad

175
't76 PART3 AnalyzingArguments

or setting. A low-angle perspective

tends.to make the subject look
powerful. *n"r:1: u high-3ngle superior and
perspecl.ive .un ."dr"* ¿ie
carion' rhe imporrance-of rñ" ,ire_unA by impli_
*u¡"ir. A, rever ;;;, ro impry equariry.
The high-angre shor of rhe girr in "";i"osr'.lr,pr,urizes
iüá',nort pir (page
riority of the came¡a and hlrmressness the supe_
of the mosh pit. In contrast, the
angle perspective of the lizards low_
in the Earthjurti"" ui*"u.y ua in
emphasizes the power of rhe Figure 9.5
rizards and the'infe;;;;;;"
w Point of uiew; Does the camera viewer.
o. *ti.t stand outsid" ih" ,."rr" and
objective effect as rnthe Harti photograph create an
on page ¡ái ó. ir"lre camera or artist
inside the scene as if the, phoágraffi"i
o,^ artistr:s an actor in the
a subjective effect as in the drarilng ,""ne. crearins
w use of color" Is the image in color oith" Iir*dtm rrg"." é.+r
oi i.r ¡lu"t atra whit"ii, iti,
by the restrictions orJhe m"¿rum,lr""rr deterrnined
and-white in newspapers) or is
* images designed"rroi""to run in black_
rt ttr" cioice ;?-rh" photographer or
artist? Are the corors rearistic
or ,"t"az"orrrcious
Huu. ,p".iJ-rurliJ""" used (a photo
made to look ord through the use
oi ¡.or' tints)? The bright corors in
the
and Goldilocks drawing in Figure g.b
ad later in this chapter on pa[e
*¿ in the forest r;;;;- the saturn lizard VUE
178 ."s"mbr" ittust ations-irr"¡oot,
w compositionar speciar ,¡¡"ai. É *t" for children.
r-ug" .r"* *J-."uiic? is any portion
of it blurred? Is it brenáed "rrti."
-a r""risticlr
blends a city and adesert; u uoay "a"r """r;il;;;ges (a car ad rhar
the image an imitation of some
rotlo.r u¿ ,rr", u;á-* *o
-".g", a cactus)? Is
parodies)? Both the Earthjustice
*h"rl*o.* ;
,mage s-uch ;-;lr"r. painting (as in
ad.in ngu." g.lana trr" s"ru-
this chapler on page r7g are conscious VUE ad later in
* JuxÍaposition of images. Are several iñritation, "l lniñr""lprcture boot s.
different images ;*ruforá, suggesring
tionships between.them?,Juxtap"rid;;; rera_
suggest sequential or causal
ships or can metaphoricaty transfer relation_
tn" ii""ur!""r o, background
to the subject (as when
is Ílequentry used in pubric
*"p; ;;;.*"a"*r,""ffii_u!"
",gth."ruti't^
"
,n* technique
""#i#il.
io ,rrup" i".*ptions of poriticar
figures as when Ba.ack obama
*"r orr"L""ohea1i9.*- beneatñ;;;g" Americari flag
at a campaigr appearance (page
180) r" ."i n"p;;"*;"ü . charges that he
*
was not'American enough.t, "i".
Manipuration of images' Are staged
.Tud: to appear real, naturar,
images
documentary-like? Aie images
ult'"r"¿ .'itt rru-shing?'il"' i,nug., achralry
composites of a numbe. o1 image,
(for instance, using images of
women's bodies ro.":"-3,*" on" páf".i different
moder - *;"";'ri.i-lz Are images
cropped for emphasis? w4rat is
Iéft out? Áre i-ug", ao-rrrir"J
an example of a staged photo that or enlarged? For
is intended to look natural, see
children" advocacvád the *Save the
ó.r pug" rzs. ñl; ao how the
Children" ad are silhouetteá tó ."-ou" figures in the ,,save the
x settings' furnishings, props:_Is the photá all background.
o. a.a*l,rg an outdoor or indoor
\\4rat is in the backgro'nd and r*"gr"*r;z scene?
\\irrat fumishings and props, such
furniture' objects in a room, pets, as
and randscape features, help create
\\4rat sociar associations ot.i*r,'*", the scene?
JrJ g"na". *" uttuJia to these settings
and props? Note' for exampre, how
the á"ogr,".,
"r
e-lJ"":, Army, tne army
 CHAPTER 9 Analyzing Visual Arguments 177

street fighhng scene

video game, used a few simple props to create a gntty urban
(trrg*i 9.12). The burned-out vehiile hull suggests the aftgrmat^h of days of street
or power poles in the middle of a narrorv. desert-
igf,ti"g, whereas the telephone
eá street suggest a poor crty in a third-world country'
Ar_e the people ur
characters,lltrr, orl¡onr. Dáes the photo or drawing tell a story?
roles) or are
the scene models? Are the models instrumental (acting out real-life
(extra and included for üsual or sex appeal)? \Ah1t- are the facial
tnáy ¿""-utive
of the people? What are the spatial relationships
expressions, gestwes, and poses
\44ro is large
of'the figurer"u 0n4ro is in the foreground, center, and background?
are implied by these poses and posi-
*J proiri""nt?) \44:rat social relaüonships
pose of the
tions? In the "save the children" advocacy ad shown in Figure 9.4,l]r|e
completely absorbed in adoration of the other-tells the
mother and child-each
story of the bonds of love between mothers and babies'
of images:Are images separated fiom each other in a latger
composition
irí*rot¡on
large in proportion to verbal text? How are
or connectedio euch other? Are the images
;;g; labeled? How does the text relate to the image(s)? Does te image illushate the
on the image? For example,.the poster advocaL
textíDoes the text explain oI comment
;; t;g""tt*,,' (page 1a5) effectively juxtaposes words and images' The top is
"an-
áJ-i"í*a uy u qrr"itión "Think you can be a meat-eating environmentalist?" Theimage
beneath the
swef' is the image of a world with a big bite taken out of it. The text
if-ni* agaln . I' makes sense only after the üewer has interprcted the image' In con-
page 000'
hast, the"coat hanger hook dominates the advocacy ad on

An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using Images

To show you how images can be analyzed, let's examine the advertisement for a
9:6 At one level, the persuasive intent of
Saturn VÚE sport-utilitf vehicle in Figuie
subtle level, this adver-
this ad is to urge viewers to buy a Saturn VUE. But at a more
Ur"-"rrt partiJipates in an international debate about SUVs and the enüronment'
also are buying smaller' more fuel-
whereas Europeans and now many Americans
efficient ,á-" Americans *" rtill buying SUVs that guzle gas like trucks' Among
"*r,
their opponents, SUVs-whether fairly oiunfairly-have become a worldwide symbol
of Américarrs' greed for oil and their disdain for the environment.
logical argument
How do car manufacturers fight back? clearly, they can't make a
(although some car companies are
that owning an SUV is good for"the enüronment
be "green"). But they can use psychological
.o*-g out"with hybrid SUV' U,rut claim to
sentiments' so
strategies that urge consumers to associate suvs with pro-enüronment
usrng u designed drawing, the ad-
in this ad saturn turns to visual argument. "*éti,tty "evergreen forest" scene'
verlisement shows the Saturn VUE Utending into an
forest birds and
Surrounded by a moose, a porcupine, a bear, á squinel' and -9ther
The brilliance of the ad is the
animals, the SUV seems to t"to"g in its forest home.
the forest creatures are identified by name' The
insert legend at the bottom left, wñere
of the forest animals-not just "bird"
ad teach?s city dwellers who buy suvs the names
"snowshoe Hare." (Because the ad
but "Black-capped chickadee," not just "rabbit" but
was designed as a two-pag spread. u-e had to reduce its size in Figure 9'5'
" ^ug*in"
 lI¡
f
IWÉ
wii
t;g

!!5
II ='E
E¡
d =e

l3r
'3.g
t?
ui
¡E
ü1
ri
o-:
og
q-¡

?i
F ,.1,t
.€'
-,-!Ál
b¡. :iql- -\ - I ffi
M
>\- -.,-,./-¡- * *¿¡

ü ; ::j-- 6' '¡" \Yñ, tstr$

'-'i
\

: l- i¡#
r& /
tJ llid
al,
r¡-r,/
"v \.'._*tr
a-. ,'_ .^¡ M
"-']Gffi
q"i --fi
'---
-.
,\'
-'.-\
t$,'{
*
ffi '
---li-, -J ,.1#;
L

U
-f ¡,
FIGURE 9.6 Ceneral Motors consumer ad for
the Saturn VUE
178
 CHAPTER 9 Analyzing Visual Arguments 179

making the animal names tiny. They are easily readable in the origmal.) The ad
becomes a minilesson in identifiing and naming the "creatures of the evergreen
forest"-creature number one, of course, being the Saturn VUE'
To make the Saturn VUE blend harmoniously with the forest, this ad cleverly
de-emphasües the size of the vehicle, even though the dominant size of SUVs is part
of their appeal to urban consumers. To compensate for this choice, the fypical appeals
of SUVs are rendered symbolically. For example, the VUE's power and agdify, hinted
at in the brief copy at the bottom right of the ad, are conveyed metaphorically in the
image of the puma, "poised" Iike the Saturn, crouching and oriented in the same di-
r""ti,on, like the car's guiding spirit. It enters the scene from the outside, the predator,
silent and powerful-the main animal to be identified with the car itself. Other ani-
mals close to the car and facing the same direction as the car each stand for one of
the car's attributes so that the VUE also possesses the speed of the hare, the brute
size and strength of the bear, and the soaring freedom of the goshawk.
The whole ad works by association. The slogan'At home in almost any environ-
ment" means literally that the car can go from city to country, from desert to
mountains, from snow to tropic heat. But so can any car. The slogan's purpose is to
associate the car with the words home and enuironment-words that connote all the
warrn, fuzzy feelurgs that make you feel good about owning a Saturn VUE. In addi-
tion, the use of drawings and the identification of animals by numbers conjure up the
delightful, instructive innocence of children's books: this car must be a good thing.
And in its own special way, this ad has skillfully shifted consumers' attention away
from global warming and enüronmental degradation.

aa'# FOR CTASS DISCUSSION Analyzing Photos Rhetorically

1. The techniques for constructing photos come into play prominently in news
photography. In this exercise, we ask you to examine four photographs
bf American presidential campaigns. Working individually or in groups, study
the four photos in Figures 9.7 through 9.10 , and then answer the following
questions:
a. \&4:rat do you think is the dominant impression of each photo? In other words,
what is each photo's implicit argument?
b. \\4rat camera techniques and compositional features do you see in each
photo?
c. \4/hat image of the candidates do these photographs attempt to create for
citizens and voters?
2.T¡ree of these photographs (of Reagan, Clinton, and Obama)are mostly success-
ful in promoting the image intended by their campaigns. But one of the photo-
graphJ (of Democratic candidate John Kerry in 1994, running against George
W. Bush) is an example of a photograph that "backfired." Republicans reversed
the intended impact of the photograph and used it to ridicule Kerry.
a. \&/hat is the intended effect of the Kerry photograph, which is from a windsurfing
video showing Kerry zigzaggsng across the rvater?
180 PART 3 Analyzing Arguments

FIGURE 9.7 Ronald Reagan at his Catifornia FIGURE 9.8 Presidential candidate john Kerry
nnch home

FIGURE 9.9 lncumbent President Bill Clinton in a FIGURE 9.10 Presidentiat candidate Banck
Obama making a speech

b. How might the Keny photograph (and the windsurfing üdeo) produce an
unintended effect that opens the candidate to rjdicule from the oppásing party?
(Suggestion: Enter "Keny windsurfing photo" into your web searcir
engine. nt.
another example of a campaign photograph that backfired, search for ;Michael
Dukakis tank photo.")
3. The poster shown in Figure 9.10 is for the clocr-urentary film ,,wal-Mart: The High
Cost of Low Prices," produced in 2005 br- filmmalier and political activist Robert
 High Cost of Low Prices"
FIGURE 9.11 Posier for "Wal-Mart: The

181
 FIGURE 9.12 Urban assauli scene, America's Army video Same

FIGURE 9.13 Village scene, America's Army video game

142
 183
CHAPTER I Analyzing Visual Arguments

sunr'e n
Greenwald.AccordingtoitsWebsite,themoviefeatur"'..t|."u:"0''-l::::"]
fu-rti., and communities struggling to
a
stories *u ;.fril;i;r;
Wal-Mart world'" questrons:
groups' answer the following
Working individually or in
a.\A4aatcompositionalfeaturesanddrawingtechniquesdoyouseeinthislmage?
visual features?
t#d;;t;"motu¡t" about the
\Á4rat is
made by this image?
b. How would you state the argument
c.Thiseff'ectofthisimagederivespartlyfromwhatculhrralanalystscall..inter-
textuality...Bythisterm.analyst,'*"unthewaythataüewer.sreadingoIan
of "connected" images-in this
i-ug" a"pJrr',a;';;"f;'*rray *rh ; network as with
case, familiarity with posters
f", ó;;ill" fitms tto- the 1950s as well
Wal-Marl,sconventional.-.,"otu'",mit"yra.".Howdoesthi'q'"*il:::to create an rmage
of Godzillu uttd of smiley-faces
l,rewers, ."r*rrl r.""*r"¿ge does it have five
of wal_Marr? \A4ny is this monJ;í-*""¡"g u ,rriú \&4ry

ormorearms?\\4ayisthismánsterdest'"oyingasuburborhousingarea
retain of conventional
,kyr.rup"rri'i" rn"", *riat áoes it
rather than a crty of
Godziltaimages,whatdoesr;;;;;;,'and-why?.similarly'howisthe
monster,s smiley face similar
,; ;;'d'tfi"rent from the traditional wal-Mart
popular
screen captures from the very
4. ThtTlr"JglltÍuru"r", 9.12 and 9.13 are by the u s Army'
and controversial 'i*"'^io- Army, created
pc action game America's
from the web site
ao*tttou¿
This ,,virtual soldiering,, g"-", plavers with ihe most au-
http://www.americasarmy..o*,
.iuiÁ, to "provide
thentic military experience available'"
a.IntheseScleencapturesfromthegame,whaJistheeffectofthecamerasdistance
fromthesubjectandthecameras-pointofüewontheviewer/player?
images?
affect the úsual appeal of these
b. How do color and composition
characters' and roles convey?
c. 'rA4eat impressions do settings'
this game has pro-
from the gu-9'*ly do you think u
d. Based on these two scenes
voked heated public discussron?
HÑ effective do you think this game rS u' f'* o l
recruitment device?

The Genres of Visual Argument

Wehavealreadymentionedthatverbalargumentstodayaref|equentlyaccompanied For exam-
by photograpr1,,o, á**'.'gs that
.""*but; to the text,s persuasive inappeai. might be
ple, a verbal Js";;;; p;o?9t-q
u'ü^áto"" help AIDS victims Atoica genres of
'o
qvi"c;;d*l-Jd child'-However' some
accompanied ;;;;ffi;;on "í 3 elLm;nts. ln these genres, the visual design carries
argumenr d'";il;;;á"üri*A used inmaritv for labeling' for
focus-
"r"
most of the argumentative weight'
t""j;-r;is we describe
on the images. t""tnis section
ing the urgo-!r,,,, claim, or foi"o-*"ntlr-tg
of argument
,p?.ift.uff! these highly visual genres
184 PART 3 Analyzing Arguments

Posters and Fliers

To persuade audiences, an arguer might create a poster designed for placement on
walls or kiosks or a flier to be passed out on street corners. Posters dramatically affract
and direct üewers' attention toward one subject or issue. They often seek to rally sup-
porters, promote a strong stance on an issue, and call people to action. For example,
during world war II, posters asked Americans to invest in war bonds and urged
women to join the workforce to Í?ee men for active combat. During the Vietnam War,
famous posters used slogans such as "Make Love, Not war" or "Girls say yes to boys
who say no" to increase national resistance to the war.
The hallmark of an effective poster is the way it focuses and encodes a complex
meaning in a verbal-üsual text, oÍten with one or more striking images. These images
are oÍten symbolic-for example, using children to symbolize family and home, a soar-
ing bird to symbolize Íieedom, or three firefighters raising the American flag over the
world tade Center rubble on september 7l,2ool, to symbolize American heroism,
patriotism, and resistance to terrorism. These s5,.rnbols derive potency from the values
they share with their target audience. Posters tend to use words sparingly, either as slo-
gans or as short, memorable directives. This terse verbal text augments the message
encoded in an eye-catching, dominant image.
As an example of a contemporary poster, consider the poster on page r45, which is a
call to stop eating red meat in order to protect the Earth. This poster uses compositional
special effects, depicting the Ea¡th fuom outer space against the backdrop of the Milky
Way. The grain, color, and texttre of pieces of red meat are superimposed over the conti-
nents of North and South America where üewers expect to see the famüar greens and
browns of Earth's surface. The impact of the poster is intensified by the big bite that has
been taken out of Alask4 westem Canada, and the West Coast of the United States. The
substitution of meat for land and the presence of the bitten-out piece of the Earth convey
the message of immediate destruction. Framing this image of the Earth on the top and
bottom are a question and an imperative phrased in casual but confrontational language:
"Think you can be a meat-eating environmentalist? Think again." The summaqy caption
of the poster urges readers to become vegetarians. As you can see, this poster triés to
shock and push readers toward a more radical environmentalism-one without meat.
Fliers and brochures often use visual elements similar to those in posters. An im-
age might be the top and center atbraction of a flier or the main focus of the front
cover of a brochure. However, unlike posters, fliers and brochures offer additional
space for verbal arguments, which oÍlen present the writer's claim supported with bul-
leted lists of reasons. Sometimes pertinent data and statistics, along with testimony
Ílom supporters, are placed in boxes or sidebars.

Public Affairs Advocacy Advertisements

Public affairs advocacy adverlisements share with posters an emphasis on üsual ele-
ments, but they are designed specifically for pubLcation in newspapers and magazines
and, in their persuasive strategies, are directly analogous to product advertisements.
Public affairs advocacy ads are usually sponsored bv a corporation or an advocacy
organization and often have a more time-sensitir-e message than do posters and a
 CHAPTER 9 Analyzing Visual Arguments 185

more immediate and defined target audience. Designed as condensed arguments

ton aimed at influencing public opinion on civic issues, these ads are characterized bv their
¡ract breüty, audience-based appeals, and succinct "sound bite" style. Often, in order to
sup- sketch out their claim and reasons clearly and concisely, they employ headtngs and
rple, subheadings, bulleted lists, different sizes and styles of type, and a clever, pleasing 1ay-
out on the page. They usually have some attention-getbing slogan or headline like
ryed
,\¡ar,
"MORE KIúS ARE GETTINIG BRAIN CANCER. WHY?" or "STOP THE TAX RE-
)oys VOLT JUGGERNAUTI" And they usually include a call to action, whether it be a do-
nation, a letter of protest to legislators, or an inütation to join the advocacy group.
:lex The balance between verbal and visual elements in an advocacy advertisement
varies. Some advocacy ads are verbal only, with visual concerns focused on document
€es
lar- design (for example, an "open letter" from the president of a corporation appearing as
the a full-page newspaper ad). Other advocacy ads are primarily visual, using images and
sm, other design elements with the same shrewdness as advertisements. We have looked
ues closely at advocacy ads in this chapter when we examined the Ecstasy ads (Figures 9.2
slo- ana g.S) and the Save the Children ad (Figure 9.4), These use text and images in dif-
age
ferent ways to present their messages.
As another example of a public affairs advocary ad, consider the ad in Chapter 15,
lSa page 3Tl,that attempts to counter the influence of the pro-life movement's growing cam-
paign against aboúion. fu you can see, this ad is dominated by one stark image: a ques-
'nal
lkv tion mark formed by the hook of a coat hanger. The shape of the hook draws the reader's
nti- eye to the concentrated tlpe centered below it. The hook caries most of the weight of
rnd the a¡gument. simple, bold, and harsh, the image of the hanger, tapprng readers'
llas
knowládge, evokes the dangerous experience of illegal abortions perforued crudel¡ by
he nonmediial people in the dark back sheets of cities. The ad wants viewers to think of the
;ey dangerom last resorts that desperate women would have to tum to if they could not
r¡rd
obtain abortions legally. The hanger itself creates a visual pun: As a question mark, it
CP' conveys the ad's dilemma about what will happen if abortions are made illegal. As a coat
ion hanger, it proüdes the ad's frightening answer to the printed question-desperate women
to will return to back-street abortionists who use coat hangers as tools.

m- al'# FOR CTASS DISCUSSION Analyzing an Advocacy Ad Rhetorieally

rnt Reexamine the Earthjustice public affairs advocacy ad shown in Figure 9.5 on pagel75.
lai This ad defends üe presence of gnzzly bears in Yellowstone National Park as well as
ul- other wildemert a.eas in the Rocky Morurtains. In our classes, this ad has yielded rich
n)¡ discussion of its ingenuity and complexity.
Working indiúdually or in groups, conduct your own examination of this ad using
the following questions:
1. \\hatvisual features of this ad immediately athact your eyes? \44rat principles for
effective use of type, layout, color, and image does this ad exemplitu?
Ie- 2. What is the core argument of this ad?
ES
3. \4hy did Earthjustice use the theme of Goldilocks? How do the lizards function in
ts. this ad? \&4ry does the ad nothave any pictures of gnzzlíes or bears of any kind?
4. How would you design an advocary ad for the preservation of guü bears? \tVhat
; visuals would you use? AÍter discussing üe Earlhjustice advocacy ad, explore the
186 PART 3 Analyzing Arguments

rhetorical appeals of a product adverlisement such as the one that appean in Chapter
6 on page ll7. The designers of this Toyota ad have made key choices in the use of
the main image, the woman with the face mask. How does this product ad work to
convey its aqgument? Consider questions about its use of t¡pe, layout, and image,
about the core of its argument, and about its appeals to ethos, pathos, and kairos. ffilr
Cartoons
An especially charged kind of visual argument is the political cartoon. Although you are
perhaps not Iikely to create your own political cartoons, it is useful to understand how car-
toonists use visual arid verbal elements to convey their message. British cartoonist Maftin
Rowson calls himself 'a visual journalist" who employs 'humor to make a joumalistic
point." Poütical cartoons are often mini-narratives, porlraying an issue dramatically, com-
pactly, and humorously. They employ images and a few well-chosen words to dramatize
conflicts and problems. Using caricahrre, exaggeration, and distorlion, cartoonists distill an
issue down to an image that boldly reveals the creators perspective and subsequent claim
on a ciüc issue. The purpose of political cartoons is usually satirical, or, as cartoonist lt!
Rowson says, "about afflicting the comfortable and comforting the afflicted." Because they
are so condensed and often corrnected to current affairs, political cattoons are partiarlarly
dependent on the audience's background knowledge of culturai and political events. \\{hen

M**-df
FIGURE 9.14 Political cartoon protesting baseball players' use of steroids
Source: By permission of Steve Benson and Creators Syndicate, Inc.
 CHAPTER 9 Analyzing Visual Arguments 147

er political cartoons work well, through their perceptive combination of image and l'ords.
of they flash a brilliant, clariffing light on a perspective or open a new lens on an issue. often
to giving readers a shock of insight.
le,
As an illustration, note the Benson cartoon in Figure 9.13, which first appeared
:ÉtI in Lhe Arizona Republic, Tlne kairotic moment for this piece is the national debate
about baseball players' using steroids to blast more home runs or add velocity to
their fastballs. Some athletes and sports commentators have accepted the use of
steroids, seeing them as logical outcomes of other performance enhancers such as
Ritalin for concentration or Botox for beauty. Others challenge the use of perform-
ance-enhancing drugs, citing health dangers to users, unfairness to nonusers, and
in loss of integrity to spods. In this wordless cartoon, Benson conjures up this contro-
]C
versy; the hefty batter and hypodermic needle substituting for a bat imply that this
n-
tampering with drugs and the great American tradition of baseball is abnormal, dan-
ae
gerous, and scary.
u1

m
ist f a == FOR CTASS DISCUSSION Analyzing a (artoon Rhetorically
1. Cartoons can often sum up a worldview in a single image. The political cartoons
t; in Chapter 2 on page 28 show different perspectives on the United States'
problems with illegal immigraüon. The cartoon in Chapter 7 on page 9 responds
to the problem of limited resoLtrces. \\hat mini-narrative does each convey?
\&4rat is the cartoon arguing? How does the cartoon use caricature, exaggeration,
or distortion to convey its perspective?
2. Cartoons can provide insight into how the public is lining up on issues. Choose a
current issue such as the global economy, homeland security, dependence on for-
eign oil, refor"rning Social Security, U S. Anny recruitment, or stem cell research.
Then, using a cartoon index on the Internet such as Daryl Cagle's Professional
Cartoonists Index (http://www.cagle.com) or a Web search of your own, find sev-
eral carloons that capture different perspectives on your issue. What is the mini-
narrative, the main claim, and the use of caricature, exaggeration, or distortion in
each? How is kairos, or timeliness, important to each cartoon? {,.# I I

Wetr Pages
So far we have only hinted at the influence of the World Wide Web in accelerating
the use of visual images in argument. The hypertext design of Web pages, along
with its complex mix of text and image, has changed the way many writers think of
argument. The home page of an advocacy site, for example, often has many
features of a poster argument with hypertext links to galleries of images on the one
hand, and to verbal arguments on the other. These verbal arguments themselves
often .contain photographs, drawings, and graphics. The strategies discussed in
this chapter for analyzing and interpreting r.isual texts also apply to Web pages.
Consider, for the 'AAS Goals" page for Athletes Against Steroids
example,
(Figure 9.15; http:/ /v'rww.athletesagainststeroids.org /pgs/ aboutaas.shtml). This
advocacy site announces its purpose in the black-and-red type in the center of the
188 PART 3 Analyzing Arguments

"Io help children make right chsices, lhey need g*od er$mFlÉs. Athletics
Flsy suÉh sfi ¡mFsn¡nl 16l*
in aur-socÉty. but. unfortunately, some in pr+fesironal sporis are not settiriq much 0f an example The
use of performance'enhanring drugs lihe sleroids in bas¿ball, foothall and oiher spons ¡s ¿anaerous.
and it sends the w[ong message - that therB ¿rÉ shúd cuts t0 ccc0mpl¡shment. and that perfai.nrance
ls mor* imF0rtsnt than char¡cltr. $ü tqn¡ght I call nn leam r,wn*rs. unie¡ representatiws, c¡sches ¡nd
'qf
Flayers la lake thr le¡d,10 send the dght sigral, trr gét lürgh and'te gel rid ster,lids no.w,"
George !Y, 8ush, Stste o{ lhe Ultion Address, January t0, ?004

Athletes Against $tersids

Organiaation Launched Co

To Fight Against Steroids

O*;rpl*n is te i?ghf ffieproblem througlr edusaffon,
lnünf¡l¡y ñewste#eri sefe&frTic ¡esearcfi, n{rfr¡t¡ana¡
elferRefives, drüS free efhlÉfe role ¡nodejs, add¡'cf¡sn
fi s,É¡sténce,
speatrrer's Sereau.
ii. The world has a HUGE stsraid pr€bl€m $r its hands - snd ñ0t
Lst"s $tsü by telling ¡t l¡ka ¡t
ji¡sl in b*dybuilding. Young athletes everywhere are turning to peúonnanc* Énhüncement drrgs *
playing st*rüid r¿ul¿lt€ with theh live* in hrpes !f mrking il into the "brg leagues." Thev're falli-nq for
lhe big lie thal these drugs are safe and okay to us¿, turrl why shouldnrt ttre-yr nner aii ar*n t
0ftherr falsrite sports heroes juicrng and getiing paid rnilliqn€;f dollars a yeirfcr drring sol 'iony

Bui thr truth is th{t sl*roids aro KILLERS".. DE$TROYfRS... ilFE WRECKERS! Thsr,s whv
this brand nÉw snli-staroid organ¡zatidn hás hoÉn form€d c¡lled Athletas ,4gainst stercids. The tün:
main 0biecl$es.0flhe sr$anizati0n srE ta disc*uragB athlelns frsm using dáng*rols b*dybuitding
drugs and to hÉlF ths$s iahs have already drveloped a depend*n*y on tñrsa iharmac*uiiesls to
quil using them.

*A$ has eet up the folloudng slx,potnt Flan

ta hdp rchlsve thona obléctlyss:
ill Hducate amai$ur end Frsfessi0nal sthletés.
sludñnts, eqaches, pérsinel trRin€rs, sp$rls
ra¡e¡r*harc, nukitiü¡r€t componixs, educatsr$.
maqa*in* publi*haru, Flc, sn the dongers af
stereid*.
B) Eecoma a clearinghouse 0f infamation on th8
dongers af steroid usage whrle oflenng safe snd
Efgrlivs tFlirns in lruining, ¡utrili$R, and
{4} Dev6lüp AAS locel ehaptÉr suFpüd groups
to halp thoss sthleles who have grown
dependBnt 0n these drugs ta step using them.
üffér eÉsBotion suppsÉ through a phoni-rn kne
and lha internet for lhos€ areas where tha[€
isfi't vül I lo*al *haptff,
{51 $1qrt a nütitnül $pcsk6l* bursáu
eompa*ed 0f A4$ nÉmher$ who are willing !o
--."r, -ü"...¡L, ]---i!r ¡¡ó¡!nriJi ¡"

FIGURE 9.15 "About Us" page from Athletes Against Steroids Web site

web page. The bottom half of the page briefly summarizes the problem with
steroids and then outlines the organization's objectives. The links on the left-hand
side of the page announce the range, depth, and relevance of material on steroid
use posted on this site. Under the masthead for the organization, the quotation from
President Bush's 2OO4 State of ihe Union address conveys that steroid use is a na-
tional problem needing immediate attention. Each page on this Web site follows the
same basic design with subtle variations. For erample, the "steroid Side Effects"
 CHAPTER 9 Analyzing Visual Argumenis 189

page features a tombstone with a skull and crossbones in place of the organiza-
tional shield; the 'Are You Hooked on Steroids?" page has an ominous close-up of
scattered pills and a steroid needle. As you examine this whole page, how do the
layout and use of color support the ethos of this site and its appeal to pathos? AAS
)13nt role could have made the page much more dramatic with scary pictures, but they chose
:ple. The
'¡erü11s.
this more understated design. Do you agree with their choice?
'a f n:n ce Because the Web is such an important tool in research, we have placed our main
rathes and
discussion of Web sites in Chapter 16, pages 344-367. On these pages you will find
our explanations for reading, analyzing, and evaluating Web sites.

t
Rr
Constructing Your Own Visual Argument
The most common visual arguments you are likely to create are posters and fliers,
public affairs advocacy ads, and possibly Web pages. You may also decide that in
longer verbal arguments, the use of visuals or graphics could clarify your points while
adding visual variety to your paper. The following guidelines will help you apply your
understanding of visual elements to the construction of your own visual arguments.
rnd n[l
lrugs - Guidelines for Creating Visual Arguments
hiling for
en t mqny 7. Genre: Deterunine where this üsual argument is going to appear (bulletin board,
2
passed out as a flier, imagined as a one-page magazine or newspaper spread, or as
it s why a Web page).
The t!ü:
iirilding 2. Audience-based appeals; Deternine who your target audience is.
:ais ts e rl44rat values and background knowledge of your issue can you assume
that your audience has?
* What specifically do you want your audience to think or do after reading
your visual argument?
)d groups
,, If you are promoting a specific course of action (sign a petition, send money,
FI vote for or against a bill, attend a meeting), how can you make that request
irng thÉm.
cne-in lin*
clear and direct?
|e there 3. Core of gour argumen| Determine what clear claim and reasons will for:rn the core
of your argument; decide whether this claim and these reasons will be explicitly
I stated or implicit in your visuals and slogans.
!H How much verbal text will you use?
m If the core of your argument will be largely implicit, how can you still make
it readily apparent and clear for your audience?
4. Visual design: \44rat üsual design and layout will grab your audience's attention
h and be persuasive?
d s How can font sizes and styles, layout. and color be used in this argument to
d create a strong impression?
ll m rrA4rat balance and harmony can you create between the visual and ver-
e- bal elements of your argument? \\ ill vour verbal elements be a slogan,
IE express the core of the argument. or summarize and comment on the
) image(s)?
190 PART 3 Analyzing Arguments

Drink and Then Drive?

Jeopardize My Future?
. Arrest
. Financial Problems (fines up to $8,125)
. lncreased lnsurance Rates
. License Suspension
. Criminal Conviction
. lncarceration
. Serious lnjury or Death
or
Designate a Driver?

It's a no-brainer.
Join your Senior Class at Thirsty Thursday, but
designate a driver.

FIGURE 9.16 Student poster argument promoting the use of designated drivers

5. Use of images: If your argument lends itself to images, what photo or drawing
would support your claim or have emotional appeal? (If you want to use more
than one image, be careful that you don't clutter your page and confuse your mes-
sage. Simplicity and clarity are important.)
w What image would be memorable and meaningful to your audience? Would
a photo image or a drawing be more effective?
 CHAPTER g Analyzing Vjsual Arguments 191

# will your image(s) be used to provide evidence for your

claim or illustrate a
main idea, evoke emotions, or enhance yo'r credibility and authorih-?
As example of a argument created by a student, consider Leah
.an ^po{eJ
Johnson's poster in Fig-ure g.to. tnt"ñaed for bulretin báards *Jr.rorr.,
college campus, Johnson's work illustrates around her
how a writer can use minimai but well_
chosen verbal text, layout, and images
to convey_ a rhetoricany eff.ective argument.
(That is Leah herself in rhe photograih
) In
tion about alcohol abuse on.colte[e cu-puses
this aal tean i, jo;;;
u-,rut ona conversa_
and. i. p-por-*;-rut" *uy of handling
her universitv's weekry socid gt-togetirer io, ot¿"i ,ro¿"rrü, ,rnosf Thursdays.,,
Notice how Leah in this-visual ;g"-;; h; focrrred on her claim and reasons
without
seeing the need to supply eviden"ce.

f f ,:..,: FOR CLASS DISCUSSION Developing ldeas for poster

a Argument
This exercise asks you to do the ihtri.ú;á pi";il; alrtJ n"".", arsLrnaent to .\:e dis
p\a¡eü o\lo\.c co\ee or .,rni.lers\carnpus.\rlot\.ng ü srrrrN\ *ñ.. *
as a wtlo\e c\ass, ctroose an issue that is controversial on your campus (or in louitown
or city), and follow the Guidelines for Creating Visual Arguments on pages t3g-tgO to
enüsion the view you want to advocate on that issue. \44rat might the core of your
argument be? \\4ro is your target audience? Are you representing a group, club, or
other organization? \\4rat image(s) might be effective in attracting a.ra móving this audi-
ence? Possible topics for issues might be commuter parking; poor conditions in the
computer lab; student reluctance to use the counseling center; problems with dorm life,
financial aid programs, or intramural sporls; ways to improve orientation programs for
new students, wórk-study programs, oi travel atroad opportunifies; or new initiatives
such as study groups for the big lecture courses or new service{earrring opporhurities. ¡íi]..l I I

Using Information Graphies in Arguments

Besides images in the form of photographs and drawings, writers oÍten use quantita-
tive graphics to support arguments using numbers. In Chapter b we introduced you to
the use of quantitative data in arguments. We discussed the persuasiveness of numbers
and showed you ways to use them responsibly in your arguments. With the advent of
spreadsheet and presentation programs, today's writers often create and import quan-
titative graphics into their documents. These üsuals-such as tables, pie charts, and
Iine or bar graphs-can have great rhetorical power by making numbers tell a story at
a glance. In this section, we'll show you how quantitative graphics can make numbers
speak. We'll also show you how to analyze graphics, incorporate them into your text,
ng and reference them effectively.
)re
es-
How Tiables Contain a Variety of Stories
ild Data used in arguments usually have their ongms in raw numbers collected Íiom sur-
veys, questionnaires, observational studies. scientiñc experiments, and so forth.
192 PART 3 Analyzing Arguments

Through a series of calculations, the numbers are combined, sorted, and arranged in a
meaningful fashion, often in detailed tables. Some of the tables published by the U.S.
Census Bureau, for example, contain dozens of pages. The more dense the table, the
more their use is restricted to statistical experls who pore over them to analyze their
meanings. More useful to the general public are midlevel tables contained on one or
two pages that report data at a higher level of abstraction.
Consider, for example, Table 9.2, published by the U.S. Census Br¡reau in its docu-
ment "Arnerica's Families and Living Arrangements: Population Characteristics," based
on the 2000 census. This table shows the marital status of people age 15 and older, bro-
ken into gender and age groupings, in March 2000. It also proüdes comparative data on
the "never married" percentage of the population in March 2000 and March 1970.
Take a few moments to pemse the table and be certain you know how to read it.
You read tables in two directions: from top to bottom and from left to right. Always
begin with the title, which tells you what the table contains and includes elements
foom both the verlical and horizontal dimensions of the table. In this case the vertical
dimension presents demographic categories for people "15 years and over": for both
sexes, for males, and for females. Each of these gender categories is subdivided into
age categories. The horizontal dimension proüdes information about "marital status."
Seven of the columns give total numbers (reported in thousands) for March 2000. The
eighth column gives the 'percent never married" for March 2000, while the last ¿
column gives the "percent never married" for March 1970. To make sure you know
how to read the table, pick a couple of rows at random and say to yourself what each
F\
number means. For example, the first row under "Both sexes" gives total figures for ¿
the entire population of the United States age 15 and older. In March 2000 there were
213,773,000 people age 15 and older (remember that the numbers are presented in
thousands). Of these, 113,002,000 were married and living with their spouses. As you
¿
continue across the columns, you'll see that 2,730,000 people were married but not
living with their spouses (a spouse may be stationed overseas or in prison; or a mar-
ried couple may be maintaining a "commuter marnage" with separate households in
different cities). Continuing across the columns, you'll see that 4,479,0OO people were
separated from their spouses, 19,881,000 were divorced, and 13,665,000 were wid-
owed, and an additional 60,016,000 were never married. In the next-to-last column,
the number of never-married people is converted to a percentage: 28.1 percent.
Finally, the last column shows the percentage of never-married people in 1970:
24.9o/o. These last two columns show us that the number of unmarried people in the
United States rose 3.2 percentage points since 1970.
Now that you know how to read the table, examine it carefully to see the kinds of
stories it tells. \A/hat does the table show you, for example, about the percentage of mar-
ried people age 25-29 in 1970 versus 2OOO? \\4rat does it show about different age-
related pattems of marriage in males and females? By showing you that Americans are
waiting much later in life to get married, a table like this initiates many causal questions ¿
for analysis and argument. \Aihat has happened n American culture between 1970 and
2000 to explain the startling difference in the percentage of married people within, say,
the 20-24 age bracket? In 2000 only 22 percent of people in this age bracket were
married (we converted 'hnmarried" to "marned" by subtracting 78.3 foom 100).
However, in 1970, 55 percent of people in this age bracket were married.
IA
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't94 PART 3 Analyzing Arguments

using a GraPh to Tell a StotiY

Tábleg.2,aswehaveseen,tellsthestoryofhowAmericansarepostponingmarriage'
the dense columns of numbers' To focus
However, one has to tease out the story irom
you can create a graph'
f."V tt"w *¿ -J" it powerful$immediate'
"" "
which you want to
Bar Graphs Suppose you are wliting an argument -in
show that tft" p"r."niug" of maried i"o-""
in the 2O-Zg age bracket has
this story through a bar graph
dropped significantly sin"ce 1970. You could tell
(Figure 9.17)'
Bargraphsusebarsofvaryinglength'extendingeitherhorizontallyorverti-
cally, to contrast t*o o, q"*ñU"t' As.with any graphic presentation' you must
-á* of bar graphi' tille.: readers what is be-
create a comprehensit" titi"' Lt th" tus" tl
hav'e "iegends," which explain what the
ing compare¿ to wrral tuost bar graphs also from each
,é'prár"nt. Bars are typically distinguished
different features
"";;^;;;t;
other by use of difl'erent-.álorr, shades, or
patterns of crosshatching' The special
make quick comparisons'
pá**lf bar graphs i, tttut they can help reaáers

Percent
100

l--l Married Females, 20-24

l--l Married Females, 25-29

0
1g7O 2000

7 Percentage of married females ages 20-29 1970 and 2000

FIGURE 9.1 '
Survey' N4arch 2000
source: tJ.S.Census Bureau, Current Populat¡on

PieChartsAnotherviüdkindofgraphisapiechar-tgrcirclegraph,whichdepicts
fo'm of slices' Pie charts are a favorite
different percentages of-u-iotA (tfre ñlei in the
diúded up' Suppose' for example' that
way of depicting tf"t" *af O*o * u.*h:I". are women age
io notice the high percentage of widows among
ñ |u,|dá yo,i, ..ud"r, chart Fig.o" 9.18)based on the data in
6b and order. To do ,o, ;; .oJá "."ut" á pie how the whole
g.2. As you can see, a p1e chart shóws at a glance
the last row of Táble
of pie charts diminishes as
of something is divideJ irto"regm"nts Th¿ effectiveness if you include more
you add more slices. h;;l
cas?s, you,ll begrn to confuse readers

than five or six slices.

 CHAPTER 9 Analyz¡ng V¡sual Arguments r95

o
15

j-
St
8-
IE Married, SPouse
Absent
:h
al
FIGURE 9.18 Marital status 0f females age 65 and 01der,2000
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Populotion Survey,
N4arch 2000'

Line Graphs Another powerful quantitativg graphic is a line graph, which

converts
them to create flat, rising'
numerical data into u ,"ri", of poinü on a grid and connects
of the relationship between the variables
or falling lines. The result gives us a pictuie
.eptet"ttt"d on the horizontal and vefical axes'
Suppose you wanted to tell the story of the rising number of
separated/divorced
*o-"r, ," Utrá U.S. population. Using Table 9.2, you can calculatg the percentage of
separated/divorc"d't"-utes in 200"0 by adding the nul!91 of separated Jemales
females (11,309,000) and diüding that sum
(z,oot,ooo) and the number of divorced
üy the total number of females (110,660,000). The result is 12'6 percent' You can
1980, and 1970 by looking at u.s. census data
-ak" tn" same calculations for 1990,
fro- ¡ror" years (available on the Web or in your library). The resulting line graph is
shown in Figure 9.19.
To detennine what this graph is telting you, you need to clariff what's
repre-
thé horizontal axis of a graph contains the
sented on the two axes. By Convention,
no surprises-what researchers call the "inde-
predictable, known variabie that has
jendent variable." In this case the honzontal axis represents the years 1970-2000
lts
itrung"a predictably in chronological order. The vertical axis contains the
unpre-
ite the "dependent
dictable variable that forrns the giaph's story-what researchers call
rat curwe tells
OP variable"-in this case, the perceñtage of divórced females' The ascending
ó"
in the story at a glance.
(and hence the rhetorical effect)
rle Note that with line graphs the steepness of a slope
can be manipulated by tt" intervals óhot.t] for üe vertical axis. Figure 9'19 shows
AS
verlical intervals of 2 percent The slope could be made less dramatic by choosing
)re
intervals of, say, 10 percent and more dramatic br- choosing intervals of 1 percent'
196 PART 3 Analyzing Arguments

Percent

1970 1980 1990 2000

F¡GURE 9.19 Percentage of females age 15 and older who are separaied or divorced, 1970-2000
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Populat¡on Survey, March 2000.

Incorporating Graphics into Your Argurnent

Today writers working with quantitative data usually use graphing software that auto-
matically creates tables, graphs, or charh from data entered into the cells of a spread-
sheet. For college papers, some instructors may allow you to make your graphs with
pencil and ruler and paste them into your document.

Designing the Graphic When you design your graphic, your goal is to have
a specific rhetorical effect on your readers, not to demonstrate all the bells and
whistles available on your software. Adding extraneous data in the graph or chart or
using such features as a three-dimensional effect can often distract from the story you
are trying to tell. Keep the graphic as uncluttered and simple as possible and design it
so that it reinforces the point you are making.

Numbering, Latreling, and Titling the Graphic In newspapers and popular

magazines, writers often include graphics in boxes or sidebars without specifically
referring to them in the text itself. However, in academic or professional workplace
writing, graphics are always labeled, numbered, titled, and referred to directly in the
text. By convention, tables are listed as "Tábles," u'hereas line graphs, bar graphs, pie
charh, or any other kinds of drawings or photographs are labeled as "Figures."
Suppose you create a document that includes four graplucs-a table, a bar graph, a pie
chart, and a photograph. The table would be labeled as Table 1. The rest would be
labeled as Figure 1, Figure 2, and Figure 3.
 CHAPTER 9 AnalYztng Vlsl:

In addition to numbering and labeling, every graphic needs a compreh:r:s-- -"':

:
that explains Íülly what infoñnation is being displayed. Look b.ack.over
üe :¿:: -' '" 'r
inforrnation in the ::¡-': -- - '
-
figures in this ch-apter and compare their titles to the '
liie graph showing changes over time, for example, a typical title $i1 ,r1r:'r-.'' r-:
infoÁaiion on both the hárizontal and veftical axes and the years co\-eretl -' ¡-:::r'
3a:
if \\hell Lr '':1: a
also have a "legend" explaining how the bars are coded necessary-.

the graphic intó your o"^ t""t, ¡" consistent in where you place the ntle-eiú'r a: - ''
'
the graphic or below it.

Referencing the Graphic in Your Text Academic and professional

ulters fr-¡Lll:i!\ ¿
referencing"conventión called. independent redundancg. The general rule is tl¡l's: the
the text; the text should be understandable
$aphic shódd be understandable without ül üe
iitiro.rt the graphic; the text should repeat the most imporlant informahon
graphic. An example is shown in Figure 9.20'

Writet
Elderlywomenarelikelytoneedmoresocialservices]-
than men because they are more likel-y to live alone'
As shown in Fiqure 1, only 41 percent of women over- Referettce: !i::

sixty-five live with their spouses, and 45 Percent of-l Re¡tents tltt ^::

hromen are widowed. In contrast, 74 percent of men overf

htfot llnt¡1.i1 :)
P-::'t0 sixty-five live with their spouses while only 14 per- the.ftgtu'e

cent are widowed. These differences-caused largely by

the longer life expectancy of women and by men's ten--l Cowtects tli,
dency to marry women younger than themselves-mean that lL inforntntíoii
-r-:at auto- h/omen are more apt than men to face old age alone ' -l
poirtt

:: " spread-
rlhs with Fig. 1. Marltaf Status of Males and Females' Ages 65- Title
and Older, 2000
Males Females
-, ro have Never lvlarried Never Married
::lls ald separated or 4o/o Separated or 4%
'- :hart or Divorced Divorced
:-ilry yoü 7o/o 8o/o

, lesign it Widowed Married Spo-s:

L4o/o Present
Alrt
Married Spouse
Absent
: popular to/o
,r.cficallY Married Spouse
''" Present Married Spouse
-rkplace Absent
7 4o/o
:'; in the
rrphs, pie source
'- rgures." Source¡ "America's Families and Living Arrangements: Population
characteristics, U.S. census Bureau, 2000 -
¡*::h. a pie
ruld be FIGURE 9.20 Example of a student text with a referenced graph
 198 PART 3 Analyzing Arguments

Conclusion
Inthischapterwehaveexplainedthechallengeand-powerofusingvisualsinargu- layout' color'
examined u"" of frsual désign-use of type,
ments. we have
"o*poir*t in ar-
,t how these ;ñ;;"* cal be us"e.{{or persuasive effect
and images-*¿ o\N1]
thát depend on effectrve
guments. w" ;;;';ro áescribed the Jrgumentalive seTes cartoons' and Web pages-
use of uir'¿r-iolrJ, *J fil;r, advocaJy advertisements,Finally, we showed you that
or lflli"J
and invited you to produce yorrr ".gu-*t
*a aramatic wav' Parrrcularly we
graphics can t;ll u - fu;ü;;lt:"q and line graphs, and showed
"l-"'lt'*'y
rh""tu;;;"s
"
of tablés, uo;upttr, p1e. charts,
explained prose'
reference graphics in your own
you how to i"to'pátute into and

Rhetorical Analysis'
ASSIGNMENT A Visual Argument
a Poster Argument' or a Microtheme
li$*-n* Llsing Quantitative Data
4::¡lli'liri,,.,, optionl:WritingaRhetoricalAnalysisofaVisualArgumentWriteathesis-
essay in which you ou*ln"
the rhátorical effectiveness of a
:l;; driven rhetorical anatysis"o"" or one specified by
;li:l;li,r
visual argument, eiüer Jf *t" visui arguments in this text
l;,i-,: audience of your
stated, dirJct your analy{s to
an
your instructor. unless *il;ril to which
establish the Lgumentátive conversation
classmates. In your mkoduction, the visual
iririiiriiii''' this argument l, .ort iurtirg Bleilv
,r**l"iti.
argrment and describe
of the argument
':,iüii''""' two or Áore ,hetárical features
text. present your thesis, hrghlighting argument' To de-
o. irráir".tlueness of this
that you find central to thé efiectiveness features and details
velop and supporr rorr"o* i"'ni-. V9"
*U n""i to include üsual
well as shoft quo-
traming, and special etfects) as
(such as color. design.;;;;gle.
i"rion, from any ""tUut parts of the argumenL

C)ntion2:APosterArgumentWorkingwiththeideaforaposterargumentthatyou concepts and prin-

on pages f gf , us" the üsual-áesign
explored in For Class óf,.urrion and the
ciples present"a o,' pugo 189._19ó,
y"* '"a"'',arrding of visual argument
póa"t a poster argument thal"
genre o[ posler arguments' and y*i:y.:^::"titity 'o crry' Try o$ th" draft of your
can be displayed on your campus
o' i" yo"' ioú "i
part tr yo* t*g"t Based on these indi-
posl"er argument on plái'r" *rtá *e "*q"l:t
pre-
üduats. suggesüons
tn! .r"rty and impact of this visual argumenL'
;il;;;G
p*" u finilersion of your poster argument'

option3:AMicrothemeUsingaQuantitativeGraphicWriteamicrothemethat table pro-

ftom t*¡t" .9'2 ot tooT,T:" other
tells a story ¡ur"¿ o"'aliul""ia9'i at least one
by you. Include in your microtheme
vided by your instructá, á.'to.at"d
quantitative graphic tt"¡f", f-" $upll'
b* gtñ:p"-:lid whilh should be labeled
andreferencedaccordingtostarrdard"o,,u",'tio,',.Useasamodeltheshortpiece
tftát* in Figure 9'2O on Page 199' I
g0 to
a'ARsrlN writing reading and research res'urces,
-+* rq flffi s,=n iffil For additional
Ltltlly ,Wi www.mycomplab.com
 Fc '

t0,.An lntroduttion to ther Ty, peÉ.of,,C]áims

11 Definitional Arguments
12 Causal Arguments
13 ,Resemblánce ArgumQllfg ': ': ":' :: ,: :

14 Evaluation and EthicalArguments ''

.SIS- 15 ProposalArguments
_,f a
by'
,-)Ltr

lch
,'.ral ';l:i

:tlt ¡¡ti

:1e-
.aLls
-10-

: olr
t-ln-
rl-re
:tlat
'liLr
:rcli-
:tte-

1ti

inat
.tfo- .ff
'111e
jii
i:::..;::.,rj'
-led € r:!1

:ece ::: .lrre people to make personal appeals to the

A shortage of body organs ancl long waiting lists ha|e 1rr.1
public on billboards like this one. ln Chapter 14' a reaclrs : : - -- f! iirquing
L'r!tL,LL'5 exertlse on pages 308-309 ask
you to think about the evaluaiion and ethical issues ln'' ¡'-- ::.=-:l:g:Olq :or organs and in the selling and
üading of body organs.
l3 t0
199
 ffi $ex*,rm ff, *.ffiffi *ffi"
#W
In Parts one, Two, and rhree of this text, we showed how argument entails
both
inqurry and persuasion. we explained strategies for creating"a compelling struc-
ture of reasons and eüdence for your arguments (rogos), r* h"rd"g yo,, argu-
ments to the beliefs and values of your audience (pathos), and for Átablrrhi"g
your credibility and trustÍülness (ethos). We also explarned how to do a rhetorical
analysis of both verbal and üsual texts.
Now in Part Fou_r we examine arguments in depth by explaining five types
of claims, each type having its own characteristic puu".^ of derretopment"and
suppoft. Because almost all arguments use one or more of these
fpei of claims
as "moves" or building blocks, knowing how to clevelop each claiá-type
will ad_
vance your skills in argument. The claims we examine in part Four are
related
to an ancient rhetorical concept called s/zzsrs, foom a Greek term meaning
"stand," as in "to take a stand on something." There a'e many competing theol
ries of stasis, so no two rhetoricians discuss stasis in exactly th" ,u-.
*uy. nrt
all the theories have valuable components in common.
In Part Four we present our own version of stasis theory, or, to use
more
ordrnary language, our own approach to argument based on the
types of
claims. understanding types of claims wilr pay off for you in two
ways:
t' It will help you focus an argument, generate ideas for it, and structure it
persuasively.
*: It will increase your flexibility as an arguer by showing you how most
arguments are hybrids of different claim types working iogether.

An üv*rview ef ühe "fype$ $f Clmims

To appreciate what a study of claim tl,pes can do, imagine one
of those heated
but fiustrating arguments in yhich the question at issuJkeeps shifting.
Everyone
talks at cross-purposes,- each_ speakerb point urconn""t"d to the preüous
speaker's suppose your heated discussion is about use of steroids. you
might get
such a discussion back on track if one penson says: "Hold it for a moment.
\A{hat
.*",y" ?tuully arguing about here? Are we arguing about whether steroids are a
health risk or whether steroids shourd be ba¡red Í'om sports? These
are two dif_
ferent issues. we can't debate both at once." \\hether she recognizes
it or not,
this person is applying the concept of craim
fpes to get the arfrrment focused.
200
 CHAPTER 10 An lntroduction to the Types of Claims 2O1

To understand how clarm t¡pes wor( let's retum to the concept of stasis. A stasrs is al
issue or question that focuses a point of disagreement. You and your audience ma\- agree
on the answer to question A and so have nothing to argue about. Lrkewise )rou nlav agree
on the answer to question B. But on question C you disagree. Question C corutitutes a sta-
sis where you and your audience diverge. It is the place where disagreement begirx. uüere
as an arguer you take a stand against another view. Thus you and your audience may
agree that steroids, if used carefi.rlly under a physician's supervision, pose few long-term
health risks but still disagree on whether steroids should be banned ffom sports. This last
issue constitutes a stasis, the point where you and your audience part company.
both Rhetoriciars have discovered that the krrds of questions that diüde people have clas-
truc- sifiable pattems. In this text we identify five broad t¡pes of claims-each type originating in
ryu- a different kind of quesüon. The following chart gives you a quick overview of these five
hing t¡pes of claims, each of which is developed in more detail in subsequent chapters in Part
rical Four. It also shows you a typical structure for each t¡pe of argument. Note that the first
three claim types concem questions of nuth or reality, whereas the last two concem ques-
ipes tions of value. You'll appreciate the significance of this distinction as this chapter progresses.
and
rims
ad-
Claims about Reality, Truth, or the Way Things Are
lted
ring r-laim TWe and Examples of Issue TJpical Methods for Structuring
leo- tleneric Question Questions an Argument
But - m
arguments:
=inrtional 1z Is sleep deprivation torture? Create a definition
,::.or categorg does this thing s Is an expert üdeo game player an that establishes crite-
rore :--.'tng? athlete? úa for the category.
;of -:apter 11) Use examples to show
how the contested case
meets the criteria.
eit
.'.sa1 arguments: What are ¿t \\4rat are the causes of autism? Explain the links in a
rost
-.a aalses or consequences w \Vhat might be the consequences of causal chain going
'iui.s phenomenon'? requiring a national ID card? from cause to effect.
rapter 12) lorl
Speculate about causes
(consequences) or pro-
pose a surprising
cause (consequence).
ted
)ne ,-..;emblance arguments : Is opposition to gay marriage like Let the analogy or
Ius
. ¡that is this thing similar? opposition to inter"racial marriage? precedent itself create
-hapter 13) Is steroid use to improle the desired rhetorical-
get
strength similar to LASIK surgery effect. [or]
hat
to improve üsion? Elaborate on the rele-
ea vant similarifies
lif- betlveen the given
rot, case and the analogy
ed. or precedent.
 2OZ PART 4 Arguments in Depth

Claims about Values

Claim T¡pe and
Examples of Issue
Generic
euestion
Eva.luation and
Questioins
3o::" itrerhods ro"
an A4guement
siiililg
ethical ffi
argumenb: Wat Is behavior modification
ís the a ;s Estabfish the cnteria
wortlt or ualue of for anxiery? lor
(Lhapter 14)
this tttino? .
ffi ,*^o.:o :heTlry
Is it ethical ¡o good or ..ethical.. a
u.. ,t".áiA, in member
sports? h,
class or .ut"e;;.
*" ."i
Use exaTples lo
show irow me
Proposal axgaments contested case
actton sl¿ould we
Wha t 6 the United Shk,
meeh the critena.
fuke) -s.ho,r/d
enact a
(Chapter 15)
*- flgr1na¡er
healrh care system? _* Yrk. rhe problem vivid.
ro sotve the problem txplain your solution.
of prison *:
should we legalize /*qry your soludon by s¡ow-
.<rvercrowding
possession of drugs?
rg hg* ir is mo¡ivareá
bv
Pnnciple, by goocl conse_'
quences, or by
resemblance to
a preüoirs action the
aucirence
approves.

I r ffi FOR CIAsS DlscusslnN ta^_t,¿

working Types orcraims
", "':'[t":'9N or -.ldenürving
rn small gro
which cjim l"llt: esti o ns an d
á r,fr i il d ecic, e
o,
""
r shou,d ;; "fi ;?;ii{iiü,
:,,i ;:T'"-,i,TÍ
rwo categori;;:':;d;"
i""i"ü,J'^, :u
l:'#,Jffi::
rtap or
;:l::,:l^T
tui.i"g Add;.aJJ uc permtfted in
'-'lvttts ,!o this state
3 J:
? ]: l,r.-g rncrease concenhat i' park?
3. Will *:;.;;'r-*,'^ro
^ffi?i1::T:1f"3:ffrtT"o
[XTl:i Jfl T ." # h

Í ¡;,1:o:.*,i
r. "" " J-f5'tri#{x
vvere the temOrist
i ¿ [f, i ll I "u,¡nsz
of septembe r
^ oi war) or rnore ,,r.111"kt
11. 2001.more
* earthqua-ke (a natural
rike pe:
disasrer)? --rl Harbor (an acr
9 _Ho*;¡r#;;';;:"
*':
i {'n::ff :tk ;::H:{ü,:ü'i"q fi :;,'.fl?r "'' "r"m
, i ftfi,'f: i Jfr *.ftr;,;:.dffiT ;;:" - " sp.ft s a¡e nas ?

couples who don't marriage more iikery

rrve together ? " to divorce than
É$Hrl

rHt#, to Foeus an Argumenr

f;tf;,mr:s and Generare
3:P PloJlfed an overyrew of rhe
benelits of this rvpes of
o clarms. rte
k¡owl_d;;;, J,_,^",,,yp"r,
Firsl or all"ru.,¿Ára,t;; now show some ofuhe
an ai"sumenr ¡v *mrn19l to ¿et",mlnl*i'-l1*ttts ]j;|"il*"#Jg'
clarm rypes
*,, n",o
ence. \A4here doyou;J*
d you.,,;;;;;';;:T j
n"ri""rl
:lffi $ffiT ##i Ll[*i,;
 CHAPTER 10 An lntroduction to the Types of CIaims 203

issue? second, it will help you generate ideas for your argument by suggesting the
kinds of reasons, examples, and eüdence you'll need.
To illustrate, let's take a hypothetical case-one Isaac Charles Little (affectronately
known as I. C. Little), who desires to chuck his contact lenses and undergo the ,,erg
LASIK procedure to cure his nearsightedness. LASIK, or laser in-situ keratomileusis. is
a surgical treatment for myopia. Someümes known as "flap and, zap" surgery, it tr-
volves using a laser to cut a thin layer of the cornea and thén flattening it. it's usually
not covered by insurance and is quite expensive.
I. c. Little has two different arguments he'd like to make: (1) he'd like to talk his
parents into helping him pay for the procedure, and (z) he'd like to join with others
who are trying to convince insurance companies that the LASIK procedure should be
covered under standard medical insurance policies. In the discussions that follow, note
how the five types of claims can help I. C. identifz points of disagreement for each au-
dience and simultaneously suggest lines of argument for persuáding each one. Note,
too, how the questions at issue vary for each audience.

Making the TASIK Argument to Parents

First imagine what might be at stake in I. C.'s discussions with his parents. Here is how
thinking about claim types will help him generate ideas:

w Definítion argument;Because I. c.'s parents will be concerned about the safety of

LASIK surgery, the first stasis for I. C.'s argument is a question about categoiies:
Is LASIK a safe procedure? I. c.'s mom has read about serious compliátions
from LASIK and has also heard that ophthalmologists prefer patients to be at
least in their midtwenties or older, so I. C. knows he will have to persuade her
that the procedure is safe for twenty-year-olds.
w Causal argument: Both parents will question I. C.'s underlying motivation for seek-
ing this surgery. "why do you want this LASIK procedure?; they will ask. (I. c.'s
dad, who has worn eyeglasses all his life, will not be swayed by cosmetic desires.
"If you don't like contacts," he will say, 'Just wear glasses.,,) Here I. C. needs to
argue the good consequences of LASIK. Perma-nently correcüng his nearsighted-
ness will improve his quaiity of life and even his academic and professional
rt options. I. C. decides to emphasize his desire for an active, outdoor life, and espe-
cially his passion for water sports, where his need for contacts is a serious handi-
cap. He is even thinking of majoring in marine biology, so LASIK surgery would
help him professionally. He says that wearing scuba eqtripment is easier without
worrying about contact lenses or conective goggles.
tx Resemblance argument: I. c. can't think of any resemblance questions at issue.
'w Eualuation
argument; when the pluses and minuses are weighed, is LASIK a
good way to treat nearsightedness? Is it also a good way for thé parents to spend
family money? would the resulh of the surgery be beneficial énough to justiff
the cost and the risks? In terms of costs, I. C. might argue that trtougn trre
"uen
204 PART 4 Arguments in Depth

procedure is initially
expensive (from
$1,000 to $4,000), over the
by no1 ,,"eáing gtasses years he w'l
iliiffiTr or conracrs. The co
camping .:i:ru,# gl tm;¿*:'#;Tff l: ;:t1litdíT
il"h:,:t#;? ;-;" ;;'' rh e u nrs
* Proposal
ril:$"J]f "*ill,, " ""
"ntion e r,r, á -.
e be caus
orgrnrrt. Should t. ó.., p*"nt, "¿
pay for a LASIK nrnce¡r,,*o ,^ *^_- ,,
ff fr ff #Hiffi T::J#i1,",i::f *';";;"ioi"?i"i#ff"'iffi
This example shows
'::J:?:,*:;
that writers often need
order ro make craims to argue issues of reality
uoori uJr"r. ürrrt, pr*"rü.".";:T:a. and truth in
vince his parenh,(l)
consequences of
t*,
-th"
p.";"J*",ir'*j""?o*",ü;'"rgument),wourd need ro con_
(causar argum .1he
procedure w";ilr" n"n"n"rJ ,".'.J#onu'y
(2) that the
enr). *á r: I ;;; #ffi :nts ou r,""i!.r,. *
una proflessionallv
o" " -rij r*" u arion urzu.n.ntj.
,?lx"fil,ili;'jl-t "ür" '"'p"il"::,'i, p*"?u'ior,illin" shourd havé LAsrrc
arguments in thil :iT:*t ]'"tp.(proposal'ltÁj' Á],j; ;ii ;;
addressingnnn*l"TáL'.:r'*Trowei-orderil;'i.I;ol'trilrff tl,:;ilJtrJij;
Making the L{SIK Argument
to fnsrrrnnr¡p r-a*--__-.
#:fr "J::T#HIy 1,rocused""o"'",oo,l1LT"ll"..,iffiffi
types to idenlifu different ,chaudiences.
wants to p"rru"a* inl queslions u, irrrl.
L",.s suppose I. c.
companies to co-ver
rur,on,.nrü""átlrj;t'*t" the LASIK
0."."r*". He imagines
tlfi::t'ffi 'il:':#"#:f l.;:lh--J'::;::"fi l;r4im3-d;ffi1'frg:
a qrgument; For
!3finition this audience
(rhey c, ¡"r¡"i-,r,"iTe.sri i::,::1:
shareJ 1l

iklj;ff il,-:ffT:ltrfl:
q:;;H¡;o"iii,,1,*"surgery,,(as
.T:1!*:"":frXtr.:'::,,:l*1;lf,'"'f
tends)?r,"a"ñ,,¡o,"r.q,á,,á"""',#tl{i:;".{lH,:f¿l*[1ji"*";
his audience thar LASIK
;",;* tirir"'rr,-r",y ár..r"J"iry-;ustrriaute
:';3,i1#,y surge¡r..
. ilfi iiil;Til;Hiffi i; H H, #ji Jí J" il':" r. jusr i ri ab, e- s u

í:::::';r;;T,*ryi;;ffiffi;'J;*,1o insurance companies and ro rhe

;::tríilTt#'fHídiH'i^'3fr
.or eye ffi :{i,fria:jf.n"f""ñn#
cost of insuran;",
contacts, ex€rms, *a gf*r"ri ü", _, happen to thá
w qrgument..Does
leymttalce LASIK more
insurance) o. piárti" surgery to repair a faceJift (not covered
u .'"flt:t:tble
1 palate /cor.ered by
by rnsurance.)?
 CHAPTER 10 An lntroduction to the Types of Ciaims zo5

Eualuation argument:Would it be good for society as a whole if insurance companes

had to pay for LASIK?
Proposal argument: Should insurance companies be required to cover LASIK?

As this analysis shows, the questions at issue change when you consider a different
audience. Now the chief question at issue is definition: Is LASIK cosmetic surgery or
medically justifiable surgery? I. C. does not need to argue that the surgery is safe
(a major concern for his parents); instead he must establish criteria for "medically
justifiable surgery" and then argue that LASIK meets these criteria. Again note how
the higher-order issues of value depend on resolving one or more lower-order issues
of reality and truth.
Note also that any of the claim type examples just described could be used as
the major focus of an argument. If I. C. were not concerned about a values issue
(his proposal claims), he might tackle only a reality/fruth issue. He could, for
example, focus an entire argument on a definition question about categories: "Is
LASIK safe?" (an argument requiring him to research the medical literature).
Likewise he could write a causal argument focusing on what might happen to
optometrists and eyeglass manufacturers if the insurance industry decided to cover
LASIK.
The key insight here is that when you develop an argument, you may have to
work through issues of reality and truth before you can tackle a values issue and argue
for change or action. Before you embark on writing an evaluation or proposal argu-
ment, you must first consider whether you need to resolve a lower-order claim based
on reality and truth.

Hybrid Arguments: How Claim Tlrpes Work Together

in Argunnents
As the LASIK example shows, hybrid arguments can be built from different claim
types. A writer might develop a proposal argument with a causal subargument in one
section, a resemblance subargument in another section, and an evaluation subargu-
ment in still another section. Although the overarching proposal argument follows the
typical shrrcture of a proposal, each of the subsections follows a typical structure for
its own claim type.

Some Examples of Hybrid Arguments

The examples on page 206 show how these combinations of claim types can play out
in actual arguments. (For more examples of these kinds of hybrid arguments, see Chapter
15, pages 318-320, where we e"plain hou' lon'er-order claims about reality and truth
can suppor"t higher-order claims about values.)
 CHAPTER 10 An lntroduction to the Types oí Claims 207

No.02-3010
ln the
United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuil
INTERACTIVE DIGITAL SOFTWARE ASS'N, et al.
Plaintiffs - Appellants,
V.
tms ST. LOUIS COUNTY, et al.

Defendants - Appellees
BRIEF AMICI CURIAE OF THIRTY-THREE MEDIA SCHOLARS
IN SUPPORT OF APPEIIANTS, AND SUPPORTING REVERSAT

CONTENTS
TABLE OF AUTHORITIES

INTEREST OT THE AMICI CURIAE ,..

SUMMARY OF ARCUMENT .............

tms ARCUMENT

I. RESEARCH ON VIOLENT VIDEO CAMES HAS NOT DEMONSTRATED

REAL-WORLD HARM

II. MEDIA-EFFECTS RESEARCH OVERALL HAS NOT DEMONSTRATED

THAT VIOLENT ENTERTAINMENT CAUSES REAL-WORLD HARM ....,.,............. 6

A. Most Studies Have Negative Results .............. 6

B. Occasional Positive Results Do Not Establish Real-World Harm .......... 12
III. THE FUNCTIONS OF FANTASY VIOLENCE ......,., 15
CONCLUSION 21

mpus APPENDIX: BIOCRAPHIES OF THE AM lcl

;sible
ffirl
s our
rriter
erent An Extended Example of a Hybrid Argument
As the preüous examples illustrate, different claim types often serve as building blocks
ppos- for larger arguments. We ask you now to consider a more extended example. Read ihe
l1Ors. following op-ed piece arguing the proposal claim that "New York City should bari car
alarms." Note how the reasons are different claim-type subarguments that develop the
overall proposal claim.
,n III As you can see, the thesis of Friedman's op-ed piece is a proposal claim, and the
ntasy article follows the typical problem-solution structure of proposal arguments.
Although the whole argument follows a proposal shape, the individual pieces-the
talnst various subarguments that suppod the maln argument-comprise different kinds of
claim types with their own characteristic str-r-rctures.
208 PART 4 Arguments in Depth

.*11 Thct Noise for Nothing

AARONFNIEOMÁN

Main proposal claim: Early next year, the NewYork City Council is supposed to hold a final
City Council should hearing on legislation that would silence the most hated of urban noises:
ban car alarms the car alarm. With similar measures having failed in the past, and with
Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg withholding his support for the latest bill,
tet's hope the Council does right by the citizens it represents.
Reason I'n ousing sleeP-
definitional claim ers, disturbing readers, interrupting conversations and contributing to
supported with quality-of-life concerns that propel many weary residents to abandon the
examples: Car
city for the suburbs. According to the Census Bureau, more New Yorkers
alarms belong in the
category of things are now bothered by traffic noise, including car alarms, than by any other
that harass aspect of city life, including crime or the condition of schools.
So there must be a compelling reason for us to endure all this aggtava-
tion, right? ly, no. Many car manufacturers, criminologists and
Reason 2: An When the nonprofit Highway
evaluation claim Loss Data Institute surveyed insurance-claims data from 73 million vehi-
cles nationwide in 1997, they concluded that cars with alarms "show no
overall reduction in theft losses" compared with cars without alarms.
Criteria and evidence There are two reasons they don't
supporting the blarine sirens are false al set off by passing traffic, the jostling of
evaluation claim urban life or nothing at all. City dwellers quickly learn to disregard these
cars crying wolf; a recent national survey by the Progressive Insurance
Company found that fewer than 1 percent of respondents would call the
police upon hearing an alarm.
s In 1992, a car alarm industry spokesman, Darrell Issa (if you know his
name that's because he would later spearhead the recall of Gov. Gray Davis
in California), told the New York City Council that an alarm is effective
"only in areas where the sound causes the dispatch ofthe police or attracts
the owner's attention." In New York, this iust doesn't happen.
Car alarms also fail for a second reason: they are easy to disable. Most
stolen cars are taken by professional car thieves, and they know how to deacti-
vate an alarm injust a few seconds.
Reason 3: A causal The
claim developed New York Police Departrnent, in its 1994 booklet "Police Strategy No. 5,"
with causal Iinks explains how alarms (which "frequently go off for no apparent reason") can
shatter the sense of civility that makes a community safe. As one of the
"signs that no one cares," the department wrote, car alarms "invite both fur-
ther disorder and serious crime."
I've seen some of my neighbors in Washington Heights illustrate this by
taking revenge on alarmed cars: puncfuring tires, even throwing a toaster
 CHAPTER 10 An lntroduction to the Types of Claims 2O9

oven through a windshield. False alarms enrage otherwise 1awful citizens.

Humorous and alienate the very people car owners depend on to call the police. In
resemblance claim other words, célat deterring theft
jums up problem
.,1ainproposal.lui*,asproposedbythesponsorsoftheCiry
'tstated as evalution Council legislation, John Liu and Eva Moskowitz. The police could simply
-ajtlandSUpported@Thiswouldbeagreatimprovementoverthe
-.ihreecriteria +
current laws, which include limiting audible alarms to three minutes-
something that has proved to be impossible to enforce.
more than 50 car alarm installation
shops throughout the city have already pledged to disable alarms at no
cost, according to a survey by the Center for Automotive Security
Innovation.
is a viable alternative People worried about protecting their
cars can buy what are called silent engine immobilizers. Many European
cars and virtually every new General Motors and Ford vehicle use the
technology, in which a computer chip in the ignition key communicates
with the engine. Without the key, the only way to steal the car is to tow it
away, something most thieves don't have the time for. In the meantime, the
rest of us could finally get some sleep.

Thus writers enlist other claim-type subarguments in building main arguments.

This knowledge can help you increase your flexibility and effectiveness as an arguer. It
encourages you to become skilled at four different kinds of arguers' "moves": (1) provid-
ing examples and eüdence to support a simple categorical claim; (2) using a criteria-
match strategy to support a definition or evaluation claim; (3) showing links in a causal
chain to support a cause/consequence claim; or (4) using analogies and precedents to
support a resemblance claim.
In the following chapters in Part Four, we discuss each of the clarm types in more
detail, showing you how they work and how you can develop skills and strategies for
supporting each type of claim.

Frll'soN
d*fft tr-h '. ffi For additional writing reading, and research resources, g0 to
tLri I ilJ
$-,ffi
rffi www.mycomprab.com