Preventive Veterinary Medicine 90 (2009) 268–273

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Preventive Veterinary Medicine

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/prevetmed

Medicinal plants used in British Columbia, Canada for reproductive health

in pets
Cheryl Lans a,*, Nancy Turner b, Gerhard Brauer c, Tonya Khan d
a
PO Box 72045, Vancouver, British Columbia V6R 4P2, Canada
b
University of Victoria, School of Environmental Studies, British Columbia V8W 2Y2, Canada
c
University of Victoria, School of Health Information Science, British Columbia V8W 3P5, Canada
d
North Vancouver, British Columbia V7P 1S8, Canada

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: In 2003, semi-structured interviews were conducted in British Columbia, Canada with
Received 22 January 2008
participants obtained using a purposive sample on the ethnoveterinary remedies used for
Received in revised form 29 April 2009
animals. Twenty-nine participants provided the information in this paper on the
Accepted 4 May 2009
ethnoveterinary remedies used for reproductive health in dogs and cats. The plants used
for pregnancy support and milk production in pets were raspberry-leaf (Rubus idaeus),
Keywords:
Reproductive health motherwort (Leonurus cardiaca), flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) and ginger (Zingiber
Pets officinale). Uterine infections were treated with black cohosh (Actaea racemosa) and
Ethnoveterinary medicine goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis). Most of the studies conducted on these plants have not
British Columbia been conducted on companion animals.
ß 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Background compounds (flavonoids and lignans such as secoisolaricir-

Ethnoveterinary medicine focuses on animal keepers’
knowledge and approaches to animal health care and
production. It includes information on diseases and their
control; remedies and clinical practices for treatment and
prevention; management strategies and spiritual elements
among others (Mathias, 2004). Participatory research on
the ethnoveterinary remedies used in British Columbia,
Canada (BC) by pet owners, holistic veterinarians and
farmers was begun in 2003 (Lans et al., 2006). These
remedies were then documented and a literature review
was conducted. This paper focuses on the plants used for
reproductive health in cats and dogs.
Plants have been used to influence fertility since
antiquity (Simpson et al., 2001). Some plant-derived
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: cher2lans@netscape.net (C. Lans), nturner@uvic.ca
(N. Turner).
esinol from flaxseed and raspberry) can mimic the biologic
effects of endogenous hormones by binding to their
nuclear receptor or regulating the activities of key enzymes
of their metabolisms: cytochrome P450 aromatase; 17-
betahydroxysteroid deshydrogenase (Kurzer and Xu,
1997; Dixon, 2004). The estrogenic effects of some of
these compounds might be related to the stimulation of
the hypothalamus–pituitary complex with the resulting
increase in follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), which then
induces ovarian steroidogenesis and estradiol synthesis
(Shibeshi et al., 2006). The estrogenic potential of certain
plants is said to be related to the direct activity of their
‘‘estrogen-like’’ compounds on target organs or to an
indirect effect through stimulation of FSH production or
through the activity of ‘‘FSH-like’’ compounds in the
extract of plants. There are plant flavanoids with proven
estrogenic potential that act by inhibiting aromatase
activity in various tissues (Telefo et al., 2004; Malini
et al., 1985; Kanjanapothi et al., 1981). Linoleic acid (found
in flaxseed, ginger rhizome and raspberry seeds) can

0167-5877/$ – see front matter ß 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2009.05.002
 C. Lans et al. / Preventive Veterinary Medicine 90 (2009) 268–273
Table 1
Treatments and literature review of plants used for reproductive health in pets in British Columbia.
Scientific name Use
Actaea racemosa Black cohosh rhizome was used
L. (Ranunculaceae) for uterine infections in pets.
Hydrastis canadensis Goldenseal root was used
L. (Ranunculaceae) for uterine infections in pets.
Leonurus cardiaca Nursing queens were given
L. (Lamiaceae) motherwort leaves to improve
milk production.
Linum usitatissimum Flaxseed supplement was
L. (Linaceae) used for pregnancy support
and to aid conception.
Rubus idaeus var. Wild raspberry-leaf tea was
strigosus (Rosaceae) used for pregnancy support,
postpartum supplement, and
to tone uterine muscles in pets.
269
Literature review Reference
Black cohosh has several biological activities Noguchi et al. (1998),
including anti-inflammatory and vasoactive Bolle et al. (2007),
activities. and Pribitkin (2005)
Black cohosh contains triterpene glycosides
(actein, 27-deoxyactein, micifugoside),
aromatic acids (ferulic and isoferulic acid),
tannins and alkaloids. In vitro experiments
on rats confirmed the usefulness
of black cohosh to treat dsymenorrhoea.
Black cohosh rhizome contains salicylates.
Eight rats were treated with 6.6 g commercially Rehman et al. (1999),
available Hydrastis canadensis root extract Anon (2000), and
(concentration 1 g/ml in glycerin solvent) Yordanov et al. (2008)
per 1 l of drinking water. Four control rats
received glycerin. A third group of rats was
treated with the lower dose of 3.3 g/l of
goldenseal extract, which was ineffective.
Goldenseal-treated rats had an augmented
IgM response during the first 2 weeks of
treatment, but failed to show improvement
in the IgG response. Herbal treatment did not
elevate the maximal immunoglobulin levels,
but instead encouraged antibody levels to rise
more rapidly. Berberine (an alkaloid found in
goldenseal) inhibited activator protein 1 (AP-1),
a key transcription factor in inflammation.
Berberine’s anti-inflammatory action may be
due to inhibition of DNA synthesis in activated
lymphocytes.
Leonurus cardiaca has been used in traditional Milkowska-Leyck et al. (2002)
medicine against nervous and functional cardiac and Matkowski and
disorders since the 15th century and is described in Piotrowska (2006)
Russian pharmacopoeias for producing sedative,
hypotensive and cardiotonic pharmacological
effects attributed to bufadienolide glycosides.
Lavanduliofolioside from the butanolic extract
of the aerial parts had a weak hypotensive
effect in rats and at a higher dose decreased
systolic, diastolic and mean arterial blood pressure.
Flaxseed contains phytoestrogen lignan precursors, Tan et al. (2004) and
especially secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (SDG). Tou et al. (1998)
This is converted in the mammalian gut to lignans
enterodiol and enterolactone. These biphenolic
compounds are structurally similar to endogenous
17-b estradiol and possess biphasic agonistic
(estrogenic) and antagonistic (antiestrogenic)
activities in vitro. A 10 or 5% flaxseed diet fed to
rats or SDG at levels found in 5% flaxseed had no
evident effect on the pregnancy of the rat dams
except for the lower birth weights of offspring in
those fed 10% flaxseed. It also produced reproductive
changes in the offspring depending on the dose and
the timing of the exposure. A 5–10% flaxseed diet
is an extremely high dose.
Extracts of dried raspberry leaves (R. idaeus) Rojas-Vera et al. (2002)
prepared with different solvents,
(n-hexane, ethyl acetate, chloroform and
methanol) were tested in vitro for
relaxant activity on transmurally stimulated
guinea pig ileum. The methanol (MeOH)
extract exhibited the largest response and
the active compounds were polar in nature.
There were at least two components
of raspberry-leaf extract which exhibited relaxant
activity in an in vitro gastrointestinal preparation.
270 C. Lans et al. / Preventive Veterinary Medicine 90 (2009) 268–273
Table 1 (Continued )
Scientific name Use
Zingiber officinale Ginger-rhizome tea was used
Roscoe (Zingiberaceae) for pregnancy support in dogs.
induce muscle contractions individually in guinea pig
uterine smooth muscle in vitro (Bushman et al., 2004).
Linoleic acid is reportedly involved in the prostaglandin
pathway (Sewram et al., 2001).
This paper presents the plants used for reproductive
health in cats and dogs and then provides a literature
review of the research conducted thus far on the usefulness
of these plants for reproductive health and an evaluation of
their safety for companion animals.
2. Materials and methods
Ethnoveterinary data for British Columbia were col-
lected over a 6-month period in 2003 and analyzed in the
subsequent months. The research area in British Columbia
consisted of the Lower Mainland, the Thompson/Okanagan
region and south Vancouver Island (Lans et al., 2006).
These are the most heavily populated areas.
A purposive sample of livestock farmers and pet owners
was established to obtain the key informants with the
ethnoveterinary knowledge sought. The sample size
chosen was 60 and this size was dictated by financial
considerations. The sample was obtained from member-
ship lists of organic farmers, other specialists in alternative
medicine and holistic veterinarians. The information on
dogs and cats came from 2 naturopaths, 10 herbalists, 5
dog trainers, breeders and pet shop owners, 6 holistic
veterinarians and 6 organic farmers (farming as their
primary occupation) who had pets.
Two visits were made to each farm, veterinary clinic or
respondent. All of the first interviews were open-ended
and unstructured. A draft outline of the respondents’
ethnoveterinary remedies was then prepared, delivered
and subsequently discussed at the second visit to confirm
the data provided at the first interview and to obtain more
details on the treatments. Medicinal-plant voucher speci-
mens were collected when plants were available and were
identified and deposited in the University of Victoria
Herbarium.
The plant-based remedies were evaluated for safety and
efficacy with a literature review, prior to including them in
the draft outline. This literature review was continued
throughout the data collection until the publication of the
results. Journal articles, books and databases on pharma-
cology, ethnoveterinary medicine and ethnomedicine
available in the University library and databases on the
Internet such as PubMed and ScienceDirect were searched
to identify the plants’ chemical compounds and clinically
tested physiological effects. For the commercial products
used, the manufacturer’s product specifications were also
Literature review Reference
A double-blind crossover trial of 27 pregnant women Fischer-Rasmussen et al. (1990)
showed that vomiting and nausea were significantly and Vutyavanich et al. (2001)
decreased with 250 mg of ginger in capsule form.
A second double-blind trial found that 28 of
32 women given 250 mg ginger four times a
day had significantly reduced nausea and
vomiting compared to 10 of 35 women in
the placebo group.
searched to verify the plants included and to identify
product quantities. A full explanation of this method is
given in Lans et al. (2006). The literature review of the
plants is presented in the discussion section of the paper.
Ten participants with experience in folk and ethnove-
terinary medicine took part in a participatory 5-day-long
workshop at the University of Victoria (BC) in October
2003. The pet data were evaluated by one ethnobotanist,
one holistic veterinarian and two herbalists. After the
discussions, the pet section of the results was edited and
included in a manual that was given to all the research
participants at the end of the study.
3. Results
The plants used for pregnancy support and milk
production in pets were raspberry-leaf (Rubus idaeus),
motherwort leaves (Leonurus cardiaca) and flaxseed meal
(Linum usitatissimum). Ginger-rhizome tea (Zingiber offici-
nale) was given to pregnant dogs to ease nausea. Uterine
infections were treated with black cohosh (Actaea race-
mosa) and goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis).
Treatments for reproductive health in pets are provided
in Table 1. More details on the plants used multiple times
by three dog breeders, two herbalists and one holistic
veterinarian are presented below.
3.1. Ethnoveterinary remedies for reproductive health
One holistic veterinarian used a purchased extract of
goldenseal (H. canadensis) and black cohosh (A. racemosa)
to treat cases of uterine infection.
One owner gave her cats a tea made with two leaves of
motherwort (0.2 g) (L. cardiaca) to enhance milk produc-
tion. One teaspoon tea (5 ml) was added to the drinking
water daily per 4.5–6.8 kg bodyweight as long as the cat
was nursing, or as needed.
Pregnant dogs were given a purchased flaxseed
supplement (L. usitatissimum) (3 g daily per dog, by one
breeder to 4 or 5 Yorkshire Terriers per reproductive cycle)
to aid conception. This supplement was also used by two
other dog breeders and two herbalists.
Pregnant dogs were given a tea made of wild red
raspberry leaves (R. idaeus) 2 weeks before and after
conception and whelping by three dog breeders and two
herbalists. Leaves (150 mg per 25 kg bodyweight) were put
in 250 ml of boiling water to make a tea that was given
once a day every day. The tea was mixed with canned food
to enhance its palatability. Raspberry leaves were also
given for the last 3 weeks of the pregnancy and as a
 C. Lans et al. / Preventive Veterinary Medicine 90 (2009) 268–273
postpartum supplement. The leaves were said to tone
uterine muscles and help the dog whelp more easily.
One breeder gave her breeding Yorkshire Terriers
ginger tea (Z. officinale) (0.5 g ginger rhizome in 250 ml
of boiling water) if she felt that their pregnancies were not
proceeding easily (nausea, vomiting).
4. Discussion
All research methods have their limitations. This
research method used in this study cannot be randomized
and it also alters the research environment. Many
respondents took part because they wanted a copy of
the resulting manual. Now that they have their copies of
the manual their knowledge of ethnoveterinary remedies
has been increased. The number of ethnoveterinary
remedies for reproductive health of pets could have been
increased if the sample had included a greater number of
dog and cat breeders. The research methods used resulted
in some compromises being made. Some of the plant-
based remedies were shifted into new groups while the
manual was being reviewed. For example the uterine
treatment in this paper was placed into a category loosely
termed ‘‘commercial antibiotic replacements’’ because it
was considered by the workshop participants to be useful
for a variety of ailments. The ginger tea remedy was
grouped together with other teas used for stomach
ailments in pets. The respondents also retained some
control over their remedies until the final editing stage of
the draft manual. For example one workshop participant
decided to withdraw one of her remedies (for goats) from
the draft manual stating that it was unsuitable. Partici-
pants who did not come to the workshop were not able to
advocate for remedies that they used that were considered
unsafe by others. For example a trained physician was
using black walnut in his ethnoveterinary treatments (not
for reproductive health): most of the remedies with black
walnut were removed during the workshop.
The literature review of the plants is presented in
Table 1. The plants used are discussed in more detail
below.
The plants used for the reproductive conditions of pets
are the same as those used by North American women
(Gardiner et al., 2008). A study of 567 rural gynecologic
patients in West Virginia, USA found that 4.6% used ginger,
3.9% used goldenseal and 1.9% used black cohosh (Glover
et al., 2004). A more recent study of complementary and
alternative medicine use by American midwives in Texas
found that 17% used raspberry leaves and 13% used black
cohosh for post-date cervical ripening, 45% used ginger for
nausea and vomiting and 4% used black cohosh for labour
induction (Bayles, 2007).
Black cohosh extracts (A. racemosa) have many
biological activities including anti-inflammatory activities.
Commercial extracts are widely sold to treat menopausal
symptoms and it was ranked eight of all top-selling herbal
supplements in 2005 (Spangler et al., 2007). Black cohosh
acts as a mixed competitive ligand and partial agonist of
the human mu opiate receptor associated with body
temperature, mood and sex hormone regulation (Farns-
worth et al., 2008). A lignan (1) (actaealactone), a new
271
phenylpropanoid ester derivative (2), cimicifugic acid G
(3), as well as 15 known polyphenols, were isolated from
the rhizomes and roots of A. racemosa. Compounds 1, 2 and
3 had antioxidant activity (Nuntanakorn et al., 2006). There
are case reports that use of black cohosh resulted in hepatic
failure and it should not be used with other hepatotoxic
products (niacin, acetaminophen), but these safety con-
cerns have been debunked (Teschke et al., 2009; Spangler
et al., 2007; Mazzanti et al., 2008; Farnsworth et al., 2008;
Liske et al., 2002; Dugoua et al., 2006). The evidence for the
use of black cohosh to alleviate menopausal symptoms is
good (statistically significant evidence of benefit from
properly conducted random control trials (RCTs)); as part
of a compound for arthritis pain – average (average quality
RCTs); for induction of labour – minimal (clinical evidence
from case reports, lab studies and/or expert opinion)
(Dugoua et al., 2006). Although black cohosh rhizome
contains salicylates, there is controversy over whether
naturally sourced salicylates inhibit platelet aggregation as
aspirin does (Pribitkin, 2005). There have been reports that
black cohosh has beneficial interactions with tamoxifen
(Bolle et al., 2007).
Berberine (an alkaloid found in goldenseal) showed
activity against Candida albicans. Berberine sulphate
interferes with the adherence of Streptococcus pyogenes
to host cells. It inhibits the growth of streptococci at 30 mg/
ml only when the bacteria are exposed to it since it is not
bactericidal (Sun et al., 1988). Goldenseal extract and
alkaloids (berberine, beta-hydrastine, canadine and cana-
daline) showed antibacterial activity against Escherichia
coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus sanguis and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Scazzocchio et al., 2001).
L. cardiaca contains oleanolic acid, iridoids (ajugol,
ajugoside) and flavonoids (quercetin, rutin, quinqueloside,
genkwanin, quercetrin, isoquercetrin, hyperoside, api-
genin-glucoside and kaempferol glucoside), the alkaloids
stachydrine and leonurine and oleanolic acid (Duke, 2007).
Stachydrine has emmenagogic and lactagogic activity and
both oleanolic acid and leonurine have uterotonic activity.
The anti-inflammatory sesquiterpene (alpha-humulene),
ursolic acid, ilelatifol D, corosolic acid and euscaphic acid
were also isolated from L. cardiaca. Ursolic acid (500 mg/
ml) showed significant anti-inflammatory activity vs. the
controls indomethacin and aspirin (Ali et al., 2007). L.
cardiaca var. vulgaris contains the phenylethanoid glyco-
side lavandulifolioside which reduces blood pressure
(Milkowska-Leyck et al., 2002).
Estrogenic effects were also seen when 10% dietary
flaxseed was given to rat dams (Collins et al., 2003). Rat
pups had lowered birth rates, shorter anogenital distance
(females), greater uterine, accessory sex gland, prostate
and ovarian relative weights, earlier age at puberty with a
lower bodyweight (females) and longer estrous cycles. This
study found that the estrogenization produced by con-
suming flaxseed (20 or 40%) or defatted flaxseed meal (13
or 26%) was not sufficient to impair pregnancy in rats and
was not teratogenic—but it caused developmental effects
in the offspring.
R. idaeus leaves contain flavonoids (seven anthocya-
nins) quercetin glucuronide, quercetin-3-O-glucoside,
aepferol-3-beta-glucoronide and quercetin glucosylrham-
272 C. Lans et al. / Preventive Veterinary Medicine 90 (2009) 268–273
noside (rutin) (Venskutonis et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2007;
Duke, 2007). The leaves contain tannins (100,000–
120,000 ppm), which are irritating compounds that can
affect the uterus (Duke, 2007). Quercetin and kaempferol
are inhibitors of platelet aggregation in vitro (Osman et al.,
1998). Rat dams given 10 mg/kg quercetin monohydrate
daily during pregnancy had significant weight gain, but
neither this nor 10 mg/kg kaempferol per day had any
effect on pregnancy or birth outcome (Johnson et al., 2009).
Raspberry leaves have a long history of use by pregnant
women. In a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled
clinical trial, the effect of raspberry-leaf extract in tablet
form was studied on 192 low-risk nulliparous women
(average age of 28.5 years) who were randomized to
receive either 400 mg of raspberry-leaf (R. idaeus ssp.
idaeus) extract (3:1, equivalent to 1200 mg of dried leaf) or
placebo two times per day with food (Simpson et al., 2001).
Sixty-two percent of the women in the raspberry-leaf
group had normal vaginal births (vs. 50.6% for the control)
and had fewer forceps or vacuum-assisted births (not
statistically significant, p = 0.19). The safety of raspberry-
leaf consumption on pregnancy was measured by analyz-
ing seven different variables: including maternal blood
loss, maternal diastolic blood pressure, presence of
meconium (the dark green fecal material that accumulates
in the fetal intestines and is discharged at the time of
birth)-stained fluid, newborn APGAR scores (a system of
evaluating a newborn’s physical condition by assigning a
value [0,1, or 2] to each of five criteria: heart rate,
respiratory effort, muscle tone, response to stimuli, and
skin color) at 5 min, newborn birth weight, newborn
admission to neonatal intensive care facilities after birth,
and occurrence of side effects reported. Raspberry-leaf had
no effect on any stage of labour. No significant relationship
was observed between raspberry consumption and birth
outcome. Occurrence of adverse events was distributed
equally across the two groups with most adverse events
being pregnancy-related (such as nausea, vomiting,
diarrhea and constipation). Raspberry-leaf had no negative
effects on either mother or child. A retrospective study
completed in 1998 (Parsons et al., 1999), examined the
safety of raspberry-leaf tea in women and their babies
when consumed during pregnancy. The researchers
interviewed 109 postnatal women (days 1–4). Fifty-eight
women had consumed raspberry-leaf (tea, tablet or
tincture) at various dosages (from 8 weeks gestation to
39 weeks gestation). A control group of 51 women had not
used raspberry-leaf. The average length of the first stage of
labour was shorter for women consuming raspberry-leaf.
The percentage of normal births was 77.2% in the
raspberry-leaf group compared to 66.7% in the control
group (Brown, 2002; Simpson et al., 2001).
Johnson et al. (2009) admittedly used higher-than-
normal doses of raspberry leaves (10 mg/kg daily) in a
study on pregnancy outcomes and fertility of female
offspring of rats. This study found that raspberry-leaf
altered reproductive development and function in the
offspring (time to vaginal opening, lower birth weight).
A prospective comparative safety and effectiveness
study of various forms of ginger used by 187 pregnant
women to alleviate nausea and vomiting during the first
trimester found that there was no higher risk for
malformations from ginger use and that the ginger was
more helpful in alleviating the symptoms than other
preparations used (Portnoi et al., 2003; Ali et al., 2008).
Other randomized double-blind studies showing that
ginger was better than placebo when used between
125 mg four times daily to 500 mg four times daily
(Borrelli et al., 2005). Adverse effects were not seen on
pregnancy outcomes (spontaneous abortions, stillbirths,
congenital abnormalities). A meta-analysis of five rando-
mized trials confirmed these results (Chaiyakunapruk
et al., 2006). Prolonged or heavy use of ginger is said to
affect platelet aggregation (Pribitkin, 2005).
5. Conclusion
Medicinal plants have long been used for reproductive
health and the plants used for reproductive health in dogs
and cats mirror those used for humans. Most of the clinical
trials conducted on the reproductive uses of these plants
have been done on women, not on companion animals.
Very little research has been conducted on motherwort.
Acknowledgements
The research in British Columbia was funded by the
Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of
Canada (SSHRC) Grant # 820-2002-1008. This research
obtained ethical approval from the University of Victoria.
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