v-

Deflnition of Terms 7

1 MT

a- - -.-.-.-.- - -.- -.- a

CAT

Definition of Terms Machine Human

Fully automated high Human-aided machine Machine-aided Human translation

oualitY (machine) translation (HAMT) human lranslation (HT)
tianslation (FAHOT/ (MAHT)
FAHoMT)

MT = machine translation; CAT = computeraided translation

Fipre 1.1 Classification of translation types

Soilrce: Hutchins and Somers (1992):748,

translation
In translation technology, terms commonly used to describe The initial goal of machine translation was to build a fully automatic
tools are as follows: high-quality machine translation that did not require any human
interuention. At a 1952 conference, however, Bar-Hillel reported that
. machine translation (MT); building a fully automatic translation system was unrealistic and years
. (MAHT);
machine-aided/assisted human translation later still remained convinced that a fully automatic high-quality
. (HAMT);
human-aided/assisted machine translation machine translation system was essentially unattainable (Bar-Hillel
. computer-aided/assisted translation (CAT);
1960120O3: 45). Instead, what has emerged in its place is machine
. -u.hirr"-aided/assisted
translation (MAT); translation, placed between FAHQT and HAMT on the continuum of
.fuIlyautomatichigh-quality(machine)tlanslation(FAHQT/FAHQMT). Figure 1.1. The main aim of machine translation is still to generate
ganslation automatically, but it is no longer required that the output
Distinctions between some of theJe terms are
not always clear' For quality is high, rather that it is fit-for-purpose (see Chapters 2 and 3).
(CAT) is often the term used in
example, computer-aided translation As for human-aided machine translation and machine-aided human
the Iocalization industry (see the second
Transiation Studies (TS) and translation, the boundary between these two areas is especially unclear.
the community which develops
put, of this chapter), while software Eoth classes are considered to be computer-aided translation as indicated
it'machine-aided translation' (MAT)' As
itt,,yp" of tool prefers to call
and in the field
ln Figure 1.1 (Tong 1994: 4,730; see also Slocum 1988; Hutchins and
the more familiar term among professional translators 8ôrners L992). However, in Schadek and Moses (ZOOI), a different
is used throughout
of Translation Studies, 'computer-aided translation' dlassification has been proposed where only machine-aided human
thebooktolepresentbothcclmputer-aidedtranslationandmachine-aided
,aided' is chosen instead of 'assisted" as , dnnslation is viewed as synonymous with computer-aided translation.
translation tobls, and the term tfiuman-aided machine translation 1S considered AS a separate category
lDhe reasoning
alsoin,human.aidedmachinetranslation,and,machine.aidedhuman behind the vlew offe red by Schadek and M oses not
translation ffifficult to understand. At least theoreti cally th e difference between
distinguishes four types of translation relating
human and two is obvious. For human-aided machine translation, the
Figure 1 1
a linear continuum
machine involvement 1n a classification along is the principal translator, while in machine-aided human
992: 1 48) This classification, it is a human. In practice, however, it may be less easy today
ln troduced by Hutchins and Somers 1
to sustain as
now more than a decade old, will become harder distinguishable boundary between them. The blurring of
we sha II see n Chapters 3, 4 and is further complicated when human-aided machine translation
tools become multifunctional, a
remalns useful a point
Nevertheless, the concePt ln Figure 1 1 AS as a subclass of machine translation, an approach
chosen
ln relation to technologY
reference for classifying transla tion (2002). Since human-aided machine translation has

6
 r

Definition of Terms 9
8 Translation andTechnologY
texts from one natural
a feature that is closer to application of computers to the task of translating
the machine as the principal translator -. it i;"guug" to anothêr' (http://www'eamt'org/mt'html)
while the Interna-
machine-aided human translation -
machine translation it'u"'to iioria Àro.iution of Machine Translation
(IAMT) defines machine transla-
it under the catesory of computer-ar-ded
at a time [sic] and
makes little sense to inciuOe
book adopts the àistinctlon suggested
iiàn ut taking 'input in the form of tull sentences
translation. Consequently, this oe-neratins coirespànding full sentences
(not necessarily of good quality)'
i" *ttich human translation is
machine-aided are essentially variants of the same
by Schadek and Moses BOOfj
translation and human-aided iH"i.t r"i z000ai. These definitions texts and target or
synonymous with i-oïiutt'-uiO"a ào.r."p, focusing on source or 'input-lariguage'
machine translation is a class
on its own' texts'
have been olaced in these individual "ilËrrn",
'output-language'
above includes human intervention.
A decade ago most toots couta àr in. definitions
ho*"""'' is no longer suitable for describinS some form of human
classes. A linear continîum'
as they contai; features
ftom more than Oit"rr, such as Arnold etal' (Ig94t L), mention
part of the process of
many integrated systems of today i'i.ru"ntion: 'the attempt to automate all or
or," .tur, free ct apter ul' irunstating fiom one human language
to another' (my italics)' When
'i"ll1'-1"^î,i:.:i:',î"J[Ti;ii:Tll::l
1" is now requlr(
is mentioned in a definition, it often
state of translation technol<lgy and ,.o,,,. ro'- of human intervention
types are not entirely separate '1992: 4O8). This view is echoed by Archer
continuum, these four translation
*u"y *oi" similarities than when they
were ;;;;;., ,murky, (Balkan
distinct, and they ,inozt tOOl, according to whom scholars and researchers still disagree
"";;;;t involvement
first presented by Hutchins and
Somers'
àïin. definition of machine translation with respect to theforthcoming, it
for describing àf hu.nunr. Howevet, since no other term has been
Table 1'1 An example of a table automated as well
translation tYPes Io.rit"""t to be used to refer to systems that are fully
u''t'o'"withhumaninvolvement(Somers2003b:1).Figure1.2shows
MT HAMT CAT HT
howasourceJanguagetextcanbeprocessedbyamachinetranslation
ryrr... If the taïget text is produced automatically there is no before'
n
human
1,,
Topic A human intervention may be employed
Topic B
intervention; however,
Arnold etal. L994).
àuring and/or after machine translation (see also
translation; HAMT=human-aided
machine
Furitrer distinctions are also made' A machine translation system'
MT=machine
',ârf HT human
uiio.t, CAT = computer-aided translation
=
(2000a), can be classified as operating on one of
according to Hutchins
translation;

tables in order
changes is to use a series of
One way of presenting these with the topics
translation types
to show the relationsd ;il;;t" fàur 1.1', where the
discussed in this book, Is
litustrateo in principle in Table TL text
groups of topics'
in relation to selected SL text
four translation types are reviewed Machine
in detail in Chapter 7 when all
The series of tables *iff Ut described translation
perspec-
Each table adopts a different system
relevant topics have U""" ài"u""d' with respect to transla'
kinds of relationship
tive in ordeï to srrow oiiiererrt
tion and technologY'

Machine translation Human intervention

itself can be mïsleading' has lt

a long
The term 'machine translation' originally referred SL = source language; TL = target language
history and, as u,""'ft,'*uw
ùerpretations' The term .lr
hu*u" involvement (Sager 1994: 326)'
only to automatic ,y*tt' *itt"to 1.2
vuct'ine Translation defines it as 'the
Machine translation model
The European n"otiuïion of
 ,tqwuffirttùtt t&nmnw 7-
Definition of Terms 11
three levels: basic, standarcl or advanced, each 'online' is designed specifically for
lever having its own
detailed technical definition given by the IAMT uasea the translation of erectronic
onite ir^ or,n" obtained from rhe W:g TÉ thi;;yË;; documents
dictionaries and the syntactic analysis used. desisned for professional
translators, and the last Jo.r
A basiclevel system typically has the following characteristics. âiiurg" .ornpurri"r.
It Examples of successful "_proy"",
commerciar Àu'.r,i.r" translation
include S.ANAM (Spanish American) systems
. has less than 50,000 entries in its largest dictionary, ENô;;;; :Jl,iirn,, iffi;:i
r has restricted dictionary expansion,
which were developed by the pu" ""d e_oi.an Health Organization
r (PAH.)' since 1980, both systems t uu. p.o..rred
is restricted to single-clause/basic sentence over z0 million words
translations, and http:/ /www.paho.orglenglish/AGSii,riUacfri.,"_frur,r.fr,ril.
o is suitable for home use.
(see
;;"r"
two systems are licensed to public and commercial
organizations in North
America, Latin America and Europe. In contrast
A standard level system typically has the folrowing
characteristics. It m achi n e tra n sta ti on sys tem s i n ct u de the A Li'_JËaËt"
r"ff ï:ï#:::T
. has more than 50,000 entries in its largest
dictionary,
Translator Japanese to Tnglish), ana efijrc (Auromatic hnluage
. Translator Japanese to Chinese) systems,
allows dictionary expansion, Uott, O"u.ùp.Jïr"ï,"#""
. allows more than single-clause/basic sentence
translations, and
Telegraph and Telephone Corporation (NTT)-
. is suitable for home use and stand-alone office
use.
Human-aided machine translation
An advanced level system typicalry has the following
characteristics. It A generally accepted vlew
I of human-aided machine translation
system wherein the computer ts responsible ts ,a
ii
' has more than 75,000 entries in its smalrest
dictionary, for producing the translation
'r . allows dictionary expansion,
per S€, but may interact with a human
monitor at many stages along
. way' (Slocum 1 988: 5 ). In other words, the
allows more than single-clause/basic sentence the machine carries out
translations, and most of
r is suitable for offices with networked facilities. the work but ir might need human assistance
either at the text-preparation
or the output stage. The former process
stage
ls known as 'pre-editing,
and the Iatter 'post-editing, The
Dictionaries as well syntactic analysis and synthesis components main task of pre-editing 1S
any elements such a5 odd phrases to discover
are important parts of-asa machine tranilation system (see Chapter 3). or idioms and typographical
that ma v create problems for the errors
The size of the dictionaries and the capabilities machine translation system
of the syntactic analysrs translation process. The human editor during the
a_nd synthesis components generally indicate how good a system or translator amends the
is. Ianguage text accordingly Post-editing source-
However, the levels indicated above may not involves correcting the
necessarily be reflected in output generated by the machine translation
commercial systems (Hutchins 2000a). An alternative translation system, a task
perspective based by the human editor or translator performed
on usage is offered in the compendium compiled tn order to bring the text
by Huichins, Hartmann pre-determi ned standard to a certain
and Ito (2004) and shown in Figure 1.3. The type in terms of Ianguage style
labelled ,Home, refers of terms, These processes will nd appro priate use
to machine translation systems for home users who be described ln further
detail rn Chapter ,)
have few or no Human intervention ls also
possible during the translation
translation skills. The second type of machine translation when prompted by the stage
labelled system to provide appropriate
ambiguous or unknown equi valents for
terms. Figure 1 .4 shows
vention ls possible.
where human inter
IH]
Machine translation system Man v human-aided
.t machine translation systems
$fperate on a limited number are designed to
of types of source-language
Home Sf,mple, those written with a restricted texts, for
Online Professional Organization grammar and vocabulary
'controlled language, (see ln a
1.3 Chapter 2) This limitation
Figure Machine translation system based on usage of text used as input on the
to the system ls similar
to that on inputs to
 Definition of Terms 13
12 Translation andTechnologY

systems are MaTra Pro and Lite developed at the National Centre for
Unedited SL text [H]
Software Technology based in Mumbai, India, that translate from
Pre-edited SL English into Hindi. Human-aided machine translation systems have
text [H] been implemented at Schreiber Translations, Inc., Foreign Language
Services, Inc. and Ralph McEIroy Translation Company, all companies
that are employed to translate patents for the United States (US) Patent
Machine TL text and Trademark Office.
Controlled
translation
system
language (SL)
Post-editing [H] Machine-aided human translation
Text [H]

Machine-aided human translation has been described as the use of

cornputer software by translators 'to perform part of the process of
translation' (Sager 1994: 326). Integrated machine-aided human
Machine and human
ffanslation systems are sometimes known as 'workbenches'or 'work-
interaction IH]
stations', as they combine a number of tools. These are described in
Chapter 4. Below, Figure 1.5 shows that the focus in this type of
SL = source language; TL = target language; H = human translation is on the human translator, who uses an assortment of
tools such as spell-checkers, electronic glossaries, electronic diction-
1.4 Human-aided machine translation model
aries, terminology databases and collections of previously translated
Figure
l,,'
ll
texts and their originals, that is translation 'memory', to support the
briefs' translation Process.
I
machine translation, for example, technical texts such as legal of commercial machine-aided human translation systems
manuals and laboratory reports are particularly suitable' A source- Some examples
or are the Translator's Workbench by Trados GmbH, Transit by Star AG,
language text may come in different forms: pre-edited, controlled-
text is one that SDLX Translation Suite by SDL International and Déià Vu by Atril.
,rrrùitàa (see Figure 1.4). As we have seen, a pre-edited
has been edited by a human, in most cases by someone
other than the
author, prior to the translation process, whereas a controlled-language
text is urually written following celtain strict linguistic rules. Sometimes,
asource-languagetextcanalsobeeditedusingthecontrolled-lanSuage Tool 2: Electronic Tool 3: Electronic
glossaries
vocabulary ànd linguistic rules. Ideally, pre-edited and controlled-
dictionaries

language texts are free from ambiguity and complex sentences'

UnèaitèA text, on the other hand, has had no editing prior to
translation'
is to Tool 1: Database Human
For systems that have an interactive mode, a human allowed of previous SL translator
TL text
translation
correct or select appropriate equivalents during the automatic and TL texts
performed
process (see Chapter 3). Otherwise, corrections can only be post-editing IH]
system
àt the post-editing stage, which is after the machine translation
has produced the translation. Tool 4: Terminology Tool 5: Spell-
TËe literature on human-aided machine translation is very
limited. databases checkers

for this is that the difference between this category and full
The reason
transla-
machine translation is blurred since some definitions of machine SL = sourcê language; TL = target language; H = human
for human translators to carry out pre- and post-editing,
tion also allow
of human-aided machine translation Ftgure 1.5 Machine-aided human translation model
as indicated earlier. Examples
14 Translation and TechnologY Definition of Terms 15

Human translation
Box 1.1 (Continued)
Nowadays,itiScommontofindprofessionaltlanslatolsusingsome
A description of
xi"a cornputer_aided translation tool in their work. words through the Google search engine that comes with experience.
"r at work is presented he[e, written
,rr.t, u modern-day human translator Sometimes some ingenuity is required. Just typing in the Japanese
for this book by a professional translator based in Singapore word and the word'English' into the search fieid [where a query
specifically
urrd sydn.y, Stephen Moore, who translates
between English andJapanese. word or phrase is entered for Google to perform the search] is
been
wlth-voot.,s permission, his piece was edited; explanations have unlikely to produce any useful results. A good first attempt for a
clarification. His description of a difficult technical term is to guess one of the component words
added in square brackets for further
mo<lern-day translator at work is as shown
in Box 1'1' found in the term. As an example, I would type in the Japanese
The account is from a translator who is highly computel literate and term ær'{tEîS7 i )vA in the search field and then add the
willing to learn to use new tools in order to improve his translation English word 'film'. This may lead me to the English equivalent,
servicà. His attitude guarantees that he is not
being left behind in the which is 'anisotropic conductive film' (a type of material used in
competitiveenvironmentolsecuringtranslation|obs.Thismaynot the electronics industrY).
necessarily be the case for every tlanslator.
Researchers such as Gaspari One point I might add is that even with transliterations from
(2001), Yuste Rodrigo (2001) and Bowker (2002) have
discussed resistance English to Japanese I have to be careful. One example is 'shiito'
[based on 'sheet'] as in 'polarization shiito', which can appear in
English technical material but the proper English term is really
,polarization film'. Sometimes there is no English equivalent but
Box 1'1 A translator at work
enough examples of its use in the source language can be found to
pair of
I have registered with a number of agencies for the language pinpoint the meaning. However, I would never use this method to
and English specializing in the chemical-related field. Various
Japanese 'hazard a guess'. If unsure, I have to seek help either in a mailing
also know
compa.rier and organizations in the chemical industry list I subscribe to or go back to my client. It may turn out to be a
my iapabilities due to my rvork as a journalist in this area and
have
term that only my client's company uses.
ueenwort<ingwithmeonaregularbasisforsometime.Partofmy With the growth of the chemical industry's interest in China, it
regular work involves translation of newspaper articles
on a daily basis.
is advantageous to have the knowledge of the Chinese language and
and generally
I r"eceive Word documents via email in the late aftemoon, capability on my computer to assist me with tracking down names of
I am committed to returning the translations within two days' places and organizations. Although the Japanese pronunciation
The first thing I do is to ascertain whether the material is based on a and character style are slightly different when compared to the
press release. If so, there is a likelihood that an English
language
Chinese characters, I sometimes have to revert to a Chinese dictionary
version of the press release can be found on the Internet. The next
to look up the relevant characters and pronunciation, and then
press release
best scenario would be that the Japanese language
is
input the Chinese characters into a search engine such as Google.
posted on the Intemet. This can help as background
material' As Japanese characters are derived from old Chinese characters,
Whilstworkinglalwaysmaintainabroadbandconnectiontoan there are many similarities, even with the simplified characters
online dictionary to look up technical words and the search engine that Mainland China [the People's Republic of China] now uses,
and the bilingual
Google for words that cannot be found in the online [Simplified Chinese script has fewer strokes per character than
(fapanese-English) dictionaries. other dictionaries that I use include Traditional Chinese, for example compared to ,ffi for ,horse,
àne for ctremical-specific terms and one for the names
of organ2ations. Ê and compared to ll for ,treasure,].-i For example, I tried to look
For words that cannot be sourced using online oI conventional up the name of an obscure Chinese company (written in
dictionaries, I may employ a variety of search engines' There is a Simplified Chinese: ËtfijgâtÊ,ÂrênËËmâ\E) found
in a Japanese
technique, howevet, to finding English equivalents of Japanese language press release. Hence
the search was unsuccessful. So I took out
my Chinese dictionary, and systematically looked up each character
 a-
16 Translation andTechnology
Box 1.1 (Continued)
from its radical. [A radical is a semantic classifier. It categorizes
words based on their meanings rather than spelling since Chinese is
logographic in nature - written from left to right or top to bottom -
where each character stands for a single word or a single syllabic
morpheme (Boltz 1996: 191,199), for example, the character F 'moon'
is the radical of the word E , which means 'shares'in a company.]
The Pinyin romanization of the obscure Chinese company name
is 'Ningbo Lianhe Touzhi Konggu Youxian Gongsi'. [Pinyin
romanization is a form of spelling based on sound in Mandarin. It
is also known as Hanyu Pinyin, which literally means 'Han
language pinyin'. Romanization refers to the phonetic notation and
transliteration to Roman script. This is not anglicization.l Thus I
typed the Pinyin romanization letters into my Chinese-capable
Apple Macintosh computer and converted them to the appropriate
characters in Chinese. I then conducted an Internet search using
r/' the Chinese Yahoo! search engine, but alas, I could still not find an
English equivalent. I ended up having to go to the Japanese
company that had issued the press release to ask.
i
Another useful link while translating is company websites. They
contain proper nouns such as specific company departments and
product names, which are useful as background material. When all
else fails, I consult my peers on the Japanese translators mailing list
for help. This has never failed me so far. At the end of the day, the
less I trouble my clients with requesti for assistance, the more likely
I am to receive more work.
I was using the offline version of the online dictionary software
when I was using OS 9.2 [operating system for Apple Macintosh
computersl on my Mac, but when I upgraded to OS X [read as OS
'ten']. I found the software to be too unstable when running in the
Classic mode [a choice of operating setting for Apple Macintosh
computers]. However, now that OS X has been refined to a higher
version (10.2.6), the soflware is working fine. This allows me to build
up a custom dictionary, and it is particularly useful when I am on
the road, where Internet dial-up connections can be slow and costly,
thus precluding extensive use of the Web. For some clients who are
version (10.2.6), the software is working fine. This allows me to build
up a custom dictionary, and it is particularly useful when I am on the
road, where Internet dial-up connections can be slow and costly, thus
Definition of Terms 77
Box 1.1 (Continued)
precluding extensive use of the Web. For some clients who are Micro-
soft Office sawy, I use tags [hidden comments or remarks which are
inserted in the translated text by the translator] when I am unsure of
my translation or want to clarify it. The client or the client,s proof
reader will similarly use tags for questions and clarifications.
I have also started to experiment with a translation memory tool
called WordFast. The shareware program is a Microsoft macro that can
be used on any version of Office and on any operating system. [A
macro in Microsoft is a saved sequence of commands or keyboard
strokes that can be stored and recalled with a single command or
keyboard strokel. Initial tests with my laptop (processing speed at
400MHz) indicated that the software runs excessively slow to the
point of being impractical. Once I have my desktop computer
configured to 750MHz, I plan to retest the software before deciding
whether to purchase a license. An interesting point with this program
is that translation memories [see Chapter 4] can be set up for each
client and shared with them. Memories can also be imported/exported
tolfrom Trados Translator's Workbench and other similar software.
One thing I am slightly concerned about is how applicable a
translation memory will be to my line of work. For manuals or other
repetitive work, memories are great/ but for translating newspaper
articles and other creative work, overreliance could result in boring
news itemsl I might also lose a bit of my creativity. Therefore, it is
good to exercise the mind a bit and think about what English word
to use for a given Japanese source word. In my experience, Japanese
news stories can be a bit mundane in that they tend to follow a fixed
style and repeatedly use the same words. One example is the word
'kyoka'which literally means, 'make strong,. However, in English, I
could use 'augment', 'enhance', 'enrich,, ,reinforce,, ,strengthen, or
'build up'. Sometimes the best choice is found in the context and
sometimes the context might allow me to use a word I would never
have thought of. My point is: Ifeel that overreliance on spell-
checkers, grammar-checkers, and thesauri would adversely affect
my
capability here. The same may be said for translation aids in certain
cases of creative translations. It could dull our creativity as well. I
feel
that in order to remain a creative translator, I have to continue to
exercise my brain. Note that for a lot of translation work, particularly
manuals, this technology is great.
 18 fror ti on o, an d T echnology r-
Definition of Terms lg
towards embracing translation technology and why in technology' (Haynes 199g: viii). similar preconceived
their view this
attitude needs changing. The absence of input from translators in notions are said
the to have spread even to the use of computer-aided
development of machine transration and computer-aided translation translation toors
(Gaspari 200L). These reactions may have
tools, whether due to the lack of knowredge or interest, is probably originated from a lack of
the understanding or desire to rearn the use of otheitools
main reason for this resistance. apart rrom woro_
processing software, or from conflicting stories
The tension between humans and machines developed of the success and
as a corollary failure of different research and comirercial machine
new technology entering the translation process. According translation
!o to yuste systems. The lack of by developers of translation tectrnofogy
Rodrigo (2001), a high proportion of tranilators-to-be .success
are concerned may have been caused by not adhering tà u ,"t of simples
about the impact of machine transration on their profession ..rte' iO"ntify
and have what technology can do best and what hun
admitted that they do not know much about translation
technology. technorogv simpre to use and adapt the
The main fear of some professionar translators was
'not to be seized by a
machine' (Yuste Rodrigo 2001: 1). This fear is yet to be
of professional translators (Hunt 2002). "J::ffi",jï?li;,ii"X.lll
compretery elim- professional translators today are
required to have ,professional
inated since, historically, many machine translation and
,yrt"-, have been ringuistic skills in connection with the inireasing use of
new technologies,
presented as a means to dispense with human (Archer 20O2: 87). With extended exposure ùd
translators (Bennett and furth". ;;;ff
Gerber 2003: 185, 189; see also Tsuiii Lggl). lt is, however,
unfounded translation technology, translators are increasingty ue.oming
i,'
and results from high expectations with respect to the potential with the necessary technology. In recent years, many
ruiitiu,
of universities have
machine translation systems ('tsuiii 1gg1: 3). Nevertheless, started to offer courses in the
--" profes- use of translation tools to trainee
sional translators stiil find technology that demands translators.
changes in ttreir For example, the Chinese University of Hong Xo.rg,
/,,
translation routine and performance within a very OuJti'tity
university in Ireland, Kent state university in tnË use,îu.rc
briei time-span
distressing. others, who have been using translation
tools in their wàrk, University in South Africa,.the Universiiy of Surrey
ai.itJ.r,
acknowledge that the quality of theii translations in ,ù'ù",-,fr"
and the level of university of Joensuu in Finrand and the university
productivity have increased. what they still find difficult Canada (see also Robichaud and L,Homme 2003).
of ottawa in
is to articurate
and quantify the benefits that they have gained from
using transration
tools.
The localization industry
Through translation techn ology training, perhaps
the negative
mindset held by some professional translators ma change (Robichaud In any discussion of translation technology,
v the significant role played
and L 'Homme 2003) It ls difficult to imagine a translator the localization industry cannot be ignored by
who could Traditionally, the localization
not usefully employ some form of technology be it online industry has consisted of two sectors:
dictionaries the manufacturers of hardware
OI search engines regardless of the type and software, and the localization
of text s/he works with. service providers (see the
Moore's accoun t illustrates that even for non -technical the Localisation Industry and Standards website of
texts, resources Association or LISA at http:/
such AS online dictionaries, are extremely helptul. www.lisa.org/). Today, however, other
with increasing sectors such AS telecommunications,
demands for rapid translation and the new working language service providers
methods of many and even universities are invol
translation companies and clients, human translators today localization industry ved 1n the
are more ol AS businesses try to reach out to
less forced to use computer-aided translation À4uch has been
wider audience.
tools ln rare cases, vwitten about this industry
and therefore, only a brief
machine translation systems are also used. And whenever drocription will be given ln this
machine book. Detailed discussions of
translation system ls used, professional translators need tlon industry can be found ln the localiza
long-term Esselink (2000 and 2003 and
commitment and positive attitudes, innovative responses ) Pym (2004).
and creative laL0calization is the process of changing
problem -solving ability (Ko by 200 1 1 6) the documentation of a
WQeluct, product tself or the
delivery of services SO that they
Lack of information has arso played a part in forming and acceptable to the target are
negative attitudes: society and culture. It concerns
'Many professional transrators, and their organisationr, ùuu" proved to required to cater to the
needs of particular 'locale' (Esselink
be remarkably ignorant about the progress made in 3), that ls group of people tied through
machine tànsration shared language and
 r'
Definition of Terms 2l
20 Translation and TechnologY

become outdated tomorrow. With this development in mind, only two

culture.Anexampleoftheprocessisthetranslationandadaptationof
for Latin American readers chapters of this book are loosely based on the classification proposed by
Time magazine into PortugJese and Spanish
The Latin Portuguese and Spanish Hutchins and Somers (1992); machine translation is discussed in Chapter 3
ii;;";t ind vourvoutias-ùush 2000)' Portuguese and computer-aided translation tools in Chapter 4, while the remaining
i"ào"rr"ror* two locales, both different from the European
chapters will cover other topics relevant to translation technology'
a,'aspunist'locales.Adifferentlocaleisalsolikelytorequirechangesto
a number of items, including the currency
and the way in which the
according to the Suggested reading
date and time are written, àU of *tti.tt may vary
Austermùhl, F. (2001) Electronic Tools for Translators. Manchester: st Jerome
particular country (Esselink 2OOZ). Publishing. See chapter 1'
1S mainly but not
From a translation point of Vlew localization Hutchins, wJ. and H.L. Somers
(1992) An Introduction to Machine Translation.
the text AS naturallv
entirelY a Iinguistic task that involves transferring London: Academic Press Limited'
as possible into the target language,
to make the translation 'linguisti- o,Hagan, M. and D. Ashworth (2o02) Translation-Mediated communication in A
appropriate' for a specific market (Esselink L 99 8: z). Digltal wortd: Facing the challenges of Globalization and Localizafion. cleveden:
cally and culturallY
linguistic and adiustments Multilingual Matters'
However, localization goes beyond the mere pvrn, A. QOOD The Moving Text: Localization, Translation and Distribution.
audiences may perceive colours, icons and
to measurements: target Amsterdam: John Beniamins.
symbols differentlY Thus organizations have
to tailor their products to Somers, H.L. (ed.) (2003a) Computers and Translation: A Translator's Guide.
intend to do business Amsterdam: John Beniamins'
match the language and culture of the countries they
with different varieties of the same language
in, including countries
or symbol may have different meanings for
Sometimes the same word
,
different groups Indonesia and Malaysia,
for instance, use different
""'
in possible misunderstandings. Hence, ln
varieties of Malay resulting
common and means need'
Indonesian Malay the verb 'butuh' 1S

necessitY' or 'want' In Malaysian Malay

however, the word falls
the noun class and rs vulgarism referring to human male genitalia.
Indonesia by the Dutch
Moreover the long colonization period of
English has also resulted 1n different Ioan
of Malaysia by the
AS 'karcis' from 'kaartie'
being assimilated into the vocabularY such
from Dutch, while Malaysian Malay uses 'tiket'
Indonesian MalaY
Borrowed international terms from English
the English 'ticket'.
web'
differ such as 'situs web' in Indonesian Malay and 'laman
Malaysian MalaY for'website''

Conclusion
Internet began to be
U ntil the early 1 990s the time when the
given in Hutchins and Somers (1
worldwide, the translation types
decade later, the boundaries
were certainlY applicable More than a
these four translation types have become more blurred. Although
clear distinctions, these have
wrlters ln the field still make ;
increasinglY
harder to maintain AS technologY becomes fr
and more multitasking. The pace of change ln the develoPment
what rs current todaY
li,;
translation technologY IS extremelY rapid;