2.10 Triaxiality at Crack Front When a tensile panel (Fig. 2.16) is loaded, stretching results in y direction and contraction develops in z direction. Depending on the z-coordinate at a point on the crack plane and located ahead of the crackfront, the state of stress varies (Bluhm 1961; Knott 1975). MP J 05-0 Jo; 0340 los} ” x x v Stress state at ‘Stress state at point J and K point I © (d) Figure 2.16 Plastic zone size variation along thickness. (a) Specimen. (b) Plastic zone shape around crack front. (c) Stress state at points J and K. (d) Stress state at point |. For a point J or K (Fig. 2.16(a)) very close to the surface (z = B/2), the constraint in the z direction is absent because the outer surfaces are free of any normal stress 0, or 03. On the other hand, for a point I close to the centre, tendency of contraction is restrained; some stresses 7, develop in the z direction because of the interaction between inner and the outer layers. This constraint gradually increases from zero at the surface to higher values at inner locations. For thicker specimens, it may develop to the full constraint of plane strain even before the mid-thickness location is reached. Hence, there is a triaxiality at the inner locations. The states of stress for the two points are illustrated in Figs. 2.16(c) and 2.16(d), respectively. Thus, there is a state of plane stress near the surfaces (z = +B/2) and there is a state of plane strain near the centre.Since the plastic zone size is larger in plane stress than in plane strain, the size of the plastic zone varies along the thickness direction. The three-dimensional shape of the plastic zone is shown in Fig. 2.16(b). Plastic deformation can be visualized as a shearing phenomenon on the planes of maximum shear stress. The different planes of maximum shear stress result in different patterns of failure. The shearing on planes (AC and DE) at 45° to the x — y plane is a typical of plane stress condition (Fig. 2.17). The shearing on planes at 45° to the y — z plane is a typical of plane strain condition (Hahn and Rosenfield 1965). The central portion of the specimen, which suffers from constraint on the growth of plastic zone, is likely to undergo flat fracture; and the surfaces undergo slant fracture. Figure 2.17 Shear planes. The ratio of the plastic zone size to thickness is an important factor for the determination of the state of stress. If the size of the plastic zone (2r,) is of the order of the plate thickness (B), plane stress condition can develop throughout the thickness. The ratio 2ry/B must be appreciably lower than unity for plane strain condition to exist over a greater part of the thickness. Experimentally, it has been observed that fracture behaviour is dominated by plane strain if B > astic, which is approximately equal to 16 times plane stress plastic zone size, where Ric is plane strain fracture toughness and cy, is yield strength of the material. At a given stress intensity level, the plastic zone size is proportional to K?/0?. A material with low yield stress oy would give rise to a larger plastic zone and greater stress relaxation. It would require a higher stress level, hence higher SIF,for fracture. Such materials will demonstrate higher fracture resistance. This also means that a larger plate thickness will be required to maintain predominantly a state of plane strain in a material with low yield strength (c,) and high toughness (Kic) than in a material with high yield strength and low toughness. 2.11 Thickness Dependence of Fracture Toughness K- Since the state of stress near the crack front is dependent on the plate thickness, the fracture behaviour, in particular, the fracture toughness and the macroscopic nature of the fracture surface (Bluhm 1961; Isherwood and Williams 1970; Broek and Vlieger 1974), would depend on this parameter. The thickness dependence of fracture toughness and nature of the macroscopic fracture surface are illustrated in Fig. 2.18. The thickness-dependent fracture toughness is represented by Kc and the thickness independent fracture toughness or plane strain fracture toughness in indicated by Kjc. There are three distinct regions. In Region I, the fracture toughness increases with thickness, and the fracture is fully ‘slant’. The reason for the increase in toughness in Region I is not clearly understood. At a particular thickness, B, the toughness, attains the highest value. In Region II, the fracture toughness gradually reduces with increase in thickness and the surface appears to be a mixture of ‘slant’ and ‘flat’ zones. In Region III, the toughness is independent of thickness and mostly a state of plane strain prevails near the whole crack front, that is, over the full thickness. ‘% Flat fracture + Ud afin] Fullslant Mixed slant and More flat fracture flar fracture fracture Figure 2.18 Variation of fracture toughness and percentage flat fracture with specimen thickness.34 Fracture mechanics When the thickness of the specimen is small, there is a possibility that the tv surface plastic zones will coalesce. This will result in a larger plastic zone all alo: the thickness and a larger stress relaxation. Further, this gives rise to an increase energy requirement per unit crack extension, and hence, the fracture toughne: With the increase in thickness plastic zone size reduces, and the ener requirement for crack extension reduces, so does the fracture toughness. T percentage flat fracture too increases with the thickness up to the critical thickne Bc. Above this thickness, the fracture toughness becomes independent thickness. Approximately, sas In view of this, the plate thickness for t measurement of plane strain fracture toughness is generally taken more than Be =a lists the fracture toughness data Kjc for some materials. For more da ay look into references by Hudson and his associates (1978, 1982, 19% pee NOR IANIE A 7ature fracture toughness of structural materials. , , Fracture | Fracture | Specimen Condition/Heat Yield | Ultimate | roughness | Toughness Type, Strength | Limit Source ae mPa) | (MPa) |. Ke Ke pees (MPa ym ) | (MPa./m ) (mm) quenched from 870°C r Cniet Ih tempered at 205°C 1448 44 TS thick | ASM Handbook (1996a) (i 395°C 1517 35 15 thick __ | Same as above (iii) 280°C 1585 55 15 thick _ | Same as above 4140 steel 870°C Ih + 843°C Ih, oil CrL-T (Plate 25mm) quench, 1h tempered at (i) 482°C 1213 75 1 25 thick __| Same as above (Gi) 25°C 1365 44 25 thick _| Same as above 4340 steel Tempered at 260°C 1640 | 48.522 TPB 35 __| Same as above 4340 steel Tempered at 425°C 1420 | _ 8784 TPB 37 __| Same as above 4340 steel Plate 16mm thick, heat 1517 37 CT,L-T | Same as above treated to 51 HRC 25 thick 4340 steel Round bar 115mm dia. | 1240 | 1330 75 CT,L-T | Same as above 25 thick 4340 steel Plate 25mmthick, oil ChL-t quenched from 843°C, tempered at (425°C 1420 84 20 thick __| Same as above ii) 260°C 1640 9 Same as above 4340 steel Bar 25mm, oil quenched, tempered at"uo aaogu se ous | x91 61 mT z981 €081 aaoge sv cues | ON 61 “Ad L +8 €LLI $691 [ Do6r 1 Up Posy | Joes SurPereu giN. ‘BAOge SB OUTEG +01 78bI €lbl DoOrs (1) ‘aAoge sv owes, 6r O61 8ST ovste qe poraduiay ‘ayeyd Pasaduray pur peyouandy | [99S Sp-OD>-ING ‘@Aoge Se OLIEG el Ose! OlEl DoOrs (11) ‘dAoge se aUIEG ze Z8Pl sver o.ste @ ve pouaduray ‘ore | paroduia} pue peysuand | [9918 $7~ODp-IN6 3PM 6 ‘ea ‘a8po ‘uounoads [ears (UW%S"1) dAoge se owes uorsuay, 9 we A-OWID-UW, DoOpS 1B PIE “DoE91 AMD SE I, “youanb yoeIs DosZs ‘dAoge sv outeg I-1‘I9 16-6 S6rl “qouenb Aegsne 3.06 | e018 989q PHN LL Paoge svoueg | TL ‘dL | __98 Oz L OUH 9F 0} Porwan-ywaH] [pars 989, Os 18 posodwia) pur aaoge sv aug sue L201 086 poyouanb “uimicz areid P28 Obl AH DAOQD SB dug € os6r OF91 SAOQE Se aU SL ogst | oser_ | SAGE Se OUTS, Olt o9zt ZI mor TT AIQELTable 2.1 cont. Ni-Co-Mo Two melts, aged 3h at 2048 | 136 (melt 1) Tension Same as above maraging 482°C 104 (melt 2) specimen, edge steel(18%Ni) crack, 3.6 thick edge crack Ni-Co-Mo Two melts, aged 3h at 2048 123 (melt 1) Tension | Same as above maraging 482°C 80 (melt 2) specimen, steel(18%Ni) centre crack, 3.6 thick ‘Ni maraging steel(18%Ni) 2058 190 Same as above 1920 237 Same as above 1783 174 Same as above 1715 204 Same as above 1646 221 Same as above N18 maraging steel | Vacuum melted | 2058 93 217 Same as above 18Ni-Marage 200 | Plate aged at 480°C 1482 1550 120-154 Plate Same as above steel 18Ni-Marage Vacuum melted sheet and 1565 1634 75 Plate (T) Same as above 250 steel plate aged at 480°C 1634 1765 o1 Plate (L) Same as above 1813 | 1855 77-134 Plate (T) _| Same as above 18Ni-Marage 350 | Vacuum melted, plate steel aged at 480°C 2380__| 2427 49 Plate 25 thick _| Same as above As cast 1645+49 | 2010454 | 20.91-26.82 iT Putatunda(2001) Heat treated 1645249 | 2010454 48 Same as above silicon steel 15-SPH (VAR) SS_| H900 annealed 1280 1380 96 L-T orientation | ASM Handbook(1996b) cont.“quoa +1 wonesuojs % area 1389] uorsuay, “TS puey-y 987 (9066 1)ooqpuEH sjeoyy I £€ zs £05 porean WH | 9€L1-SLIL Aoye ty TI WOHEBUOIa of, (2066 1)¥CoqpUEH speIaW | ‘are[d yom z: grt ves | zor Poman woH | L9LL-SLb. Aojle ty 3 woneBuoj>%6 ie “reid Yorn oz rs 97 aL 9 pai (8066 1) x0qpuRH speioyy I-I a SBP Ost Pur ‘posoduiay ‘poreauury | 1¢g1-bz1z Aoqqe Ty wz (Z86 Derg | PRIN Zsse{D Jaars Pur pjsturez “ysaing | 380) "'p uo paseg 987 FEF8eS | LstsbE | paroduio puw pazireuuon| Aome oW-35 Ley. TT T_ payouonb sarap (6002) 139 ysouD | som Oz ‘LD “F 8'8LE | 139 zse 2c0S01 38 payeouny NTpO¢ avs Paron way, (4002) ‘18 19 pryaysjepqy 19. rot-z81_} o0zt LIT wonendioardtonnjos | SS HaS-s1 7 D.0P01 1 pasnruasne Saoge sv oues | uoHeua}I0 Jy a over oezr OSOIH| SS OWS-€1Ha De0hOT Ange se aureg | uoneUa!I0 Jy on We pasniuaisne OS6H| SS OWS-€1Hd SAoge se aureg | uoneiuaLIO [7 | €6 pajeouue $/6H SS He-L1 DA0ge sv aUTEG — FL 8b porrauue OOgH | SS Hdb-LI Saoge se aures | uoneiualio 7-1, | 18 paleouue 0O6H | SS QIVA) HaS-sI Mor TZ AGRE,Table 2.1 cont. Al alloy 2024-T351 | Heat treated 325 32 L-T ASM Handbook(1996c) 26 T-L 26 S-L Plate tested | _ Al alloy 2124-T851 | Heat treated 450 485 32 LT Same as above 25 TL 24 S-L orientation, Plate tested Al alloy 7075-T651 | Heat treated 505 29. LT Same as above 2s TL 20 S-L Plate tested Alalloy 2048-T8 | Heat treated 420 460 37 Longitudinal | ASM Handbook(1996d) 28 ST Al alloy 7075-T651 | Heat treated 462 538 28.6 L-T Metals Handbook(1990d) 24.2 T-L 17.6 S-L, Plate tested Al alloy 7050- Heat treated 455 510 33.2 L-? Metals Handbook(1990c) 173651 29.7 T-L 28.6 S-L Plate tested Al alloy 6061-T651 289 29.1 TL ASM Handbook(1996e) Al alloy 7039-T6 381 32,3 TE Same as above Al alloy 7079-T652 | Hand forging 440 29 L-T ASM Handbook(1996c) 25 T-+L 20 S-L cont.Foysiyat Se” OL | oss Jo aunjoa £q %0Z soysiym ousodwos'N'1s a0 PSR 9 | 046 Jo aumjoa £q %OE AAAS OIS (1-08 AeIIS) ausoduros ‘otvaaystym soystymn ots pur ‘oly (8661)51910d TOFL'S PEFlhD Jo aunjor £q %OE | _ aumTeIsAx9 -Ajod (007), $49) pur ojredeqreg Lit 99% S871 porwan woH lozy Aoqre 3 °g way ! yprm so. | pareinoqea, vy ajdures (€00z) Te 39 PrEses | 61 UoHEBUO| % | ‘y'8I="¥ Lol vt S81 WwELS w pareouuy| —_1ezv Aore BW $'L WoHRBUO]E%, [ aaoge se ames | “AIH S'0 ssl v7l r's6 ¢L=NHA USL-ISZV sol uORRBUO|O% aaoge se aus | “49! SO 66 zR07 v's9 6S=NHA Iszv sor one Buoy, use (oto) ‘Tee uy | “HoRNS'O SLI THz S6L S9=NHA| _ ~ISzv Sore 3 (002) aril Heyes puv emvyouios | yor ¢ 902 99% St pawn iwaH| 099 Sole 3 TS i ve Ge ve ange sv aureS iI ve 09F Buy810j IG | ELL-6rLL Aol TV “Mor VT OGBLTable 2.1 cont. Glass-Epoxy 16 | E,,=25.7GPa, G=259 | DCBtest,5 | Ducept, Davies and ply unidirectional | E,,=6.5GPa, Jim? at thick Gamby(2000) laminate G,,=2.5GPa, v,,=0.32 failure AS4/PEEK (APC2) | E,= E,, =25.7GPa, G,=1603)/| DCBtest | Crews, Jr and Reeder unidirectional E,,~6.5GPa, mt (1988) laminate (24 ply) | G,,=2.5GPa, v,,=0.32 G,=0Numeri cols ee le For fis C-frame “as indicated Below (Aighd, Colerlate tHe Sate oad how A= Simm (Crack deg), daft. & 4. Sesh ou Ab = 40™™ , God L = 150 mm~ TRA Kus "g? of te. Sechow I+ 25 mm. Given Kipp = 59 MPalm ; Sy = |G0omMPa. Solutiow & we transfer fie Anoith P Ot pated ‘Ro ow fe* eo Sane omag rite po! cap ack due mo mew kal om agnites ¢ M= prgsser lt esl- ard. indicated below. Now. or Bae bol ae ths bre bow i aSBO Ger tae de Aly eked eau beudavy Moment MM’ can be Cedleulated using dus, fan's. rejatheow, mrad ; _ ——— fare J See eachiex mle Bw. = cae : for tess davivahin] oP F , qr Oy ee ined + [2 ul ef pa keel CR p12 — bene 4 Z-33%— 13-996 214 m7 pre - 0.23% + le 53% 216728? + 30-3909 Le & = = eather hot Ma GF = ho = 0.12 f= ioatliee aeanpiow 2d Naeem \ herr Lows] er 3 2 Yn =, atk 0-1 +F-33 KO. 126) —15 8 x Ras) + 14K (as)? 1.0394 ‘ x or + to. a oe — 2: anergy? ee [IQs 0.23 K O19E + ee ahaa 1+ 224 : | - nail nwo nee 2 Ss aint mp you in fo chek colette, ity 1s plone Shrek or flew Straiw “Codibiow - PIT PTOPIPP TPP PPP PPP PPP eee ee RARVA RH4 bee E EEUU L bea Sia te frome Heke werd $0 $e, $0, cheek, fer pla striw Hicks a Kse gesigeys = 3:8 wm. Sy B77 Be Tet wode 4 sivaad Tatevs i by foto — 4 Ky = Kem t Krp . BAe apbtg ie Lot p ee 7 a eeheled Yr. sihout hupren"| ir Prema x 21 crete. ex0,00S K-08 + 0.025% 0.04 bs 0. 0n5°% (0.04) pod imondor fo icdubhy Sepe dons! fae Kz cys , bx ett 0-025 x (0.04) F fis Roo . oy igit i os. Kp = Ke pi Cavs) —: bho whe p O00 X22) TK 000 119374 +o a oy [ix door&. & plote (Fig 2) witha Nam enkzemk—= glows: wise f a smal Internal Crk of Size Fam te Severe. Given B= ILmm; Sy = (000MPa > and kre = 65 MPatin; Detotmin dofe seer app diel stress ‘©’, Use a factor f Safely = 3, 12 anm Ais, - Fig. Sol”. - Const grtes, first cAesnea, Arslqu~ loon Ow yleta stregti-, 2 Arsign< yn (x. iy 4 © man: = apis = te Ned, Sinec plate: ida, 4 more date 10 Hr of He Roh damutet, {2 Sdrext Consontoohow ary eRe Ree a ppried ste ae, ee ce fer His Yow satan, iy eos ree g 365 ey a a é 3 edeready d's, Leste! se Be iD eh oO bre fee Beier * — 4 ke. f this Comm) = Mil MPa. IT IIT TIL ISLIP CPP OCC OC ee eceeaanns,eee eee eee NOY, Cove 42 95 He Linewte Bleshce Frade Medve ms bured epprocuh, Hoe Aasigr— ey js Kre kre ee NATE. se Be I SE Ceo nitric, Crrrmetio ferter. ag Ko =YG tire. om Icke Wide is Tue thie pweblem Y= | fies eo i dare” 04 com peas. to. Semi = crete thle awa — 4 me, Kee of, ke = ogee g snes oe © = 162 MPa - . So, fue perms 45) ble. fates gtress 8 fare for [PLL MPS « (Au? coiY 9. > A beam wilt mectargulat Cnechors t= 2omm aA Wz 40mm, M6 doaded Wikre ~ ben cling rome G4 shade jh Pry 3. a |2 mm deep (rik (Az tama) has appar fe fe beams Tur order dy Tearenge He Avood— Carer Yt Sopot: ef Ko ereekat bes ug pee aistesis) cotowwl tue cqme ke if wetwered« ft U4 gece Mot Jmm of Me bain hright- shows be vases vel be grin « Aftet ta pri ott te bam Leight fur is Sl mm. Tee cre, , he Waveky 1S still drove, wel {it dapfir *s Wed Bame Taks- Kye = GO MN/ ow @ tors mak din te Uikimete bending ee dt beac jaerensed by Het grind ? 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MK os — = Le, TICeeTDe ek ys the given ) p{ = APD Mem CHD 7 ‘ ried & a ae fo improve ft Raed GARR icy. coh.’ £ A byructnwe by nemo sing eae. s VF IIT VIC VIF TPP CPPCC Celle lrrcgrnanwes