International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering

Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 3, Issue 2, February 2013)

Techniques of Acoustic Feature Extraction for Detection

and Classification of Ground Vehicles
Varun Kumar Kakar1, Manisha Kandpal2
1
Asst Professor, Deptt of Electronics & Communication Engineering, B.T Kumaon Institute of Technology,
Dwarahat, Uttarakhand, India
2
Research Scholar, Deptt of Electronics & Communication Engineering, B.T Kumaon Institute of Technology,
Dwarahat, Uttarakhand, India

Abstract: Vehicles may be recognized from the sound
from the sound they make when moving i.e. from their
acoustic signature. These sounds may come from
various sources including rotational parts, vibrations
in the engine, friction between the tires and the
pavement, wind effect, gears, fans. Similar vehicles
working in comparable conditions would have a
similar acoustic signature that could be used for
recognition. Characteristic patterns may be extracted
from the Fourier description of the signature and used
for recognition. Classification of ground vehicles based
on acoustic signals can be employed effectively in
battlefield surveillance, traffic control, and many other
applications. The classification performance depends
on the selection of signal features that determine the
separation of different signal classes. This paper
compares various available techniques of acoustic
feature extraction for detection and classification of
ground vehicles. Finally we present an overview of the
methods discussed and their success rate in tabular
form along with the classifier used.
Keywords: Feature Extraction, Energy Index, FFT,
Classifier
A general consideration says that similar vehicle types
produce similar sound. The techniques for feature
extraction and classification that are reviewed in this
paper are not centralized about the classification and
identification of similar vehicles that are travelling in
diverse speed and in various distances from the recording
device, but instead this the goal of these techniques is to
detect and classify different vehicles that belong to a
particular class.
A vehicle detection system consist three main
components: Event detection, Feature extraction and
Classification. Event detection is used to keep the required
computation resources low. A simple and fast algorithm is
used to find an acoustic event, than the complex time
consuming algorithm is applied for an in depth analysis of
the observed event. In ref [1], an energy index is used in
order to find whether a vehicle is in range or not. It is
done by defining a threshold and time window. If the
energy index of the observed vehicle is greater than the
threshold within the window, then vehicle is present
otherwise it is discarded. The energy index E[i] can be
found in ref [1] using following equation,
E[i] = ∑log (Xi[k]);

I. INTRODUCTION Where Xi[k] is the Fourier transform of the ith input

A sound producing device can be characterized according
to acoustic features of the sound generated by it. These
characteristic features are known as acoustic signatures
and can be used to differentiate among vehicles. Almost
all moving vehicles produce typical characteristic sounds
that are mainly influenced by their engine vibrations and
friction between the tires and road. Airplanes, helicopters,
wind, steps and speech also create interfering sounds that
have different acoustic features in comparison to vehicles.
block xi[n].
Event detection process is not necessary but it is used
to reduce complexity of the system, in case when vehicle
is not in the range of classification. In this step we use
some of the characteristic which are very general means
these characteristic define a whole class of vehicles which
we want to classify. A flow diagram for vehicle detection
system can be shown as in figure 1.

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 International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 3, Issue 2, February 2013)
An extra care should be taken before choosing the
techniques for feature extraction and classification, Start
because successful detection of the ground vehicles
depends on the extracted acoustic signatures that are
generated from the characteristic features. So many Find energy index E[i], (Time
techniques for feature extraction and classification are function).
available now days to improve the efficiency of detection.

Rest of the paper is organized as follows: section 2

describes recent methods to extract features from the
vehicle acoustic signals. Section 3 presents some efficient Is E[i] greater No
than threshold? Discard
and useful techniques for classification phase. Section 4
concludes the paper with a summary and comparison
among the different methods of feature extraction and
classification.
Yes

II. FEATURE EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES By time domain,

Feature extraction of acquired signal. frequency domain or
Extraction of characteristic features (acoustic time-frequency domain
signature) is the most significant and crucial task in
vehicle detection. For classification of a vehicle, a set of
Comparison of
characteristic features from sound generated by vehicle is extracted features with
Classification previously stored
extracted to label that vehicle to one of the predefined
acoustic finger prints to
classes. Acoustic signals have very few representations classify the vehicle
and we must find the most important coefficients or
characteristic, which contain information that will be used
to discriminate among input classes. This set of Class and type of vehicle is found.
characteristic features is known as a feature vector.
Feature extraction can be considered as dimensionality
reduction technique. In dimensionality reduction
technique, random projections are used to extract the Stop
acoustic features of the vehicles. This technique uses
compressed sensing [2, 3, and 4] to uncover the most
important acoustic features of an unknown signal that Figure 1: Flow diagram for vehicle
differentiate it from others. A popular statistical tool for detection
dimensionality reduction technique is Principal
2.1) Feature extraction in time domain:
Component Analysis (PCA). The objective of PCA is to
find principal eigenvectors of the covariance matrix of the
This is the simplest method for feature extraction because
set of signals. These eigenvectors can be considered as
no transformation is required so computationally it
characteristic feature vector which is used to characterize
become less complex. Two time domain feature
the variation between signals. Dimensionality reduction
generation methods are discussed in ref [8]. First method
by using PCA is experimentally shown in ref [5, 6 and 7].
uses energy envelop of the signal to extract acoustic
Three main domains in which features can be generated
features where as second method is based on the number
are time domain, frequency domain and time-frequency
of zero crossings of a signal within a time interval.
domain. The complete flow diagram is shown below in
figure:

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 International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 3, Issue 2, February 2013)
Energy envelope consideration for feature extraction:
There are numerous features involved in the energy
envelope of the signal which can be extracted as
characteristic features. 30 characteristic features from
energy envelope such as mean energy and location of
peaks within the analysis window, sum of number of zero
crossings for each window, maximum value of averaged
energy (avE), approximated location of maximum value
of E/avE within each analysis window and number of
windows having E/avE > 1are derived in ref [9].
Time Encoded Signal Processing and recognition
(TESPAR): In this method total number of zero crossings,
wave shape between two zero crossings and time taken by
acoustic sound wave to arrive at the next zero crossing are
the main parameters to be defined. On the basis of these
parameters, characteristic features of the signal are
generated. This method is experimentally adopted in ref
[10] to generate feature from vehicle acoustic and seismic
signals.
2.2) Feature extraction in frequency domain:
Spectral characteristic of signatures vary significantly
among target classes. In the spectral domain, acoustic
signal waveforms generated by vehicle appears as narrow
band harmonic components. The information provided by
these components, is used to construct the characteristic
features for a particular vehicle. Characteristic features are
generated by using low frequency components present in
the acoustic signal because most of the sound produced by
the vehicles is due to their rotating parts which rotate and
reciprocate in a low frequency mainly less than 600 Hz.
Another reason for using low frequency bands is that they
are strongest and suffer least attenuation [14, 15]. Feature
generation methods based on frequency domain such as
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) [12, 13, 14 and 15] and
Power Spectral Density (PSD) [12] are commonly used in
vehicle detection and classification. Here overall shape of
the frequency spectrum is utilized to construct feature
vector.
Feature generation using FFT: Let Y be the sound
recorded to construct feature vector. Y is divided into
multiple sound frames Yi, where Yi is a basic unit of
analysis. Pre-processing is the basic step in which DC bias
which may be caused by the device during sampling, is
removed by applying zero mean to the Yi.
yi,j = yi,j(old) – (1/n)∑ yi,k, Where k = 1,2,…..,n.
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Now this zero mean sound is converted into frequency
domain by applying FFT. Magnitude of frequency
spectrum used to generate feature vector can be written as,
Yifft = FFT (Yi )
Here distance variation from the vehicle and
microphone’s sensitivity can cause some amplitude
variation in frequency spectrum. To reduce the amplitude
variation, normalization is applied to the frequency
spectrum.
yi,jfft = xi,jfft /( ∑xi,kfft), where k = 1,2,….,n
Where i is defined as 0<i<(N+1). Each vehicle has a
unique Yifft that characterizes the sound of vehicle. By
averaging the N number of Yifft and Yµ,j, a stable
characteristic of vehicle can be obtained, where
yµ,j = ∑(xi,jfft /N), where i=1,2,….,N.
To highlight overall shape of the spectrum and to filter
out the short-term fluctuation of Yµ,j , moving average
filter is used
yµ,j = ∑ yµ,k,
Where range of k is defined as (j+1)<k<(j+w+1)
Thus acoustic signature of the vehicle is given by Yµ =
[yµ,1, yµ,2,…., yµ,(n/2)-w], where w is the window size.
In ref [12] four feature vectors are generated by
applying Linear Fast Fourier Transform (LFFT),
Multidimensional Fast Fourier Transform (MFFT), Linear
Power Spectral Density (LPSD) and Multidimensional
Power Spectral Density (MPSD) to the time series data of
the recorded signals. Two types of spectral features are
proposed in ref [11]. First is non-parametric FFT-based
PSD estimates and second is parametric PSD estimates
using autoregressive (AR) modelling of time series. AR
modelling is primarily explored to improve statistical
reliability of the PSD estimates but due to requirement of
more parameters it is very difficult to perform
experimentally so ref [11] report results based only on
non-parametric PSD features. Additional time-averaging
may be used to reduce the variance of PSD estimates by
using shorter FFT segments at the cost of smoothing
spectral features.
Harmonics can also be used to extract feature vector
[16, 17]. Harmonics are the peaks present in spectral
domain representation of a signal. Relation between
amplitude and phase of these harmonics is used to form
the feature vector. These feature vectors are known as
Harmonic Line Association (HLA) feature vector.
 International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 3, Issue 2, February 2013)
In ref [16], magnitude of harmonic frequency
components from 2nd to 12th are considered as HLA feature
vector whereas in ref [17] a fusion approach is proposed,
in which combination of two sets of features is used in
classification phase by emphasizing various aspects of an
acoustic signature. First set of features consists a number
of harmonic components, used to account for the engine
noise and second set is formed by grouping the key
frequency components. Second set describe other minors
such as acoustic signature in the tire friction noise of a
vehicle. Harmonic feature extraction (first set) is common
in use [18, 19]. The main concern is to select key
frequency components. Key frequency components are
selected by using mutual information (MI) based method.
Mutual information (MI) is a metric, based on the
statistical dependence between two random variables [20].
A feature vector made from key frequency components
contributes most of the discriminatory information. After
constructing these two feature sets, a feature level fusion
process is applied to get a final feature vector which has a
combined effect of above two sets. Dimensionality is kept
same as the first feature space by replacing higher order
harmonics (less important) with the same number of key
frequency components. Key frequency components are
selected to be unrelated with the fundamental frequency to
get the better feature vector after fusion. Fusion of two
feature vectors provides a more complete description of
vehicle’s acoustic signature in comparison to the
techniques where a single feature set is used.
2.3) Feature extraction in time-frequency domain:
The techniques used to extract features in time-frequency
domain are Short Time Fourier Transform (STFT) and
Wavelet Transform (WT) [21]. Ref [22] shows a
comparative view of probability based classifiers, that are
trained with Bayesian subspace principal components of
the short time Fourier transform (STFT) of the vehicle’s
acoustic signature. To transform the overlapped acoustic
hamming windowed blocks into a feature vector Short
Time FFT is used in ref [1]. Wavelet transform also
provides multi-resolution time-frequency analysis [23]. It
is the projection of a signal onto the wavelet. Wavelet is a
series of functions ѱab(t) derived from a base function ѱ(t)
by translation and dilation.
1 𝑡−𝑝
ѱab(t) = |𝑎| ѱ( 𝑎 ),
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Where a is called scale parameter, b is called translation or
shift parameter, and ѱ (t) is called wavelet base function.
Wavelet Transform is called Continuous Wavelet
Transform (CWT) when values of a, b are continuous and
it is called Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) when they
are discrete.
Wavelet-based acoustic detection: This transform is
computationally efficient. The main concept used in this
technique is to extract the set of features from the class of
signals emitted by a certain vehicle. The set of features is
obtained by calculating the inherent energies in the blocks
of the wavelet packet coefficients of the signal, each of
which is related to a certain frequency band. Wavelet
packet transform of a signal yields different partitions of
the frequency domain. Due to the presence of time
variance property in the multiscale wavelet packet
decomposition, whole blocks of wavelet packet
coefficients are used instead of individual coefficients and
waveforms. The collection of energies in the blocks can
be considered as an averaged Fourier spectrum of the
signal, which provides more improved representation of
signals. A method for utilizing the wavelet packet
coefficient is characterized as a random search for a near-
optimal footprint (RSNOFP) of a class of signals [24].
This is very close to the compressed sensing [3, 25 and
26] idea. In order to get the more efficient detection, we
can implement three different versions of RSNOFP that
validate each other. To generate feature vector, a set of
signals with known membership is used. These signals are
sliced into the overlapped fragments of length L and each
fragment is subjected to the wavelet packet transform.
Wavelet packets transform works as a bridge between the
time domain and frequency domain representation of a
signals. The coefficients from the upper level or finer
scales correspond to basic waveforms, which have narrow
spectrum in time domain but occupy wide frequency
bands and the coefficients from the deeper level
correspond to waveforms, having narrow spectrum in
frequency domain but occupy high range in time domain
[24]. Energy of each block is calculated and then three
versions of RSNOFP are applied. As a result each
fragment is represented by three different vectors of
length l and the components of these vectors are the
characteristics features of the fragments.
Now a days a broad variety of orthogonal and bi-
orthogonal filters are available that can generate wavelet
packet coefficients.
 International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 3, Issue 2, February 2013)
In [27] researchers used 8th order spline wavelet
packets and 5 wavelet packet with 10 vanishing moments
III. TECHNIQUES FOR CLASSIFICATION PHASE
This is the final phase of a vehicle detection process in
which the class and type of a vehicle is determined by the
help of classifier. A classifier provides the functions or
rules that are used to divide the feature space into various
regions, where each region belongs to a particular class.
Classifiers can be categorized as parametric and non-
parametric classifiers, based on the knowledge of signal
distribution parameters. A parametric classifier is one
which can be represented in closed form i.e. some
assumptions are made about the probability density
function (pdf) for each class whereas in non-parametric
classifiers no assumptions are made about density
function. Bayesian Classifier [22, 28], Support Vector
Machine (SVM), Gaussian Mixture Model (GMM) and
Hidden Markov Model (HMM) [29, 30] are some
commonly used parametric classifiers in vehicle
classification based on acoustic signature. HMM is a
sequential pattern model while GMM is a static pattern
model. Examples of non-parametric classifiers are K-
nearest neighbour (KNN) [5, 31], Artificial Neural
Network (ANN) [6, 14], Decision Tree [32] and Fuzzy
Logic Rule-Based Classifiers. Among these KNN is rarely
used technique because of the requirement of large
memory and increased computation complexity [33].
3.1) Bayesian classifier:
It is a probabilistic classifier based on Baye’s theorem.
Bayesian subspace method was first proposed by
Moghaddam and Pentland [34] for face recognition and
later Mario. E. Munich used the same technique for
vehicle classification [22]. In this technique m different
event classes Ci are observed for classification purpose
[28]. Each class is assumed to be independent instances of
parametric distributed random process. To implement a
Bayesian classifier following two parameters are required
that can be estimated by using Maximum likelihood (ML)
or maximum a posteriory probability (MAP) rule.
(1) p(Ci): probabilities representing the frequencies
of classes Ci in sample x, and
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(2) p(x/Ci): class specific probabilities to which
extend x belongs to Ci and are assumed to be
normally distributed.
Value of second parameter can be determined as [28]:
1
p(x/Ci) = {1/(2π)n/2|σi|1/2}exp[ -2(x-µi)´ σi-1(x- µi)],
where µi is mean vector and σi is covariance matrix of
dimension n*n.
If Cest is the estimated class as an output of classifier then
by using optimum decision rule,
Set Cest = Ci if
x € Ci p(x/Ci)p(Ci) > p(x/Cj)p(Cj), for all i ≠ j.
For simple computation a monotone natural logarithmic
function Hi(x) instead of p(x/Ci)p(Ci) is considered by
authors of ref [28]. So Hi(x) = ln [p(x/Ci)p(Ci)], thus the
new classification rule is;
x € Ci Hi(x) > Hj(x), for all i ≠ j
Value of Hi(x) can be calculated easily after getting value
of p(x/Ci). To compute this term, value of mean vector
and covariance matrix is given as:
µi = (1/m) ∑ xj and σi = ∑ xjx j´ - µi µi´
Where j=1, 2, … m.
Bayesian classifier requires a large number of training set
otherwise it will not be able to classify vehicles correctly.
This requirement makes it hard to compute the
discriminate functions.
3.2) Hidden Markov Model (HMM) Based Classifier:
Another technique for ground vehicle classification is
based on a multiple hypothesis testing problem. This is
done by assuming Hidden Markov Model (HMM) of the
acquired sound signal. HMM implementation for vehicle
classification is based on the estimation of the sequence of
states, given a sequence of observations. HMM consists of
a sequence of states that are visited in a Markovian
manner, each state representing a particular vehicle type
and has an initial probability as well as a transition
probability to any other state. An optimal decision rule is
applied to find out a solution with a minimized probability
of classification error by decreasing the number of
hypothesis at every step of classification. The rule applied
for getting a single decision may be either maximum a
posteriori decision (MAP) rule [29] or maximum
likelihood estimation (MLE) [30], whereas Forney
decision rule [35] can be used to classify multiple
vehicles.
 International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 3, Issue 2, February 2013)
However the most important thing is that, whichever
rule is applied, the probability density function (pdf) of
the acquired sound signal is needed to implement the rule.
In ref [29] pdf’s of the recorded sound signals are
assumed as hidden Markov models. These pdf’s are not
exactly known but near about values are calculated from
the training data known as estimated pdf’s which are used
in decision rule. These pdf’s are Gaussian in nature with
non-zero means and diagonal covariance. For training
phase, feature vector is constructed with the help of
cepstral coefficients. Cepstral coefficients can be
calculated from the inverse Fourier transform of the
logarithm of spectral signal. Given as:
+𝜋 𝑑𝜔
C (n) = −𝜋 log 𝑆(𝜔)𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑛 2𝜋
Where C (n) is cepstral sequence corresponding to
power spectral density S(ω). In low dimensional
representation of signal, this method gives a very high
performance. It is an example of a homomorphic signal
processing [36]. These coefficients gives information
about some important parameters which are very useful in
classification of vehicles like spectral change rate
information, gain invariance, statistical properties and
deconvolution ability. Then an HMM is formed in which
each state is associated with a probability density function.
At any given time instant, an output process with a
estimated pdf is generated from a particular state. Then
the decision rule is applied where a comparison is done
between the originally stored pdf’s and estimated pdf’s to
classify the vehicles. Ref [29] gives a solution to a single
vehicle classification problem. An idea of modelling a
distributed multiple hypothesis classification problem by
HMM is proposed in ref [30]. Number of vehicles in each
class is considered as a state and each state depends on the
previous state. For a sequence of observations, Viterbi
algorithm is used to find the maximum likelihood
sequence of states. In this the hypotheses that need to be
tested have non-zero transition probabilities.
3.3) Neural network:
Neural network is a bio-inspired network made from
neurons and can solve the problems that are hard to be
modelled analytically. Neurons are mutually connected
computing units which support parallel computing,
learning and generalization. An important and very useful
property of neural network is the ability to learn from
examples in a supervisory manner. A multilayer feed-
424
forward neural network (FFNN) has been implemented in
ref [37]. It consists of an input layer of neurons
corresponding to the feature vector of acquired signal, an
output layer and one or more hidden layers of neurons. A
simple neuron may be defined as:
f (x1,x2,…,xn) = ∑ wixi
Where i=1, 2… n; and each input variable xi is assigned
with a weight wi. As the name indicates, in FFNN weights
are updated regularly according to the feedback
propagation procedure. It is based on the steepest descent
minimization method which is useful in solving nonlinear
optimization problems and reducing errors. Artificial
neural network has been utilized in ref [38] as a
recognizer of type of vehicles. In this method a two layer
back propagation neural network is trained by the output
of a sell organized maps neural network. In ref [39], rough
neural network is used in classification of vehicles by
using 25 input layers, 25 hidden layers and 4 output layers
of neurons.
3.4) Classification and regression tree (CART):
CART is also referred as decision tree sometimes and
used for the classification of new unknown signals. It is a
nonlinear classification process that contains a multistage
decision system, where the classes are sequentially
rejected until pointer reaches the required solution. Here a
decision tree is generated which is used in classification of
vehicles. It divides whole feature space into some disjoint
unique subspace and each subspace represents a particular
class. CART algorithm and its modification are clearly
explained mathematically in ref [27]. Ref [32] uses
decision tree in classification phase to classify vehicles in
an effective manner.
IV. CONCLUSION
The recent research related to the detection and
classification of ground vehicles using acoustic processing
is reviewed in this paper. Two main components; Feature
extraction and classification are briefly explained. Feature
extraction methods are classified according to the domain
in which features are extracted may be either in time
domain, frequency domain or time-frequency domain.
Similarly classification techniques are categorized on the
basis of requirement of parameters. Vehicle detection is
possible by combining techniques of feature extraction
and classification together.
 International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 3, Issue 2, February 2013)
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