Ganga Institute of Education

Kablana
Distt.Jhajjar-124104(Haryana)

ASSIGNMENTS

M.Ed. (Semester IV)

Academic Session 2018-2020

Submitted by: Shweta Sharma

 PAPER- I
Approaches to Assessment
 Question 1: What is the Role of Assessment in diagnosis,
prognosis, surveying, guiding and improving of teaching-
Learning process?

Answer: Assessment is the process of gathering and discussing

information from multiple and diverse sources in order to develop a
deep understanding of what students know, understand, and can do
with their knowledge as a result of their educational experiences; the
process culminates when assessment results are used to improve
subsequent learning. 

Assessment Cycle

 Plan - What do I want students to learn?

This stage includes the first fundamental component of assessment:

Formulating Statements of Intended Learning Outcomes

 Do - How do I teach effectively?

This stage includes the second and third fundamental components:

Developing or Selecting Assessment Measures & Creating Experiences
Leading to Outcomes.

 Check - Are my outcomes being met?

This stage involves evaluation of assessment data (part of the fourth

component).

 Act - How do I use what I've learned?

This stage involves reinforcing successful practices and making

revisions to enhance student learning (part of the fourth component).

Role of Assessment

Assessment is an integral part of instruction, as it determines

whether or not the goals of education are being met. Assessment
affects decisions about grades, placement, advancement,
instructional needs, curriculum, and, in some cases, funding.
Assessment inspire us to ask these hard questions: "Are we
teaching what we think we are teaching?" "Are students learning
what they are supposed to be learning?" "Is there a way to teach
the subject better, thereby promoting better learning?"

Today's students need to know not only the basic reading and
arithmetic skills, but also skills that will allow them to face a world
that is continually changing. They must be able to think critically,
to analyze, and to make inferences. Changes in the skills base
and knowledge our students need require new learning goals;
these new learning goals change the relationship between
assessment and instruction. Teachers need to take an active role
in making decisions about the purpose of assessment and the
content that is being assessed.

When assessment works best, it does the following:

Provides diagnostic feedback

 What is the student's knowledge base?

 What is the student's performance base?

 What are the student's needs?

 What has to be taught?

Helps educators set standards
 What performance demonstrates understanding?

 What performance demonstrates knowledge?

 What performance demonstrates mastery?

Evaluates progress
 How is the student doing?

 What teaching methods or approaches are most effective?

 What changes or modifications to a lesson are needed to help

the student?
Relates to a student's progress
 What has the student learned?

 Can the student talk about the new knowledge?

 Can the student demonstrate and use the new skills in other
projects?
Motivates performance

For student self-evaluation:

 Now that I'm in charge of my learning, how am I doing?

 Now that I know how I'm doing, how can I do better?

 What else would I like to learn?

For teacher self-evaluation:
 What is working for the students?

 What can I do to help the students more?

 In what direction should we go next?

Question 2: Explain different Approaches to Evaluation?

Answer: In education how much a child has succeeded in his aims, can
only be determined through evaluation. Education is considered as an
investment in human beings in terms of development of human
resources, skills, motivation, knowledge and the like. Evaluation helps
to build an educational programme, assess its achievements and
improve upon its effectiveness.

It serves as an in-built monitor within the programme to review the

progress in learning from time to time. It also provides valuable
feedback on the design and the implementation of the programme.
Thus, evaluation plays a significant role in any educational programme.

“Evaluation is the assignment of symbols to phenomenon, in order to

characterise the worth or value of a phenomenon, usually with
reference to some social, cultural or scientific standards.”

APPROACHES TO EVALUATION

1. Formative Evaluation:
Formative evaluation is used to monitor the learning progress of
students during the period of instruction. Its main objective is to provide
continuous feedback to both teacher and student concerning learning
successes and failures while instruction is in process.
 Formative evaluation helps a teacher to ascertain the pupil-progress
from time to time. At the end of a topic or unit or segment or a chapter
the teacher can evaluate the learning outcomes basing on which he can
modify his methods, techniques and devices of teaching to provide
better learning experiences.

The teacher can even modify the instructional objectives, if necessary.

In other words, formative evaluation provides feedback to the teacher.
The teacher can know which aspects of the learning task were
mastered and which aspects were poorly or not at all mastered by
pupils. Formative evaluation helps the teacher to assess the relevance
and appropriateness of the learning experiences provided and to
assess instantly how far the goals are being fulfilled.

Characteristics of Formative Evaluation:

The characteristics of formative evaluation are as follows:
a. It is an integral part of the learning process.

b. It occurs, frequently, during the course of instruction.

c. Its results are made immediately known to the learners.

d. It may sometime take form of teacher observation only.

e. It reinforces learning of the students.

f. It pinpoints difficulties being faced by a weak learner.

g. Its results cannot be used for grading or placement purposes.

h. It helps in modification of instructional strategies including method of

teaching, immediately.

i. It motivates learners, as it provides them with knowledge of progress

made by them.

j. It sees role of evaluation as a process.

k. It is generally a teacher-made test.

l. It does not take much time to be constructed.

Examples:
i. Monthly tests.
ii. Class tests.

iii. Periodical assessment.

iv. Teacher’s observation, etc.

2.Summative Evaluation:

Summative evaluation is done at the end of a course of instruction to

know to what extent the objectives previously fixed have been
accomplished. In other words, it is the evaluation of pupils’ achievement
at the end of a course.

The main objective of the summative evaluation is to assign grades to

the pupils. It indicates the degree to which the students have mastered
the course content. It helps to judge the appropriateness of instructional
objectives. Summative evaluation is generally the work of standardised
tests.

Characteristics of Summative Evaluation:

a. It is terminal in nature as it comes at the end of a course of
instruction (or a programme).

b. It is judgemental in character in the sense that it judges the

achievement of pupils.

c. It views evaluation “as a product”, because its chief concern is to

point out the levels of attainment.

d. It cannot be based on teachers observations only.

e. It does not pin-point difficulties faced by the learner.

f. Its results can be used for placement or grading purposes.

g. It reinforces learning of the students who has learnt an area.

h. It may or may not motivate a learner. Sometimes, it may have

negative effect.

Examples:
1. Traditional school and university examination,

2. Teacher-made tests,
3. Standardised tests,

4. Practical and oral tests, and 

5. Rating scales, etc.

 PAPER –II

Educational Policy, Economics & Planning

(Secondary Level)
Question 1: Discuss the concept, aims and scope of Economics of
Education.
Answer: Economics is a social science that studies how society
chooses to allocate its scarce resources, which have
alternative uses, to provide goods and services for present and
future consumption. Economics of Education as an area of
study cannot be said to be a separate field of inquiry that is
totally different from the ordinary economics. Economics of
Education is the application of Economic principles, concepts,
laws to the process of Education. Economists analyse the
production of education in this world where resources such as
the capital invested in buildings or technology and the labour of
the teacher workforce are necessarily scarce. This scarcity of
resources means that policymakers must decide:

1. How much to spend on each stage of education (i.e.

what to produce);
2. How to provide educational services in a way that
maximises its benefits to society (i.e. how to produce
education); and
3. Who should have access to each stage of education
(i.e. for whom is education provided).

There are three decision makers or stakeholders in the

educational system. These are (1) The society (2) The
institutions or providers (suppliers) of education and (3)
Individual or households (purchasers of educational services).
The twin problem of scarcity and choice face these major
stakeholders.
The fundamental problem of economics of education is how
the society, institution and the households make use of the
limited human and material resources they have, to best satisfy
their unlimited wants for education. The solution to the
fundamental problem requires the application of certain
economic concepts.

The study of economics of education includes private and

social rates of returns to education, human capital and
signalling theories of education, non-pecuniary benefits of
education, education and economic development, contribution
of education to the economy, measuring educational
expenditure, manpower planning, educational planning and
human resource development, educational cost, cost analysis,
educational production, educational effectiveness and
efficiency, costs-efficiency and cost- effectiveness, cost-benefit
analysis and economics of teacher supply, educational and
equity.

Question 2: Explain Educational Planning. Discuss goals and

principles of Educational Planning at secondary level.

Answer: Planning is essential in the field of education entitled as

“Educational Planning” which is a major requirement in the
contemporary society. The complexities of the present scientifically
developed and technologically advanced society have given special
position to the need for planning in education.

Like planning in any field, educational planning has to explore the best
possible means of making the greatest use of available resources
leading to the maximum realization of the educational aims and
objectives, both individual and social.

So educational planning may be defined as a systematic design of

action for realization of educational aims and objectives for individual
and social development through maximum utilization of available
resources. In practical perspective, educational planning is defined as a
process utilized by an administrator while performing the role of a
leader, decision-maker, change agent and so on.

Types of Educational Planning:

1. Administrative Planning
2. Academic or Curricular Planning
3. Co-curricular Planning
4. Instructional Planning
5. Institutional Planning

Essential principles of educational planning are as follows:

(1)Educational planning should be an integral part of the overall

planning for national development.

(2)It is pre-eminently long-term in nature. This requires proactive,

forward-looking studies to be conducted before d awing up medium and
short-term national plans, programmes and projects. In other words,
research is a pre-requisite to planning.
(3)It must be comprehensive in nature, and must incorporate every
level and type of education, all stages of life as well as life-long
learning.

(4)It is necessarily a continuous process and not a sporadic activity.

(5)The finances required for educational development of the country

should be treated as an investment and not just as social welfare.

(6)It should focus on the structures, methods and contents of education,

the qualitative and the quantitative aspects of education.

(7)There should be a policy of educational development allowing

continuous and balanced expansion based on the principles of equality
and equity.

(8)It should be aimed at democratization of education and educating

individuals for their maximum development and full participation in
social life through all-round development and through action for
international co-operation and understanding.

(9)It is aimed at continuous forecasting and guidance so as to match

the demand for human resources with its supply in required quantity
and quality.

(10)It requires application of economic analysis (forecasting of demand

and supply of human resources, cost studies etc.) and of educational
evaluation techniques in order to ensure efficient use of resources
allocated to education for investment in physical plant, equipment,
research, faculty development or the organization of teaching-learning
process.

(11)It should emphasize on the reduction of wastage, stagnation and

drop-out rates among the deprived and disadvantaged sections of
society.

(12)It should be aimed at equitable distribution of educational facilities

vis-a-vis the distribution of population and the level of its economic
development.
(13) It should provide for the special requirements of planning at the
local, state and national levels.
 PAPER- III

Guidance & Counselling

(Secondary Level)

Question 1: Discuss various approaches of counselling.

 Answer: Counselling is a helping approach that highlights the
emotional and intellectual experience of a client: how a client is
feeling and what they think about the problem they have sought help
for. In other words it is the act of helping the client to see things
more clearly, possibly from a different view-point. This can enable the
client to focus on feelings, experiences or behaviour, with a goal of
facilitating positive change.
There are a number of different approaches used by professional
counsellors. Perhaps the three main approaches are:
1. Psychodynamic
2. Humanistic and
3. Behavioural
Each of these has a different theory and ideas underpinning it, and the
therapists and counsellors using each will approach problems and
issues in different ways.

Psychodynamic Approach to Counselling

Psychodynamic counselling evolved from the work of Sigmund Freud
(1856-1939). Psychodynamic counselling is based on Freud’s idea
that true knowledge of people and their problems is possible through an
understanding of three particular areas of the human mind.
These areas are:

 The Conscious 
 The Subconscious 
 The Unconscious 
Freud's main interest and aim was to bring things from the unconscious
into the conscious. This practice is known as psychoanalysis. Freud
maintained that the personality consists of three related elements:

 The Id 
 The Ego 
 The Superego 
The main goal of psychodynamic counselling, therefore, is to help
people to balance the three elements of their personality so that neither
the Id nor the Superego is dominant.
It is rooted in exploring and understanding past experience to identify
repressed issues that are affecting current behaviour. Psychodynamic
counselling is therefore a long and ongoing process, and is mainly used
when people are experiencing severe problems that are not resolved
using other methods.
Humanistic Approach to Counselling
Humanistic counselling recognises the uniqueness of every individual. It
assumes that everyone has an innate capacity to grow emotionally and
psychologically towards the goals of self-actualisation and personal
fulfilment.
Humanistic counsellors work with the belief that problems are not
caused by life events themselves, but how we experience them. Our
experience, in turn, will affect and be affected by how we feel about
ourselves, influencing self-esteem and confidence. The humanistic
approach to counselling therefore encourages the client to learn to
understand how negative responses to life events can lead to
psychological discomfort. The approach aims for self-acceptance of
both negative and positive aspects of our characters and personalities.
Humanistic counsellors therefore aim to help clients to explore their
own thoughts and feelings and to work out their own solutions to their
problem.
Behavioural Approach to Counselling
The behavioural approach to counselling focuses on the assumption
that the environment determines an individual’s behaviour. How an
individual responds to a given situation is the result of past learning,
and usually behaviour that has been reinforced in the past. For
example, suppose that a child picked up a spider and took it to their
mother. If she was frightened of spiders, she might scream. The child
would then learn that spiders are frightening. Next time, instead of
picking up the spider, the child will probably scream and run to their
mother, who may say ‘ooh, I hate spiders, they’re so creepy’,
reinforcing the child’s behaviour. As a result, the child may develop a
fear of spiders and run away screaming (response) at the sight of a
spider (stimulus).
Behavioural therapies evolved from psychological research and
theories of learning concerned with observable behaviour, i.e.
behaviour that can be objectively viewed and measured. Behaviourists
believe that that behaviour is ‘learned’ and can therefore be unlearned.
Question 2: Explain the concept of mental health. Discuss various
factors affecting it.
Answer: Mental health means the systematic study of all the
factors relating to adjustment of individual and society and the
study of advantageous factors of mental health. Mental health
is as important as physical health stile however, most of the
persons are not conscious, awareness and worried about their
mental health. The main reason is that we cannot easily
identify mental health and & mental illness. The important
things about mental health are:

1. The sense of security

2. Sufficiency
3. Sufficient emotionality
4. Sufficient & efficient satisfaction with reality.
5. The natural pleasure of satisfaction of physical
needs and the ability to tolerate its deprivation.
6. The sufficient knowledge of self, one’s desires,
goals, expectations & limitation and abilities.
7. Consistency & organization
8. Sufficient goals
9. Competency to learn from experiences
10. Competency to satisfy needs
11. To be creative, becoming free from group
remaining away from flattery and ability to tolerate
cultural differences.

Characteristics Of Mentally Healthy Person

1. Good physical health
2. Satisfactory social relations
3. Individual importance or self-esteem
4. Insight
5. Philosophy of life
Factors Influencing Good Mental Health
1. Hereditory factors
Heredity determines the limits of individuals mental abilities. How
far individual would achieve through mental health depends
upon his personal limits. Individuals appearance, intelligence,
physique and other mental abilities are heredity.

2. Physical factors
Individual’s physical health is an important factor of mental
health. Individual likes to live life due to physical health. He has
desires to achieve something when he is physically healthy. He
leads happy life. Those who have more abilities, look physically
good. Those who are physically sick have mental traits like
excitement, disappointment, worry etc and in this way mental
health is also disturbed when physical health is not well.
3. Social factors
Individual lives in society and he establishes inter personal
relations through interaction with other persons in society. Social
environment shapes individual’s knowledge, interest, habits and
values. The individuals behaviour is affecter by society.
4. Satisfaction of basic needs
In the foundation of mental health lies the satisfaction of
basic needs. It is important how individual’s basic needs are
satisfied and in what proportion, it is satisfied.

5. Psychological factors
Mary Jahila has status following psychotically factors
affecting mental health include:
{a) Integration of personality
{b) Self-actualization
{c) Autonomy of individual
{d) Attitudes towards oneself
{e) The technique of perceiving reality
{f) Mastery over environment & centre
6. Social factors
Various researchers have mentioned following social
factors for mental health.
{a) Family life
{b) Revengeful attitude towards siblings
{c) Healthy social relations
{d) Proper professional atmosphere

7. Personality factors
Many psychologists believe that heredity physical health, level of
intelligence etc are personal factors affecting mental health e.g. the
diffective hevedit provides environment for metnal and physical
deceases. It creates disharmony is the personality. The person who
is constant if for a long time cannot maintain mental health. It is
evident that the persons with how intelligence has mental health of
lower degree.