‫اﻟﺬآﺎء اﻻﺻﻄﻨﺎﻋﻲ‬

‫واﻟﻨﻈﻢ اﻟﺨﺒﻴﺮة‬

‫‪Artificial intelligence‬‬
‫&‬
‫‪Expert systems‬‬

‫ﻣﺤﺮم ‪1423‬‬ ‫د‪ .‬ﻓﺮﻳﺎل ﺣﺎج ﺣﺴﻦ‬

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 ‫‪ -1‬اﻟﺬآﺎء اﻻﺻﻄﻨﺎﻋﻲ‬

‫ﻳﻌﺘﱪ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺬﻛﺎﺀ ﺍﻻﺻﻄﻨﺎﻋﻲ )‪ Artificial intelligence (AI‬ﻋﻠﻤﹰﺎ ﺣﺪﻳﺜﹰﺎ ﻧﺴﺒﻴﹰﺎ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻧﺸﺄ ﺃﻭﺍﺳﻂ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻌـﺸﺮﻳﻦ‪ ،‬ﻭﳝﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻝ ‪-‬ﺑﺎﳌﻌﲎ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺳﻊ‪ -‬ﺃﻥ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻢ ﻳﻬﺘﻢ ﺑﺈﻣﻜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻗﻴﺎﻡ ًﻣﻨﺘﺞ ﺍﺻﻄﻨﺎﻋﻲ ‪ ً artifact -‬ﺑﻨﻔﺲ‬
‫ﺃﻧـﻮﺍﻉ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠـﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﱵ ﲤﻴﺰ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﻜﲑ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﱐ ‪ .‬ﻭﻗﺪ ﺍﲡﻬﺖ ﺍﻷﲝﺎﺙ ﰲ ﺍﻟـ ‪ - AI‬ﻣﻊ ﺗﻄﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﺍﳊﺪﻳﺜﺔ ‪ -‬ﳓﻮ‬
‫ﻣﻨﺤﻴﲔ ﺭﺋﻴﺴﻴﲔ‪:‬‬
‫ﻋﻠﻮﻡ ﻭﺃﲝﺎﺙ ﺑﺴﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﻄﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺗﻔﻜﲑ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﺗﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ ﺧﺎﺹ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻈﻢ ﺍﳊﺎﺳﻮﺑﻴﺔ‪.‬‬

‫ﻳـﺪﻝ ﺍﳉﺰﺀ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﱐ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﺼﻄﻠﺢ " ﺍﻻﺻﻄﻨﺎﻋﻲ " ﺃﻧﻪ ﻣﺼﻨﻮﻉ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ‪ man-made‬ﻋﻠﻤﹰﺎ ﺑﺄﻧﻪ ﻻ ﻳﻮﺟﺪ‬
‫ﻟﻠﺬﻛﺎﺀ ﺍﻻﺻﻄﻨﺎﻋﻲ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﻣﻮﺣﺪ ﺣﱴ ﺍﻵﻥ ‪ ،‬ﻭﺃﻫﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﺭﻳﻒ ﻟﻪ ﺗﺘﻤﺤﻮﺭ ﺣﻮﻝ ﻛﻮﻧﻪ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻬﺘﻢ ﲟﺎ ﻳﻠﻲ‪:‬‬

‫‪ -‬ﺃﲤﺘﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺸﺎﻃﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺘﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻔﻜﲑ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮﻱ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺻﻨﻊ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺭ‪ ،‬ﺣﻞ ﺍﳌﺸﺎﻛﻞ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪.[Bellman , 1978] ..،‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻔﺎﺀﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﻠﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﳕﺎﺫﺝ ﺣﺴﺎﺑﻴﺔ ]‪.[Chariak and MC Dermott, 1985‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﻓﻦ ﺍﺧﺘﺮﺍﻉ ﺍﻵﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﲢﻘﻴﻖ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺗﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﺍﻟﺬﻛﺎﺀ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﱐ ]‪. [Kuzweil 1990‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺍﳊﺴﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﱵ ﲡﻌﻞ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﺩﺭﺍﻙ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﺘﻔﻜﲑ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺼﺮﻑ ﳑﻜﻨﺔ ]‪. [Winston 1992‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻛﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺟﻌﻞ ﺍﳊﻮﺍﺳﺐ ﺗﻘﻮﻡ ﺑﺄﻋﻤﺎﻝ ﻳﻘﻮﻡ ﻬﺑﺎ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﺣﺎﻟﻴﹰﺎ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺃﻓﻀﻞ ]‪.[Rich and Knight 1991‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﻓﺮﻉ ﻋﻠﻮﻡ ﺍﳊﺎﺳﺐ ﺍﳌﻬﺘﻢ ﺑﺄﲤﺘﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻮﻙ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﱐ ]‪.[Luger & Stubblefield, 1993‬‬

‫ﻭﺇﲨﺎ ﹰﻻ ﳝﻜﻦ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺍﻟﺬﻛﺎﺀ ﺍﻻﺻﻄﻨﺎﻋﻲ ﺑﺄﻧﻪ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻬﺘﻢ ﺑﺼﻨﻊ ﺁﻻﺕ ﺫﻛﻴﺔ ﺗﺘﺼﺮﻑ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺘﻮﻗﻊ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﺼﺮﻑ‪.‬‬

‫ﻟﻤﺤﺔ ﺘﺎﺭﻴﺨﻴﺔ‪:‬‬

‫ﻋﻠـﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺬﻛﺎﺀ ﺍﻻﺻﻄﻨﺎﻋﻲ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺣﺪﻳﺚ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﲑ ﻷﻭﻝ ﻣﺮﺓ ﻋﺎﻡ ‪ 1956‬ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﻗـﺒﻞ ‪ John McCarthy‬ﻣـﻦ ‪ MIT‬ﻓﺈﻥ ﺟﺬﻭﺭ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻢ ﲤﺘﺪ ﺇﱃ ﺁﻻﻑ ﺍﻟﺴﻨﲔ‪ ،‬ﻓﻤﻨﺬ ﻋﺎﻡ ‪ 400‬ﻕ‪.‬ﻡ ﻗﺎﻡ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻔﻼﺳﻔﺔ ﲜﻌﻞ ﻋﻠﻢ ‪ AI‬ﳑﻜﻨﹰﺎ ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﺑﺘﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﻞ ‪ mind‬ﺑﺄﻧﻪ ﺑﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺸﺒﻪ ﺍﻵﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻣﺸﻔﺮﺓ‬
‫ﺑﻠﻐﺔ ﺩﺍﺧﻠﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﻜﺮﺓ ‪ thought‬ﳝﻜﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﻬﺎ ﻟﻠﺘﻮﺻﻞ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﻴﺢ‪.‬‬

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‫ﻭﻗـﺪ ﺃﺩﱃ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿـﻴﻮﻥ ﺑﺪﻟﻮﻫﻢ ﺃﻳﻀﹰﺎ ﺑﺘﺄﻣﻴﻨﻬﻢ ﺍﻷﺩﻭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻨﻄﻘﻴﺔ ﺍﳌﺆﻛﺪﺓ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻻﺣﺘﻤﺎﻻﺕ‬
‫ﻭﺍﳋﻮﺍﺭﺯﻣﻴﺎﺕ‪.‬‬
‫ﻛﻤـﺎ ﺃﻛﺪ ﻋﻠﻤﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺲ ‪ psychologists‬ﺃﻥ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﳝﻜﻦ ﺍﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭﻩ ﻛﺂﻟﺔ ﳌﻌﺎﳉﺔ ﺍﳌﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ‪ ،‬ﻭﺃﻭﺿﺢ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﻮﻳﻮﻥ‬
‫ﺃﻥ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺎﺕ ﺗﺘﻼﺀﻡ ﻣﻊ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺜﻴﻞ‪.‬‬
‫ﺃﺧﲑﹰﺍ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﺧﺘﺮﺍﻉ ﺍﳊﻮﺍﺳﺐ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﺔ ﻭﺗﻄﻮﺭﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﺴﺮﻳﻊ ﺃﻋﻄﻰ ﺍﻷﻣﻞ ﻭﺍﻹﻣﻜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﻮﻳﻞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻷﻓﻜﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ‬
‫ﺇﱃ ﻭﺍﻗﻊ‪ ،‬ﺣﻴﺚ ﻗﺪﻡ ﻣﻬﻨﺪﺳﻮ ﺍﳊﻮﺍﺳﺐ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻠﺰﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻣﺔ ﳉﻌﻞ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ‪ AI‬ﳑﻜﻨﺔ‪.‬‬

‫ﳎﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﻛﺎﺀ ﺍﻻﺻﻄﻨﺎﻋﻲ‪:‬‬

‫ﻼ ﻟﺘﺤﺼﻴﻞ ﻭﲣﺰﻳﻦ ﻭﻣﻌﺎﻣﻠﺔ‬ ‫ﻣـﻊ ﺍﻟـﺘﻘﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﺮﻳﻊ ﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﺍﳊﺎﺳﺒﺎﺕ ﻭﺑﻔﻀﻞ ﻛﻮﻥ ﺍﳊﻮﺍﺳﺐ ﻣﺼﻤﻤﺔ ﺃﺻ ﹰ‬
‫ﻭﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﳌﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ‪ ،‬ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﺘﻮﻗﻊ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺼﺒﺢ ﺗﻘﻨﻴﺎﺕ ﻭﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﻛﺎﺀ ﺍﻻﺻﻄﻨﺎﻋﻲ ﺟﺰﺀﹰﺍ ﻫﺎﻣﹰﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺣﻴﺎﺗﻨﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﳝﻜﻦ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﳎﺎﻻﺕ ‪ AI‬ﺇﱃ ﻋﺪﺓ ﺃﺟﺰﺍﺀ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ‪ :‬ﺍﻟﻨﻈﻢ ﺍﳋﺒﲑﺓ ‪ ، Expert Systems‬ﺍﻟﺸﺒﻜﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺼﺒﻮﻧﻴﺔ‬
‫‪ ،Neural Network‬ﻓﻬـﻢ ﺍﻟﻠﻐـﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ‪ ،Natural Languages‬ﲤﺜﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﺪﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﳊﺴﻴﺔ ﻟﻺﻧﺴﺎﻥ‬
‫ﻭﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺅﻳﺔ ﺍﳊﺎﺳﻮﺑﻴﺔ ‪ ، Computer Vision‬ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺑﻮﺗﻴﻚ ‪ ، Robotic‬ﺍﳌﻨﻄﻖ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺋﻢ ‪، Fuzzy logic‬‬
‫ﺃﻟﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﳊﺎﺳﺐ ‪ ،Computer games‬ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻴﻞ ‪ ..، Agent‬ﻭﻏﺎﻟﺒﹰﺎ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺘﻘﺎﻃﻊ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻷﺟﺰﺍﺀ ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﺎ‪.‬‬

‫‪ -‬ﺍﻟﻨﻈﻢ ﺍﳋﺒﲑﺓ‪:‬‬
‫ﻋـﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﻋـﻦ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺣﺎﺳﻮﰊ ﻟﺼﻨﻊ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺭﺍﺕ ﰲ ﺍﺠﻤﻟﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﳊﻘﻴﻘﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺤﻴﺎﺓ‪ ،‬ﻣﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﲤﺜﻞ ﺧﱪﺓ‬
‫ﺇﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﺧﺒﲑ ﰲ ﺍﺠﻤﻟﺎﻝ ﺍﶈﺪﺩ‪ ،‬ﻭﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﰲ ﺣﻘﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻄﺐ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﺒﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ‪...،‬‬

‫‪ -‬ﺍﻟﺸﺒﻜﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺼﺒﻮﻧﻴﺔ‪:‬‬
‫ﻭﻫـﻲ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻦ ﻧﻈﻢ ﺗﻘـﻮﻡ ﺑﺘﻤﺜﻴﻞ " ﺍﻟﺬﻛﺎﺀ " ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﳎﻤﻮﻋـﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﳉﺔ ﺗﺸـﺎﺑﻪ ﺍﻟﻌﺼـﺒﻮﻧﺎﺕ‬
‫)‪ (neurons‬ﰲ ﺍﻟﺪﻣﺎﻍ‪ ،‬ﻭﺗﺘﺼﻞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻣﻊ ﺑﻌﻀﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺷﺒﻜﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﺻﻼﺕ ﺍﳌﻮﺯﻭﻧﺔ ﲝﻴﺚ ﺗﺘﻢ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﻳﺮﺓ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻷﻭﺯﺍﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﻛﻤﺎ ﳛﺪﺙ ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ‪ .‬ﻭﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻮﺻﻼﺕ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻨﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﳊﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻗﻠﻴﻠﺔ ﺟﺪﹰﺍ‬
‫ﻣﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﻣﻊ ﻣﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺘﻮﻓﺮ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺪﻣﺎﻍ )ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﻮﺟﺪ ﺑﻼﻳﲔ ﺍﳌﻮﺻﻼﺕ(‪ .‬ﺗﻄﺒﻖ ﻧﻈﻢ ﺍﻟﺸﺒﻜﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺼﺒﻮﻧﻴﺔ ﰲ ﳎﺎﻝ ﳏﺪﺩ‬
‫ﻣﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﺷﻜﺎﻝ‪.‬‬

‫‪ -‬ﻓﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ‪:‬‬

‫ﻳﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺑﱪﳎﺔ ﺍﳊﻮﺍﺳﺐ ﲝﻴﺚ ﻳﺘﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﺜﻤﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻌﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﻳﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﺠﻤﻟﺎﻝ ﲝﻘﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﻼﻡ‪.‬‬

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 ‫‪ -‬ﲤﺜﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﺪﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﳊﺴﻴﺔ ﻟﻺﻧﺴﺎﻥ‪:‬‬
‫ﺗﻘـﻮﻡ ﺍﻵﻟـﺔ ﺑﺘﻨﻔـﻴﺬ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﲤﺎﺛﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﺪﺭﺓ ﺍﳊﺴﻴﺔ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻧﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﻣﻦ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺷﻴﻮﻋﹰﺎ ﰲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﺠﻤﻟﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺮﺅﻳﺔ‬
‫ﺍﳊﺎﺳﻮﺑﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻟﻪ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﺳﻌﺔ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻮﺟﻮﻩ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻣﺎﻛﻦ ﳏﺪﺩﺓ‪..،‬‬

‫‪ -‬ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺑﻮﺗﻴﻚ‪ :‬ﻭﻫﻮ ﳎﺎﻝ ﻳﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﱪﳎﺔ ﺍﳊﻮﺍﺳﺐ )ﺍﻵﻻﺕ( ﻟﺘﺮﻯ ﻭﺗﺴﻤﻊ ﻭﺗﺘﺼﺮﻑ‪..‬‬

‫‪ -‬ﺍﳌﻨﻄﻖ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺋﻢ‪:‬‬
‫ﻭﻫﻮ ﻣﻨﻄﻖ ﻳﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ _ ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮﻳﲔ ﺍﳌﻨﻄﻘﻴﲔ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻭﻓﲔ‪ :‬ﺻﺢ‪ /‬ﻧﻌﻢ ﺃﻭ ﺧﻄﺄ‪/‬ﻻ – ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﻭﺳﻴﻄﺔ‬
‫ﻼ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﺭﺩ ﻧﻮﻋﹰﺎ ﻣﺎ‪ ..،‬ﻭﻫﻮ ﺑﺬﻟﻚ ﳏﺎﻭﻟﺔ ﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺗﻔﻜﲑ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﺷﺒﻬﹰﺎ ﺑﺎﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﰲ‬
‫ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮﺓ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻤﺎ ﻣﺜ ﹰ‬
‫ﺑﺮﳎﺔ ﺍﳊﻮﺍﺳﺐ‪.‬‬

‫‪ -‬ﺃﻟﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﳊﺎﺳﺐ‪:‬‬
‫ﻼ ﺍﻟﱪﻧﺎﻣﺞ ‪ Deep Blue‬ﺍﻟﺬﻱ‬ ‫ﺗـﺘﻄﻮﺭ ﺃﻟﻌﺎﺏ ﺍﳊﺎﺳﺐ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺳﺮﻳﻊ‪ ،‬ﻭﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﻣﺜﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺎﺋﻌﺔ ﻟﻌﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﻄﺮﻧﺞ )ﻣﺜ ﹰ‬
‫ﺍﺳـﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﰲ ‪ IBM Super Computer‬ﺗﻐﻠـﺐ ﻋﻠـﻰ ﺑﻄـﻞ ﺍﻟﻌـﺎﱂ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺸﻄﺮﻧﺞ ﻋﺎﻡ ‪Gary 1997‬‬
‫‪ / Kasparov‬ﻳﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﱪﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﺁﻟﻴﺔ ﺗﺴﻤﺢ ﻟﻪ ﺑﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ‪ 200‬ﻣﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﻣﻮﺿﻊ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ( ‪.‬‬

‫‪ -‬ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻴﻞ‪:‬‬
‫ﻭﻫـﻮ ﻋـﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻦ ﺷﺨﺼﻴﺔ ﺣﺎﺳﻮﺑﻴﺔ ‪ Computational Entity‬ﺗﺘﺼﺮﻑ ﻟﺼﺎﱀ ﺷﺨﺼﻴﺎﺕ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ )ﻏﺎﻟﺒﹰﺎ‬
‫ﻼ ﳝﻜﻦ ﻟﺸﺨﺺ ﺃﻥ ﳝﻠﻚ ﻋﻤﻴﻠﻪ ﺍﳋﺎﺹ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺮﺍﻗﺐ ﻟﻪ ﺍﳌﻘﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﳊﺪﻳﺜﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ‬‫ﺑـﺸﺮﻳﺔ( ﺑـﺸﻜﻞ ﻣـﺴﺘﻘﻞ‪ .‬ﻣﺜ ﹰ‬
‫‪ Usenet‬ﻭﻳﻨﺘﺨﺐ ﻟﻪ ﺍﳌﻘﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﳌﻔﻀﻠﺔ ﻟﺪﻳﻪ‪.‬‬

‫ﺳﻨﺘﻨﺎﻭﻝ ﺑﺒﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺼﻴﻞ ﳎﺎﻟﲔ ﺍﺛﻨﲔ ﻣﻦ ﳎﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﻛﺎﺀ ﺍﻻﺻﻄﻨﺎﻋﻲ‪:‬‬

‫ﺍﻟﻨﻈﻢ ﺍﳋﺒﲑﺓ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﺷﻜﺎﻝ‪ -‬ﺍﳊﺮﻭﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ‪.‬‬

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 ‫‪ - 2‬اﻟﻨﻈﻢ اﻟﺨﺒﻴﺮة‬

‫ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﳋﺒﲑ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻦ ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﺣﺎﺳﻮﰊ ﳝﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﳛﻞ ﻬﺑﺎ ﺷﺨﺺ ﺧﺒﲑ ﻣﺴﺄﻟﺔ ﻣﺎ ﰲ ﳎﺎﻝ ﳏﺪﺩ ‪.‬‬
‫ﻳﺘﺄﻟﻒ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﳋﺒﲑ ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﻦ ‪:‬‬
‫‪ -1‬ﻭﺍﺟﻬﺔ ﺭﺑﻂ ﻣﻊ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﺜﻤﺮ ‪. End User Interface‬‬
‫‪ -2‬ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ‪) Knowledge Base‬ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ‪ ،‬ﺣﻘﺎﺋﻖ‪ ،‬ﻗﻮﺍﻋﺪ‪ ،‬ﺧﱪﺓ‪.(..،‬‬
‫‪ -3‬ﳏﺮﻙ ﺍﺳﺘﻨﺘﺎﺟﻲ ‪. Inference Engine‬‬

‫اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺜﻤﺮ‬

‫ﻭﺍﺟﻬﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻂ‬

‫ﻣﺤﺮك اﺱﺘﻨﺘﺎﺟﻲ‬ ‫ﻗﺎﻋﺪة ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ‬

‫وﺣﺪة اﻟﺘﻔﻜﻴﺮ‬ ‫ﺣﻘﺎﺋﻖ‪ ،‬ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ‪ ،‬ﺧﺒﺮة‬

‫ﺷﻜﻞ ‪ -1-‬ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﳋﺒﲑ‬

‫ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﳍﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﻢ ﻳﺘﻢ ﻣﺎﻳﻠﻲ‪:‬‬

‫ﻳﻘـﻮﻡ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﺜﻤﺮ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺸﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻭﺍﺟﻬﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻂ ﻭﺍﻟﱵ ﲢﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻄﻠﺒﺎﺕ ‪types of queries‬‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﻠﻐـﺔ ﺍﳌﻄﻠﻮﺏ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﻬﺎ‪ ،‬ﻭﻳﻘﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺑﺎﻻﺳﺘﻔﺴﺎﺭ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﺜﻤﺮ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﻧﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺟﻬﺔ ﻟﻴﺤﺼﻞ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﳌﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻣﺔ ﻷﺧﺬ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺭ‪.‬‬

‫ﲢﺘﻮﻱ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﻞ "ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ" ﺍﻟﱵ ﻳﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﻬﺎ ﺍﳋﺒﲑ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮﻱ ﳊﻞ ﻣﺸﺎﻛﻞ ﺍﺠﻤﻟﺎﻝ ﺍﶈﺪﺩ‪.‬‬

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‫ﻳﻘﻮﻡ ﺍﶈﺮﻙ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻨﺘﺎﺟﻲ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻨﺘﺎﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻣﺔ ﻭﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺣﱴ ﻳﺼﻞ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺭ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺄﻟﺔ ﺍﳌﻄﺮﻭﺣﺔ‪.‬‬

‫ﺑﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﳝﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻝ ﺃﻥ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻭﺍﶈﺮﻙ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻨﺘﺎﺟﻲ ﳝﺜﻼﻥ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﳌﺨﺰﻧﺔ ﰲ ﺫﺍﻛﺮﺓ ﺍﳋﺒﲑ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮﻱ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﻘﺪﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻨﺘﺎﺟﻴﺔ )ﺍﻟﺘﻔﻜﲑﻳﺔ( ﻟﻪ ‪ .‬ﳛﺘﻮﻱ ﺍﶈﺮﻙ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻨﺘﺎﺟﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﳎﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻨﻄﻘﻴﺔ )ﻭﺍﻟﱵ ﳝﻜﻦ‬
‫ﺃﻥ ﺗﺸﺒﻪ )ﺃﻭ ﻻ ﺗﺸﺒﻪ ﺃﺣﻴﺎﻧﺎﹰ( ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﻜﲑ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻳﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﻬﺎ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ‪ ،‬ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﺍﳌﻬﻢ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻳﺘﻮﺻﻞ‬
‫ﺇﻟﻴﻬﺎ ﻣﺸﺎﻬﺑﺔ(‪ .‬ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻏﺎﻟﺒﹰﺎ ﻣﺒﻨﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ "ﻗﻮﺍﻋﺪ" ﻣﺆﻟﻔﺔ ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺌﺎﺕ ﺍﺠﻤﻟﻤﻮﻋﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ] ﺇﺫﺍ‬
‫ﺷـﺮﻁ ‪ -‬ﺇﺫﻥ ﺗﺼﺮﻑ )‪ [(IF condition - THEN action‬ﻭﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺼﻒ ﻛﻞ ﳎﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﺔ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﻗـﺒﻞ ﺍﳋﺒﲑ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮﻱ ﰲ ﳎﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺍﶈﺪﺩ‪ .‬ﻭﻫﻨﺎ ﺗﻜﻤﻦ ﺻﻌﻮﺑﺔ ﲢﻘﻴﻖ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺧﺒﲑ‪ ،‬ﺇﺫ ﺃﻥ ﺍﳋﱪﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮﻳﲔ ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻻ‬
‫ﻳـﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﻮﻥ ﻣﻌـﺮﻓﺘﻬﻢ ﺣـﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻉ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻣﺆﻟﻔﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﻧﲔ ‪ ،‬ﻭﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺎﻡ ﻻ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﳊﻴﺎﺓ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻬﺑﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺍﶈﺪﺩ‪ .‬ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﱄ ﻓﺈﻥ ﻧﻘﻞ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﺍﳋﺒﲑ ﻳﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺻﻌﺒﺔ ﻭﻃﻮﻳﻠﺔ ﰲ ﻛﺜﲑ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﺍﻷﺣﻴﺎﻥ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺘﻤﻴـﺰ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﻢ ﺍﳋﺒﲑﺓ ﺑﺈﻣﻜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﻬﺎ ﳌﻌﻄﻴﺎﺕ ﻏﲑ ﻛﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﻛﺪ‬
‫‪ Degree of Certainty‬ﻋﻨﺪ ﺗﺼﻤﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﳋﺒﲑ‪.‬‬

‫ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﻢ ﺍﳋﺒﲑﺓ‪:‬‬

‫ﻼ ﻣﺼﺤﺢ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﻋﺪ‬‫ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﻢ ﺍﳋﺒﲑﺓ ﰲ ﳎﺎﻻﺕ ﻣﺘﻌﺪﺩﺓ ﺳﻮﺍﺀ ﻛﻨﻈﻢ ﻣﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﺔ ﺿﻤﻦ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎﺕ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺜ ﹰ‬
‫‪ Grammar Checker‬ﻭ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﰿ "‪ "Wizard‬ﰲ ﺍﻟﱪﳎﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺸﺎﺋﻌﺔ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺣﺰﻡ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﺎﺋﺢ ﺍﳌﻨﺘﺸﺮﺓ )ﺍﳉﺪﺍﻭﻝ‬
‫ﺍﻹﻟﻜﺘـﺮﻭﻧﻴﺔ( ﻭﺣﺰﻡ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﻴﺔ ‪ ،Spreadsheet and Graphic Packages‬ﺃﻭ ﻛﻨﻈﻢ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻠﺔ‬
‫ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﺔ )‪ ، ( Credit Cards‬ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻄﺐ‪...،‬‬

‫ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﻢ ﺍﳋﺒﲑﺓ – ﺍﳌﺰﺍﻳﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻴﻮﺏ‬

‫‪ -‬ﺍﳌﺰﺍﻳﺎ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﳋﺒﲑ ﻏﲑ ﻣﻌﺮﺽ ﻟﻠﻨﺴﻴﺎﻥ ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﺍﳋﺒﲑ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮﻱ ﻻ ﻳﺘﻤﺘﻊ ﻬﺑﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﻴﺰﺓ‪.‬‬
‫ﳝﻜـﻦ ﻧـﺴﺦ ﻋﺪﺓ ﻧﺴﺦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﳋﺒﲑ ﺑﺴﺮﻋﺔ‪ ،‬ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﻳﺸﻜﻞ ﺗﺪﺭﻳﺐ ﺷﺨﺺ ﺧﺒﲑ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺁﺧﺮ‬
‫ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻃﻮﻳﻠﺔ ﻭﳎﻬﺪﺓ‪.‬‬
‫ﻗﺪ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺑﻨﺎﺀ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺧﺒﲑ ﲝﺪ ﺫﺍﺗﻪ ﻣﻜﻠﻔﹰﺎ ﻏﲑ ﺃﻥ ﻛﻠﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﻭﺍﻟﺼﻴﺎﻧﺔ ﻟﻪ ﳝﻜﻦ ﺗﻮﺯﻳﻌﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﺪﺓ‬
‫ﻣﺴﺘﺜﻤﺮﻳﻦ‪ ،‬ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﱄ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻣﻘﺒﻮﻟﺔ ﻣﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﻣﻊ ﻛﻠﻔﺔ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﺍﳋﺒﲑ‪.‬‬

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‫ﻳﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﳋﺒﲑ ﺍﳌﺴﺎﺋﻞ ﺍﳌﺘﺸﺎﻬﺑﺔ ﺑﻨﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ‪ ،‬ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﳝﻜﻦ ﻟﻺﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﺍﳋﺒﲑ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﺄﺛﺮ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺃﻛﱪ‬
‫ﺑﻌﺪﺓ ﻋﻮﺍﻣﻞ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ‪:‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﺃﺣﺪﺙ ﺍﳌﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﺃﻭﻝ ﺍﳌﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺣﺼﻞ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﳝﻜﻦ ﻟﻠﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﳋﺒﲑ ﺃ ﻥ ﻳﻮﺛﻖ ﻗﺮﺍﺭﺍﺗﻪ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺩﺍﺋﻢ‪.‬‬
‫ﺇﻣﻜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﲡﻤﻴﻊ ﺧﱪﺓ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺷﺨﺺ ﰲ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ‪.‬‬

‫‪ -‬ﺍﻟﻌﻴﻮﺏ‪:‬‬
‫ﻳﺘﻤﻴﺰ ﺍﻟﺸﺨﺺ ﺍﳋﺒﲑ ﺑﺎﻹﺩﺭﺍﻙ ‪ Common-sense‬ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﻻ ﻳﺘﻤﻴﺰ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﳋﺒﲑ ﺑﺬﻟﻚ‪.‬‬

‫ﳝﻜﻦ ﻟﻺﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﺍﳋﺒﲑ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﺠﺎﻭﺏ ﻣﻊ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﻏﲑ ﺍﻋﺘﻴﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﻳﺘﻌﺬﺭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﳋﺒﲑ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﻡ ﺑﺬﻟﻚ‪.‬‬
‫ﻳﺘﺄﻗﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺸﺨﺺ ﺍﳋﺒﲑ ﻣﻊ ﺗﻐﲑ ﺍﻟﻈﺮﻭﻑ ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﳛﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﳋﺒﲑ ﺇﱃ ﲢﺪﻳﺚ ‪ Update‬ﺧﺎﺹ ﻬﺑﺬﻩ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻈﺮﻭﻑ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻨﻈﻢ ﺍﳋﺒﲑﺓ ﻗﺎﺻﺮﺓ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﳌﺸﺎﻛﻞ ﺍﳋﺎﺭﺟﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺧﱪﻬﺗﺎ‪.‬‬

‫ﻼ ﺗﻮﻗﻊ ﺍﳊﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﳉﻮﻳﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻋﻦ ﺃﻋﻄﺎﻝ ‪ Bugs‬ﰲ ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ‬

‫ﻛﻨﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﳝﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻝ ﺃﻧﻪ ﰲ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﳊﺎﻻﺕ ‪ -‬ﻣﺜ ﹰ‬
‫ﻣـﺎ‪ -‬ﳝﻜﻦ ﻟﻠﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﳋﺒﲑ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺃﺳﺮﻉ ﻭ‪/‬ﺃﻭ ﺃﺩﻕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ‪ ،‬ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﰲ ﳎﺎﻻﺕ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﻛﺎﻟﻄﺐ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ‬
‫ﻼ‪ -‬ﻋﻦ ﺍﳋﺒﲑ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮﻱ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﳋﺒﲑ ﻣﺴﺎﻋﺪﹰﺍ ﻓﻌﺎ ﹰﻻ ‪ -‬ﻭﻟﻴﺲ ﺑﺪﻳ ﹰ‬

‫‪ -3‬اﻟﺘﻌﺮف ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺤﺮوف اﻟﻌﺮﺏﻴﺔ‬

‫ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﳊﺮﻑ ‪ Optical Character Recognition OCR‬ﻫﻮ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﲢﻮﻳﻞ ﺻﻮﺭﺓ ﻧﺺ )ﻣﻄﺒﻮﻉ‬
‫ﺃﻭ ﻣﻜﺘﻮﺏ ﲞﻂ ﺍﻟﻴﺪ( ﻣﺆﻟﻒ ﻣﻦ ﺣﺮﻭﻑ‪،‬ﺃﻭ ﺃﺭﻗﺎﻡ‪،‬ﺃﻭ ﺭﻣﻮﺯ ﺇﱃ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻌﻪ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﺍﳊﺎﺳﺐ‪ .‬ﻳﺘﺄﻟﻒ‬
‫ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ‪ OCR‬ﻣﻦ ‪ 3‬ﻭﺣﺪﺍﺕ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ‪:‬‬
‫‪ -1‬ﻣﺎﺳﺢ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﺃﻭ ﻛﺎﻣﲑﺍ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -2‬ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ )ﻛﻴﺎﻥ ﺟﺎﻣﺪ ‪ Hardware‬ﻭﻛﻴﺎﻥ ﻟﲔ ‪.(Software‬‬
‫‪ -2‬ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﳋﺮﺝ‪.‬‬

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 ‫ﻥﺘﻴﺠﺔ اﻟﺘﻌﺮف‬ ‫‪OCR‬‬ ‫ﺻﻮرة رﻗﻤﻴﺔ‬ ‫ـﺎﺳــ‬
‫ـﺢ‬ ‫ﻣــ‬
‫ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﳋﺮﺝ‬ ‫اﻟﺘﻌﺮف ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫اﺱﺘﺨﻼص‬
‫اﻟﺤﺮف‬ ‫اﻟﺤﺮف‬
‫ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺭﺓ‪ /‬ﻛﺎﻣﲑﺍ‬

‫ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻖ‬
‫ﺷﻜﻞ ‪ -2-‬ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﳊﺮﻭﻑ‬

‫‪ -‬ﻣﺎﺳﺢ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺭﺓ ‪ :‬ﻳﻘﻮﻡ ﺑﺘﺤﺼﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﺃﻱ ﲢﻮﻳﻠﻬﺎ ﺇﱃ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺭﻗﻤﻲ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﻟﻠﻤﻌﺎﳉﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﳊﺎﺳﺐ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﻭ ﻳﺘﺄﻟﻒ ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺟﺰﺃﻳﻦ ﺭﺋﻴﺴﻴﲔ‪:‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﺍﺳﺘﺨﻼﺹ ﺍﳊﺮﻑ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﺺ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﳊﺮﻑ‪.‬‬

‫ﺃ‪ -‬ﺍﺳﺘﺨﻼﺹ ﺍﳊﺮﻑ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﺺ‪:‬‬

‫ﻣـﻦ ﺧـﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺃﻥ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﺍﳊﺮﻭﻑ ﻣﺘﺼﻠﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺑﻌﻀﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺧﻼﻑ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺗﻴﻨﻴﺔ‬
‫ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﳊﺮﻭﻑ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻨﺼﻮﺹ ﺍﳌﻄﺒﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻨﻔﺼﻠﺔ ﳑﺎ ﻳﺴﻬﻞ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﻼﺹ ﺍﳊﺮﻑ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﺺ‪.‬‬
‫ﻳـﺘﻢ ﺍﺳـﺘﺨﻼﺹ ﺍﳊﺮﻑ ﺑﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﻭﻣﻘﺎﻃﻌﻬﺎ ﻭﻣﻦ ﰒ ﺍﳊﺮﻭﻑ‪ ،‬ﻭ ﳝﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻀﻢ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺣﺪﺓ‬
‫ﻼ ﻛﻠﻤﺔ "ﺣﺮﻑ" ﺗﺘﺄﻟﻒ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻘﻄﻌﲔ‪" :‬ﺣﺮ"‬ ‫ﻣﻘﻄﻌـﹰﺎ ﺃﻭ ﺃﻛﺜـﺮ‪ ،‬ﻭﻳﺘﺄﻟﻒ ﺍﳌﻘﻄﻊ ﻣﻦ ﺣﺮﻑ ﺃﻭ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ‪ :‬ﻣﺜ ﹰ‬
‫ﻣﺆﻟﻒ ﻣﻦ ﺣﺮﻓﲔ ﻭ "ﻑ" ﻣﻦ ﺣﺮﻑ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ‪.‬‬

‫ﺏ‪ -‬ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﳊﺮﻑ‪:‬‬

‫ﻳﻘـﺼﺪ ﺑﺬﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﳊﺮﻭﻑ ﻭﺍﻷﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﺮﻣﻮﺯ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻨﺺ‪ ،‬ﻭﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﻭﺭﻱ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺄﺧﺬ‬
‫ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﺑﻌﲔ ﺍﻻﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﺃﻥ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﳊﺮﻭﻑ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﻳﺘﻐﲑ ﺣﺴﺐ ﻣﻮﻗﻊ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳊﺮﻭﻑ ﰲ‬
‫ﻼ ﺣﺮﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﲔ ﻟﻪ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ "ﻋـ" ﰲ ﺃﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻤﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ "ـﻌـ" ﰲ ﺍﻟﻮﺳﻂ ﻭﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻤـﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻓﻤـﺜ ﹰ‬
‫"ﻉ" ﰲ ﺁﺧﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻤﺔ‪.‬‬

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 ‫ﺗﺘﺄﻟﻒ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺘﲔ ﺭﺋﻴﺴﻴﺘﲔ‪:‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﺍﺳﺘﺨﻼﺹ ﺍﳋﻮﺍﺹ ‪ ،Feature Extraction‬ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﺘﻢ ﻭﺻﻒ ﻛﻞ ﺣﺮﻑ ﲜﻤﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳋﻮﺍﺹ‬
‫ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﺪﺧﻞ ﻟﻠﻤﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﺍﻟﺘﺼﻨﻴﻒ ‪ ،Classification‬ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﳊﺮﻑ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻋﺪﺓ ﻃﺮﻕ ﻣﻦ ﺃﳘﻬﺎ‪:‬‬

‫‪ -‬ﻃـﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﻣﻊ ﳕﺎﺫﺝ ﳐﺰﻧﺔ ﻣﺴﺒﻘﹰﺎ ‪ Template Matching‬ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺧﻮﺍﺹ ﺍﳊﺮﻑ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺘﻤﺪﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻘﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﳌﻜﻮﻧﺔ ﻟﻪ ‪.Pixel-based‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻨﻴﻮﻳﺔ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﻮﺻﻒ ﺍﳊﺮﻑ ﲜﻤﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳋﻮﺍﺹ ﺍﳍﻴﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﻣﺜﻞ‪ :‬ﺧﻂ ﻋﻤﻮﺩﻱ‪ ،‬ﺃﻓﻘﻲ‪،‬‬
‫ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ‪..،‬‬

‫ﺗﻌـﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻃﺮﻕ ﺭﻳﺎﺿﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺻﻐﺮ ﺧﻄﺄ ﺗﺼﻨﻴﻒ ﳑﻜﻦ‪ ،‬ﻭﻳﺘﻢ ﻏﺎﻟﺒﹰﺎ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺑﻊ ﺍﳌﻤﻴﺰ ‪ Discriminant Function‬ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺸﺒﻜﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺼﺒﻮﻧﻴﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﳝﻜـﻦ ﺍﺳـﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻣﻌﻠـﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﺺ ﺍﶈﻴﻂ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮﺓ ﺑﺎﳊﺮﻑ ‪Contextual Processing‬‬
‫ﻼ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ ﺑﲔ ﺍﳊﺮﻑ ﺃﻟﻒ "ﺍ"‬
‫ﻟﺘﺤﺴﲔ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﰲ ﺣﺎﻝ ﺍﻻﺷﺘﺒﺎﻩ ﺑﻨﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ )ﻣﺜ ﹰ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﺮﻗﻢ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ "‪.("1‬‬

‫‪ -‬ﻭﺣـﺪﺓ ﺍﳋـﺮﺝ‪ :‬ﻭﺗﻘﻮﻡ ﺑﻨﻘﻞ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺳﻴﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﻪ‪ :‬ﻣﺜ ﹰ‬
‫ﻼ ﺇﱃ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﻣﻌﻄﻴﺎﺕ ﺃﻭ‬
‫ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ ‪.Word Processor‬‬

‫ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ‪ :‬ﳝﻜﻦ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﻧﻈﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﺼﻮﺹ ﺇﱃ ﻧﻈﻢ ﺗﻌﺮﻑ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻭ ﻧﻈﻢ ﺗﻌﺮﻑ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ‪:‬‬

‫‪ -‬ﻧﻈﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﺍﳋﺎﺻﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭ ﺗﻘﻮﻡ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺼﻮﺹ ﳏﺪﺩﺓ ﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﻣﻌﲔ ﻣﺜﻞ‪:‬‬
‫ﻗﺮﺍﺀﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺎﻭﻳﻦ ﻟﺘﺼﻨﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﺎﺋﻞ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﺘﻢ ﻗﺮﺍﺀﺓ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰ ﺍﻟﱪﻳﺪﻱ ﻭﺗﺼﻨﻴﻔﻪ‪.‬‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫ﻗﺮﺍﺀﺓ ﺍﻟﺸﻴﻜﺎﺕ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﻭﺭﻗﻢ ﺍﳊﺴﺎﺏ‪.‬‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫ﻗـﺮﺍﺀﺓ ﺑﻄﺎﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﺋﺮﺍﺕ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺭﻗﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻭﻳﻘﺎﺭﻥ ﻣﻊ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﻣﻌﻄﻴﺎﺕ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫ﺑﺎﳊﺠﺰ‪.‬‬
‫ﻗـﺮﺍﺀﺓ ﺟـﻮﺍﺯﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﺮ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﺘﻢ ﻗﺮﺍﺀﺓ ﺍﻻﺳﻢ ‪ ،‬ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﺩﺓ ﻭﺭﻗﻢ ﺍﳉﻮﺍﺯ ﻟﻠﻤﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﻣﻊ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫ﺑﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﻧﻈـﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻌـﺮﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭ ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﻏﺎﻟﺒﹰﺎ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻜﺘﺒﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﰲ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﻗﺮﺍﺀﺓ ﺁﻟﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻜﻔﻮﻓﲔ )ﺑﻌﺪ‬
‫ﺭﺑﻄﻬﺎ ﻣﻊ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﻜﻼﻡ(‪.‬‬

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 ‫‪ -4‬ﺍﳋﺎﲤﺔ‪:‬‬
‫ﻳﻌﺘـﱪ ﺍﻟﺬﻛﺎﺀ ﺍﻻﺻﻄﻨﺎﻋﻲ ﺃﺣﺪ ﺍﶈﺎﻭﺭ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﻮﺙ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺻﺮﺓ‪ ،‬ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﺘﻤﺤﻮﺭ ﺍﻻﻫﺘﻤﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻜﺒﲑ‬
‫ﻭﺍﳌﺘﻨﺎﻣـﻲ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺳﺮﻳﻊ ﺑﻪ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺻﻞ ﺇﱃ ﻧﻈﻢ ﺫﻛﻴﺔ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻗﺎﺩﺭﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﺮﻑ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻪ ‪ -‬ﻣﺎ ﺃﻣﻜﻦ‪-‬‬
‫ﻟﻠﺘﺼﺮﻑ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﱐ‪.‬‬
‫ﺳـﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﺜﻞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﻢ ﺫﺍﺕ ﻓﺎﺋﺪﺓ ﻣﻠﻤﻮﺳﺔ ﻟﻺﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻧﻈﺮﹰﺍ ﻟﻠﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺳﻌﺔ ﳍﺎ ﰲ ﳎﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﳊﻴﺎﺓ ﺍﳌﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﻳﻌﺘﱪ ﳎﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﺼﻮﺹ ﺍﳌﻄﺒﻮﻋﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﳌﻜﺘﻮﺑﺔ ﺃﺣﺪ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺿﻴﻊ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﰲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﺠﻤﻟﺎﻝ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﲡـﺪﺭ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺇﱃ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻘﺎﱐ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺷﻬﺪﺗﻪ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﻮﺩ ﺍﻷﺧﲑﺓ ﰲ ﳎﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﻢ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﺔ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ‬
‫ﻋﺎﻡ ﻭﺍﳌﻌﺎﳉﺎﺕ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺧﺎﺹ‪ ،‬ﺇﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﱪﳎﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﻓﻘﺔ ﳚﻌﻞ ﺍﳋﻄﻰ ﻣﺘﺴﺎﺭﻋﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺻﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﳚﻲ ﻟﻨﻈﻢ ﺫﻛﻴﺔ‬
‫ﳝﻜﻨﻬﺎ ﳏﺎﻛﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﺮﻑ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﱐ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﺿﻤﻦ ﳎﺎﻝ ﳏﺪﺩ‪.‬‬
‫ﻏـﲑ ﺃﻥ ﳏﺎﻛـﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﺮﻑ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﱐ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﻄﻠﻖ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺴﺄﻟﺔ ﰲ ﻏﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻘﻴﺪ‪ ،‬ﳑﺎ ﻳﻌﺘﱪ ﺷﺎﻫﺪﹰﺍ –ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺸﻮﺍﻫﺪ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺜﲑﺓ_ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﳋﺎﻟﻖ ﺳﺒﺤﺎﻧﻪ ﻭﺗﻌﺎﱃ ﰲ ﺗﻜﻮﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﺮﻱ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﺪﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﳍﺎﺋﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻣﻨﺤﻬﺎ ﻟﻪ‪.‬‬

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Bibliography:

1- John McCarthy,
What is artificial Intelligence?
http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/whatsai/whatisai.html

2- Russell and Norvig

Introduction to AI: A Modern Approach
http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/%7Erussell/intro.html

3- Carol E. Brown and Daniel E. O’Leary

Introduction to Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems
http://www.dsclab.ece.ntua.gr/~klekas/expert.html

4- Aaron Sloman
What is Artificial Intelligence?
http://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/%7Eaxs/misc/aiforschools.html

5- Alexander Romiszwoski
Artificial intelligence and expert systems in education: Progress,
promise and problem.
Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 1987, 3(1), 6-24
http://wwwasu.murdoch.edu.au/gen/aset/ajet/ajets/wi87p6.html

6- Denies Susac
Artificial Intelligence
http://www.ai.about.com/library/weekly/aa051899.html

7- Aaron Sloman
Artificial Intelligence, An illustrative overview
http://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/%7Eaxs/courses.ai.html

8- David B.Leake
Artificial Intelligence
http://www.cs.indiana.edu/%7Eleake/papers/p-01-07.html

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9- Sargur N. Srihari and Stephen W. Lam
Character recognition
http://www.cedar.buffalo.edu/publications/TechReps/OCR/ocr.html

10- F. Haj Hassan and W. Haj Ali

Printed Arabic Text Recognition
The Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering v.16, No 4B,
October 1991

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