Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:4305–4320
DOI 10.1007/s10661-012-2870-z
Temporal variability in water quality parameters—a case study
of drinking water reservoir in Florida, USA
Gurpal S. Toor & Lu Han & Craig D. Stanley
Received: 10 June 2012 / Accepted: 31 August 2012 / Published online: 19 September 2012
# Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
Abstract Our objective was to evaluate changes in
water quality parameters during 1983–2007 in a sub-
tropical drinking water reservoir (area: 7 km2) located
in Lake Manatee Watershed (area: 338 km2) in Flor-
ida, USA. Most water quality parameters (color, tur-
bidity, Secchi depth, pH, EC, dissolved oxygen, total
alkalinity, cations, anions, and lead) were below the
Florida potable water standards. Concentrations of
copper exceeded the potable water standard of
<30 μgl−1 in about half of the samples. About 75 %
of total N in lake was organic N (0.93 mgl−1) with the
remainder (25 %) as inorganic N (NH3-N: 0.19, NO3-
N: 0.17 mgl−1), while 86 % of total P was orthophos-
phate. Mean total N/P was <6:1 indicating N limita-
tion in the lake. Mean monthly concentration of
chlorophyll-a was much lower than the EPA water
quality threshold of 20 μgl−1. Concentrations of total
N showed significant increase from 1983 to 1994 and
a decrease from 1997 to 2007. Total P showed signif-
icant increase during 1983–2007. Mean concentra-
tions of total N (n0215; 1.24 mgl−1) were lower, and
total P (n0286; 0.26 mgl−1) was much higher than
the EPA numeric criteria of 1.27 mg total N l−1
and 0.05 mg total P l−1 for Florida’s colored lakes,
respectively. Seasonal trends were observed for
G. S. Toor (*) : L. Han : C. D. Stanley
Soil and Water Quality Laboratory, Gulf Coast Research
and Education Center, University of Florida,
14625 C.R. 672,
Wimauma, FL 33598, USA
e-mail: gstoor@ufl.edu
many water quality parameters where concentra-
tions were typically elevated during wet months
(June–September). Results suggest that reducing
transport of organic N may be one potential option
to protect water quality in this drinking water
reservoir.
Keywords Lake management . Nitrogen .
Phosphorus . Temporal variability . Water quality
Introduction
Eutrophication of lakes, reservoirs, streams, and estuar-
ies is a serious problem affecting many water bodies
worldwide. Eutrophication refers to excessive plant
growth resulting from increased concentrations of nitro-
gen (N) and phosphorus (P) in water bodies. Eutrophi-
cation can occur in water bodies leading to high levels of
phytoplankton biomass production (Anderson et al.
2002; Graneli et al. 2008) and some algal species pro-
duce toxins that can be detrimental to aquatic and hu-
man life (Perry 2008). Many of the lakes in the world
particularly in China, Japan, India, Europe, and USA
have been impacted by human and agricultural activities
(Pant et al. 1980; Cheng and Li 2006; Yamada et al.
2007). The prominent examples of lake eutrophication
in Florida, USA, include Lake Apopka, Lake George,
and Lake Okeechobee (Perry 2008; Piehler et al. 2009).
Harmful algal blooms have been estimated to cost the
US economy as much as $50 million per year due to the
4306
closure of fisheries and beaches, and human health issues
associated with exposure to harmful toxins (Anderson et
al. 2000; Hoagland et al. 2002). Over the past decade,
human-induced eutrophication of Florida estuaries has
been associated with decline in submerged vegetated
habitats, harmful algal blooms, and fish kills (Steidinger
et al. 1999; Brand and Compton 2007). With the identi-
fication and reduction of nutrient loading from point
sources such as domestic wastewater treatment plants in
developed countries over the last few decades, increasing
attention has been focused on reducing nutrient contribu-
tions from non-point sources to lakes, reservoirs, and
estuaries (Shaver et al. 2007). Non-point source inputs
such as runoff and leaching from agricultural and urban
land and nutrient leakage from on-site wastewater treat-
ment facilities have caused an increase in the amount of
nutrients entering our surface and ground waters
(Stepenuck et al. 2002; Pascoal et al. 2005). Several
researchers have reported that total N concentrations in
streams draining forested sub-basins are remarkably low-
er than streams draining agricultural and urban land uses
(Kaushal et al. 2008). Weston et al. (2009) observed a
significant positive correlation (r00.71) between nitrate-
nitrogen levels and watershed population density in the
Altamaha River watershed, Georgia, United States. In
this watershed, those sub-watersheds with greater nutrient
inputs had greater nutrient export. For example, the upper
Oconee sub-watershed, which had the highest inputs of
both N and P after 1974 had the highest export of N and P
(Weston et al. 2009). Numerous studies have also found a
positive correlation between nutrient inputs in a watershed
and downstream nutrient export (Alexander et al. 2000;
Boyer et al. 2002).
In the United States, changes in nutrient inputs have
been well documented at the watershed scale. For exam-
ple, the use of N fertilizers increased by 20-fold and P
fertilizers increased by 5-fold over the last half century
(Howarth et al. 2002; Vitousek et al. 1997). The main
consequences of these increased nutrient inputs are
reflected in higher amounts of N and P in surface runoff
and leaching and consequently increased concentrations
and loads in water bodies (Kraft et al. 2008). Both N and
P are critical water quality parameters in lakes and flow-
ing waters as their concentrations in water bodies affect
the frequency and duration of algal blooms (Conley et al.
2009; Paerl 2009). Many studies have observed the rela-
tionship between N and P and algal biomass using
chlorophyll-a as an indicator in aquatic systems
(Mazumder and Havens 1998; Havens et al. 2003; Huszar
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:4305–4320
et al. 2006). In a survey of 19 lakes in southern Ontario,
Canada and 11 lakes in the northeastern US, Dillon and
Rigler (1974) observed a highly positive correlation (r0
0.975) between total P and chlorophyll-a. Similarly,
Trevisan and Forsberg (2007) observed correlation coef-
ficients of 0.85–0.88 between total N and P and
chlorophyll-a in the central Amazonia lakes of Brazil.
The Floridian aquifer system in the southeastern
United States is one of the most productive aquifers in
the world (Miller 1990). In most areas, water from this
aquifer is potable and needs very little treatment before
use. Lake Manatee is located in central Florida and is a
major surface water source of potable water of about
121 million l/day (Peterson 1990). Florida lakes are
particularly susceptible to nutrient pollution as most
lakes are generally shallow, warm water lakes, and have
large littoral zones (Canfield et al. 1989). As the Lake
Manatee reservoir is a drinking water source for a large
population (nearly 300,000) in Manatee and Sarasota
counties, Lake Manatee must meet the stringent water
quality criteria of Florida Class I potable waters (FDEP
2010). Lake Manatee is a shallow water body and
surrounded by sandy soils, which are predominant in
Florida. Presence of sandy soils and shallow water table
exacerbate nutrient leaching concerns. Information on
the nutrient loading can be valuable to assess long-term
trends of nutrient concentrations in the lake and for
future management decisions to protect surface water
quality. Time series of water quality parameters such as
temperature, pH, water transparency, electricity conduc-
tivity, dissolved oxygen, and nutrients (N, P) can pro-
vide valuable information on the quality of the water, the
likely sources of the variation, and their impacts on the
functioning of the reservoir. We used monthly water
quality data of 25 years (1983–2007) to detect changes
in water quality in the Lake Manatee. Our specific
objectives were to (1) evaluate temporal changes
(1983–2007) in water quality parameters and (2) deter-
mine seasonal variations in water quality parameters,
particularly N, P, and chlorophyll-a.
Materials and methods
Study site
The Lake Manatee watershed (total area: 338 km2) is
located in the Manatee County, Florida, United States
(Fig. 1). Lake Manatee reservoir (27°29′N, 82°21′W)
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:4305–4320
Fig. 1 Sampling station
locations and various sub-
basins that drain to Lake
Manatee. Data for station S1
was used in this study as this
represents input from all
sub-basins
has a relatively shallow depth averaging 3.9 m, alti-
tude is 11 m, and is well mixed with little or no
stratification throughout the year (Rampenthal and
Ferraro 1987). The reservoir (total area: 7 km2) is the
principal potable water source for nearly 300,000 peo-
ple in Manatee and Sarasota Counties. Lake Manatee
Dam was constructed in 1967 and is located 40 km
upstream from the entry point of the Manatee River
into Tampa Bay. Total area of Manatee River Water-
shed, which includes Lake Manatee watershed, is
922 km2. The major land uses in the Manatee River
Watershed in 2007 were agriculture (33 %), followed
by urban and built-up (25 %), rangeland (12 %), up-
land forests (8 %), while area under wetlands and
water was 13 % and 7 %, respectively. Agriculture
includes row crops primarily tomatoes, while urban
and built up include residential, industrial, commer-
cial, and services. Rangeland include pastures and
upland forests include coniferous and hardwood spe-
cies. In comparison, in 1988, 13 % of the area was
urban and built-up and 2 % was water while agricul-
ture occupied 39 %, followed by 15 % each in
4307
rangeland and upland forests, and 14 % in wetlands.
It is worth noting that most of the urban and built-up
lands are further downstream from the reservoir. Sev-
eral water sampling stations are located within the lake
and in the watershed from where monthly samples are
collected by Manatee County Public Works Depart-
ment (see Fig. 1). We used data for a station (station
ID: S1) located next to Lake Manatee dam in this
study as all water inflow from watershed is combined
at this station and our preliminary data assessment
indicated a similar spatial variability for other eight
monitoring stations located in the lake. The climate in
the study area is humid subtropical, with an annual
mean temperature of 22.3 °C. Annual average rainfall
during 1987–2003 was 118±26 cm; ~60 % of rainfall
occurred during June to September and 40 % of rain-
fall occurred during October to May.
Data collection and analysis
Monthly water samples were collected in the mid morn-
ing to early afternoon using a vertical profile Niskin
4308
sampler during 1983–2007 using standard operating
procedures (http://www.dep.state.fl.us/central/Home/
Watershed/WaterQualityMeasurements.htm). All water
samples, except the sample for chlorophyll-a, were col-
lected from the surface, middle, and bottom of the water
column, mixed on-site, and placed in cold storage until
analyses. The samples for chlorophyll-a analysis were
taken from a depth equal to 1.5 times the black Secchi
disk transparency depth for water clarity. While numer-
ous water quality parameters were measured, those that
were evaluated for the purpose of this study are pH,
temperature, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, total sus-
pended solids (TSS), turbidity, secchi depth, color, total
alkalinity, calcium, magnesium, copper, lead, chloride,
sulfate, fluoride, reactive P (PO4-P), total phosphorus
(TP), chlorophyll-a, and various forms of N: NO3-N,
NO2-N, NH3-N, total organic N (dissolved and particu-
late). Total N is sum of all N forms. A trophic state index
(TSI) based on chlorophyll-a was calculated according
to the Florida TSI calculation method.
All water samples were collected, stored, and ana-
lyzed according to EPA approved methods at the
Manatee County Water Treatment Plant QC Laborato-
ry, Bradenton, Florida. In brief, pH was measured in
the field with a pH meter using SM4500 H+B method
and electrical conductivity (EC) was measured with a
conductivity meter. TSS were determined using
SM2540D method. Turbidity was determined with a
Turbidimeter using SM2130B method. Total alkalinity
was determined using SM2320B method. Color was
determined using SM2120B method and PO4-P was
determined using SM4500-PE using UV-visible spec-
trophotometer. Total P was determined using
EPA365.4 method. Total Kjeldahl N, NO3-N, and
NO2-N were determined with EPA 351.2 method
while NH3-N was determined with EPA350.3 method.
Chlorophyll-a was determined using fluorometric
method. Calcium, magnesium, chloride and sulfate
were determined using a Ion Chromatograph and
SM4110B method. Fluoride was analyzed using
SM4500F-C method on Ion Selective Electrode Meter.
Copper, zinc, and lead were analyzed using SM3113B
method on Graphite furnace/Flame Atomic Absorp-
tion Spectrometer. The details of these methods are avail-
able at http://www.dep.state.fl.us/labs/cgi-bin/aams/org_
results.asp?choice01&lab_id_o05924&lab_id_
a06214&pt_name0Drinking+Water&sort03&B10Submit.
Summary statistics (mean, median, range, standard
error of the mean) of monthly data were calculated
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:4305–4320
using data analysis pack in MS Excel. Statistical anal-
ysis was performed using Statistical Analysis System
(SAS, version 9.2) procedures for analysis of variance
and linear regression. All analyses were conducted on
log-transformed water quality parameters.
Results and discussion
Physicochemical parameters
During the monthly sampling period (1983–2007), the
temperature in the Lake Manatee varied from 13 °C to
32 °C, with a mean value of 24.6 °C (Table 1). The
range of color was 45 to 311 platinum cobalt units
(PCU), with a mean value of 153 PCU. According to
EPA’s numeric nutrient criteria for Florida lakes (EPA
2010), a lake is classified as colored if the color is >40
PCU; therefore, Lake Manatee is a colored lake and
should meet the numeric nutrient criteria values for
colored lakes. The mean value of turbidity was 3.5
NTU, TSS was 4.4, and Secchi depth was 2.5 m. The
coefficient of variation (CV) for temperature, color,
and Secchi depth was 18–36 %, while turbidity and
TSS had high CV values of 61–67 % (Table 1).
Monthly pH values during 1983–2007 ranged from
5.5 to 8.2. EC showed a wide variability from 41 to
710 μScm−1, with a mean value of 191 μScm−1. In
Lake Manatee, dissolved oxygen (DO) values ranged
from 2.9 to 14.8 mgl−1; however, most values were 6
to 8 mgl−1 (Table 1). These values of pH, EC, and DO
during 1983–2007 were below the Florida Class I
potable waters standards (FDEP 2010).
During 1983–2007, total alkalinity in the Lake Man-
atee varied from 5.7 to 99 mgl−1, with a mean concen-
tration of 23.2 mg l−1. The major cations in Lake
Manatee were calcium (14 mgl−1) and magnesium
(7.4 mgl−1), which had a CV of 38–46 % (Table 1).
The major anions in the lake were sulfate (40.3 mgl−1)
and chloride (12.4 mgl−1); the concentrations of these
ions never exceeded the Florida Class I water standards,
which are <250 mg sulfate l−1 and <250 mg chloride l−1
(FDEP 2010).
The variability in the concentrations of copper and
lead in water was much greater, with a CV of 123 and
175 %, respectively. Concentrations of copper
exceeded the Florida Class I water standards of
<30 μgl−1 in about half of the samples. From 1983
to 2007, the mean monthly copper concentration in
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:4305–4320 4309

Table 1 Summary statistics of selected monthly water quality parameters of Lake Manatee from 1983 to 2007

Parameter N Mean Median SD CV (%) Range Standarda

Temperature (°C) 285 24.6 25.2 4.4 18 13–32 –

Color (PCU) 290 153 144.5 54.3 36 45–311 –
Turbidity (NTU) 286 3.5 2.9 2.1 61 1.2–18.2 –
Total suspended solids (mgl−1) 83 4.4 3.8 2.9 67 0.5–17 –
Secchi Depth (m) 276 2.5 2.5 0.8 33 0.6–6.0 –
pH 277 6.9 7.0 0.5 7 5.5–8.2 6–8.5
EC (μS cm−1) 285 191 178 79 41 41–710 1,280
Dissolved oxygen (mgl−1) 281 7.0 7.1 1.7 25 2.9–14.8 >5
Total alkalinity (mgl−1) 114 23.2 21.3 11.4 49 5.7–99 >20
Calcium (mgl−1) 111 14.0 12.8 5.3 38 4.1–28.9 –
Magnesium (mgl−1) 112 7.4 6.9 3.4 46 2.1–18.5 –
Chloride (mgl−1) 251 12.4 12.3 3.5 29 4.2–25.4 <250
Sulfate (mgl−1) 251 40.3 35.0 21.5 54 1–104 <250
Fluoride (mgl−1) 114 0.2 0.2 0.1 35 0.1–0.5 <1.5
−1
Copper (μgl ) 281 32.5 21.5 40.1 123 1–402 <30
Lead (μgl−1) 79 5.3 2.0 9.2 175 0.5–46 <30

SD standard deviation, CV coefficient of variation

a
Florida Class I Water Standards (FDEP 2010)

Lake Manatee was 32.5 μgl−1. Copper is essential for
the functioning of many enzymatic reactions, but is
acutely toxic to many aquatic organisms at concentra-
tion in excess of metabolic requirements. Source of
copper contamination in aquatic ecosystems include
combustion of fossil fuels, domestic wastewater dis-
charge from wastewater treatment plants, pesticide use
for controlling fungal diseases on horticultural crops,
and polluted runoff. Lake Manatee utilities routinely
use copper sulfate to control nuisance algae blooms
typically in summer (June to September). Use of cop-
per sulfate is likely the cause of elevated values of
copper as can be seen in the high CV values. Similar
to copper, lead is often present in freshwater. During
1983–2007, mean lead concentration was 5.3 μgl−1,
which was much lower than the Florida Class I potable
water standard of <30 μg lead l−1 (Table 1).
Forms of nitrogen and phosphorus
The mean monthly concentrations of inorganic N
forms—NH3-N, NO3-N, and NO2-N—over 25-year
period in the Lake Manatee were 0.19, 0.17, and
0.01 mgl−1, respectively (Table 2). These represent
25 % of total N with the remainder (75 %) being total
organic N (0.93 mgl−1). Qian et al. (2007) reported
NO3-N+NO2-N concentrations of 0.05–0.24 mgl−1 in
Indian River, Florida. Other researchers reported NO3-
N+NO2-N concentrations of 0.01 and 0.002 mgl−1 in
three Florida Lakes and Lake George (Piehler et al.
2009; Sigua et al. 2006). Mean monthly total N con-
centration in Lake Manatee was 1.24 mgl−1, which is
slightly lower than than the EPA numeric total N value
of 1.27 mgl−1 for colored lakes in Florida. The median
concentration of NH3-N (0.11 mgl−1) is greater than
the Florida surface water quality criteria of Class I
waters of ≤0.02 mgl−1 although these values showed
tremendous variability with a CVof 102 %. The higher
NH3-N concentration may be a result of biological
decay of plant and animal matter either transported
from watershed or released from bottom sediments.
In contrast to greater percentage of organic N, 86 %
of total P in the Lake Manatee was present as PO4-P
with the remainder being in other P (organic, particulate)
forms (Table 2). Concentrations of PO4-P and total P in
Lake Manatee were 0.22 and 0.26 mgl−1, respectively.
Total P concentration in Lake Lindsey and Spring Lake,
Florida were 0.04 and 0.05 mgl−1 (Sigua et al. 2006) or
as high as 0.138 to 0.376 mgl−1 in Indian River, Florida
(Qian et al. 2007). While the reported concentrations of
4310 Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:4305–4320

Table 2 Summary statistics of nitrogen and phosphorus forms, chlorophyll-a, and trophic state index in Lake Manatee from 1983 to
2007

Parameter N Mean Median SD CV (%) Minimum Maximum

NH3-N (mgl−1) 215 0.19 0.11 0.2 102 0.0 1.2

NO3-N (mgl−1) 215 0.17 0.18 0.1 66 0.0 0.7
NO2-N (mgl−1) 215 0.01 0.01 0.0 127 0.0 0.1
Organic N (mgl−1) 215 0.93 0.90 0.4 39 0.0 2.1
Total N (mgl−1) 215 1.24 1.20 0.4 32 0.2 2.6
PO4-P (mgl−1) 286 0.22 0.21 0.1 49 0.1 1.6
Other P (mgl−1) 286 0.04 0.03 0.0 80 0.0 0.3
Total P (mgl−1) 286 0.26 0.25 0.1 48 0.1 1.9
Chlorophyll-a (μgl−1) 275 7.6 5.2 7.1 93 0.0 35.0
TSI (chlorophyll-a based) 275 40.5 41.6 14.1 35 7.7 68.0

SD standard deviation, CV coefficient of variation

total P in various lakes in the US were 0.02 to 0.15 mg
l−1 (Havens et al. 2007; Jones et al. 2008; Steinman and
Ogdahl 2008). The differences in nutrient concentra-
tions in a water body depends upon the anthropogenic
nutrient inputs, effect of physical processes such as wind
and temperature, sediment re-suspension, and seasonal
effects due to variability in runoff. In addition, hurri-
canes and tropical storms in Florida can also cause
extreme fluctuations in nutrients, especially P concen-
trations (Havens et al. 2007).
Chlorophyll-a and trophic state index
In Lake Manatee, chlorophyll-a concentration ranged
from 0.01 to 35 μgl−1; however, most of the values
were 3–11 μgl−1 (Table 2). The mean monthly concen-
tration of chlorophyll-a during 1983–2007 was 7.6 μg
l−1 indicating a mesotrophic lake based on the criteria of
Nurnberg (1996). Chlorophyll-a has been reported to be
a good indicator of the quality of lake water as it corre-
lates well with the total algal biomass of a lake (French
and Petticrew 2007; Robertson et al. 2008; Robertson
and Schladow 2008). Huszar et al. (2006) analyzed data
for 192 lakes from tropical and subtropical regions using
chlorophyll-a concentrations as a criterion (Wetzel
2001) and found that 15 % of lakes were oligotrophic
(<3 μgl−1), 35 % were mesotrophic, and 50 % were
eutrophic (<11 μgl−1). Further, 25 % of lakes had aver-
age annual chlorophyll-a concentrations of >50 μgl−1,
suggesting hypereutrophic conditions.
TSI quantifies the degree of eutrophication (oligo-
trophic, mesotrophic, eutrophic) and can be based on
lake chlorophyll-a, total N, and total P levels. We
based TSI on chlorophyll-a as this represents a bio-
logical response in aquatic systems and is used in
Florida lakes (FDEP 1996). According to this criteria,
lakes can be grouped into three classes: (1) <60 TSI:
oligotrophic to mid-eutrophic (low productivity) and
rated as good and fully support use, (2) 60–70 TSI:
mid-eutrophic to eutrophic (moderate productivity)
and rated as fair and partial support use, and (3) >70
TSI: hypereutrophic (high productivity) and rated as
poor and do not support use. According to this classi-
fication, Lake Manatee had a mean TSI value of 41
with most of the values between 30 and 50, which
represents mesotrophic conditions (Table 2)
Annual variability in water quality parameters
During 1983–2007, monthly values of temperature,
color, turbidity, pH, EC, DO, and chlorides were sim-
ilar, while total alkalinity, calcium, magnesium, and
sulfate showed greater variability (Fig. 2). In most
years, concentration of total alkalinity were much
below the threshold value of 20 mgl−1 (FDEP 2010).
Concentrations of copper and sulfate showed some
peaks during some years (Fig. 2). For example, copper
showed a few relatively high concentration peaks such
as in 1986 with concentration up to 95.4 μgl−1 and in
2001 with concentrations up to 78.8 μgl−1. The un-
usual high concentration of copper may be due to the
use of copper sulfate to control algal blooms in the
lake (B. MacLeod, personal communication). Because
copper is toxic to cyanobacteria, algae, and other
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:4305–4320 4311
Temperature (0C) 40
300

Color (PCU)
30 250
200
20 150
100
10
50
0 0

20 15
Turbidity (NTU)

TSS (mg L-1)

15 12
9
10
6
5 3
0 0

9
400

EC ( S cm-1)
8
300
pH

7
200
6 100

5 0

20 50 Total Alkalinity
Calcium
40
DO (mg L-1)

15 mg L-1 Magnesium
30
10
20
5 10
0 0

120 300
Chloride Copper
100 250
Sulfate Lead
80 200
mg L-1

g L-1

60 150
40 100
20 50
0 0
84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08

Fig. 2 Annual variation (1983–2007) in water quality parameters in the Lake Manatee

aquatic taxa including fishes and invertebrate (see
Vieira et al. 2009); the accumulation of copper in the
reservoir may pose a potential environmental hazard.
The annual trend for sulfate indicates higher values
towards end of the study period (Fig. 2). Major sour-
ces of sulfate in water bodies include sea water aero-
sols in rainfall and leaching of sulfur compounds from
soils and underlying geological formations. Dissolved
sulfate has its origins from dissolution of gypsum,
oxidation of pyrites and industrial emissions (Saini et
al. 2008). In the Lake Manatee watershed, deposits of
sulfur in the form of gypsum can lead to elevated
levels of sulfates in water bodies, as is the use of
copper sulfate to control algae in the Lake Manatee.
Nitrogen is an important nutrient for the phytoplankton
growth in aquatic systems and N occurs in natural waters
both in inorganic and organic forms. Concentrations of
total N showed a significantly (P<0.001) increasing trend
from 1983 to 1994 (Fig. 3). Several parts of the Lake
Manatee watershed had intensified agriculture, primarily
vegetables and citrus during 1983–1994 which resulted in
application of greater N fertilizers than other land uses.
while recommended N rates for crop production are
~200 kgNha−1 (Olsen et al. 2004), it is not unusual for
producers to apply more than 300 kgNha−1. Concentra-
tions of total N showed a non-significant decreasing trend
from 1997 to 2007. It is worth noting that several acres of
land have been purchased and conserved in Manatee
County (SWFWMD 2000) in an effort to protect water
quality in Lake Manatee; perhaps this may had a favorable
impact on reducing downstream transport of nitrogen to
Lake Manatee. Comparing the total N values in Lake
Manatee to EPA proposed N value of 1.27 mgl−1 for
colored lakes (EPA 2010); it is obvious that concentrations
4312 Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:4305–4320

40

Monthly Rainfall (cm)

30

20

10

US EPA numeric total N value for Florida's colored lakes = 1.27 mg L-1
2.5
Total N
2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5 1983-1994: 1997-2007

r = 0.590, P<0.001 r = 0.154, P = NS (0.1259)
0.0

2.5
NOx-N
2.0 Organic N

1.5
Concentration (mg L-1)

1.0

0.5

0.0

0.7
Total P
0.6
r = 0.496, P<0.001
0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1 US EPA numeric total P value for Florida's colored lakes = 0.05 mg L-1
0.0

0.7
PO4-P
0.6
Other P
0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08

Year
Fig. 3 Annual variation (1983–2007) in monthly rainfall and concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus forms in the Lake Manatee
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:4305–4320 4313

of total N were elevated in ~50 % of samples. Most of the
N present in the lake was organic N which mirrored total
N values, whereas the concentration of NO3+NO2 did not
show much variability (Fig. 3).
Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for all life forms
and is a key element in many physiological and biochem-
ical processes. Total P showed a slight, but significant (P
<0.001), increasing trend from 1983 to 2007 (Fig. 3). The
concentrations of total P (mean: 0.26 mgl−1) in all the
samples collected during 1983–2007 exceeded the EPA
numeric total P of 0.05 mgl−1 (EPA 2010). There are
many natural deposits of phosphate rock (raw material
for superphosphate fertilizer) in the watershed and in
general in central Florida (Canfield and Hoyer 1988),
which may be the main contributors to the elevated
values of total P in Lake Manatee. The presence of most
of the total P as PO4-P (>86 %) in the Lake Manatee
(Fig. 3) supports this observation and suggests a need to
control dissolved P flux from the watershed to lake.
Although the concentrations of chlorophyll-a dur-
ing 1983–2007 were generally lower than the EPA
value of 20 μgl−1 (EPA 2010), there were several
instances where monthly values were greater, especial-
ly during 1990–1991, followed by a decreasing trend
till 2000, and then an increasing trend (Fig. 4). As
concentrations of chlorophyll-a are controlled by pres-
ence of N and P, it is obvious that chlorophyll-a values
were higher during the periods when N concentrations
were elevated as N is a limiting nutrient in this lake
(N/P ratio<6:1). TSI showed that Lake Manatee is
mesotrophic (TSI <50) but shows signs of eutrophica-
tion during some periods that corresponds with elevat-
ed levels of total N and chlorophyll-a.
Seasonal variability in water quality parameters
In general, seasonal trends showed variability in water
quality parameters primarily due to the rainfall effects
(Figs. 5 and 6). This is because of two distinct seasons
in the Lake Manatee watershed: a wet season of
4 months from June to September, during which
60 % of rainfall (70.7±16.6 cm) occurs and a dry
season of 8 months from October to May during
which 40 % of rainfall (47.1±17.7 cm) occurs. Tem-
perature and color were elevated during the wet sea-
son, while turbidity, pH, EC, DO, and chlorides were
higher in the dry season (Fig. 5). The increase in
temperature during wet season was accompanied by

US EPA Cholorphyll-a value for Florida's colored lakes = 20 µg L-1

40
Chlorophyll-a ( g L-1)

30

20

10

0
83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08

80 Mesotrophic lakes = 50-60 TSI Beginning of Eutrophic condition

Eutrophic Lakes = 60-70 TSI
Trophic State Index

60

40

20

0
83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08

Year
Fig. 4 Annual variation (1983–2007) in concentrations of chlorophyll-a and trophic state index in the Lake Manatee
4314 Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:4305–4320

32 240
30 220

Color (PCU)
28 200
Temp (0C)

26 180
24 160
22 140
20 120
18 100
16 80

6.0 7
5.5
Turbidity (NTU)

TSS (mg L-1)

5.0 5
4.5
4
4.0
3
3.5
3.0 2
2.5 1
2.0 0

7.3 350
7.2
300
7.1 EC ( S cm-1)
7.0 250
pH

6.9 200
6.8
150
6.7
6.6 100

Total Alkalinity
9.0 40 Calcium
8.5 35 Magnesium
DO (mg L-1)

8.0 30
mg L-1

7.5 25
7.0 20
6.5 15
6.0 10
5.5 5
5.0 0

70 80
Chloride Copper
60 Sulfate Lead
50 60
mg L-1

g L-1

40
40
30
20 20
10
0 0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May JuneJuly Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr MayJune July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Fig. 5 Mean monthly variability in water quality parameters in the Lake Manatee (1983–2007). Error bars indicate standard error of the
mean. Data points for wet season (June–September) are shown in gray

a decrease in DO. Values of EC showed a distinct due to higher rainfall into the Lake Manatee. Measure-
seasonal variation where EC was 320 μScm−1 in June ments of pH showed slight changes over the seasons,
indicating the influence of increased inflow of water with lower values in wet as compared to dry season.
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:4305–4320 4315

0.6 0.35 22
0.30 NO3-N 20
NH3-N (mg L-1)

NO3-N (mg L-1)

0.5 18

Rainfall (cm)
0.25 Rainfall 16
0.4
0.20 14
0.3 12
0.15 10
0.2 8
0.10
0.1 6
0.05
4
0.0 0.00 2

0.04 1.3

Organic N (mg L-1)

1.2
NO2-N (mg L-1)

0.03 1.1
1.0
0.02
0.9

0.01 0.8
0.7
0.00 0.6

2.0 0.34
0.32
Total N (mg L-1)

Total P (mg L-1) 0.30

1.6 0.28
0.26
0.24
1.2 0.22
0.20
0.18
0.8 0.16

0.45 0.07
Other P (mg L-1)

0.40 0.06
PO4-P (mg L-1)

0.35 0.05
0.30 0.04
0.25 0.03
0.20 0.02
0.15 0.01
0.10 0.00
Chlorophyll-a (mg m3)

25 60
Trophic State Index

20 50

40
15
30
10
20
5 10

0 0
Jan Feb Mar Apr MayJune July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May JuneJuly Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Fig. 6 Monthly variability in forms of nitrogen and phosphorus, chlorophyll-a, and TSI in the Lake Manatee (1983–2007). Error bars
indicate standard error of the mean. Data points for wet season (June–September) are shown in gray

Total alkalinity, calcium, and magnesium had great- to buffer changes in pH. Concentrations of chloride
er concentrations in June and July (Fig. 5) due to did not show any monthly variation and were between
greater rainfall-runoff coupled with the water mixing 10 and 15 mg l−1. However, the concentrations of
in Lake Manatee reservoir. Total alkalinity increased sulfate exhibited fluctuations, with a linear decrease
from 20 mgl−1 in January to 30 mgl−1 in June; these from June to September, which corresponds with high
values are typical of freshwater and are not sufficient rainfall events. Sulfate in water bodies can result from
4316
atmospheric deposition and oxidation of sulfur com-
pounds in the lake bottom sediments at the boundary
layers between aerobic (oxygenated water) and anaer-
obic sediments. Concentrations of copper and lead
showed similar trends with no major differences ex-
cept elevated concentrations of copper from 50 to
60 μgl−1 in May and November (Fig. 5). This corre-
sponds with the use of copper sulfate as an algicide to
control the occurrence of algal blooms in the Lake
Manatee.
Among N forms, NO3-N was lowest and organic N
was highest during wet compared with dry months. No
seasonal trend was visible for NH3-N and NO2-N
(Fig. 6). The decrease in NO3-N concentrations during
wet months can be due to the combination of dilution
from rainfall and utilization of NO3 by phytoplankton
and aquatic weeds during wet summer months. A
linear increase in NO3-N concentrations from August
to November can be attributed to increased minerali-
zation due to the combined effects of high temperature
and microbial growth. Increase in organic N during
wet months could be due to transport of organic ma-
terial and associated N from various land uses in the
watershed during high rainfall-runoff events. The
greater nutrient concentrations during the wet season
were also observed by Chamberlain and Hayward
(1996) and Qian et al. (2007).
Concentrations of PO4-P, which comprised about
86 % of total P showed a linear increase during wet
months of June to September, followed by a decrease
in dry months (Fig. 6). It can be seen that P concen-
trations showed less variability during January to
June. It seems that greater rainfall during wet months
(see Fig. 6) facilitated greater transport of P from the
watershed. An increase in PO4-P during wet months
might be due to greater dissolution and release of
dissolved P from P minerals in the watershed. In
addition, increased rainfall in wet season may have
resulted in greater flow and release of sediment bound
P. Other researchers (Swanson et al. 2000) noted that
greater nutrient concentration in the wet season in
receiving waters could be expected due to increased
transport of nonpoint source loads that are enhanced
by greater precipitation. Chlorophyll-a concentrations
and TSI were greatest in July–August when total P and
NO3-N concentrations were also elevated (Fig. 6)
along with highest temperature, suggesting the effect
of multiple parameters on biological response in this
aquatic system.
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:4305–4320
Nutrient limitations
During 1983–2007, total N to total P ratio averaged
5.6±2.98 (n0213) in the lake and all but two monthly
samples had values lower than the N/P ratio of 17:1,
the N-limitation boundary of Forsberg and Ryding
(1980) and 16:1 of Redfield (1934), indicating N
limitation for phytoplankton growth in Lake Manatee.
Canfield and Hodgson (1983) reported that 27 % of
lakes in Florida are N limited. Regression analysis of
log-transformed N/P ratios showed that the ratios in-
creased linearly (r00.687, F0189, P<0.001) with an
increase in total N and declined (r00.581, F0108,
P<0.001) with an increase in total P (Fig. 7).
Conclusions and implications
This study provides information that will assist in
making future policy decisions which affect land use
in the watershed for Lake Manatee, an impounded, N-
limited reservoir which serves as a drinking water
source for over 300,000 people in Manatee and Sar-
asota Counties in Florida, USA. Results suggest that
most water quality parameters in Lake Manatee drink-
ing water reservoir were below the Florida Class I
potable water standards. Concentrations of total N
were elevated during 1983–1994 and did not increase
during 1997–2007. Mean total N concentrations were
slightly lower than the EPA numeric total N of
1.27 mgl−1 for Florida’s colored lakes. On the other
hand, concentrations of total P showed a slight but
linear increase over the 25-year monitoring period and
were greater in all the monthly samples than the EPA
numeric total P of 0.05 mgl−1 for Florida’s colored
lakes. These results have clear ramifications for man-
aging P in Lake Manatee watershed. We contend that
the abundance of total P in Lake Manatee is due to
natural phosphate rock deposits in the watershed. This
observation is supported by the fact that over 86 % of
total P in lake water was present as PO4-P. However,
the importance of other factors such as temperature
and season should not be underestimated as elevated
concentrations of N, P, and chlorophyll-a were always
observed in summer months of June–July. This sug-
gests that availability and supply of nutrients, espe-
cially N, along with higher temperature during wet
months are favorable conditions for onset of algal
blooms. Our data shows that N, and not P, is a limiting
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:4305–4320 4317

Fig. 7 Relationship of log10- 1.6

transformed total N/total P Log10 (TN:TP ratio) = 0.642 + 0.829 Log 10 (TN)
ratios to log10-transformed 1.4 (r = 0.6870, F = 188.6, df =212, P<0.001)
total N (a) and total P (b),
based on monthly values, in 1.2
the Lake Manatee reservoir.
Total N/total P ratio of 17 1.0

Log10 (TN:TP ratio)

indicate the N limitation
N:P ratio = 17
boundary of Forsberg and 0.8
Ryding (1980)
0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

-0.2

-0.4
-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Log10 (TN)

1.6

1.4

1.2

1.0
Log10 (TN:TP ratio)

N:P ratio = 17
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

-0.2 Log10 (TN:TP ratio) = 0.642 + 0.829 Log 10 (TN)

(r = 0.5814, F = 107.7, df =212, P<0.001)
-0.4
-1.4 -1.2 -1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0
Log10 (TP)

nutrient for phytoplankton production in this lake sys-
tem and that lake responds to phytoplankton growth
(measured via chlorophyll-a) with inputs of N during
wet season, which corresponds with high concentra-
tions of chlorophyll-a. Therefore, strategies to control
N losses from watershed during wet season can result
in reducing incidences of algal blooms and reducing
cost to control blooms. As it is during these wet
months (June–September) that an algaecide such as
copper sulfate is commonly used to control cyanobac-
terial blooms and activated carbon that is used to
remove odor and correct taste problems in drinking
water (B. MacLeod, personal communication).
It is worth noting that in the past and presently, row
crop vegetable and citrus production are considered
the primary intensive agricultural activities that use
4318
high N inputs in the watershed. Over the years, there
have been changes in the land use patterns in the
watershed and the nature of agricultural practices.
For example, some of the citrus/row crops lands have
been replaced with low density residential develop-
ment in upstream of the reservoir and agriculture
practices for vegetable production (mostly tomatoes)
have been changed from seepage irrigation to micro-
irrigation (which has drastically reduced the amount of
water used for irrigation). This, in turn, has also re-
duced N inputs and potentially N losses from these
land uses to Lake Manatee. In addition, as a result of
the desire to protect potable water quality in Lake
Manatee reservoir, several state agencies have initiated
land-acquisition programs such as Florida Department
of Environmental Protection’s Conservation and Rec-
reational Lands program and the District’s Save Our
Rivers program that operate in the Manatee River
watershed. The District has identified about 9,172 ha
as land acquisition priorities in the Manatee River
Watershed and, to date, has purchased about
2,789 ha under the program (SWFWMD 2000). In
addition, the Manatee County has purchased mining
lands in the upper watershed to prevent future mining
on them and has purchased other lands in the water-
shed to protect these from development. These pro-
grams emphasize preservation of natural systems and
enhancement/preservation of water quality. In addi-
tion, future development permitting proposals in Lake
Manatee watershed require a higher level of scrutiny
and greater performance standards in terms of set-
backs, minimum design criteria for stormwater man-
agement systems, buffering, and other criteria as
specified in the Manatee County’s Land Development
Regulations. Although these steps might be seen as a
positive “commonsense” approach to protect water
quality, no hard science data are available to support
the fact that these land acquisition efforts in fact are or
will help to protect the water quality. If the appropriate
best management practices based on science on the
fate and transport of nutrients, especially organic N,
from various land uses to lake are developed, they
might present a cost effective way to protect water
quality.
Acknowledgments We are thankful to Bruce MacLeod and
Mark Simpson of Utility Operations Department, Manatee
County Government, Florida, United States, for providing
access to water quality data.
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:4305–4320
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