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    Oyeronke Oyewumi The Invention of Women Making An African Sense of Western Gender Discourses - 1997 - ChapterFOUR 1

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    Annachiara Forte

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    The Invention of Women MAKING AN AFRICAN SENSE OF WESTERN GENDER DISCOURSES Oyeronké Oyéwumi University of Minnesota Press ‘Mrneapolts London Copyright 197 by the Regen ofthe Unser of Mingo Agha eerie. No ptf this pues ay be epee ord ines fem, oc transite in ny form oe by any mea eon, mechan phorcopme ‘coving. otherwise, without the prio write permis of he publaber Published by the University of Mian Pee 11 Third Avene South, ute 290, SHnrespol, SEN 55101-2520 phew aprenmne rte nee Unted States of Asteria on aire pape Fat ining 2003 Library of Cangexe Cation Dat yew, Oytrnky ‘The invention of women king an Aran smi of western peer \soutses/Oyeronke Ope, pm loc big elrences and index. ISBN 0.8166-24902 thes sk paper) = ISBN 016.2419 (nb alk oper 1. Wome, Yorubs~Soxil conden 2. Wamen, Yoruks~ Hs 3. Philosophy, Yruks. 4, Sx ole Naga. $. Sex differences = gta. 6 Boy, Homan ~ Socal ares Nigea Tie DEsis.as.v67098 1997 sas 49'896555 der o-36162 ‘The Unive of Mines 3 avahopporunity educa employe. | L eae of store For my children, the soure: of life and its inspiration: Qlasindo Akinbaye and Mapacé Omolays Omplage Omoniyt Omonide androcentrism became appar- and interpretations of history. of colonization, that iy the in a more system- in the nineteenth Serine fhe our, sons century. Chapter 4 Colonizing Bodies and Minds GENDER AND COLONIALISM IEORISTS OF COLONIZATION like Frantz Fanon and Albert I Memmi tell us that the colonial situation, being a Manichsean worl." produces two kinds of people: the colunizet and the colonized (also known as the setler and the native}, and what differen. tiares them is not only skin color but also state of mind.? One similarity that is often overlooked is that both colonizers and colonized are pre- sumed male. Colonial rue iself is described as “a manly or husbandly oF lordly prerogative.” As a process, i is often described as the taking away of the manhood of the colonized. While the argument that the colonizers are men is not difficult to sustain, the idea of the colonized being uniformly male is less so. Yer che two following passages from Fanon are typical of the portrayal ofthe native in the discourses on col- nization: “Sometimes people wonder that che native rather than give bis wife a dress, buys instead a transistor radio." And, “The look that the native tums on the setler’s town isa look of lust, @ look of envy: it expresses his dreams of possession — all manner of possession: to sit at the setler's table, to sleep in the setters bed, with his wife if possible. ‘The colonized man is an envious man." But what if the native were female, a6 indeed many of them were? How is this feeling of envy and desire to replace the colonizer manifested or realized for women? Or, for that macter, des such a feeling exist for women? The histories of both the colonized and che colonizer have been writ: fen from the male point of view— women are peripheral if they appear at all, While studies of colonization written from this angle are noe nec. esarily irrelevant co understanding what happened co native females, \we must recognize thar colonization impacted males and females in sim, ilar and dissimilar ways, Colonial custom and practice stemmed from "1 ‘world view which believes in the absolute superiority of the human over ‘the nonhuman and the subhurnan, the masculine over the feminine and the modern oF progressive over the traditional or the savage." nm ales aa Mab Gener nl Cools m, ean female bale therefore he cloni eed ote mae and fe ses mab ced conligly, Men were the prtary tage f pls am 7 ain hey mer the natives ard a0 were wide, Tse fats rom fhe seandpeant of this study, are the jusiicacion for considering the cae smance in ender tcne eater shan apting 0 3e¢ which Sere leo females was dhe most exploited The elon process Sov soeafeenine fa a he efloiaswae mal and wal ee Sooty deterine pol, From the forego car that a Sse birch col staat, in aio temp Sa bat of ditnetn, sho ake in accounts SONG aoe ouaponent The two racial dant and herr eateries ar comer sad the naive should be expanded «four snp AMS diegender cor However, ace and ger extgonks obvious Farum de prenccopacon ih Westen culture with ce vse and saa iaseat sapeces of human realty ee above). Both ators are anya of ine bale of Western cule. Thu, i the eolonad setealMhare was a hierarchy of four not ev, ators. Beginning wife, thee were: men (European sen Een ‘ie er (Kam en He wn ‘Sadat and unspcid category of the Oter ore ecea res, fein scholars haves Tourney om enzo by focusing wo mt Mca som pean dominion and imposed by. Ascan ten. Stephanie alas is charac of tS et the oxher frum indigenous tra Urdang’s book Fighting Tivo Co spective,’ While che depth of the culonal experince for African we expressed suucintly by the idea of doubling, cere is mo consensus aboot oat is being dnbled y perspective, tis nor eulomization hac fy to, but the fornts of appression that flowed from the process for native females. Hence its shading postulate two forms of cole nation Uecaye fh wits of pein ae ene he hierarchical racegander relations of the colonial sic ‘ inal were colonized by Exropeans as Africans and as African women. They were dominated, exploitedy and inferioized a» AVricany gether wich African men ane! then separately inferorized smd marginalized Africars women. Fo ete capbasze dh combination of rake an gener 0a ee cpsim women did oy the sme pion idee a Afican wen. cea bod the Beh wuts Riga shows te glaringly snes postion Se eps of wee a he ea system. Te ts cht Aue anu At: Grr al Color “African woinen should be paid at 75% of dhe ates paid to the Bae ropean worten."™ Furthermore, whatever the “status” of indigenous ceusoms, the relanns herween African men and wounen dung this pe ‘oa cam be nether isolated from the colonial seuation mor described 35 4 form of colonization, particularly bocause African men were subjects themselves.” The racial and gender uppressions experienced hy African women should mor be seen in terms of addition, as if they were pied ‘one on top of the other. In the context of the United Seaes, Elizabeth Speiman's comment on the relationship berween racism and sexisan #s relevant, She writes: “How one form of oppression is experienced i in fluenced by and influence’ how another form is experienced.” Though itis necessary to discuss the impact of colonization on speci categories cannot be separated from its we Render relations ae not zerosiim — men and women in any soeiety are inextricably bound. ‘This chapver will examine specific colonial polices, practices, and ide- ologies and sscereain how they impacted males and females in different ways. Im this exard, the gender idencity of he colonizers es as impor tant. Ar the vel of policy, I shall look at administrative, educational, legal, and refgious systems. Ie will become ckear thit certain ideole fies and values flowed aut of these policies anu practices, and in an ‘often unstata, but no fess profound, way they shaped the behavior of the colonized. Colonization was a nu differ ent kinds of European personnel, including missionaries, traders, and state officials Hence, Treat the process of Christianization as an inte- ral part of she colonial process. Finally, enlonization was, above all the expansion of the Es rencath the al and adminiseative policy lay the unfolding, "The capitalise economic system shaped ‘load domtination as effected, ‘The State of Patriarchy 1 of the Furopean state syster, with its attendant legal and uremic machinery i he mon ending acy of Europe colonial rule ia Africa, ‘The international ratio pied 7 ieaky i a tbe state ystem as we knoe re expansion of European traditions of gover ation. One eradison thae was exputted a ih 18 the exclusion of women from the newly created colonial public sphere. In Britain, acess posier was pend Inascs therefore, policies was largely mens ob and colonization, which icing Boxtes sn Mas Geer and Cotas is fundamentally a political affair was no exception. Ahough both AF rican men and women as conquered peoples were excluded from the hrigher echelons of colonial state succures, men were represented at che lower keels of government. The system of indirect rule introduced by the British colonial government recognized the male chiel’s authority at the local kvel but did noe acknowledge che existence of female chiefs “Therefore, wonnen were effectively excluded from all colonial stae struc~ tures, The process by which women were bypassed by the colonial stare in the arena of polities —an arena in which they had participated during the precolonial period —is of particular interest inthe following section. “The very process by which females were categorized and reduced 10 ‘women made them ineligible fer leadership roles. The basis for this ‘exclusion was their biology, a prccess that was a new development in Yoribi society. The emergence o° women as an identifiable category, defined by their anatomy and suberdinaced co men in all situations, re- sulted, in part, from the impositien of a pateiarchal colonial state. For females, colonization was a twofold process of racial inferirization and gender subordination. In chapter 2, I showed that in pre-Brish Yoribi Society, anafemales, like the anamles, had multiple idenaities that were ‘not based on their anatomy. The ext fone of the very fist accomplishenents of che colonial state. Ta book on Evropean women in colonial Nigeria, Helen Callaway explores the relationship berween gender and colonization at the level ff the colonizer. She argues that the colonial state was patriarchal in many ways. Most obviously, colonial personnel was male, Although 1 few European women were present in a professional capacity as hurses, the administrative branches, which embodied power and au- thority, excluded women by lave!” Furthermore, she tellus thar the Colonial Service, which was forme for the purpose of governing subject peoples, was 4 male institution in all its aspects fs “masculine” ideology, its military organisation and procoses, ts rituals of power and hicr archy, its strong boundaries between the sexes. fe would ave heen “unthinkable” in the belie system of the time even to consider the pare women might play, other shan as nursing sisters, who had earlier become recognised for ther important “feminine” work." Ie is not surprising, therefore, that & was unthinkable for the ca rial government 10 recognize female leaders among the peoples they colonized, such as the Yorubs. Likewise, colonization was presented as a "man sized” jal —the ul timate est of manhood —especialy hecause the European deatherate in Coleg Boles Minds Gender and Coats 438 4 man's councty in which women" (European women) were “out of lamented about the postion of European wornen: “I often found my: do I the women of the colonar ver 0 ign hen on ‘could only imagine the postion ofthe “other” wonten, if thei existencs ve acknowledged at all itis . ‘was said to have ceded Ibidin co the British was Laaléta, an iydlide, an anafemale chief." The transformation of state power to wale-pender in which power was not gender-determined. . Corman Unk she Yrs sath close ak iene ‘The Arian males designated as chiefs by the colonizers had tach more ‘while increasing their powers over the people,” although we are co be- Annie he Yon exon vale ste te ee adie and Md: Gerwer and Coloma 126. oseeee shih Yori sey d- ccs num of aspects of fie, In pete : dtm of nptes reed wth nee elders Therefore, very ow Manor cme under the parvo te ler andthe eon of bi Burm the cloaladnansation, che Naive Aon stem with omary cour, Jest wah al civil case nlaing mariage, divorce Si ale Tes preciely a the neta the sae wa Deming omnioten shat women were excl from snstacon. This mprenofhe state was now radon in orb soc, sf was many Aiean Sov Theoromipotecs ofthe sate hs deep tos Ewronean pal ‘Gon Tose De Chulangess als ofthe Grek ty se deo thi fet Tate and was davon vo its dence, 1 the iy had eed af mei pe comin ea earn BERS seniy dont remind soles hse wi aa a tenance abe a a os Soe see meme Remar, Ed Shure, wing boot Farag soi, edt be Coeange iverson “Tendo Ere cm ‘Be ul se ura nly he oman recon Wor ay beats Rowsnss sheen whch hse “Heine remedial ston by pie pinion and Insel ple pote man ow nani as sire my” st wen ws wee propa oe we Wok So be rots fr propane es nd fre 9 mah Sno eed cnt lye] ma ine inthe fegtmatereven conse ee moe ts ‘Ste repery for gu nll Awe ate comminkyba eponer obo marae tga ano a hi ‘tec wee aie ny al pti sry the fa, the pb iy era toby Shr wa mls No Sct sdme nfs mane we mld by Aton sxe, Bat he handy fh ge ad pal on ye pst tray ene xy o oe stu as anafemsk, em have ben ext from she din mak process of the family was much less than in Europe. onizing Holes and Bina: Gene and ¢o tnseeneee 27 tay ee ewan this unfortunate radon of male dominance that Africans were raf — this was pariculaey diadvamrageous o women bees sarin, divorce, aml even pregnancy came under the puri of the state, Gien the lrezoing its clear chat the impact of eolnation was profound and negative for women. Appeals of the impact of clo: zation tha see certain “benefits” for African women are mistaken on light ofthe overarching effet ofthe colonial stat, which efecely de fine fers ¢ “women” and bene econ lass colonia subjects te to determine ther own destiny. The postndepenienc second-best tus of Arikan wore’ ctizetbhip i ood inthe proves of vein them as women, Female aces o membership inthe group sw longer aces 10 czenship is now mediated though emartag, thao the "wiz of chizenship-” Yee group of sehoars maintains that colanzation was of sme Ben- efit to African wen Let ux consider two scholars whe hal that fa some way, African wamen in elation to Affian men bene ora clots rule, Accerdng co Jae Cage, the idea that African women expiicaced a deci in sais under European rule misrepresented i according to er, the sats gap between men and ween lly narrowed due ro a “decline in men’s status." For one thing, Gaye une he re ees ened er mals a ome ss ‘roups, Fasheemore, this obviously another way of expeesing the takebised sucion that colonia experience ts lon ot nnd by he colonized, thereby projecting the eroncons Blt had thing (or uthnga Valuable) wo lose This isa treow ierpet, tin ofthe eet of colomzatin in terms of vomethingineangile alod tmanod). The colonized aho le ther apacy to mike ti on tory wathout foreign otrferences they lost thet lor and tel les many lost cee Ives and heen the colonized comprised both males and females, women, too, evenly slfered these loses, Tuntesmone, an analysis ofthe mon of manhood, whichis wualy lft undefined, suggests thc tsa nase version ofthe concep ofthe sll A Nandy has writen shout the colonial experience asthe lon of lf for the native From Nandy’s more inclusive standpoint we can begin vo analy the experience of females om the same terms a tha af le, Nina Mba is anubee schol who ses some advantages for Af ‘cam women in colenzation. In er sty ofthe effec of Brash cue ‘on women in soutwestern Nigeria, she conclude thar the clonal arti ardimane increased women’s Kal sats because enhanced ‘somen’ righc to marital property. This vew is inccurte fora wow ter of reasons. To start with, her asummption ofthe sau of vse ena with che “sats of women” leads 0 her nab to pape wa fossa in he ators tS wes. doughy ada: tes dered om ferent bass. or hampe lnck of aces to shar haba’ propre dl conse Scrmlavy sas for "women fesse sy daughters and ses they ital righ bo incyper shar mo tse fthrs, hr mer he re pee te, cn cul mt itr the ayes peoperty ef So the apparent provson of “mata feiperty" hes Glo fw was nor neces 2 god hing for Women because the contin of 2 new ester of propery ald otal rey men tn rn dg ey Sin tha bythe sme tke nak one thi wives Sas the ever of rope, Moreover she phn of wives athe b Ran bo mast hat thes of sme ther women, suc mers ‘Snr, and doers wee aorpated swell, We mse als remember mr man Nigian soe nd polyannns marigs stem which tains the comple qwetion to wich eves ere WM pope {ven tha some wins fa fren maid tothe some husband long ot ths dws ot al wth ay of he te Fahy er ite epsom a2 way of "improving aman 8s" Ctra piven tet the sae slo wt a conted women In ascond-clos ut. La ytems do moe work 3 we sd ef int lb! we fr pn take ndtamage othe sewn al yes In i the de ha Thar mater avr emexiny of Pople among the colonies, fom clonia oe cos eel Upgrading Males: Sex Discrimination in Colonial Education {ean of eles ne ede ne ‘heim dasamsa sal em argu thr mai er af women ny a ste Spi st ined be cme ei Tw bape nh coy of rts etn Yorum Chretanty an Wes simon weve ne he {ate thy ee the meet ivan masts The sch sorte thon, and techie sh To se po of “eo nes he psy of Cg sting te A ‘Sone war bs jms of Faroe. egal of rasan won tan Man sei oe Colonicing Boies an Ati Gevler ane Cokin sess 129. As envisaed by the missionaries, the African family system was be targeted for cefoom and, in curn, to be the velile for the “eiiliza sion” of these sacictien One missionary in Yorubalond was to betray this bias when he posed the question: “Is it proper to apply the sacred of a home 2 compound occupied by two w six oF 8 dazea men pethaps with a plurality of wives?” “Spiriual rebirth” and the construction of Afrian societies were intertwine! in the minds of the To this end, schools were established to facilitate evangelization. Pos 'sbly the most important rationale for the establishment of shaols an Yordbatand during this early period of missionary work is summarized in Bapeise missionary. J. Bowen's buok published in 1837, Our designs and hopes in regard cw Africa, are not simply cw bring 8s many individuals as possible co the knowledge of Christ, We desire to establish the Guspel in the hearts and minds and social fife ofthe people, so thar truth and eightevusmess may remain and Alourish among chem, withou the insteumencalty of foreign mis: sionaries. This cannot be done without civilizaion. To establish the Gospel among any peopl, they must have Bibles, and there fore must have the art to make them oe the muney to buy them, ‘They must read the Bible and this implies instruction,” Two important points Ai This is kno nd out, First, the Eucopean missions needed anaries for the purpose of Christiani ng theie wn kind. prising in ehat during this period, Wese Africa was sil as the white man's grave because few Europeans could survive in the environment. Therefore, it was imperative to make use of African personnel if Cheistianity was co be firmly planted Second, the ability to ead che Bible was seen as critical co che maintenance of individual faith, {a Fighe of the foregoing, i iy noc surprising shat makes were the target of issionary education, They were seem as powential chtks,catechist, par ssionaries inthe servie of the church, There was no place these professions excepe as wives, as helpmates to thir Jnashands, which indeed was the ole ofthe few women missionaries. 4 1842, the very fist school was established in Badagri by the Wes leyan mission. By 1845, the Church Missionary Society (CMS) had established a bnarding school for boys. Abgikita farther inland, was fo become the hase and education capital uf Yoribsland, By 18S three thousand Yorubs emigrants commonly callec Sirs?" many of therm Chests, had seth in this towa, One of the mast prominent aznong hem was Samuel Ajayi Crowther, who vas mo become the frst ‘Mricam Anglican bishop, Immediately after they arcved in Abgokita, 1 Colony Hotes Minas: Gendernad akan ite established ewer schwals, one for boys and ane s. Cronther's sewing schoel seas very pop tla tha “even the ans ine rests] brought sei Fle is tio Mrs, Ceunrther for instruction." Separate-sex practices were esta Tithe cary, was refed even in ee crseum of hoo cha coeducational, Ajayi summarizes the Gimetable of the EMS schools in #48 as follows: for girls, We ate told chat Mr Singing, Rehearsals of Scripture Passages, Read: ing one chapter of Scripture, Prayers. 9.0 ams Geammar, Reading, Speling, Writing, Genges- phy, Tables fexcepe Wednesday, when there was Catechism in place of Grammar]. Ciphering fis Arithmeriel, Reading, Spllioas Meaning of Words. Closing Prayers." He adds: “This was more or less repeated every day except I nay, which ve dot rea af Serie pss renin and xia tions. Girs followed a similar curriculum, fut with han In the aftcenoon session, from Monday co Thursday, chey fad Sewing and Embroidery.”"* ve ‘Although males were the primary focus af missionary education iti clese thatthe eatin of females was nr ineevane the msonar Fes scheane. bn fact, they had a west interest in producing mothers who would be the foundation of Chri nis. They were clearly con {rrned thatthe home fluence “cowl he destroying the good seed sown ia school." The ease of the Hervisony and their ferale wards dem tnstrates the th sionarns om what this “home nln Tboked like, Me. and Mes. Harrison kept the female pups away from their mothers, who were presumed 10 be teying “vo keep thei daugh- fers down to their off bad ways." T. H. Poplestour,» missionary and Cducaton underlined the importance of she family in the education of the child: ‘he isretion at shwol sompeends ie utp Toa Thar inte bering. | of tefl and Christan Motte the Be oti the sho mst always be akon Stn ents pring fo ga Te ves cam play am npn par (Fey are Cstions) Hos Feet pene ho seen ei 8 ying, sealing deepion, iam f 1% Colonic Bases aut atin: Gonder nl Coal BL for the fe ‘each morality? How cae they teach cir children both girls and boys necded to be educated, but for dfferene places in'the sew society the colonizers were in the process of fabricating. Thus, priority was given to male edueation, ad Provisions were made for some form of higher edication for males in some places: In the memoirs of Anna Hinderer we are able ta see up close the gender bias in the ways in which the m ies tained their Yor wards. David and Anna Hindersr were sgether spent more than seventeen years in Yoruhland beginning in 1853. In Anma’s memos, entitled Seventeen Yours in Yori Comair, ive peta feel for what life was ike in ninetcenth-century Ui artiving in Ibidan, the Finderers readily found a fri in a prominent chief who immediacely sent his wo children —a boy and a gel —to ive with them to acquire an education. Within a short time, they had sit {cn childeen, males and females, as pupils— including children of other promincot people and fe enslaved hen who a bes deed the ms However, as in the case of Anglican schools, the Hinderers had sexcdiferentiated curriculum, Mes. Hinderee tells us that apart from the ‘epular “four Rs" hae all che eildsem were taught every day from 9 ‘at uni noon, the girls were instructed in sewing and embroidery from ‘noon until 2 a” [is omly in Hight of this practice thar we understand 8 statement made hy Mrs, Hinderer that seems to east a shadow on the academic ability of che girls. Commenting on the preparation for the Fhaptisms in 1859, she said, “Th | peeparacion and exam tation has been extremely interesting to my husbands che boys seem 9 we grasped the root of the mare.” Her observation isnot surpsising, considering that the boys had atleast an extra two hours of preparation everyday white the girls were learning to sew and embroider. Apart from the day-to-day example of sepaeate spheres for Mr. and Mrs. Hinderer, there were more subtle ways in which gender-based mes sages were inculeated inco che children, For instance, when Mrs. Hine rer received a parcel of “goodies” from England, she gave “each of the girls one of she nice litle handkerchiefs, and a pretty pin to fas- {em it, 10 their very yreae deight; and they looked so neat and tidy the next Sunday at church, The boys had their share wf guns and tops, but a pencil and piece of paper is their crowning pleasure.” The message ‘was plain: the boys were educated 0 become clerks, catchists, pastors, tmissionares, diplomats, and even politicians. The role of che gids wa rt J Colonialism ny, Bales and Minds: Gender a 10 look dainty and attractive, ready to become wives and helpmates of these potentially powerful men. ; Te Taare enough information about what some of these strate the effec~ ioneering pupils became when they grew up to demonstrate foundation pupils, became Mrs. Olubi, the wife of Olubi, the Hindecers ery irs ward. Anna Hinderer wrote of hers “Mrs, Olubi had four chil- Uren who kept her very busy." The specter of housewrifery for women thd appeared on the Yorba landscape, contrasting with the eadionl Yorilst practice of all adults (anamale and anafemale) being gainfully employed In sharp contrast, Susanna’s husband, Olubi, became one of fhe most powerful men in nineteenth-century YorUbiland. As an officer ofthe Anglican Church and 25a diplomat, he negotiated treaties among the warring Yoraba states and the British. Of course, unlike his wife, ‘Olubi and some ofthe other male students had had the benefit of higher education atthe CMS training mission in AbgOKta. There were nosuch Schools for girls unc much later, What about the brother/sister duo, Shileren ofthe prominent Ibadiin chief who were also foundation pupils of the Hinderers? Akinyele, the boy, spent fifty-five yeas as a teacher and pastor and is remembered for his conribution in establishing the ‘Anglican church in Ogbimdq6, another Yoribé cown. His sister, side, is remembered through her children and does nor seem ro have estab lished herself in a profession. Konighagbe, one of the other girls, fared peur. She became a teacher, but disappears early from the record. ‘One wonders whether her disappearance had to do with the fac hat She got married and rook her husband!’s name: a new “tradition” that ‘was adopted by African families as they became Europeanized. “The disparity between the number of boys and giels in school was lating by the turn of the century and vias alzeady a personal problem for educated men who were seeking Western-educated wives. As early a 192, the ain iter on the agenda at the seunion of St, Andrews ole i premier higher inssituion for men, was “Where shal Cole, O90 Pr gd hw shoul they be ined?” By 1930 thee were thirty-seven thousand boys, but only ten thousand approved mission schools. By 1947, the number of girs had increased teihirty-cight thousand, but this was a mere 25 percent of the total number of children in school: ; ‘The reason for this gender gap in education is usually attributed 10 the idea that parents preferred to educate their sons in- “tradition,” stead of daughters. Tc s not very clear to me, inthe Yoribs case, particular tradition created this problem. The only writer | have come Poross who offers some specifies about how “tradition” could have been CColonizing Boclies anal Minds: Genter and Colonialism + +133 an obstacle to education did not limit the problem ro females. Accord ing to T. O. Ogunkoya, in mid-ninetcenth-century Abgokiita, “The Ifa Priests (divinerpriests) had circulated it abroad that any black man who touched a book might be so enfeebled as vo become impotent whilst a ‘woman might become barren. If by 1903, men had successfully crossed the hurdle, it was not yer for women." Whatever the historicity of this assertion, the fact that men soon transcended the barriers suggests there were factors at work other than “tradition.” How, then, do we account for the persistent underrepresentation of females in the school system? Historical evidence does not support the conjecture that parents ini- ally preferred to send sons to school over daughters. There is nothing ‘0 suggest that at the inception of the schools, whether in Badagri, La- {g05, Abgdkcita, or further inland in Ibadan, pupils were overwhelmingly boys. Apart from enslaved children who became pupils after they were reddeemed by the missionaries themselves, there does not seem to be any sec pattern (gendered or not) in the circumstances ofthe children, Chief Ogunbonna in Abgokiita was said to have sent his daughter to one of the mission houses because her mother had died and there was nobody to take care of her." Chief Otunloyo in Ihidn sent a son and daughter to live with the Hinderers because he was fascinated by the “magic” of writing” Another young girl ended up with the Hinderers because she ‘ook a fancy so Mrs, Hinderer and insisted on going home with her." Even the much-maligned Ifa priests were said to have been eager to send theie daughters to a girls’ school founded by the wife of Yoribi mise sionary Samuel Crowther in Abgokiita in 1846." Other ways in which pupils were rectuited at First included redeeming enslaved children and receiving “pawns.”® There is no indication that one sex predominated in any of these categories. It is clear that, initially, the response of Yori parents to schooling for children was not that favorable. They were reluctant ro lose the ser vices of their children, both male and female, on the farms and in the markets. Therefore, the missions had to find incentives to get parents to send their children to school. Thus, in ldyé, both the Baptist and ‘CMS paid pupils to come to school. Even in che coastal areas like Lagos and Badagri inducements had to he provided. Free gifts from Europe were one such inducement. As time went on, there were complaints from parents that schoolchildren had become kzy and disrespectful to elders. The preference for boarding schools was partially related to the deste of parents to pass the cost of raising their “unproductive” chil- dren to missionaries if schooling was to deprive them of the services of these children. This situation was soon to change as parents realized the value of education in salaried employment and important positions that aval Conant 134 sasesseesnneee Colin Hales al Mins 1 available to females ne ro axeupy. Name of this wa ax enger 10 hat parents subsequently were not their sans. Western schools were re roles but the teaming. gels ‘olonial the educated Iris nm wonder, chen, ‘educate theie daughters 3 priate for educating boys for chit rape aut ife mapped out by the European missionaries 3 ffficals did no requite that kind of education. educated women Were 50 seuscoay the creation of female secondary shoots by de Method . she missions was due to the effort of women’s of ‘Armano They used teieprivkged positions as wives and daukluers errmraminent nen eo establish schook for girs in Vitorian Lago, aero dhe upeand-coming, Yoru professional men were beginning virtee what av edveared woman coukd do for dir statas and

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