Hinduism is the world’s oldest religion, according to many scholars, with roots and

customs dating back more than 4,000 years. Today, with about 900 million followers,
Hinduism is the third-largest religion behind Christianity and Islam. Roughly 95 percent
of the world’s Hindus live in India. Because the religion has no specific founder, it’s
difficult to trace its origins and history. Hinduism is unique in that it’s not a single
religion but a compilation of many traditions and philosophies.

Hinduism, major world religion originating on the Indian subcontinent and comprising several

and varied systems of philosophy, belief, and ritual. Although the name Hinduism is relatively
new, having been coined by British writers in the first decades of the 19th century, it refers to a
rich cumulativetradition of texts and practices, some of which date to the 2nd millennium BCEor
possibly earlier. If the Indus valley civilization (3rd–2nd millennium BCE) was the earliest
source of these traditions, as some scholars hold, then Hinduism is the oldest living religion on
Earth. Its many sacred texts in Sanskrit and vernacular languages served as a vehicle for
spreading the religion to other parts of the world, though ritual and the visual and performing arts
also played a significant role in its transmission. From about the 4th century CE, Hinduism had a
dominant presence in Southeast Asia, one that would last for more than 1,000 years.

In the early 21st century, Hinduism had nearly one billion adherents worldwide and was the
religion of about 80 percent of India’s population. Despite its global presence, however, it is best
understood through its many distinctive regional manifestations.

Hinduism Beliefs

Some basic Hindu concepts include:

 Hinduism embraces many religious ideas. For this reason, it’s sometimes referred
to as a “way of life” or a “family of religions,” as opposed to a single, organized religion.
 Most forms of Hinduism are henotheistic, which means they worship a single
deity, known as “Brahman,” but still recognize other gods and goddesses. Followers
believe there are multiple paths to reaching their god.
 Hindus believe in the doctrines of samsara (the continuous cycle of life, death, and
reincarnation) and karma (the universal law of cause and effect).
 One of the key thoughts of Hinduism is “atman,” or the belief in soul. This
philosophy holds that living creatures have a soul, and they’re all part of the supreme
soul. The goal is to achieve “moksha,” or salvation, which ends the cycle of rebirths to
become part of the absolute soul.
 One fundamental principle of the religion is the idea that people’s actions and
thoughts directly determine their current life and future lives.
 Hindus strive to achieve dharma, which is a code of living that emphasizes good
conduct and morality.
 Hindus revere all living creatures and consider the cow a sacred animal.
 Food is an important part of life for Hindus. Most don’t eat beef or pork, and many
are vegetarians.
 Hinduism is closely related to other Indian religions, including  Buddhism, Sikhism
and Jainism.

Hinduism Symbols

 A swastika symbol featured on a tile at Hindu temple on Diu Island, India. The symbol is
one of good luck and good fortune.
John Seaton Callahan/Getty Images
There are two primary symbols associated with
Hinduism, the om and the swastika. The word
swastika means "good fortune" or "being happy"
in Sanskrit, and the symbol represents good
luck. (A diagonal version of the swastika later
became associated with Germany’s Nazi
Party when they made it their symbol in 1920.)

The om symbol is composed of three Sanskrit

letters and represents three sounds (a, u and m), which when combined are considered a
sacred sound. The om symbol is often found at family shrines and in Hindu temples.

Origins of Hinduism

Most scholars believe Hinduism started somewhere between 2300 B.C. and 1500 B.C. in
the Indus Valley, near modern-day Pakistan. But many Hindus argue that their faith is
timeless and has always existed.

Unlike other religions, Hinduism has no one founder but is instead a fusion of various
beliefs.

Around 1500 B.C., the Indo-Aryan people migrated to the Indus Valley, and their
language and culture blended with that of the indigenous people living in the region.
There’s some debate over who influenced who more during this time.

The period when the Vedas were composed became known as the “Vedic Period” and
lasted from about 1500 B.C. to 500 B.C. Rituals, such as sacrifices and chanting, were
common in the Vedic Period.

The Epic, Puranic and Classic Periods took place between 500 B.C. and 500 A.D. Hindus
began to emphasize the worship of deities, especially Vishnu, Shiva and Devi.
 The concept of dharma was introduced in new texts, and other faiths, such as Buddhism
and Jainism, spread rapidly.

Hinduism Holy Books

Hindus value many sacred writings as opposed to one holy book.

The primary sacred texts, known as the Vedas, were composed around 1500 B.C. This
collection of verses and hymns was written in Sanskrit and contains revelations received
by ancient saints and sages.

The Vedas are made up of:

 The Rig Veda

 The Samaveda
 Yajurveda
 Atharvaveda
Hindus believe that the Vedas transcend all time and don’t have a beginning or an end.

The Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, 18 Puranas, Ramayana and Mahabharata are also
considered important texts in Hinduism.

Basic Teachings of Hinduism

One of the world’s oldest religions, Hinduism, is practiced by most people in India today.
Hinduism evolved over thousands of years and was influenced by the cultures and traditions of
many peoples. However a few fundamental teachings are shared by nearly all Hindus.

Brahman
1. Among most basic tenets of Hinduism, belief in Brahman, eternal being that created, preserves
world
2. Brahman all-encompassing
3. Many believe human mind incapable of understanding

Atman
1. Hindus believe each person has atman, soul, and aspect of Brahman

2. Atman shapes personality, cannot be destroyed, even by death

3. Devas, manifestations of Brahman, active in world, helping maintain order in nature

Three devas - Brahma, Vishnu, Siva - are particularly influential. Some believe in thousands;
others worship only one as the true manifestation of Brahman.

Core Beliefs of Hindus

Hinduism is not an organized religion and has no single, systematic approach to teaching its
value system. Nor do Hindus have a simple set of rules to follow like the Ten Commandments.
Local, regional, caste, and community-driven practices influence the interpretation and practice
of beliefs throughout the Hindu world.
Yet a common thread among all these variations is belief in a Supreme Being and adherence to
certain concepts such as Truth, dharma, and karma. And belief in the authority of the Vedas
(sacred scriptures) serves, to a large extent, as the very definition of a Hindu, even though how
the Vedas are interpreted may vary greatly.
Here are some of the key beliefs shared among Hindus:
 Truth is eternal.
Hindus pursue knowledge and understanding of the Truth: the very essence of the
universe and the only Reality. According to the Vedas, Truth is One, but the wise express
it in a variety of ways.
 Brahman is Truth and Reality.
Hindus believe in Brahman as the one true God who is formless, limitless, all-inclusive,
and eternal. Brahman is not an abstract concept; it is a real entity that encompasses
everything (seen and unseen) in the universe.
 The Vedas are the ultimate authority.
The Vedas are Hindu scriptures that contain revelations received by ancient saints and
sages. Hindus believe that the Vedas are without beginning and without end; when
everything else in the universe is destroyed (at the end of a cycle of time), the Vedas
remain.
 Everyone should strive to achieve dharma.
Understanding the concept of dharma helps you understand the Hindu faith.
Unfortunately, no single English word adequately covers its meaning. Dharma can be
described as right conduct, righteousness, moral law, and duty. Anyone who makes
dharma central to one’s life strives to do the right thing, according to one’s duty and
abilities, at all times.
 Individual souls are immortal.
A Hindu believes that the individual soul (atman) is neither created nor destroyed; it has
been, it is, and it will be. Actions of the soul while residing in a body require that it reap
the consequences of those actions in the next life — the same soul in a different body.
 The process of movement of the atman from one body to another is known
as transmigration. The kind of body the soul inhabits next is determined
by karma (actions accumulated in previous lives). Learn more about Hindu funeral
customs.
 The goal of the individual soul is moksha.
Moksha is liberation: the soul’s release from the cycle of death and rebirth. It occurs
when the soul unites with Brahman by realizing its true nature. Several paths can lead to
this realization and unity: the path of duty, the path of knowledge, and the path of
devotion (unconditional surrender to God).

Sacred Texts and Practices

Much of Hinduism’s evolution stemmed from a number of sacred writings produced over
centuries.

Sacred Texts
•Teachings, practices based on many texts, most sorted into one of three categories
– The Vedas
– Later writings inspired by the Vedas
– Sacred epics
•The Vedas, sacred hymns of praise, among earliest sacred texts of Hinduism

The Vedas
Name means “knowledge” in Sanskrit
• Hindus consider Vedas to contain eternal knowledge not written by humans, revealed to them
by Brahman
• Parts of Vedas date back more than 3,000 years
• Considered core of Hinduism even today

Upanishads
•Sacred texts that built upon the Vedas appeared
•Some, such as Upanishads, also believed to have been revealed rather than written by people
•Upanishads philosophical reflections on the Vedas, dealing with nature of world, meaning of
life

Ramayana, Mahabharata
•Other sacred texts based on themes in the Vedas, but composed by sages, including two epic
poems, Ramayana and Mahabharata
•Each tells story, reflects on living according to Vedic teachings
•Included in Mahabharata, most sacred of all Hindu texts, the Bhagavad Gita, addressing many
aspects of Hindu belief, philosophy

Hindu Sacred Texts: The Vedas

The Vedas, or “Books of Knowledge,” are the foremost sacred texts in Hinduism. These books,
written from around 1200 BCE to 100 CE, began with four vedas, or mantras: Rig Veda, Sama
Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda. These expanded over time to include Brahmanas,
Aranyakas and Upanishads.

According to Swami Vivekananda, "the accumulated treasury of spiritual laws discovered by

different persons in different times" constitutes the sacred Hindu texts. Collectively referred to as
the Shastras, there are two types of sacred writings in the Hindu scriptures: Shruti (heard) and
Smriti (memorized).

Sruti literature refers to the habit of ancient Hindu saints who led a solitary life in the woods,
where they developed a consciousness that enabled them to 'hear' or cognize the truths of the
universe. Sruti literature is in two parts: the Vedas and the Upanishads.

There are four Vedas:

 The Rig Veda -"Royal Knowledge"

 The Sama Veda - "Knowledge of Chants"
 The Yajur Veda - "Knowledge of Sacrificial Rituals"
 The Atharva Veda - "Knowledge of Incarnations"

There are 108 extant Upanishads, of which 10 are most important: Isa, Kena, Katha, Prashna,
Mundaka, Mandukya, Taitiriya, Aitareya, Chandogya, Brihadaranyaka.

Smriti Literature refers to 'memorized' or 'remembered' poetry and epics. They are more popular
with Hindus, because they are easy to understand, explains universal truths through symbolism
and mythology, and contain some of the most beautiful and exciting stories in the history of
religion world literature. The three most important of Smriti literature are:

 The Bhagavad Gita - The most well-known of the Hindu scriptures, called the "Song of
the Adorable One", written about the 2nd century BC and forms the sixth part of
Mahabharata. It contains some of the most brilliant theological lessons about the nature
of God and of life ever written.
 The Mahabharata - The world's longest epic poem written about 9th century BC, and
deals with the power struggle between the Pandava and the Kaurava families, with an
intertwining of numerous episodes that make up life.
 The Ramayana - The most popular of Hindu epics, composed by Valmiki around 4th or
2nd centuries BC with later additions up to about 300 CE. It depicts the story of the royal
couple of Ayodhya - Ram and Sita and a host of other characters and their exploits.

Hindu Gods and Goddesses

Hindus acknowledge that, at the most fundamental level, God is the One without a second —
the absolute, formless, and only Reality known as Brahman, the Supreme, Universal Soul.
Brahman is the universe and everything in it. Brahman has no form and no limits; it is Reality
and Truth.
Thus Hinduism is a pantheistic religion: It equates God with the universe. Yet Hindu religion is
also polytheistic: populated with myriad gods and goddesses who personify aspects of the one
true God, allowing individuals an infinite number of ways to worship based on family tradition,
community and regional practices, and other considerations.
Here are just some of the many Hindu gods and goddesses:
 Brahma, the Creator
Brahma is the first member of the Hindu Trinity and is “the Creator” because he
periodically creates everything in the universe. (The word periodically here refers to the
Hindu belief that time is cyclical; everything in the universe — except for Brahman and
certain Hindu scriptures — is created, maintained for a certain amount of time, and then
destroyed in order to be renewed in ideal form again.)
 Vishnu, the Preserver
Vishnu is the second member of the Hindu Trinity. He maintains the order and harmony
of the universe, which is periodically created by Brahma and periodically destroyed by
Shiva to prepare for the next creation.
Vishnu is worshipped in many forms and in several avatars (incarnations). Vishnu is an
important, somewhat mysterious god. Less visible than nature gods that preside over
elements (such as fire and rain), Vishnu is the pervader — the divine essence that
pervades the universe. He is usually worshipped in the form of an avatar (see below).
 Shiva, the Destroyer
Shiva is the third member of the Hindu Trinity, tasked with destroying the universe in
order to prepare for its renewal at the end of each cycle of time. Shiva’s destructive
power is regenerative: It’s the necessary step that makes renewal possible.
Hindus customarily invoke Shiva before the beginning of any religious or spiritual
endeavor; they believe that any bad vibrations in the immediate vicinity of worship are
eliminated by the mere utterance of his praise or name.
 Ganapati, the Remover of Obstacles
Ganapati, also known as Ganesha, is Shiva’s first son. Lord Ganapati, who has an
elephant head, occupies a very special place in the hearts of Hindus because they
consider him the Remover of Obstacles. Most Hindu households have a picture or statue
of this godhead, and it’s not uncommon to see small replicas of Ganapati hanging from
rearview mirrors of cars and trucks!
 Avatars of Vishnu
The literal meaning of the word avatar is “descent,” and it’s usually understood to mean
divine descent. Avatars are savior forms of a god that descend to earth to intervene
whenever help is needed to restore dharma (moral order) and peace. Two of Vishnu’s ten
avatars are Rama and Krishna.
o Rama
 Rama is one of the most beloved Hindu gods and is the hero of the Hindu epic
called the Ramayana. He is portrayed as an ideal son, brother, husband, and king
and as a strict adherent to dharma. Millions of Hindus derive satisfaction from
reading and recalling Rama’s trials and tribulations as a young prince who was
exiled from his kingdom for 14 years.
o Krishna
If one Hindu god’s name is known and recognized throughout the world, it is
Krishna. Hindus identify Krishna as the teacher of the sacred scripture called
the Bhagavad Gitaand as the friend and mentor of prince Arjuna in the epic
the Mahabharata.
For his devotees, Krishna is a delight, full of playful pranks. But most of all, Lord
Krishna’s promise to humanity that he will manifest himself and descend to earth
whenever dharma declines has sustained Hindu belief in the Supreme Being over
thousands of years.
 Saraswati, the Goddess of Learning
Saraswati is the consort of Brahma the Creator and is worshipped as the goddess of
learning, wisdom, speech, and music. Hindus offer prayer to Saraswati before beginning
any intellectual pursuit, and Hindu students are encouraged to offer prayers to her during
the school/college term and especially before and during examinations.
 Lakshmi
Lakshmi is the goddess of good fortune, wealth, and well-being. As the consort of
Vishnu, she plays a role in every incarnation. (She is Sita, wife of Rama; Rukmini, wife
of Krishna; and Dharani, wife of Parashu Rama, another avatar of Vishnu.)
 Durga Devi
Durga Devi is a powerful, even frightening goddess who fights fiercely in order to
restore dharma  (moral order). Yet, while Durga is terrifying to her adversaries, she is full
of compassion and love for her devotees.
 Indra, the King of Heaven and lord of the gods
Indra wields a thunderbolt and is a protector and provider of rain.
 Surya, the sun
Surya (or Soorya) is a golden warrior arriving on a chariot pulled by seven white horses.
 Agni, the fire god
Agni holds a special place in Hindu fire ritual to this day as the sacrificer (the priest who
performs the ceremony); the sacrifice (the ritual fire and the offerings made into it); and
the witness to all rites.
 Hanuman, the monkey king and devoted servant
 Hanuman is featured in the great Hindu epic the Ramayana. He earned his path to
deification by performing feats of strength, devotion, and courage while helping Rama
(an avatar of Vishnu) in countless exciting incidents.
The highest gods of Hinduism
Brahman, Vishnu and Shiva are the highest gods of Hinduism. These gods do not form part of
the early Vedic pantheon. They rose to prominence subsequently, during the eastern and
southern expansion of the Vedic religion in the Indian subcontinent. A brief description of the
three deities is presented below.
Brahma: Brahma is the creator god. He is originally known as Prajapati. He is the first born,
father of the gods, humans and demons. He is also their teacher, who taught them about the
nature of Self and the importance of virtue. He is also the revealer of the Vedas to the mankind.
He has several mind born sons. In the early Upanishads and Vedic hymns he is credited with
incarnations and described as the Cosmic Person (Purusha) as well as Isvara, Hiranyagarbha and
Viraj. In some verses, he is also described as Prakriti or Nature. Brahma enjoyed an exalted
position in ancient times, when the original Kshatriyas ruled the land. With their decline, his
popularity declined. He is presently worshipped only in a few temples, mostly located in the
areas, adjoining or forming part of the ancient Sindhu Saraswathi region, where the Kshatriyas
ruled in ancient times. His abode is called Brahmaloka.
Vishnu: He is currently the most popular god of Hinduism. Vaishnavism is also currently the
most popular and dominant sect of Hinduism, with several sub sects and independent teacher
traditions. Devotees of Vishnu worship Him as the highest supreme Brahman. In popular
Hinduism he is considered the preserver responsible for the preservation and maintenance of
creation. He goes by several names, such as Narayana, Adita, Padmanabha, Ananatasayana etc.
He has also manifested upon earth as incarnations (avataras), manifestations (vyuhas), partial
incarnations (amsavataras) and aspects such as Jagannatha, Panduranga, Ranganatha, Varadaraja,
Venkateswara etc. India is dotted with numerous temples of Vishnu and His numerous aspects
and incarnations. His abode is known as Vaikuntha.
Shiva: In ancient times, Shiva was the most popular deity of Hinduism, worshipped in numerous
form and diverse communities throughout the Indian subcontinent and even outside. While
Saivism lost ground to Vaishnavism in the last century, it is still a very popular sect of Hinduism
with dedicated followers. As in case of Vaishnavism, Saivism has several sects and sub sects.
Followers of Siva worship Him as the Supreme Brahman who is responsible for the creation,
preservation, and destruction of the worlds, besides delusion and liberation of the beings. In
popular Hinduism he is considered the destroyer. He goes by several names such as Rudra,
Ardhanariswara, Mahadev, Mahesvara, Isvara etc. He has also several aspects, manifestations,
emanations and attendant deities. His abode is called Kailās. He is worshipped in the temples and
households in his anthromorphic form and in the form of Sivalinga. In Tantra, he is also
worshipped in the form of symbols. For more information on Shiva, please check our section on
Shiva or visit our website Saivism.net as well as Allsaivism.com.
Trimurthis: Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva are considered the Trimurthis, often translated into
English as the Trinity of Hindu gods. In reality, they represent the triple functions of Brahman in
creation. In their highest aspect, they are said to be the same, but different in their functional
aspect, each ruling over a particular sphere and participating in creation along with their
attendant deities. They are often compared to the Isvara, Hiranyagarbha and Viraj aspects of
Brahman. Brahma is the reflection of Brahman in rajas, Vishnu in sattva and Siva in tamas. To
know about their symbolism please check the links below.
The main goddesses of Hinduism
Shakti: The practice of worshipping Mother Goddess was in vogue in Indian since the Indus
valley civilization. Shakti means energy. Hindus worship Shakti, also known as Mother Goddess,
Divine Mother, Prakriti, Maya and various other names. In creation she represents the materiality
and objectivity. Hence she is also known as the Field (kshetra). In the beings, she represents the
mind and body. If Brahman is the instrumental cause of creation, Shakti is the material cause. If
Brahman represents the will and consciousness, Shakti represents the numerous objects, worlds
and beings in which the will and consciousness of Brahman remains hidden. In the Tantra
tradition, Shakti is considered the highest supreme reality itself, with Brahman remaining in the
background as the passive witness consciousness. In Vedic tradition she is a dependent reality,
but in tantra she is independent. As the companion of Shiva, Shakti is worshipped in numerous
temples across India.
Saraswathi: Saraswathi is the goddess of knowledge and learning. She symbolizes our
knowledge, virtue and creative intelligence. She is the consort of Brahma. As the source of
knowledge, she is also the cause of knowledge, wisdom and liberation among the intelligent
beings. She is responsible for refinement in speech, all artistic expressions and civilized
behavior. Saraswathi means the flowing one. A river which flowed in the ancient past in the
northwestern India is extolled frequently as Saraswathi. The civilization that thrived on the banks
of the river and adjoining areas is known as Sindhu-Saraswathi civilization. The goddess is
responsible for many crafts and skills. Some descriptions suggest hamsa or swan as her vehicle,
while some mention peacock. She is usually depicted carrying a vina, an Indian musical
instrument.
Lakshmi: Lakshmi is the goddess of abundance who is responsible for health, wealth, luck and
happiness. She is the consort of Vishnu. She was born in milky oceans during the churning of the
oceans and gifted to Vishnu. She is usually depicted with four or two hands, either alone or in the
company of Vishnu. When alone she is shown either seated in a lotus or standing in it, with
elephants in the background. She goes by many names, the most popular being Sri. She
incarnated several times upon earth along with Vishnu and participated in his duties as the
preserver. Owl is described as her vehicle. She has numerous forms. Worship of eight forms of
Lakshmi, known as ashta-lakshmis is a very popular Hindu tradition.
Parvathi: Parvathi is the consort of Shiva and goddess of love, devotion, and destruction. She
personifies numerous aspects of Mother Goddess and even equated with her in her role as the
Mother of the Universe. She also figures prominently as Uma Haimavathi in the Kena
Upanishad. She is also considered the second incarnation of Mother Goddess after the self-
immolation of her first incarnation as Dakshayani or Sati. There are numerous shakti pithas
installed in various parts of India to worship Sati. She goes by several names such as
Haimavathi, Girija, Uma, Lalitha, Durga, Rudrani. She has both pleasant and fierce aspects. In
some Puranas, she is described as the sister of Vishnu. In the images, she is depicted either alone
or in the company of Shiva. In the Arthanariswra form, as Prakriti she is represented as one half
of Siva, the Purusha.
Vedic gods and goddesses
The Samhita portion of the Vedas contain hymns addressed to various gods, which are described
below.
Indra: Indra is the leader of gods, the lord of the heaven and the chief deity who figures
prominently in the Vedas, with a quarter of the Rig-Veda Samhita devoted to his praise. The
hymns extol him as a great warrior who slew his enemies including the demon Vrata and clipped
the wings of mountains with his mighty weapon the thunderbolt. He is depicted in the
Upanishads as the student of Brahma and teacher of Prataradana son of Divodasa. The white
elephant Airavat is his vehicle and Indrani is his consort. By the time the Puranas were
composed, this mighty god of the early Vedic period lost his prominence and was relegated to an
inferior position.
Agni: Agni figures prominently in the Rig-Veda, with the highest number of hymns addressed to
him. They describe him as the highest god, priest, messenger, master of wealth, minister of
sacrifice, dispeller of night and provider of wealth and progeny to the worshippers, who brings
the gods to the sacrificial place. He manifests are fire upon earth, lightning in the mid-region and
the sun in the highest realm. In the images he is depicted as an old man with two heads, three
legs, a red body, pot belly, seven tongues, four horns and seven arms, each holding different
objects with his consorts Svaha and Svadha on either side. The ram is his vehicle. In the body he
personifies the digestive power.
Vayu: Vayu is the wind god who is described in the Vedas as the lord of the mid-region and a
great absorber. In the body he represents the breath. He rides upon a chariot drawn by a large
number of horses, depending the upon and the intensity with which he blows. As an invisible
deity he forms part of the subtle realm. He figures prominently in the hymns regarding Soma
sacrifice. They describe him as a drinker of Soma and friend of Indra. In the images he is
depicted as a blue colored god with four hands.
Surya: Surya is the sun god, and one of the solar deities (Adityas). He is described in the Vedic
hymns as the foreseeing one, a flying bird, a jewel in the sky, and the giver of light, with radiant
hair who knows all that lives and who traverses the sky and the mid-region seeing all things that
have birth, riding on a chariot driven by seven horses. He is also praised as a healer who cures
the diseases of the heart and takes away the yellow hue. Savitr, to whom the Gayatri mantra is
addressed, is an aspect of the sun before sunrise. In some hymns he is also addressed as Pusan.
Varuna: Varuna is described in the Vedas as the god of rains, clouds, water, rivers and oceans.
Some hymns beseech him for protection and forgiveness since he is the king and guardian of
moral laws who keeps a close watch on the people and their actions with a thousand eyes. He
knows the ways of men as well as the ways of gods. Some hymns also elevate him as the highest
God who sustains the Asvattha tree whose roots are in heaven and branches below and who
created a wide pathway for the sun to traverse the sky. In some hymns he is associated with Indra
as Indra-Varuna, the guardian of men and in some with Mitra as Varuna-Mitra. In the images he
is depicted as riding a crocodile or seven swans with four hands holding a conch, a vessel of
precious stones, lotus and noose.
Soma: Soma or Soma Pavamana is an important Vedic deity who is extolled in several hymns.
The entire ninth mandala of Rig-Veda is dedicated to him. He is associated with Soma juice,
which was extracted by the Vedic priests ritually during Soma sacrifices from an unknown plant.
It was evidently an intoxicating drink used in the rituals to enter into communion with gods and
ancestors. The hymns describe him as wise, king, lord of heroes, lord of speech, pure energy,
lord of plants, leader who leads the ancestors along a straight path and who makes mortal wise
sages. He was instrumental in the slaying of vrata by Indra
Asvins: Asvins are twin gods who are well known for their healing ability and who are
invariably invoked during sacrificial ceremonies since they always strive to do good to others.
They are described in the hymns as divine physicians and surgeons well versed in the art of
healing, surgery and even organ transplantation. They are rich in treasure, lords of splendor,
having nimble hands, heroes, wonder workers and full of pleasantness, who bestow boons upon
those who worship them and seek their protection.
Aditi: Aditi is the prima mother of gods, especially the twelve solar deities known as Adityas, of
whom Vishnu is one. She is a prototype of Mother Goddess or Prakriti, who is often compared in
the Vedas to the sky and the space. The hymns suggest that she was born to Daksha and Daksha
in turn was born to her. Although no specific hymns is addressed to her in the Vedas, she is
mentioned in several hymns along with other gods as the might Aditi having the ability to grant
the grace of Rudra. One hymn in particular describes Aditi as the heaven, the mid-region, the
mother, the sons, all gods, five divisions of men and all that was born and shall be born. The
Puranas describe her as the wife of sage Kashyapa and the mother of the Aditya, Indra and
Vamana.
Adityas: The Adityas are solar deities and sons of Aditi who figure in the hymns addressed to
Visvadevas, Rhbus, Agni etc., and mentioned along with Maruts, Vasus, Rudras and other gods
of commonality. They are described in the Rig-Veda as pure gods, lords of liberal gifts, free
from blemish, who help the worshippers in prosperity, providing shelter, showing the way and in
defeating their enemies. Surya is an Aditya but he does not figure in the list of Adityas. The
Adityas were most likely aspects of the same sun, or the different suns who appear in the sky
during the different hours of the day and given different names or identified with different
deities. Many hymns of the Rig-Veda mention them collectively as Aditya without specifying
their names. Some hymns even distinguish them from Indra, Vayu, Brihaspati, Mitra, Agni,
Surya, Vishnu, Pusan, and Bhaga. In the Puranas their number went up from eight to twelve
probably due to the division of time into twelve hours instead of seven or eight. The Vishnu
Puranas lists the following 12 Aditya: Amsa, Aryaman, Bhaga, Dhuti, Mitra, Pusan, Sakra,
Savitr, Tvstr, Varuna, Vishnu, Vivsvat.
Usha: Usha is described in the Rig-Veda as the goddess of dawn, daughter of the sky, heaven's
radiant daughter, auspicious goddess, opulent, and lady of the light with resplendent rays, who
dawns upon people with prosperity and who graciously answers to the prayers with abundance
and with brilliant light. Such descriptions suggest she may be even a precursor to Lakshmi, who
also rises from the ocean like Usha. The Rig-Veda also describes her as the brightest and fairest,
the sister of Savitr who wakes up people with sounds of joy and sends them great riches, who
brings forth all the gods from the heaven so that they may drink the Soma.
Yama: Yama means restraining one. According to the legends, he was the first to die and depart
to the heaven. Subsequently, he became the lord of the underworld, Yamaloka. He is assisted in
his duties by two fierce dogs with four eyes and wide nostrils who guard the path that lead the
departed to his world. The Puranas describe him as the god death, and the ruler of southern
quarter, who is known for his knowledge, judgment and fairness in punishing the sinners. They
also describe the different kinds of punishments meted out to the sinner in his world according to
the list of sins recorded by his assistant and record-keeper Chitragupta.
Pusan: The Chandogya Upanishad describes Pusan as the god of the Sudras. In the Rig-Veda he
is portrayed as a solar deity and a guardian of the world, who shines brightly in the sky, showing
the way to people on earth as well as to the departing souls who are on their way to the other
world. He is the wonder worker, who has goats for his steeds, who drives away from the path
wolves, robbers, the wicked and the like, the lord of all prosperity and wielder of golden sword,
who leads people to meadows rich in grass. Pusan is also associated with livestock as the
vigorous one, who invigorates them by leading them to green pastures and protects them by
helping men to find their lost cattle. In the Puranas he is described as one of the Adityas.
Visvadevas: The Visvadevas are gods of commonality. According to the Chandogya Upanishad
(1.24.1), the evening extractions of the Soma juice are offered to Adityas and Visvadevas.
Adityas dwell in the heaven and Visvadevas in our world. As the name suggests they are
guardian deities of the world. Several hymns are addressed to them in the Rig-Veda, in which
they are addressed variously as Indra, Vayu, Brihaspati, Mitra, Agni, Pusan, Bhaga, Adityas and
Maruts. Most likely Visvadevas is a generic name given to all the gods of heaven when they are
invoked collectively rather than individually and their blessings and help are sought jointly for
the common good. However, the Puranas list ten Visvadevas, namely Vasu, Satya, Kratu, Daksa,
Kala, Kama, Dhriti, Kuru, Pururavas, and Madravas
Rudras: Rudra is the god of storms, who howls and roars, with shining body and braided hair,
and wields the thunderbolt, bow and arrow. Although fearsome to look and wrathful, he is a
benevolent god, repels the anger of gods and helps the worshippers. The Rig-Veda describes him
as strong, bounteous, most excellent, and wise, with braided hair, who is the lord of heroes and
ruler of valiant men, and who shines in splendor like the sun. He is an excellent physician and
healer with thousands of medicines with which he cures the sickness of humans. He is often
equated with Agni and later with Shiva. The Rudras are his attendant deities, whose number is
mentioned as eleven in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. In the body, they are equated to the
breaths and the mind. The Puranas mention eight Rudras, namely Bhava, Sarva, Isana, Pasupati,
Bhima, Ugra, Mahadeva and Rudra.
Maruts: Like the Rudras, the Maruts are also storm or wind deities of the mid-region who are
often invoked along with Agni in the sacrifices to come together. They are described as the sons
of Rudra and attendants and companions of Indra, who sit as deities in heaven above the mid-
region's luminous sphere, and scatter the clouds. The Rig-Veda describes them as violent and
aggressive with golden weapons, sons of Prisni, self-luminous, born together, bearers of spears,
swords and glittering ornaments, fiercely vigorous and strong, who shake the heaven and earth
like a garment. Their number vary fro 27 to 60. It appears that they were also invoked during war
times to create unfavorable weather conditions and discourage the enemies from moving
forward.
Brihaspati: Brihaspati is the teacher of gods and a planetary deity equated with Jupiter among
the planets. In the Vedas the role of teacher is originally ascribed to Prajapati, who is the teacher
of not only gods, but also humans and demons. Hence, more likely Brihaspati may be an aspect
of Prajapati in his role as a teacher. He is also often equated with Ganapati and Brahmanaspati.
He is described in the Rig-Veda as the son of Angiras, sweet-tongued, mighty, leader of Samans,
resplendent, whom both God and mortal listen and whose Samans pervade the earth and heaven.
According to the Puranas, he was appointed as the teacher of gods by Shiva. He has rivalry with
Shukracarya, the teacher of demons. He has three brothers and three wives. The three wives bore
him nine daughters and nine sons.
Vasus: According to the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the Vasus are eight in number. They are
fire, earth, air, the mid-region, the sun, heaven, the moon and stars. They are so called because
they the dwelling places for practically everything in creation. The Mahabharata mention the
eight Vasus with their specific names: Dhara (the earth), Anala (fire), Apa (water), Anila (wind),
Dhruva (the polestar), Soma (moon), Prabhasa (dawn) and Pratyusha (light). According to the
Mahabharata due to a curse delivered by sage Vashista, the Vasus were born as the sons of
Ganga. Of them due to the same curse, seven died instantly, while the last one survived and
became renowned as Bhishma.
Other gods: The other deities mentioned in the Vedas include Rtu, Savitr, Apris, Svanaya,
Rbhus, Mitra, Bhavyaya, Aryaman, Indri, Saraswathi, and Brahmanaspati. Of them Saraswathi is
the most important deity, who is mentioned frequently in the Rig-Veda and whom we have
already described under the Shaktis as the consort of Brahma.

Hindu Holidays and Observances

Diwali — Festival of Lights is a major holiday that is also celebrated by Buddhists, Jains and
Sikhs. It extends over 5 days and celebrates the victory of good over evil.  Some Jains may
choose to fast for the two days of Divali.
  Avoid scheduling major academic deadlines on this day. Individuals may require time away
from campus for travel and observance. 
Dussera —  This is the important tenth day of Navratri.
Ganesha Chaturthi — celebration the birth of Ganesha, son of Shiva.  Festival may last 10
days, or may be celebrated at home. 
Holi — Festival of Colors. The celebration of spring.   
Krishna Janmashtami -- A two day festival celebrating the birth of Lord Krishna.
  Avoid scheduling major academic deadlines on this day.
Maha Shivratri — Honor Lord Shiva. The celebration involves all-night worship the night
before, fasting on the day, prayer and vigil.
Navratri — Nine Nights.  The celebration and festival last for nine nights and ten days.
   Individuals may require time away from campus for travel and observance. 
Raksha Bandhan — The Bond of Protection.  It celebrates brotherhood and love. 
Hindu Holidays and Festivals

It has been said that Hindus have a holiday for every day of the year, but even that may be an
understatement! Exactly how many Hindu festivals are celebrated is not known, but one scholar
of Hinduism has listed more than a thousand different Hindu festivals. {1}
As in most ancient religions, many of the Hindu holidays are based on the cycle of nature. They
mark the change of seasons, celebrate the harvest, and encourage fertility of the land. Others are
dedicated to a particular deity, such as Shiva or Ganesh.

Still other popular holidays commemorate events in the lives of Rama or Krishna. In addition to
the major Hindu festivals that are celebrated throughout India, many regional festivals are also
held in honor of various deities.

In general, Hindu festivals "are intended to purify, avert malicious influences, renew society,
bridge over critical moments, and stimulate or resuscitate the vital powers of nature." They
include a wide variety of rituals, including worship, prayer, processions, magical acts, music,
dancing, lovemaking, eating, drinking, and feeding the poor. {2}

Major festivals likely to be observed by most Hindus are:

Holi (also called Holaka or Phagwa) is an annual festival celebrated on the day after the full
moon in the Hindu month of Phalguna (early March). It celebrates spring, commemorates
various events in Hindu mythology and is time of disregarding social norms and indulging in
general merrymaking. Holi is probably the least religious of Hindu holidays.

Diwali, from the Sanskrit word Dīpãvali, meaning "row of lights" is a Hindu festival of lights
lasting five days. For many Hindus, Diwali is also New Year's Eve. Diwali is held on the final
day of the Vikram calendar, a type of Hindu calendar followed by North Indians.

Mahashivaratri (also called Shiva Ratri) is the Great Festival of Shiva. It is held on the 14th day
of the dark half of the lunar month of Phalguna. Mahashivaratri is especially important to
Saivites (devotees of Shiva), but it is celebrated by most Hindus.

Other sacred days:

 Rama Navami - birthday of Lord Rama (April)

 Krishna Jayanti - birthday of Lord Krishna (July-August)
 Raksābandhana - renewing bonds between brothers and sisters (July-August)
 Kumbh Mela - pilgrimage every 12 years to four cities in India (July-August; last one
2003)
 Ganesha-Chaturthi (Ganesha Utsava) - festival of Ganesh (August-September)
 Dassera - victory of Rama over demon king Ravana (September-October)
 Navaratri - festival of Shakti (in Bengal) or Rama's victory over Ravana (South India)
(September-October)

The Caste System--(groups assigned by birth not personality). The Hindu conception of the
social order is that people are different, and different people will fit well into different aspects of
society.  Social order or social class according to varna forms the framework of moral duties
according to personal characteristics of individuals (not necessarily birth).
  A. Historically the caste system dates back to the Aryan invasion of India around 2,000
BC. 
B. Society is divided into four main groups (with a fifth, "the untouchables," outside of
the caste system).
 Passage from the Rig Veda:
(The world was formed from Purusa whose body is described as follows.)
"The brahmin was his mouth, his two arms became the rajanya (kshatriyas), his thighs are
what the vaisya are, and from his feet the shudra was made."

 1. Brahmin: the seers, the reflective ones, the priests.

 a. The intellectual and spiritual leaders.
b. In our society, they would correspond to the philosophers, religious leaders, and
teachers.
 2. Kshatriyas--(pronounced something like "kshot ree yahs") the born administrators
(formerly nobles, rajahs, and warriors).
 a. The protectors of society.
b. In our society, the politicians, police, and the military.
 3. Vaisyas: (pronounced something like "vy sy us") the producers, the craftsmen,
artisans, farmers.
 a. The skillful producers of material things.
b. In our society, the merchants.
 4. Shudras--(pronounced something like "shoo drrahs") the unskilled laborers or
laboring class.
 a. The followers or the maintenance people.
b. The so-called menial workers or hard laborers. 
 C. Advantages to the Caste system. The heritability of intelligence and factors of
personality raise some interesting philosophical questions. 
 1. What we would like people to be is not usually what they are. Many persons would be
more comfortable in their own social class.
2. Unless unequals are separated into different classes, many persons would be "born
losers."
3. Egalitarianism is the belief that privileges are proportional to the responsibilities and
a denial of the tyranny of the majority. 

The origin of the caste system is not known with certainty. Hindus maintain that the proliferation
of the castes (jatis, literally “births”) was the result of intermarriage (which is prohibited in
Hindu works on dharma), which led to the subdivision of the four classes, or varnas. Modern
theorists, however, assume that castes arose from differences in family ritual practices, racial
distinctions, and occupational differentiation and specialization. Scholars also doubt whether the
simple varna system was ever more than a theoretical socioreligious ideal and have emphasized
that the highly complex division of Hindu society into nearly 3,000 castes and subcastes was
probably in place even in ancient times.
In general, a caste is an endogamous hereditary group of families bearing a common name, often
claiming a common descent, as a rule professing to follow the same hereditary calling, adhering
to the same customs—especially regarding purity, meals, and marriages—and often further
divided into smaller endogamous circles. Moreover, tribes, guilds, or
religious communitiescharacterized by particular customs—for example, the Lingayats—could
easily be regarded as castes. The status of castes varies in different localities. Although social
mobility is possible, the mutual relationship of castes is hierarchically determined: local
Brahman groups occupy the highest place, and differences in ritual purity are the main criteria of
position in the hierarchy. Most impure are the so-called “untouchables,” officially designated
as Scheduled Castes in the constitution of modern India. Many Scheduled Caste groups now
prefer the name Dalit (“Crushed” or “Oppressed”). Among the Scheduled Castes, however, there
are numerous subdivisions, each of which regards itself as superior to others.
Traditional Hindus maintain that the ritual impurity and “untouchability” inherent in these
groups does not essentially differ from that temporarily associated with mourners or
menstruating women. This, and the fact that some exterior group or other might rise in
estimation and become an interior one or that individual outcastes might be well-to-do, does not
alter the fact that there was social discrimination. The Scheduled Castes were subjected to
various socioreligious disabilities before mitigating tendencies helped bring about reform. After
independence, social discrimination was prohibited, and the practice of preventing access to
religious, occupational, or civil rights on the grounds of untouchability was made a punishable
offense. Despite these prohibitions, Scheduled Castes were sometimes barred from the use of
temples and other religious institutions and from public schools.
From the traditional Hindu point of view, this social system is the necessary complement of the
principles of dharma, karma, and samsara. Corresponding to hells and heavenly regions in the
hereafter, the castes are the mundanesocial frame within which karma is manifested and worked
out.
The Hindu caste system is unique in the world, but resembles in some ways Plato's ideal society
of philosophers, warriors and commoners. A caste is a division of society based on occupation
and family lineage. Hindu caste system recognized four distinct classes or divisions among
people based on these criteria and enforced it through a rigid code of conduct that was specific to
each class and rooted in the dharmashastras (law books) of the later Vedic period. The four main
castes recognized by traditional Hindu society based primarily on hereditary occupation are
mentioned below.

 Brahmins. They are the priestly class, who are entitled to study the Vedas, perform rites
and rituals for themselves and for others and obliged to observe the sacraments. They are the
middle men between gods and men. The act as temple priests and invoke gods on behalf of
others. They are expected to show exemplary behavior and spend their lives in the pursuit of
divine knowledge and preservation of the traditions. According to Manu, the law maker, a
Brahmin was an incarnation of dharma (sacred tradition), born to serve and protect the
dharma. He belonged to the excellent of the human race, endowed with intelligence and
knowledge to attain Brahman. He was the highest on earth, the lord of all created beings.
Whatever that existed in the world was the property of a Brahmana and he was entitled to all.
 Kshatriyas. They are the warrior class, who are commanded (by tradition) to protect the
people, bestow gifts to the Brahmins, offer sacrifices to gods and ancestors, study the Vedas,
dispense justice, and, according to Manusmriti, abstain themselves from sensual pleasures.
Manu laid down that it was a king's duty to protect his kingdom and his people. He had
something in himself of the gods such Indra, Vayu, Yama, Surya, Varuna, Moon and Kubera.
A king should not be despised even if he was an infant. His authority should not be
questioned except when he ignored his duties in supporting and protecting Brahmins. The
 king had the right to punish, but he must be fair in his punishment. It was king's responsibility
to protect the caste system and the social order and lavish the priests with generous gifts at
every opportunity.
 Vaisyas: They are the merchant and peasant classes, who are expected to tend cattle,
offer sacrifices, study the Vedas, trade, lend money and cultivate the land. They had the right
to perform and participate in certain Vedic rituals but they were not allowed to marry women
of higher castes.
 Shudras: They are the labor class, whose only duty is to serve the other three castes.
They were not required to observe any Vedic rituals or samskaras except a few. They were
not allowed to study the Vedas or even hear the sacred chants. They were not allowed to eat
food in the company of higher castes or marry their women.
 Chandalas: The lowest of the Shudras were called chandalas or the impure ones. They
were treated as untouchables because of their gory religious practices, penchant for sacrifices,
magical rites and unclean habits. In ancient times they were not allowed to enter a village or
city during day time or walk in the same street where men of other castes walked. Even their
shadow was considered impure and their very sight as a bad omen. So they lived mostly on
the fringes of society, unknown and uncared for, following some esoteric religion of their
own and working mostly in the graveyards and cremation grounds or as hunters, butchers and
professional cleaners of human waste.

Is Hinduism a religion or simply a philosophy?

Hinduism is an Indian religion and dharma, or way of life, widely practised in the Indian

subcontinent and parts of Southeast Asia. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the
world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, "the eternal
tradition", or the "eternal way", beyond human history. Scholars regard Hinduism as a fusionor
synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This
"Hindu synthesis" started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE, after the end of the Vedic
period (1500 to 500 BCE), and flourished in the medieval period, with the decline of Buddhism
in India.
Although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts,
recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites. Hindu
texts are classified into Śruti ("heard") and Smṛti ("remembered"). These texts discuss
theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building,
among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and the Upanishads, the Puranas,
the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the Āgamas. Sources of authority and eternal truths in its
texts play an important role, but there is also a strong Hindu tradition of questioning authority in
order to deepen the understanding of these truths and to further develop the tradition.
Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of
human life, namely Dharma (ethics/duties), Artha (prosperity/work), Kama (desires/passions)
and Moksha (liberation/freedom from the cycle of death and rebirth/salvation), karma (action,
intent and consequences), Saṃsāra (cycle of death and rebirth), and the various Yogas (paths or
practices to attain moksha). Hindu practices include rituals such as puja (worship) and
recitations, japa, meditation, family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals, and occasional
pilgrimages. Some Hindus leave their social world and material possessions, then engage in
lifelong Sannyasa (monastic practices) to achieve Moksha. Hinduism prescribes the eternal
duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings (ahimsa), patience, forbearance,
self-restraint, and compassion, among others. The four largest denominations of Hinduism are
the Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism.
Hinduism is the world's third largest religion; its followers, known as Hindus, constitute
about 1.15 billion, or 15–16% of the global population. Hinduism is the most widely professed
faith in India, Nepal and Mauritius. It is also the predominant religion
in Bali, Indonesia. Significant numbers of Hindu communities are also found in
the Caribbean, Southeast Asia, North America, Europe, Oceania, Africa, and other countries.

Hinduism certainly satisfies all the four criterion mentioned above. Hindus believe that they are
followers of a common religion. The shared basis for a world-view and the shared concept of
sacred in Hinduism is well reflected in the Hindu mythology and philosophy. Hindu Dharm is
the way of aligning one's life with the world as per the shared world-view and the sacred. The
arguments against Hinduism being a religion are essentially founded on the multiplicity of
deities, systems of worship and even codes of conduct. Yet, it will be noticed that every major
religion of the world has a plurality in some respect or the other. For example, Christianity has a
number of sects that have different churches and sometimes even follow different versions of the
Holy Book. From almost the beginning of Islam, there were many sects that had different moral
codes. The plurality of Christian and Islam was never mutually accepted and was always a point
of dispute within the followers of the religion. Hinduism accepted plurality and evolved a
philosophical system that recognized the differences in opinion and perspectives with some
underlying essential conditions.*
References:

https://www.history.com/topics/religion/hinduism
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism
https://www.dummies.com/religion/hinduism/core-beliefs-of-hindus/
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https://www.learnreligions.com/the-sacred-texts-of-the-hindus-1770376
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