Lest Wind Lode Ifthe structure is located anywhere between B and D, then the artficiel ground datum to be ‘Used will be the average at the bottom ofthe escarpment. (evel A-B) Ifthe structure i located beyond E, then the artificial ground datum tobe used willbe that at the top of the escarpment. (Jevel D-E) For the structure being located between D and E as shoum inthe figure, interpolate to get the artificial round datum, 1426 Claes of structure ‘Short gusts of wind (2:3 seconds) wil be insufficient to envelop obstaces of dimensions eosedlng about 20 m, but willbe appropriate on ema elements such as adding. For this (tcon a structure or clement fs divided into one of three classes depending onthe design Class For the determination of forces on units of cladding, roofing, glazina, Sand thelr inynodiats fixings. This wil Include roof battens and minor ‘supporting small arces of root. Chass B determination of the forces on main struttural members a well i veeultant forces and overturning moments on buildings mension exceeds 50m. Class . - For the determination of the overall forces and overtuming moments ‘on buildings In wich any dimension ofthe bulding exceeds 50 m. 4426 Wind Spood Multiplier “Tablo 6 in SABS 0160 is used to determine the wind speed mutiplior which fs used to canvert ne basic wind speed into the characteristic wind speed (rvs) at any height z ‘Shove ground level (or atta ground datum) Vv. =K.V 4A3. VELOCITY PRESSURE “The velocity pressure a, isthe free stream velocity pressure (above atmospheric preseure) at any given height Z, the unis are Nim Noto thatthe free stream velocity pressure Is the wind Pressure just before making contact | withthe structure, and isnot the actual wind load on the structure. sea “The characteristic wind speed is converted into a free stream velocity pressure by means ofthe folowing equation: [ae = ky Ver here; Is afactor which depends of the ste altude above sea level, ‘SITE ALTITUDE 0 500 +1000 1500) 2.000 4.444. FORCES ON STRUCTURES ‘When wind acs on a bling, the fect of the wind wl vary rimagntude and redon on different parts of the building. ro = “To determine the characteristic wind load for any patcular locaton on a build, the veloaty pressures mutpiod by a pressure co-ofiient. ine “These pressure cooficonts are glen ae either ‘extemal coofcionts Cy. or Intel ‘coafiionts C,, Tables 6 to 22 of SABS 0160 give the pressure coeficients fora coats Cy give the pressure coeficients fora variety of “The sign convention used in these tables is positive fora pressure ‘pushing’ on a surface ‘and negative for pressure that i “puling’. This means that a positve extemal pressure Coefficient wil be in the same direction a s a negative intemal pressure coeliient,os we |e 145 EXAMPLE 1.4 | [erase {Tie National Defence Force has requested the design of a commun ications centre to be Siggonton 1g ous of Pretoria, The building Isto be 40 mong, aed Shee too | ‘suggested that a steel portal frame be used with frames at 8 m cere I = § : 30x : 756" TER = 8875 ' artificial height Z'= 3375 +74 = 4118 m —— is ‘The busing wil be etuated on top of, ‘and 60 m away from the edge, of a 28 m high fro ake anc Pe SuToundingteraln may be described as vory fat cpen ae ant oy Ve #1186 4164934 m/s ‘he site alttude is approximately 1 800 m above moan sea locl” “e wind speed muttipierk, 186 (by interpolation) Tonner he rast Pave large roller stiuter door and tore wibe no openings ever the 8531 | hy = 0.482, (by interpolation) lengt of the busing. Pon ag the Pot rame structure nccatng the megntude and econ of 0.54) Pssible wind loads acting on one typical internal fame. ‘Reference ‘Saleutations 5523 | Thebuklngwilserve apostdastor function tharefore se a 100 year mean ‘otum period fa. Correction factor Kk, = 104 faa V=40%104= 416 m/s 6524 | Terrains category 1 552.60) | Stricture is class B ase SON TT en a tm ak7.02 kNm 0.36 kim eae ae eats wind on gable end (90°) 3 8 40248 492kNin ‘Tha free stream velocity preecure 1s now muftped by each of these osticonts to give the nominal wind load pressure which fe then multipied by the spacing of the frames to give the unifomly distributed toad in kiUm as shown overleaf:‘Stuctural Stee! Design fo SABS 0162 GK Parrott MODULE 2 LIMIT STATES DESIGN & ANALYSIS 24 INTRODUCTION 244 LiIT STATES APPROACH 2 cme, ot part of srt; i constered unt for use orto have fale when eda tn tad os nee he aot wen & impaired ‘he int sixes ar classed ito thee catego: Pee enone 12 Serooany nf Palos 2141 Pi amraniate lint tates are those conceming SREandcortespon to th aT Suman “Typical ulimate limit states are: 4 Deformations resulting in failure 2142 SEuESUERERAERT Fess iSgahiy tt states are those which mepeeMeERRENMEREnd occupancy, or teri “pon sonicoaity fit sates ae: ‘Gxcssive dlecton me " racking or spating, Sccetele veatoy 2443 GSOMERomgea . Fiatoue lini sate invoiced to RSTRNT TT CTO ed : nt states Deon & Anas 2.2 LOAD AND RESISTANCE 224 PARTIAL FactoRS. rma eagle prectely define ether the loads acing nor te resistance of the fot apa esa aes acento apply a tasers ca a, the {ortho appt loads, and aren factor forte maine eo A oad factor y cr an ae arial loads to slow for tho fact that oad higher than antiipated may exist and ‘80 to allow for approximations madein the anayals eon (flac. Aresistance factor 4 ansepted fo the nominal strength ofthe member to slow for the tnd wong en onspod cave of varabalya maton dimensions ‘andwerkmanstip, and uncertaities in modeling the open Crate et to: : Fac een A] romeo : Magni secure pons er eens th amet od otc wth the teauoncy ot (ecurTence plotted against the magnitude “The far right end of thie curve wil hector, inal cates whore the aca! lat eect exons Po sane ta agancine metetens fw fred resistance wih he fequney of cccurene Athos gant he magnitude Tho far ton ofthc cee na Ne indicate cases rata tnt Hera ofa memberis fr comarenson hee tan ee Set resistance, Irie oped le ho to curves avert wnat the ae case whore he er Sled led fect exceds the members acted else wea es occur.Unt tes Dsipn & Anas Lo & Rate 22.4.4 Load factors “The factor 1, thats appli oth nornal oad varies according tothe nature ofthe oad Tafa 1 Ges ctor load acting siitaneousy ts thus posse to adst the Fess to the precision wih which the lad canbe predicted. 221.2 Load combination factors “The total imposed load may consist of many components such a lor or roof loads, wind, sow, temperature et. sighs tata he components of mpoendoad would be app dmutaneoly aig nto tat rll seer cao where ana gh perature a Ta Saou wih sow edn, Nor wo fh mesma oot oad tsa wan maxima wd ONY “Teappreach overcome tis ver conserva (andsemetimesnpossble) contin espn eee dominant spoted ea ane, andthe rece a ther con i (na dorian bya combine aay “The part load factors and load combination factors are given in Table 2 of SABS O160- +1061, an extract from whichis shown below. insolation in combination wth imposed loads twtien considering uplift or overturning in Staton Delon Ai oot a Reiance 224.3 Resistance factors 113.41 “The partial factor § thats applied to the resistance ofthe member allows for uncertainties Iinmodeting the a8-bult stucture and fo bitte modes of failure. For structural steel elements designed in accordance with SANS 10162:1.2008, this factor {generally taken as 0,9 which comresponds to a member faiting by yielding. For certain other applications the resistance factor Is taken as shown inthe table below. [Appleton Ts Shmmbot = | Factor structural steel in general ¢ 09, boli n shear and tens o 08 web bear he 08, ob bea Oe 075 holding down botts| ue nr bolts bearing on stoe! Oe os7 weld metal 4 087 “To maintain simplicy, in some instances, the resistance formulae given in the code for other fypes of fale are sometimes adjusted 50 that a uniform resistance factor, @ = 0.9, ‘can sii be ised. ‘22.2 LIMIT STATE EQUATION “The basic equation for checking the ultimate limit state is as follows: R= nominal esistance of element (moment, shear etc.) © = resistance factor ny = partial oad factor D, = dead toad effect Qj, = dominant imposed toad effect Qy = nor-dominant imposed load effect vi = toad combination factor ' ‘A load effects the magritude of the moment, shear, axial stress ete; resulting from thent Sates Dcgn & Anais oad Reltanco “Tal lad factors when considering a combination of dead, lve and wind ‘Uplit forthe, llimato limit stato would be as folios: ‘tical for high dead load Sitical for member forces eritical for high wind loads ‘tical for overtuming Wid inate 200d equation, load combination facto of 0.0 hasbeen appt othe Wind load factor of 13, 00x13=0 Too tc if equation, a load combination factor of 0.3 has heen appl tothe ive load factor of 1.8 03x18 205 Fo tn fouth equation, load crnbinaion factor of0.0has been applet the ve load factor of 1.8, 00x16=0 2224 Consequence of failure denims itor 0% the consequence of ature may be usd atthe discretion ofthe designer to increase or docrease theultimate applied et value bomeeang® om 0. for sects hang @ very ow degree of hazard to, to te coneneen 1-1 a 12 for scree in whch inne nunbersor Beaker oe ‘the consequence of fallure would be very Serious 22.3 ARRANGEMENT OF LOAD beck” Paha ros the postioning of oad hn such away to ofan he wera ad effect No provision need be made for pattern lo factor of 1.2 includes allowance for modell Shue rae Tested o postin ony ho ute fve load on various pare of the Struct or structural member. The uate deed load bot retsned Sr a eo Soa enh rertimus beam chown overeat lcs aed wih eed snd mposed oor ‘cad only. The exaggerated detected shape i indlested fy te ncaa go ‘of permanent loads as the ultimate load incerta, oe et Unt Site Dos & Ante 208 Reaatroe is Sees coma eae a ea oan. ican sen at tas pan ‘onanha ie Wolo ibe pormiie odaot Ritha’ deson ral detect pln nrexe nh benny omerton oe span wth rea trem ene te pene tv beng errno pa eed en aoe aerat pane wih th tet a ca ae ‘ti be loaded withthe utimate dead load 125 be) Pa] ct caper tpt lon wi so precn tho mexinunecton ns supports, the St span oaded wi Un ures ee athe Sharan ce th efor cared y badge sen aca ‘Sopa can aera er panes a eat Spano gv ao pret rsa negate meme a ate Consider th folowing combinations of pation ioadgUp ts Deign rte eshte 2.3 ANALYSIS ‘The analysis of a structure to determine the effects of load on all members within the: structure Is an obvious requirement for the design ofthe structure, “The effects of load on each element canbe: -° arial force = bending moment shear force deflection torsion ‘Many methods of analysis are available for all diferent types of etructures or parts of Teouts obtained, The user shouldbe abe fo asoase the resus and be abe to very ther correctness. “The sections that follow wil take you through some ofthe different methods of analysis that «ill be required to design the structural elements covered in the scope of this text. Remember that allioad effects must be calculated using the load factors applicable tothe limit state being considered. 231 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS ‘Assimply supported members that having no rotational restraint inthe plane ofthe member ‘atthe ends ofthe member, the bending moments atthe member ends is therefore assumed tobe zero,posits (0.1.1) eben Es that length thats o be used nthe calculation ofthe reactons, sheer forces, bonding moments and deflections | ‘Tho theoretical support postion used to determine the span ofa simply supported ‘member may bo taken as the distance. | -— i" b ‘Note that the supporting members must be designed for any stniticant moment ue tothe ‘eccentricty ofthe reaction resulting from the choice of bean span 2312 Analysis ‘SS gnats ecard out in which the two basic rules of tac equim are appiied ‘to determine the support reactions Emem=3) Enema ey ‘et us call the two reactions to a simple span A and B ‘rig reaction at A may be calculated by taking moments about B ensuring thatthe sum of Mremments about B are in equilbvium. As stated earlier, the moment atthe eis of vo ‘member vl be zero. ‘Ts procedure shen repeated taking moments about Ato Soh forthe reacton st Its wo to chock the anwors obtained by ensuing that he aon of eben sees en equim 2arz4 ‘Sheac ore ese ite sora um ofa fren at thr ade of sat, i tesa Yalues may be pated to produce a shea force dag The sgh convent arate ‘helforces own othe ight andup oo lef aime a pocle home ene "Note however, that the sign ofthe shear force has no efecton the desig ofa mentor n shear ‘Unt ts acon Amie ‘nays 2.32 CONTINUOUS BEAMS Sarats span ofa beam is that having ful or pata end restraint dus to. continuity oF cantilever action, —— 2328. fem ranean in genera, shall be the distance between the central axes of the supporting members, By he eesgmembers must be capable ofcarying al moments and other orcas induced by the contnuly ofthe supported beam, 2322 Methods of Analyste Inconaca £us aed or aula ths lan banding moments and sheer forces In continuous beams: "moment dietncton three-moment equation In this module we shall consider only the ‘us of co-efcienttabios which i the simplest and Fenelon eb rogues eran resticton to loading nnd reat wae ‘esticfons are not met one ofthe other mathods of analyse wil ows he re 23221 Costicient Tables ‘Conant ote anusl arcades of pracice prove cosfcens which enable the render td a ld elects (ending moment, chen fore and detente Yoading ‘and span lengtv are known, {nth San ORGED CONCRETE DESIGNERS HANDBOOK" by Reynold and Steedmnan Sorina Bbe8 Ales 83, 36 and 26 forthe bonding momenta aes see een Continuous beams Bf up to 5 spans Cae AFRICAN, STEEL CONSTRUCTION HANDBOOK: (th cecition) gives Recents for reactions, bending moments and deflectors torcominu a beams of up to ‘our spans in table 5.20 ' Uno senere eauiement that ail spans must be equal and thatthe loading must be 212|| ene “Tables for two and three span continuous beams are given below since itis seldom that a stool beam wil be continuous over more than three spans. er ‘Load position | Location “Moment - 7 ost | | = 5 (0.3864 fom 1 70 2 Poa 2 125 ons ; - = caserwomt | en : fo = 7 as — oy ‘Load position Location Moment = ome 7 caren | e000 : =| ome Fare hl, -aieo | eo means | ems A : came itnnas | 007s [eer cof cnt or the moments ets ote rotons ae interns of tan th oat aa eer t wr hore wis be eo buted ed kN ‘Shear foros (kN) = coefficient x UDL (kNim) x Bending momert (kim) = ‘oeficent x UDL (kin) x Unt Sites Denon Ani ‘To obtain the critical effect for shear and moment at each posit beam we are required to load all spans withthe factored dead loa ‘factored ive loadin sich a way 60 as to obtain the maximum values bending moment. For the maximum positive bending moment on any one span we need to place the ‘factored Ive load on that span and thén on every other aerate span. (Plus all spans are, loaded withthe factored dead load, For the maximum negative bending moment and maximum reaction ata we ‘need to place the factored ve Icad on both spans adjacent to that support ony. (Plus all ‘spans loaded withthe factored dead load) 23222 ‘Example 22 (continuous beam) Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for a continuous beam with three ‘equal spans of 6 m. The beam carries a dead load of 12 kNIm and alive load of 10:kNim Reference Galculations fh tt Fixed load =12D, =12%12=144 kN/m variable bad= 161, = 16 x10=160 kW/m or mia 12 (0 at: mal mid-epan 2s a =(a025% 144.0") +(0Unt te Dn aye dose [Unt st ban rapt ‘Reference Calculations ‘The mot basi table and detominato tues would have | three members and tree site rodes) ose rig i = og i i — » a + Toincase the numberof memes inthe structure with Vis SED | maintaining stabi and ate dotonninny ne et / | 5 | fv aad tenia inoktd structure Al therefore be stable and stacaly detemninate nine once any members ajo othe orginal int stucaae These fee, Mee the number of members must be equal io ize murder arora ee a ay Note trier are fewer member han hat en by the above equation then the structure wil be unstable. Wao a Dor members than that given by the above equaton then the stuctire Wil be stable but indeterminate. 2.3.3 PIN-JOINTED TRUSSES aaes nooner ene 23.34 Stability and Doterminacy Pinjointed trusses are usualy determinate structures, and to camry out a simple analysis ‘The length of any member L forming the following assumptions need to be made: Bart of a pinjointed truss is taken a the distance between the points where the centioids of members Intersect, =. Members are straight, inextensible and weightless. = Alljoints are pinned. (no rotational restraint) = Allmembers and forces are in the same plane. ‘Allforess are applied atthe noses. This same rule can be applied to = Supports have the necaseary restraint conditions. be in tension (la. arrows pointing away from the joint) which will mean that a negative rosult wil indicate stat. | Lit sus Deen Are ‘Aoatrie 233.33 ‘Example. 2.3 (pin-jointed truss) Calculate the magnitude and nature ofthe foroas in members 5-8, 15, 1-8 and 1-2 using resolution of joints, and check the force in member 1-2 using meted of sections.‘Unt Ste Design Ani = Fig =549 WN (te) tnt nt Ste Desi Ane { Reference aleutations ‘Referenca ‘Salculations 22=0:4=10+20420410-9975 ‘Method of sections a ‘Consider LLH:S of cut AA: 20 Hat kN “ SoA Ota Sata an] toe] Tk 2m @ rode 5 1 ae 24920 2A goon t4=19 airy 2 = Fizg = 1540 KN (ort) mew <—Z | { Sav | 4m © t T EEO. Fig $1546 int4 =10 1 = Fig = 628 kN (stn) ‘Taking moments about ‘6 (26254) +(15x2)+(15%4)=(10%4) 2%.» @ rode 1: = Fia=65.N (te) d-tant2.. 256° 6 26KN 4 8 2334 Design Considerations 4 39°04, 2625 ~628-+F,9sin208 Trotconpengi andar tus were designed cary the evact oad appted tok he 450KN. 2 = Fe = 446 AN (out) ‘rst compression web member isthe member that wal fx frat 20256 meraboe gree ted design stength (soe:adue 4 ofthe fst compression web 2020..154-440008286 =F,» ‘member (ocuding te siongth oft connections) shoul bs techn og oe