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Contents ==7 Functions and Models 1 1.1 Four Ways to Represent a Function 1.2 Mathematical Models 9 1.3. New Functions from Old Functions 14 1.4 Graphing Calculators and Computers 25 Review 34 Principles of Problem Solving 39 ==2 Limits and Rates of Change 43 21 The Tangent and Velocity Problems 43 22 TheLimit ofaFunction 45 2.3. Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws $3 24 — The Precise Definition of a Limit 61 2.5 Continuity 68 2.6 Tangents, Velocities, and Other Rates of Change 76 Review 82 Problems Plus 89 = 3 Derivatives 93 1 Derivatives 93 3.2 ‘The Derivative as a Function 98 3.3. Differentiation Formulas 107 3.4 Rates of Change in the Natural and Social Sciences 118 3.5 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 126 3.6 The Chain Rule 130 3.7 Implicit Differentiation 137 3.8 Higher Derivatives 145 Applied Project © Where Should a Pilot Start Descent? 153 9 Related Rates 154 3.10 Linear Approximations and Differentials 161 Laboratory Project © Taylor Polynomials 167 Review 170 Problems Plus 181 woo CONTENTS ==4 Applications of Differentiation 191 41 42 43 44 48 4.6 47 48 49 4.10 Maximum and Minimum Values 191 Applied Project © The Calculus of Rainbows 201 The Mean Value Theorem 202 How Derivatives Affect the Shape of a Graph 206 Limits at Infinity; Horizontal Asymptotes 219 Summary of Curve Sketching 230 Graphing with Calculus and Calculators 249 Optimization Problems 263 Applied Project © The Shape of aCan 278 Applications to Economics. 279 Newton’s Method 284 Antiderivatives 292 Review 300 Problems Plus 319 =5 Integrals 325 Sa 8.2 33 34 3.5 Areas and Distances 325 ‘The Definite Integral 333 Discovery Project = Area Functions 342 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 344 Indefinite Integrals and the Total Change Theorem 353 ‘The Substitution Rule 358 Review 366 Problems Plus 375 = Applications of Integration 385 61 6.2 63 64 65 Areas between Curves 385 Volumes 397 Volumes by Cylindrical Shells 412 Work 421 Average Value ofa Function 424 Review 426 Problems Plus 433 Conrents GO vit =7 Inverse Functions: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse Trigonometric Functions 441 7.1 Inverse Functions 441 457. ‘Deriv hes of Logatithmte 4 ions: 463 7.8 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 497 Applied Project © Where to Sit at the Movies 507 7.6 Hyperbolic Functions $08 7.7 Indeterminate Forms and L'Hospital’s Rule 515, Review 529 Problems Plus 543 Techniques of Integration 547 8.1 Integration by Parts 547 82 Trigonometric Integrals 587 8.3 Trigonometric Substitution 564 84 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions 573 8.5 Strategy for Integration $86 8.6 Integration Using Tables and Computer Algebra Systems 595 Discovery Project 3 Patterns in Integrals 603 8.7 Approximate Integration 606 88 Improper Integrals 619 Review 632 Problems Plus 647 ==9 Further Applications of Integration 653 9.1 ArcLength 653 9.2 Area of a Surface of Revolution 661 Discovery Project © Rotating on a Slant 669 9.3 Applications to Physics and Engineering 670 9.4 Applications to Economics and Biology 682 9.5 Probability 688 Review 687 Problems Plus 693 ee vill CONTENTS == Differential Equations 701 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 Modeling with Differential Equations 701 Direction Fields and Euler's Method 703 Separable Equations 710 Applied Project © Which Is Faster, Going Up or Coming Down? 719 Exponential Growth and Decay 720 Applied Project 3 Calculus and Baseball 724 ‘The Logistic Equation 726 Linear Equations 734 Predator-Prey Systems 739 Review 743 Problems Plus 751 SFI Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates 757 dt 112 113 114 11s 116 17 Curves Defined by Parametric Equations 757 Laboratory Project 0 Families of Hypocycloids 767 Tangents and Areas 770 Laboratory Project 0 Bézier Curves 780 Are Length and Surface Area 781 Polar Coordinates 788 Areas and Lengths in Polar Coordinates 803 Conic Sections 813 Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates 820 Review 825 Problems Plus 835 =F Infinite Sequences and Series _841 124 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 127 12.8, Sequences 841 Laboratory Project © Logistic Sequences 850 Series 854 ‘The Integral Test and Estimates of Sums 865 ‘The Comparison Tests 871 Alternating Series 875 Absolute Convergence and the Ratio and Root Tests 879 Strategy for Testing Series 884 Power Series 887 12.9 12.10 12.11 12.12 contents ix Representations of Functions as Power Series 893 Taylor and Maclaurin Series 901 The Binomial Series 912 Applications of Taylor Polynomials 919 Applied Project © Radiation from the Stars. 931 Review 932 Problems Plus 943 amyor> Appendixes 951 Intervals, Inequalities, and Absolute Values 951 Coordinate Geometry and Lines 956 Graphs of Second-Degree Equations 962 Trigonometry 967 Sigma Notation 975 Complex Numbers 978 wa Functions and Models =! Four Ways to Represent a Function \n exercises requiring estimations or approximations, your answers may vary slightly from the answers given here. 1. (@) The point (—1, —2) is on the graph of f, so f (—1) = (©) Whenx =2, yis about 28, so f (2) 2.8. © SG) =2is equivalent to y = 2. When (@ Reasonable estimates for x when y = 0 arex = 2, wehavex = —3 and 3. © The domain of f consists ofall x-values onthe graph of /- For this function, the domain is -3 x > 6orx <0, 50 the domain is, 20,0) 16,00) 26, h(x) = YT=Br is defined when 7 ~ 3x 2 or x < 3,30 the domain is (~20, ] 21. f(t) = Ye is defined for every r, since every real number has a cube root. The domain is the set of all real faumbers, R. 28. h(x)=VE=e Nowy=VE=w = ade @ ey so the graph is the top half ofa citele of radius 2 with center atthe origin. The 2 domain is {x | 4— x? > 0} = [2,2] From the graph, the range is 0< y <2, or [0, 2]. a Bf 2x, Domain is B. ” 30. f (3) = 22 + 2x = 1 = (x? $20 41) —2 = (a + 1)? 2, sothe graphs » “put itera (-.-3) Te done y a oa 31. g (x) = YEH is defined when x ~$ & Oorx = 5, so the domain is , {5, 00). Since Je-5 => Pux-5 = xrays, ‘we see that g is the top half of parabola. SECTION 1.41 FOURWAYS TOREPRESENTA FUNCTION C5: 32. (2) = VO—2x. The domain is (x | 6 — 2x > 0) = (-c0, 3). 7 33. G (x) = [x] +x. Since [x we have x ifx>0 x ifx <0 oe x+x ifx>0 [2 ifx>o ac 0 ifx <0 7 Domain is R, Note that the negative x-axis is part of the graph of G. mxtx ifx<0 7 de if2e20) [2 ite 20 2x if2x<0| | -2 ifx <0 | Domain isR ap . 20] _[ titeoo Bsw=t= - POAT] [aco veo {2 ite <0 Note that we did not use x > 0, because x #0. Hence, the domain of f is (1x £0) +342 x42 +2 Domain is (x | x =2). The hole in the graph can be found using the simplified function, f(x) = x +3. h (=2) = | indicates that the hole has coordinates (-2, 1). 80 for x fax $3. x itr0 7 3B-x ifxe-1 Domain is R. Domain is B. 6 © GHAPTER1 FUNCTIONS AND MODELS - ifx< W.fG)=) 3x42 if-t 1, the graph is the line with slope 1 and x-intercept 1, that is, the line 2 itx<0 y=1(x=1)=x~1. Sothe finctionis f(x) =| —2e+2 if0 0, since lengths must be postive quatitis. SECTION 141 FOURWAYSTOREPRESENT AFUNCTION © 7 Let the length of a side of the equilateral triangle be x. Then by the Pythagorean Theorem, the height y of the 2 gle satisfies y? + (Jx) = 27, sothat y = fx, Using the formula for the area A ofa triangle, A=} (base) (height), we obtain A (x) = (4) (8x) = 4x2, with domain x > 0. Let the volume ofthe cube be V and the length of an edge be L. Then " = L? so L = 3/7, and the surface area is 2 5) =6( 7) = 6722, with domain 7 > 0 5. Let each side of the base of the box have length x, and let the height ofthe box be h. Since the volume is 2, we know that 2 = hx, so that h = 2/x?, and the surface arca is S = x? + 4x. Thus, S(x) =x? 44 (2/22) = 3? + 8/x, with domain x > 0 2 xe 52. The area of the window is A = xh + Lar () = xh + >, where isthe height ofthe rectangular portion of the windows The perimeter is P =2h x4 4ax=30 © 2h=a30—x—Jax 4 he} (60-2e—a3). xx FE asx - fx? - te & Since the lengths x and t must be positive quant |, wehavex > Oandh > 0. Fork > 0, wehave 2h > 0 30-x-Jax>0 @ W>2e+nx re Hence, the domain of 4 is 0 <> 20-250 x<10;w>0 e& 12-2x>0 © x <6;andx > 0. Combining these restrictions gives us the domain 0 * 2@ (©) The slope of $ means that F inereases § degrees for eaeh increase of 1°C. (Equivalently, F increases by 9 when C reases by 5 and F decreases by 9 when C' decreases by 5.) ‘The Fintercept of 32 isthe Fahrenheit temperature ‘corresponding to a Celsius temperature of 0. 8. (a) Let d = distance traveled (in miles) and ¢ = time elapsed (in hours), Att =0,d =O and ats = SOmimuies = 50: z= $h, 41 = 40, Ths we have vo points: (0,0) and (§, 40), s0 m= o> = Bund sod = AB (©) The slope is 48 and represents the car's speed in mi/h. SECTION Ta NuTHEWATCALWODRS T= 15 © IN-B ee Pede = 51.13) 9. (@) Using 1 in place of x and 7 in place of y, we find the slope to be Soa linear equation is? -80=1(N -173) > T-80 (6) The slope of mean tha the temperature in Fabrenbet degrees increases one-sixth as rapidly asthe number of ticket chins per mute Said diferent, each inerease of 6 cricket chirps per minute coresponds to an increase of 1°F, (© When V = 150, the temperature is given approximately by 7 = 1 (150) +2 = 16.16°F ~ 76°F. 10. (a) Let x denote the number of chairs produced in one day and y the associated cost. Using the points (100, 2200) and (300, 4800) we get the slope $9=72 = 360 = 13. Soy —2200 = 13(x - 100) <> y= 13x +900, () The slope ofthe line in pat (a) is 13 and it represents the cost of producing each additional chit (©) The y-intercept is 900 and it represents the fixed daily costs of operating the factory change in pressure _ 4.34 10 feet change in depth ~ “10 (4, P) = ©, 15), wehave P15 =0.434 (4-0) > P =0.434d 415, (b) When P = 100, then 100 = O.434d-+15 <> O434d=85 o> d= 195.85 feet. Thus, the pressure is 100 1b/in? ata depth of approximately 196 feet. 11. (@) Weare given = 0.434. Using P for pressure and d for depth with the point a 460-380 80 ed ~ BO0—480 ~ 320 4a +260. (b) Letting d = 1500 we get C = } (1500) + 260 = 635. The cost of driving 1500 miles is $635. 12, (@) Using d in place of x and C in place of p, we find the slope to be linear equation is C ~ 460 =} (d- 800) «2 C-460=4d-200 © C © "t ‘The slope ofthe line represents the cost per mile, $0.25 ba (@) The intercept represents the fixed cost, $260. } (©) Because you have fixed monthly costs such as insurance 00 ‘and car payments, a8 well as costs thet inerease as you fe lene mite : for each additional mile driven is a constant, toe 18, (a) The data appear to be periodic and a sine or cosine function would make the best model. A model of the form. J (x) = ae0s (bx) + € seems appropriate, (b) The data appear to be decreasing in a linear fashion. A model ofthe form f (x) = mx +b seems appropriate. 14. (a) The data appear to be increasing exponentially. A model of the form f (x) = appropriate, (b) The deta appear to be decreasing similarly to the values of the reciprocal funetion, A model of the form F (x) = a/x seems appropriate, +BY or f (2) = a+" +c seems 12 © GHAPTERT FUNCTIONS AND MODELS ‘Some values are given to many decimal places. Thase re the results given by several computer algebra systems —rounding is left tothe reader 5 @) (©) Using the points (4000, 14.1) and (60,000, 8.2), we obtain 82-141 i Y= 141 = Be Gop agp & ~ 1000 oF equivalently, y% -0,000105357x + 14.521429. 61000 ‘A linear model does seem appropri. a 6.000 (©) Using # computing device, we obtain the least squares regression line y = —0.0000997855x + 13.950764. (@) When x = 25,000, y * 11.456; oF about 11.5 per 100 population, (€) When x = 80,000, y ~ 5.968; or about a 6% chance. (@ When x = 200,000, y is negative, so the model does not apply. se +230 (chirps/min) o 270 (chinpsmin) \ s 45 os cP) ‘Using a computng deve, we obtain te least squares regression line y = 4.856r — 220.96. (c) When x = 100°F, y = 264.7 = 265 chirps/min. 7.) a9 ® me in KJ 2000 ext " 2000 em) ‘A linear model does seem appropriate. ‘Using 2 computing device, we obtain the least squares regression line y = —158.2403249x + 0.089119747, where «is the year and y is the height in feet. (©) When x = 2000, y = 20.00 8 (@® When x = 2100, y ~ 28.91 ft, This would be an increase of 9.49 ft from 1996 to 2100. Even though there was an increase of 8.59 ft from 1900 to 1996, itis unlikely that a similar increase will occur over the next 100 years SECTION1.2 MATHEMATICAL MODS 13 18, By looking atthe scatter plot of the data, we rule out the linear and logarithmic models. 9 Coin ednion ®) Seater plot We try various models: Quadratic; y = 0.496x? — 62.2855x + 1970.63 Cubic: y= 0.0201243201x* — 3.88037296x? + 247.6754468x — 5163.935198 Quart ¥ = 0.000295 1049x4 ~ 0,0654560995x> + 5.27525641x? — 180.2266511x + 2203.210956 Exponential: y = 241422994 (1,084516914)" Power: y= 0.00002285497]x3-16078251 610 cmon 619 conn) 69 Coan) * “0 of 19 ws Ko edacion (Reousion ) escton 6) ‘Quadeatc model Cubic model Quanic model 10 comin 69 Coe) After examining the graphs of these ‘models, we see that the cubie and quartic models are clearly the best. #¢ 0 , << no eceion*) adcion) ‘Exponential mode! Power model ° 19, 6000 gations) us 1g 8 computing device, we obtain the cubie funetion y= ax? + bx? ex +d with a = 0.00232567051876, =13.064877957628, ¢ = 24,463.10846422, and dd = ~15,265,793,872507. When x = 1925, y = 1922 (oil 1804 2010 yew 14S CHAPTER FUNCTIONS AND MODELS 20. (a) 20) eer) [| u “0 10 ‘The graph of T vs. d appears to be that of @ power function and the graph of In vs. Ind appears to be linear, 80 a power model seems reasonable. (b) T = 1,000396048a"-#%661718 (©) The power model in part (b) is approximately T = dS. Squaring both sides gives us 7? = matehes Keplet’s Third Law, 7? = ka , $0 the model 53 New Functions from Old Functions 4. (a) Ifthe graph of / is shifted 3 units upward, its equation becomes y = f (x) +3. (b) If che graph of / is shifted 3 units downward, its equation becomes » = f (x) ~ 3. (©) the graph of / is shifted 3 units to the righ, its equation becomes y = f (x ~ 3). (@) Ifthe graph of F is shifted 3 units to the lef, its equation becomes y= f ( +3). (©) Ifthe graph of / is reflected about the x-axis its equation becomes y = —f (x) ( Ifthe graph of / is reflected about the y-axis, its equation becomes y = f (x), (2) Ifthe graph of / is stretched vertically by a factor of 3, its equation becomes » = 3/ (x). 47 @). 2. (a) To obtain the graph of » = $f (x) ftom the graph of y = f(x), stretch the graph vertically by a factor of 5. (b) To obtain the graph of y = f (x ~S) from the graph of y = (x), shift the graph $ units to the right (©) To obiain the graph of y = —f (x) from the graph of y = f (x), reflect the graph about the x-axis (@) To obtain the graph of y = ~$/(x) from the graph of y = (x), sietch the graph vertically by a factor of S and reflect it about the x-axis. (6) To obiain the graph of y = / (Sx) fom the graph of y = /(x), shrink the graph horizontally by a factor of S. (9) To obtain the graph of y = 5,/(x) —3 from the graph of y =f (x), stretch the graph vertically by a factor of $ and shift it 3 units downward. (h) Ifthe graph of / is shrunk vertically by «factor of3, its equation becomes y 3. (a) (graph 3) The graph of / is shifted 4 units to the right and has equation y = f (x ~ 4). () (graph 1) The groph of / is shifted 3 units upward and bas equation y = J (x) +3. (©) (araph 4) The graph of / is shrunk vertically by a factor of 3 and has equation y = 4 F (x). @ (raph 5) The graph of / is shifted 4 units to the left and reflected about the x-axis. Its equation is, ya -fG +4). () (oraph 2) The graph of fis shifted 6 units to the eft and stretched vertically by a factor of 2 Its equation is y=2s@ +6) 4 (@) To graph y = f(x +4) we shift the graph of f 4 units to the left (©) To graph y = 2/ (x) we stretch the graph of f vertically by a factor of 2, pa] 5, (@) To graph y = f (2x) we shrink the graph of J horizontally by a factor of 2 (© To groph y = f(x) we reflect the graph of / about the y-axis, SECTION L3 NEWFUNCTIONS FROM OLO FUNCTIONS 15 (b) To graph y = f(x) +4 we shift the graph of f 4 units upward (@) To graph y = 1 (x) +3, we shrink the graph of f vertically by a factor of2, then refet the resulting graph about thesis shen shift the pad resulting graph 3 units u ry z LAS (b) Tognphy = /(Js) wesc the graph off horizontally by a factor of 2 F(x) we reflect the graph of (@) To graph y about the y-axis, then about the x-axis 6. The graph of y = (x) = V3x =x has been shifted 2 units to the right and stretched vertically by a factor of 2. ‘Thus, a function describing the praph is ya2se-2 f=) 9 23-6 (2 4x 4d) = 2VaaP Te 10 16 © CHAPTER FUNCTIONS AND MODELS 7. The graph of y = f (x) = V3x — x7 has been shifted 4 units to the left, reflected about the x-axis, and shifted ddowaward { unit. Thus, @funetion deseribing the graph is yack set) =1 Se reflect shift shift about 4 units unit seaxis left down ‘This function can be written as -V3@ 44) - $4 =I -fG44)- =a (PIG) ~ 1 = Va 8. (a) The graph of y = 2sinx can be obtained from the graph of (b) The graph of y + ¥¥ canbe p= sin.x by stretching it vertically by a factor of 2 obtained from the graph of y = V/¥ by shifting upward 1 un i a 7 10, y = 2 — cos: Start with the graph of y = cos.x, reflect about the x-axis, and then shift 2 units upward, a = ‘= tn 2x: Start with the graph of y = tan.x and compress horizontally by a factor of 2. youn de SECTION 1.3. NEWFUNCTIONS FROM OLD FUNCTIONS 17 12. y = YEFE: Start with the graph of y = YF and shift 2 units tothe left. Weyer t2xt3 shift 2 units upward, 92 4 De 41) 42= (+E +2: Start with he graph of y = 22, shift unit left and then 16. y = 2 sinzx: Start with the graph of y = sinx, compress horizontally by a factor of z, stretch vertically by a factor of 2, and then reflect about the x-axis yr sine ——_——— 18 © CHAPTER FUNCTIONS AND MODELS $ sin (e — &): Start withthe graph of factor of 3. sin.x, shift § units to the right, and then compress vertically by a >t y=sinlx 2) ya tain(e 198. ya 14 2e xP a? pO 1 a (eP—2e HI LE shift 1 nit right, reflet about the x-axis, and then shift 2 units upward == ” "Lys -te- OT % y= VFA — 3: Start with the eraph of and then shift 3 units downward 2— VET: Start with the graph of y = J, reflet about the x-axis, sift 1 unit to the left, and then shift 2 units upward, SECTION 3 NEWFUNCTIONS FROM OLD FUNCTIONS O19 y= (— 1) +2: Start with the graph of » shift 1 unit to the right, and then shift 2 units upward. 23, y = Ils] ~ 1: Start with the graph of y = [x, shift 1 unit downward, and then reflect the part of the graph from x =I tox = 1 about the x-axis, 24, y = Joos x|: Start with the raph of y = coss and reflect the parts ofthe graph that lie below the x-axis about the 25, This is just like the solution to Example 4 except the amplitude of the eurve is 14 ~ 12 = 2, So the function is LW = 1242: [35 ( ~80)}. March 31 isthe 90th day ofthe yar, so the model gives J (90) © 12.34 h. The daylight time (5:51 A.M. to 6:18 P.M.) is 12 hours and 27 minutes, or 12.45 h. The model value differs from the actual value by 1246-1234 0,00, less than 1%, 26. Using a sine function to model the brightness of Delta Cephei asa function of time, we take its period to be 5.4 days its amplitude to be 0.35 (on the scale of magnitude), and its average magnitude to be 4.0. If we take ¢ = ata time of average brightness, then the magnitude (brightness) as a funtion of time ¢ in days ean be modeled by the formula I (1) = 4.04 0.38sin (342). 21. (a) To obtain y = f ({x1), the portion of J (x) tothe right ofthe y-axis is reflected about the y-axis. (b) y = sin] © y 200 CHAPTER FUNCTIONS AND MODELS 28, The most important features of the given graph are the x-intercept andthe ‘maximum and minimum points. The graph of y= 1 / f(x) has vertical asymptote a the-x-values where there are x-intercepts on the graph of y = f (x). The maximum of I on the graph of y =f (x) corresponds to a minimum of 1/1 =1ony =1/f («). Similarly, the minimum on the graph of y= f(x) corresponds to a maximum on the graph of y = 1 /f (x). 28. Assuming that successive horizontal and vertical grilines are a unit apart, we can make a table of approximate ‘values as follows, x oy! J2 |3 |4 15 16 fe) 2/17} 13|10]07]03| 0 2) 2}a7|3 j2s}a4] 17 P@ tee) | 4] 44) 43/38] 34) 20 Connecting the points (x, /(x) + 2 (x) with a smooth curve gives an approximation to the graph of f + g. Extra points can be plotted between those listed above if necessary. 30, First note that the domain of f + g isthe intersection of the domains of f and g: that is, 7 +g is only defined where both f and g are defined. Taking the horizontal and vertical units of length to be the distances between successive vertical and horizontal gridlines, we can make a table of approximate values as follows: x —2[-1 [0] 1 [2 ]25]3 Te) -1) 22| 20] 24] 27] 27) 23 20) 1| -13| -12| -06 | 03 | 05 | 07 Fete} of 09| 08} 18] 30] 32] 30 Extra values of x (like the value 25 in the table above) ean be added as needed. 3. f(s) <9 +282 ge) = 38? — LD =R for both f and g (f+) (2) = 4208 43x Lax pS? 1, DER, (9) @) =? + 2x? — Gx? 1) x8 — 37 41, DER, (fe) (2) = (0 +224) (x? = 1) = 3x5 4 6x4 —F 27, D=R. 3420 (Qo a 3a [x |x #45} since 3x? - 1 #0, SECTION 3 NeWFUNCTIONS FIOM OLOFUNCTONS O21 @ f:) = VTFE,D=[-+1,20)3 8) = THs, D= (0, 1) (+ 8)@) = VIF8+ VI=x, D = 00, NN -1,00) = (1.11 ((-a)) = VFS VIB Dah) (eo) @) = JTFS. Jims = vT= x, D=[-1, 1} L) oy TEE £ De=[-1,1), Wemustexclidex = {since it would make £ undefir (4) 9 = FEE, 0= 11,0. Wemustecdex = sine it wou mate £ undefined BsWenewn ils Msw=se@) 35. f (x) = 2x4 — x; g(x) = 3x +2. D=R for both f and g, and hence for their composites. F (GG) = f Gx +2) = 23x +2)? ~ Bx +2) = 18x? + 2x +6. (f @)) = g Qe? 2) =3 2? =x) $2 = 6? — 3 +2 LLG) = F (2x? =x) = 2 (2x? ~ x)? = (2x? — x) = 8x4 BF 4x, GW) =£Gx42—3Gr+]+2— +E. 3. (6) = VE=T,D (fogs) =F ON) = Se") D=( ER | g(8) €[1,00)] = 00,1] U1, 00). Go) =e O)=2(v3 alee (Fo N@)=S/FO)= D={se([1,00)| VF=12 | (og) @) =e(e@) =e (x4) = (2) =x4,D=R. 3. f@)=1/x, D= lx |x 40} gs) = +2, D=R. (Low) = FO) = f(s? + 2x) = 1/ (2? +24), D= fr |x + 2x £0} = te |x FO} ee Ns) = BUS @) = 8 (W)x) = x? 42/x, D = te Lx #0). (fe) = SUG) = fs) = Fe =H D= le Lx £0) (eee) (x) = Bw) = g(x? + 2x) = (x9 +2)? $2 (3 + 2x) = 09 + x? +1205 + 1003 + de, DER, 1,00); g() =, =VF=T, x-1,D= {1,00} 1G) x-l tele # theG)= 5, Dab ls 4-1 (foa) i)-(i-4) Strix 4-1), ani Wet eo Ne= “VWenne1 (reNW) = fe 1x #12) @ox)(x)= D/@+0), = bebe 40-1 D/@+D+ 22 O_GHAPTERS FUNCTIONS AND MODELS 38. f) =sins, D=R; g@)=1- VF, (Fog) @) =f EG) = f (1 — v3) = sin (I~ v%), D = (0, 20). @o NG) = @) =gsinx) = | — vsinx. For VSinx to be defined, we must have sinx >0 9 x € [0,x], [2x, 3m], (-22,—m], (4x, 5x], [—4x, -32], -.., 30 D = (x |x © [Dar, x +2nr], where n isan integer) (Fo) = FF) = Fins) = sin(sinx), D=R (og) (x) =e(g (0) <8 (1 - va) =1- VI= Ve, D = {x 2011 - VF 2 0} = 10,1]. 4. f @) = VHT, D = (00, -11U1,00): 20) = D= (20,11 (Fog) &) = Sg) =f (VTHa) = (T= a) — | = VR To find the domain of (fo g) (x), we must find the values of x that are inthe domain of g such that g(x) is inthe domain of /. In symbols, we have D= {x € (co, I]| YT=¥ € (-00, 1] U[1, 00). First, we concentrate onthe requirement that VI=¥ € (00, -I]U LI, 00). Because YT== 2 0, T= is not in (00, —1]. If VT => is in [1, 00), then we musthave YT—¥ > 1 =} 1—x21 = x <0. Combining the restrictions x < 0 and x € (co, I], we obiain D = (00, 0} GoM) = @) =2(VP=1) = VI, da fre 00, -UU.09 1 VF=Te Co.) Now VFETSL = A a1s1 = 32 9 bls V2 = -VF 1=x¢1 = x20. Combining this restriction with x ¢ (~00, 1], we obtain D = [0,1]. AL (fogoh)(x) = Seb @) =Se@-I)=s(VE=1 = vE-T= 1 &@ (Sogo) = SEED) = Fe? +2)) =F ((e? +2)?) =1 [2 42? B.(fogoW x) =f GHEY) =F (@ (V5) =S (VE -3) = (VE-5)' +1 = (0, 00) M Foaoiney=semo=se(e=s( Let g(x) =x —9 and f (x) = 25, Then (f 22) @) = - 98 = FG). $6, Let g(x) = VF and f (x) = sinx. Then (f 0g) (x) = sin VX = F (2) an @) = og) = sy = FH) A. Let g(x) = x? and f (x) = =. Then (fog) (1) = STG =F () 4, Letg (x) = 3-43 and f (x) = 1/x. Then (f0g) (2) = 1/(x +3) =G@). SECTION 13 NEWFUNCTIONSFROMOLOFUNCTONS 23 49. Let g (0) = cose and f (0) = Vi. Then (fog) (1) = Veosi = u(0). 50. Let g(¢) = xt and f(t) = tant. Then (fog) (t) =tanzt =u (0) BH. Let h(x) =a, g(x) =3%, and f (x) = 1 =x. Then (fog oh)(x) =1-3" = A(x), 52 Let h(x) = VE, g(x) =x — Land f (x) = YX. Then (fog oh) (x) = Va —1 = He). 5B. Let h(x) = /%, g(x) = seex, and f (x) = x4. Then (fog oh) (x) = (sec /z)* = sec! (Vz) = HG). 54) FE (I) = FO) =5 ) 2) =e@) =2 OSE M =f B= @s@iy=s6 © ee NG =e(/G)) =2M)=1 © (Fon) =f) =/G)=4 5B. (a) g (2) = 5, because the point (2, 5) ison the graph of g. Thus, f(g 2)) = f (5) = 4, because the point (5,4) is, fon the graph of f. ®) eFO)=8@=3 © Fo = f(g) =/G)=0 @ Ge NO =£(F ©) =e ©). This value is not defined, because there is no point on the graph of g that has -x-coordinate 6, © @og)(-2) =e (2) OFONH=SF@) 56, To find a particular value of f(g (+)), say for x = 0, we note from the graph that g (0) ~2.8 and f (2.8) & —0.5 Thus, f (g ()) ¥ f 2.8) © —0.5. The other values listed inthe table were obtained in a similar fashion. x [eo | fey x[e@ | see) ; =s5|-02|-4 o| 28] -05 —4} 12| -33 t) 22] -17 : -3] 22) -17 2) 12] -33 * -2] 28] -05 3| -02 | -4 -1] 3 | -02 4| -19 | -22 s| nai] 19 57. (@) Using the relationship distance = rate tine with the radius ras the distance, we have r (2) = 601. (b) A= ar? => (Aor) (1) = 4 W)) =z (601)? = 3600207, This formula gives us the extent of the rippled area (in cm?) at any time ¢ BB G@)dar > d=350 (b) There is a Pythagorean relationship involving the legs with lengths d and 1 and the hypotenuse with length s: #42 22 Thus s(d) = VE FI. © (od) =5d()) =5 B502) = VGS0 FT 0 itr <0 58. (2) vo sal ® " 120 ift>0 : 120 30 ¥ () = 120H () 7 ; 24 GGHAPTER FUNCTIONS AND MODELS © v Starting with he formutain part (b), we replace 120 with 240 to reflet the aol = iret voage, A, borase wee sig Sunk the ight of | = 0, we replace with ¢~ 5. Thus, the formula is ¥ () = 24011 @ ~ 5). morome (fH a) R() =H » 1 itr20 veoefo He 7 = OF O=| y itocr< wo} so (= 2H (,t 5 60. oO voe{® 2? y OF O=) goon itrses 3 | 10 VW =A0-N HUD S32 tt 61. (@) By examining the veriable terms in g and h, we deduce that we must square g to get the terms 4x? and 4x in i. Ifwe let f(x) =x? +o, then (fog) ) = FEO) = SOx +1) = Ort IP tema? tax tte) Since h(x) = 4x2 + 4x 47, we must have 1-+¢ = 7. Soc = Gand g(x) =37 +6. (b) We need a function ¢ s0 that SGC) = 3 )) +5 = Ga) = 3x? 4323 (PH) $2 = 3 (07 +x ~ 1) 45. Some see that gi) ter] 62. We nced a function g so that ¢ (/ (2) = g (x +4) = h(x) = 4x — function g must be g (x) = 4x ~ 17. 4G: +4) — 17. So we see that the 63, We need to examine h (—x). hen) =o = SEER) =F (la)) [because giseven] = A(x) Because h (—x) = h (x), A is an even function, 64. h(=x) =f (@(-¥) = F (He (8). At this point, we can’t simplify the expression, so we might try to find a counterexample to show tha Ais not an odd function, Let g (x) = x, an odd function, and f (x) = x? + x. Then h(x) = x? +, which is neither even nor od. Now suppose / is an odd function. Then f (—g (x) = —f (g (2)) = ~h (2). Hence, fe (—x) = —Ha(x), and so is odd if both f and g are odd Now suppose / is an even function, Then f(—g (2)) =f (g (=)) = h(). Hence, (x) = F(x), and so is even if g is odd and / is even SECTION 14 GRAPHING CALCULATORS AND COMPUTERS O25 65. (2) P= (a, g(a) and Q = (& (a), g (a) beeause Q has the @ a) same y-value as P and itis onthe line y = x ' pos () The s-value of Q is g (a); this is also the xevalue of R. The _yevalue of Ris therefore f (x-value), thats, f(g (@)). Hence, R= (@ (a), f (@ (a) (©) The coordinates of $ are (a, f(g (a))) oF, equivalently, @h@). 66. We only need to plot points for the first quadrant since we ‘can see that / is an odd function, and by Exercise 64, we yoann then know that fo / is an odd funetion, and hence, symmetric with respect to the origin. x Jojos|1]is go jo} fas}isfo re |ofis| 14] rs fo EE) Graphing Calculators and Computers 1. fG)=xt42 () [2,2] by [-2,2] () [0.4] by [0.4] (4,4) by 4,4] -| 2 -f- 4 ‘ = o ‘ + @ — [8,8] by (4,40) (©) [-40, 40} by [-80, 800] — = Be ~The most appropriate raph is ‘produced in viewing rectangle (4), | 7” ‘ - 0 2 9. CHAPTER FUNCTIONS AND MODELS LsGaP +46 @ [-5,5] by [-5, 5] Tr oz (© [-15,8] by [-20, 100] 10 ‘The most appropriate graph is produced in viewing rectangle (c). Bf (e) = 10425x = 39 @ [-4, 4] by [-4, 4] 4 (©) [-20,20} by {—100, 100] 100 () © @ {0, 10) by [~20, 100} 100, 20 [-10, 3} by [-100, 20] 20 [-10, 10} by [—10, 10] 0 =o [-100, 100] by {-200, 200) 200, 7 ie ‘The most appropriate graph is produced in viewing rectangle (c) because the maximum and minimum points are fairly easy to see and estimate. SECTION 14 GRAPHING CALCULATORS AND COMPUTERS © 27 4 f@)=VErR @ [4.4] by [-4, 4] ©) [5,5] by 0, 100] , 100 ‘ -s s ° © [-10, 10} by [-10, 40) © L210) by 2,61 — go 10 0 a © a = ‘The most appropriate graph is produced in viewing rectangle (8). 5. Since the graph of f (x) = 5 + 20x — x? isa parabola opening 6 400 downward, an appropriate viewing rectangle should include the ‘maximum point. 10 6 5 -0|—] x” 0 7. f (x) = Y256—%* To find an appropriate viewing rectangle, we calculate /°s domain and range: 256x720 #4 x? < 256 e+ Ie] = 16 © 16 100. whenever x > 101. 300,00 af ooo ra LY] 200 “oa ft 10 31.(2) @ [0,5] by 10,20] Gi) {0,25} by (0,107) Git) (0, SO} by [0, 10°] s Asx gets large, f(x) = 2* grows more rapidly than 2 (x) = (b) From the graphs in part (2, it appears thatthe two solutions are x = 1.2 and 22.4, 32. @) @ [-4,4] by (0, 20] (ii) [0, 10} by [0, 5000) Gi) [0,20] by [0, 10°] 20 5000 107 + + ‘| oY 0 Asx gets large, f (x) = 3¥ grows more rapidly than g (x) (b) From the graphs in (0, it appears that the three solutions are x * ~0,80, 1.52 and 7.17. a os ‘We see from the graphs of y = |sinx —x| and y = 0.1 that there are two solutions tothe equation [sin — x] = 0.1: x © —0.85 and x ~ 0.85. The condition [sin x = x] < 0.1 holds for any x lying between these two values, 320 CHAPTER FUNCTIONS AND MODELS Px) = 3x5 — 523 42x, a 2 op 10000 Q(x) = 385. These graphs are 2 caer to Significantly different only inthe | region close to the origin. The larger a viewing reetangle one chooses, the ro00 ‘more similar the two graphs look. 35. (a) The root functions y= J, _(b) The root functions y = x, (© The root functions y = /%, yo Yea = yo Rudy= y= Wy = emdy= (4) For any n, the nth root of 0 is O and the mth root of 1 is 15 that i, all nth root funetions pass through the points (0,0) and (1,1). + For odd nthe domain ofthe nth root function is R, while for even n, it is (r € R | x 2 0} «Graphs of even root functions look similar to that of V/, while those of odd root fu Us. ‘+ Asm increases, the graph of 7% becomes steeper near 0 and latter for = > 1 Vx, y= 1), yeys yotjst 1/3 and y = 1/xt 36. (2) The functions y= 1/x and (b) The functions y = 1/x and (c) The functions |/x” pass through the point (1, 1). ly above the x-axis, The graphs of 1/x" for m even are similar (@) « ‘The graphs of al functions of the form If miseven, the graph of the function is ent to one another. ‘#1 mis od, the function is positive for positive x and negative for negative x. The graphs of 1/x” form odd are similar to one another. ‘¢ Asm increases, the graphs of 1/+” approach 0 faster as x 00, SECTION 14 GRAPHING CALCULATORS AND COMPUTERS 3 30. f (x) =x" + ex? +x. Ife < 0, there are three humps: two minimum points and a maximum point, These humps get flatter us c increases, until at ¢ = 0 two of the humps disappear and there is only one ‘minimum point. This single hump then moves tothe right and approaches the origin asc inerease. 3B. f(x) = TF ex". Ife < 0, the function is only defined on [-1//=e .1 / VE } and its graph is the top half of an ellipse. If =, the graph is the line y = 1. Ife > 0, the graph isthe top half ‘of a hyperbola. As ¢ approaches 0, these curves hecome fatter and approach the line y = 1 39, y= x"'2-*. As m increases, the 4s ‘maximum of the function moves further from the origin, and gets larger. Note, however, that regardless of n, the function approaches 0 as x > 00. ‘The “bullet” becomes broader as ¢ increases. 4. y? =ex3 +2? Ie <0, he loop isto the right of the origin, and if cs positive itis tothe let In both cass, the closer cis to 0, the large the oop is. (In the limiting case, ¢ = 0, the lop i “infinite”, that it doesnt close) Also, the larger |c| is, the steeper the slope is on the loopless side of the origin, #2 (a) y =sin (V8) wy This unetion is not period; it oseilates tess frequently asx increases in(x?) This function oscillates more frequently as |x} increases. Note also that this function is even, whereas sin x is odd, 34 © CHAPTER FUNCTIONS ANO MODELS =I Review CONCEPT CHECK ———————<— 1. (@) A function f i a rule that assigns to each element x in a set A exactly one element, called f (x), in a set B. ‘The set 4 is called the domain of the function. The range of / is the set of all possible values of f(x) as x varies throughout the domain (b) If / isa function with domain A, then its graph is the set of ordered pairs (x, f (x)) [x € A) (©) Use the Vertical Line Test on page 17. 2. The four ways to represent a function ar: verbally, numerically, visually, and algebraically. An example of each is given below. ‘Verbally: An assignment of students to chairs ina classroom (a description in words) ‘Numerically: A tax table that assigns an amount of tax to an income (a table of values) Visually: A graphical history ofthe Dow Jones average (a graph) Algebraically: A relationship between distance, rate, and time: d = rt (an expliet formula) 3. (a) Aneven function f satisfies f (—x) = f (x) for every number x in its domain. It is symmetric with respect 10 the yas. (©) An odd function g satisfies ¢ (x) the origin. ~# (x) for every number x in its domain, It is symmetric with respect 10 4 A function J is called increasing on an interval I if f (x1) < f (a2) whenever x1 < x2 in I. 5 A mathematical mode is a mathematical deserition (often by means of a function or an equation) of a real-world phenomenon, 6 (@ Linear function: f(x) = 2s +1.) (b) Power function: f(x) =x, f (x) 1 ane fisynx (c) Exponential function: f(x) = 2", f (x) =a" (4) Quadratic function: f (x) =x? +x +1, S (x) =ax? ox $e (€) Polynomial of degree 5: f(x) = x5 +2 ; -pey= a, pay 2 (f) Rational function: f Gx) = 5. Fe) ae) yhere P (x) and Q (x) are polynomials ae . ® y © » ym sing: yo" CHAPTERT HVIW a5 @ » © 1 © * in yo : y : '% (@) The domain of / + g is the intersection of the domain of f and the domain of g; that is, A B. (©) The domain of fg is also 40 B. (© The domain of //g must exclude values of x that make g equal to 0; that is, (x € AM Bg) #0). 10. Given two functions / and g, the composite function fog is defined by (/ © 2) (x) = f(g (x)). The domain of ‘F 08 isthe sot of all x in the domain of ¢ such that g (2) isin the domain of f. +2 S@)-2 (© Ithe graph of fis shifted 2 units to the right, its equation becomes » = f (x ~2) (@ Ifthe graph of fis shifted 2 units tothe lef, its equation becomes y = f (x +2). (© Ifthe graph of f is reflected about the x-axis, its equation becomes y = —f (x). ( Ifthe graph of f is reflected about the y-axis its equation becomes y = f (2). (©) Ifthe graph of / is stretched vertically by a factor of 2, its equation becomes y = 2/ (x). 41, (@) Ifthe graph of / is shifted 2 units upward, its equation becomes y (b) Ifthe graph of / is shifted 2 units downward, ts equation becomes y = (h) Ifthe graph of / is shrunk vertically by a factor of2, its equation becomes y @) Ithe graph of fis stretched horizontally by a factor of 2, its equation becomes y = f (}2) @ Ifthe graph of Fis shrunk horizontally by a factor of 2, its equation becomes y = f (2x). —$$—$——— > ‘TRUE-FALSE QUIZ ————— 1. False, Let f(x) = and (= 1. Then f (s-+0)=(-14 1)? = SO+M= CH +P=240=Fe40. 2 False. Let f(x) = 32. Then f (-2) = =f Q, but 242. 3. False, Let f(x) = 27, Then f Gx) = Bx)? = 95? and 3 f (x) = 3x. So f Bx) #3, (8). 4. True. Ifxy £22). 5. True. See the Vertical Line Test 6, False, Let f(x) = 3? and g (x) = 2x. Then (f 0 g) (x) = f(g (x)) = f 2x) = (2x)? = 4x? and Ge NW) =8U W) =8 (7) =2? Sofogtgos. 36 CHAPTER FUNCTIONS AND MODELS EXERCISES ee 4 (a) When x = 2, y 2.7, Thus, f @) * 27. () /G)=3 + 182356 (©) The domain of f is ~6 < x < 6, 0r[-6. 6] (a) The range of fis 4 < y < 4, 0r[—4, 4} (©) F isinereasing on (~4, 4) (8 Fis odd since its graph i symmetric with respect to the origin. 2, (a) This curve fs nor the graph of a function of x since it fails the Vertical Line Test. (b) This curve is the graph of a fmction of x since it passes the Vertical Line Test. The domain is [~3, 3] and the range is [~2, 3] 3@) 4 vied 0 Tere ‘There will be some yield with no fertilizer, increasing (0 From the graph, we see thatthe dance Is ‘yields with increasing fertilizer use, a leveling-off of slightly less than 150 fet ‘yields at some point, and disaster with too much ferilizer use 5.) = V4=3, Domain: 43:7 20 > 3x2<4 = EG ysvi = 0sys2 a Domain: x+140 = x41. Range: all reals except 0 (y = 0 is the horizontal asymptote 2 Oand 6 ee forg,) 7. y= L+sinx, Domain: R, Range: “I Osys2 8, y =tan2x. Domain: 2x ¢ § ban => x # ¥+ $n, Range: the tangent fametion takes on all eal values, so the range is R. 9. (a) To obtain the graph of y = f (x) +8, we shift the graph of y = f (x) up 8 unit (€) To obtain the graph of y = Ge +8), we shift the graph of y = f(x) left 8 units. (© To obtain the graph of y = 1 +2/ (x), we stretch the graph of y = / (x) vertically by a factor of, and then shift the resulting graph | unit upward. (@ To obtain the graph of y = f(x — 2) —2, we shift the graph of y = / (x) right 2 units, and then shift the resulting graph 2 units downward (© To obtain the graph of y= —/ (x), we reflect the graph of » = / (x) about the x-axis, (f) To obtain the graph of y = 3 — f (x), we reflect the graph of y = f (x) about the x-axis, and then shift the resulting graph 3 units upward. 10. (2) To obiain the graph of p = f(r 8), we shift the graph of y = f (x) right 8 units, (© To obtain the graph of y reflect the graph of, x-axis, and then units upward. =F), we F (2) about the the resulting graph 2 M1, To sketch the graph of y = 1+ VEF2, we shift the graph of y = / left 2 units and up 1 unit, 13. To skeich the graph of y = cos3x, we compress the graph of y = cosx horizontally by a factor of 3 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW cl 57 (©) To obtain the graph of y = — (x), we reflect the graph of y = f (2) about the x-axis. (6) To obtain the graph of » = $f (2) ~ 1, we shrink = £9) by a factor of, and then shift the resting graph I unit downward the graph of. 12. To sketch the graph of y = (x ~ 1)" — 1, we shift the graph of y = x right 1 unit and dowa 1 unit. y 14, To sketch the graph of y= 3 — 2sin.x, we stretch the graph of y = sinx vertically by afactor of 2, ‘reflect the resulting graph about the x-axis, and thon shift that graph 3 units up (BI) 38 CQ CHAPTER FUNCTIONS AND MODELS 15. (2) The tems of / area minture of odd and even powers of, so i neither even nor odd. (6) The terms of fate all odd powers ofx, 30 fis odd 03 (Cx? 4 sin(-) 0s (x2) = (2), 50 f is even. 1 —sinx. Now f (—x) # f (x) and f (—x) # —f (=), so / is neither even nor 0-2 +2 y =—2x —2. The cirele has equation x? + y? -2x=2 if-2 x [0,x) (2x, 32], [-2n, —2}, (4, 5a], [-42, -32],..., 80 D = (x | x © [2nx, w + 2ne], where mis an integer). (go NG) =8 UF) =e (VX) = sin JX. x must be greater than or equal to 0 for /* to be defined, so D=[0,00). (fe Ae) =F) =F (v3) = VE = YF. D= 10, 00) (g og) (x) =g(g (x)) = (sinx) = sin{sinx), D=R. 18. Let h(x) =x + VF, g(x) = ¥¥, and f (x) = Ix. Then (f og oh) (x) ie 19. The graphs of f (x) = sin® x, where is positive integer, all have domain R. For odd , the range is {1,1} and for even 1, the range is (0, 1). For odd n, the functions are odd and symmetric wit respect tothe origin. For even rn the functions are even and symmetric with respect othe y-exis. As becomes larg, the graphs become less rounded and more “spiky”. 29. (a) Let x denote the numberof taster ovens produced in one -wook and y the associated cost. Using the points (1000, 9000) and (1500, 12,000), we get an equation of a 12,000 — 9000 1500 = 1000 y= 6(x = 1000) +9000 => y= 6x +3000. line: y — 9000 = («= 1000) = “0 1000 1500 2000 (eater ovens) (b) The slope of 6 means that each additional toaster oven produced adds $6 to the weekly production cost (©) The y-intercept of 3000 represents the overhead cost — the cost incurred without producing anything. 2 as Many models appear to be plausible. Your choice depends on whether ‘you think medieal advances will keep increasing life expectancy, or if there is bound to be a natural leveling-off of life expectancy. A linear model, y = 0.263x ~ 450.034, gives us an estimate of 76.0 years for the year 2000. 2m10 Principles of Problem Solving By using the area formula for atriangle, 4 (base) (height), two ways, we see that $ (4) (») = 4 (i) @), soa = 2 Since 4 + y? =, AVR y= VHT, anda p? — 100 2 from 4 times the area ofthe triangle. In this case, the area of the triangle is 2 POM 5 phar 2h = 2 Refer to Example 1, where we obtained ‘The 100 came $a (2) = 64, Thus, = oP p2 @ 2Ph+24h=P? = hOP+2*=P? => ha 2P +34 1-2. ifs <4 2x1 ite} 5 ifr <-5 oes x45) ifx>-S wei ssi-[ ‘Therefore, we conser the thre cases x < =5,~5 },wemusthave2x—1-@+5)=3 x=9 So the two solutions ofthe equation are x = ~J and x =9, lax ifx 7,whic is false If1 5 <> x > §, which is false because x <3, Itx > 3, wemusthave x —1—(—3)>5 e225, whichis false. All three cases lead to falsehoods, so the inequality has no solution, 8. £6) =|? — 4x1 +3), Ifx > 0, then f@) = fx? — 42 43] = (x ~ 1) @ —3)] Case (> MED 3, then f(x) =x? = 4x +3, enables us to sketch the graph for x > 0. Then we use the fact that / is an even function to reflect this part ofthe graph about the y-axis to obtain the entire graph, Or, we could consider also the eases x < —3,-3 y>0 © x-ytr-yps2 @ Case (ii: y>x>0 So yoxbecys2 @ 0<2 (11) Case (ii); x>0andy <0 @ x-ytxtys2 @ s2 @ Case (iy: x 0 @ y-x-x-y<2 @ -2es2 © Casey: vex <0 xnynertys2 & 02 (tr) Case (vi): x og et OTE 2A2 soy 322 7 (b) Using the points (0.8, 0) and (5, 118) from the approximate tangent fine, the instantaneous velocity at ¢ = 2is about HBE® = 28 fs. 9. For the eurve y = sim (10x /x) and the point P (1,0): @ 7]. 0 nro x @ mrp 2 120 0 os | 5,0) 0 18 | (5,086) | 1.7321 06 | (06,0.8660) | -2.1651 14 | (.4,-04839) | -10847 07 | @2,0.7818) | -2.6081 13 | (1.3, -0.8230) | -2.7433 08 | @8,1) = 12 | (1.2,0.8660) | 4.3301 0.9 | (0.9,-0.3420) | 3.4202 11 | (.4,-0.2817) | -2.8173 0.9 | (0.99,03120) | -31.2033 ‘As x approaches 1, the slopes do not appear to be approaching any particular value @) 1 ‘We see that problems with estimation are caused by the ‘requent oscillations of the graph. The tangent is so steep at | P that we need to take x-values much closer to 1 in order to os 2 get accurate estimates ofits slope {) If we choose x = 1.001, then the point Q is (1.001, ~0.0314) and m po ~ ~31.3794, [Cx = 0.998, then Q is (0.999, 0.0314) and mpg = ~31.4422. Averaging these two slopes gives us the estimate ~31 4108 === The Limit of a Function 1. Asx approaches 2, (x) approaches 5. [Or the values of f (x) ean be made as close to S as we like by taking x sufficiently close to 2 (but x # 2), Yes, the graph could have a hole at (2, 5) and be defined such that (2) = 3, 2 Asx approaches | from the left, (x) approaches 3; and as x approaches from the right, f(x) approaches 7. No, the limit does not exist because the lets and right-hand limits ae different. 4 0 CHAPTER2 UMTS AND RATES OF CHANGE (a im, £2) = oo means that the values of (x) canbe made arbitrarily large (as large a we please) by taking x sufficiently close to ~3 (but not equal to ~3). (©) im, # (2) = ~90 means that he values off (2) ean be made arbitrarily large negative by taking x sufficiently close to 4 through values larger than 4. 4. (a) lim F () ©) lim f= 4 © im, Fo (@ im, f (2) does not exist because the limits in part (b and par (care not equal OL@=3 5. (a) kim £() ) tim f(x) =2 ©) tim, £6) (@) Lim £ (2) docsnt exist because the limits in part (6) and part (6) ae not equal OF) lim se) @ tim, £6) = ©) tim) =—1 OFOD=-3 5 (lim _e@)= () tim, ee =1 (©) im, g (*) doesn't exist Oa © tim gts) =1 © tim, #) (g) jim. g@) doesn’t exist (h) gQ)=2 @ lim, g (3) doesn’t exist ©) tim 60) =2 (8 0) docso’t exist () lim ¢@) =0 7. (a) fig f (b) Jim #0) = © lim, f(s) =1 (8) im fe) =1 (© lim £6) =2 (© im, # (2) doesn’t exist because the limits in part (f) and part (e) are not equal. 8. (a) lim.e(x) =0 (©) tim g(a) = 00 © lim, g(@) = -00 © Jime@) = (€) The equations of the vertical asymptotes: x = ~5,x = 0,x 8. (a) lim f(x) = 00 © tim £6) (©) tim, £@) = (@ tim (= 00 ©) Lim J) = -00 (®) The equations of the vertical asymptotes: x = —9,x = —4, 10, im_F() = 180meand_ liz, 70) =300mg. These limits show that there is an abrupt change in the amount re a of drug in the patient's bloodstream at ¢ = 12h, The left-hand limit represents the amount of the drug just before the fourth injection. The right-hand limit represents the amount of the drug just after the fourth injection. nh. -2| SECTION 22 THELIMITOFAFUNCTON O47 @ tim so)=1 tim, 76) =0 (©) lim £ (5) =O does not exist because the limits in part (2) and | 7] 3 part (b) are not equal 12 ima F (x) exists forall a except a = +. 1B . : 7 ot ° i 18 Forg (x) = 5 16. For g(x) eO=5] 3. Fore x | 2) x | ee) x [ee | 02 | oxoeas2 | [ie [0.165503 | 3 =I 0.4 | 0.641026 | | 1.6 | 0.193798 | 24 4.8028 06 | osto04 | | 14 | 0.229358 | 201 | 43.368 08 | 0.409836 | | 12 | 0.274725 | 2.001 | —429.08 09 | 0.369004 | | 1.1 | o302iis | 20001 | —4286.2 0.99 | 0.336689 | | 1.01 | 0.330022 | 200001 | -42858 {eappears that fim It appears that lim, ir yar -10 48°C CHAPTER2 LIVITS AND RATES OF CHANGE ya) 3 1 For Fee) = HAAR 8 18. For F(t) x- 2 ~ LFoO x | Fe) 1 [Fo 26 | -o.0os8ea | [24 | 0.004124 Ts _ | 0.643905 255 | -o.003941 | | 245 | —o.004061 12 | o6s6sse 25.1 | 0.003988 | | 24.9 | 0.004012 11 | 0.661358 25.05 | —0.003994 24.95 | —0.004006 1.01 | 0.666114 25.01 | 0.003999 | | 24.99 | 0.004001 1.001 | 0.666611 appears that lim, F (x) = —0.004 Yet ats ea appear that in 7 cosx=1 19. For f(x) 20. Forg (a) = SES x | fo x | e@) 1 | 0.459698 1 | 0.546302 05 | 0.499670 os | -0.255342 04 | 0.493369 04 | -0.202710 03 | 0.496261 03. | 0.151135 02 | 0.498336 02 | 0.100335 0.1 | 0.499883 oa | -0.0s0042 0.05 | 0.499896 0.03 | —0.025008 o.01 | 0.499996 0.01 | -0.005000 cosx fon SEE appears tat lim —> Ie appears that Jim, 21 im, 2 = oo since (2-5) + 04s.» 5* and £5 > Ofors > 5 ~ ana £ 22 im moo since («= 5) Oasx 9 5° and 25 < Ofer <5 (23. lim, = 00 since (x — 3) > Oasx + 3 and >. 23 @ x x-1 - 28 tim AE = oo since x? > Oas x > O an <0 ford 2* and Far FED <0tt Oas.x + x~ and sinx > 0 for0 (-1/2)" and cosx < 0 for sary sera an 1 SECTION 22 THEUIMTOFAFUNCTION 49 2. (a) x fo) x £@) 05 =114 1S 0.42. 09 3.69 ua 3.02 099 | 33.7 Lor | 330 0.999 | —333.7 001 | 333.0 0.9999 | ~3333.7 Loot} 3333.0 0.99999 | ~33,333.7 00001 | 33,333.3, From these calculations, it seems that lim _f (x) at (6) If is slightly smaller than 1, then x* ~ 1 willbe a negative number close to 0, and the reciprocal of x3 — thatis, (2), willbe a negative number with lrg abcolte vale, So, im J) 20. fx is slightly larger than 1, then x? — 1 will bea small positive number, and its reciprocal, f (x), will be @ large positive number. So_ lim, F (x) =e. (© Mappears from the gph of f that lim. f(x) = ~9e and lim, f (2) = 00. at (-2@+1) x > 2+, the denominator approaches 0, and y > O for.x <—1 and 30. (@) » ‘Therefore, as.x > —1* or forx > 2,80 lim y= lim, y= 00. Also, asx — ~1> or a + 2°, the denominator approaches 0 and y < Ofor—1 3 Pax-12_ | &+30-4) rs os 42 a xetx-2 14 tin Zoe MN G@-DG=D i= 92 =25 _ (iP — 10h +25) ~25 h Sh 15. jim, im, 7 jim = 10) = -10 Bol GHD Hr +1) S4xth Peitt 3 16 aa epee EA ist 72 ar tim CE AMAA MPH AT dik OH 4 a 4 “pao i ai) i = tim ra = fing (64 6h 4? 4 tim BEIAAOM +I) —8 ah the +A? mm kA aig SOC-9 lim (04/7) =3 +9 =6 = jim, (12-4 6h +92) = 12 tim @43) 1435 193 FD) (C2) ~ THD Re + “1 (Aaa) Ba MH 16 e+ DE—D 244) eben? x= = +2) (244) 232 BB. ten 28! oe ji E=DEFD — jig VE= DYE +I +9) 0 Je-3 3 e-3 a vin} = lim (JF +3) +9) = lim (YF +3) him & +9) = (v5+3) O49) = 108 im (2) (8? 44) = tim (x +2) tm, (0? +4) “I G=peFy “aT VUE _ ji (= TFA) (1 VTA) =t Wet 50 Trel(evie) 0TH va) , 1 1 US viey EO ED 2 aan (; 1 8S 86 CHAPTER. UNITS AND RATES OF CHANGE 3-648) _ jim GtH-'=3" ‘on SOhG+ AS ms 26. Mies aa tim ME =4 = him 2 Mo? =a @—a 7b LE ll= va) (14 VE +8) l= ve sin [VE (14 VF-48)] = fog TLL DT Gfference of eubes) Another Mothod: We “add and subtract" n the numerator, and then split up the fraction: fa? (VF-I)+(l-2) a-90+%) ia y se om fe . (= va t+v90+9 jy [14 OE Det) 4 (a jarnas ae ts ® = 7®) =o00r | 0.686163 0.0001 | 0.6666167 - : 0.00001 | 0.6566617 0.090001 | 0.656662 nos 0.000001 | 0.666672 | lin x A 0.00001 | 0.666717 ax— 0.0001 0,.6667167, oot _ | 0.671663 “The limit appears tobe 3 Go tin (ERAN) — py TEE) _ , WTR) BN Jeera vise) OB Gaya t ae 4 im (JTF +1) (Limit Law 3) = 3 [yg + tn 1] ae ( (FTE +1) 387) =WFTI41) aa SECTION23 CALCULATING UMITS USING THEUMTLANS C87 2. @) os CO) = 76) =o.001 | 02886502 =o.0001 | o.288677s =0.00001 | 0.2886754 “1 ' =0.000001 | 0.2886752 ‘ 0.900001 | 0.2886751 tim BEM 9 9 0.00001 | 0.2886749 ~ o.0001 | 0.2886727 ot | o2esesi1 ‘The limit appears to be approximately 0.2887. (© tim (YSER= VS VEFE+ V3) _ i G43 tig 1 2 x Serre A) 0 ( sare) ea ti -— Limit Laws $& £ Rs tintiamse® 1 -— 1 oan flim G+) + V3 ‘ > 1 -—_. 8 Br res 1 “WS BA Let f(x) = —32, g (x) = 7 c0s 20x and A (x) = x2, Then 1 -1 ava Fx? < VASE sin(e (x) < VFR = £68) < #18) < h(x), Sosince tiny f(s) = lim (x) = 0, by the Squeeze Theorem we have lim, g(x) = 0. BLS $5) 5x7 420 +2 forall x, Now fim, 1 = Land elim, (7 42s 42) = lim x?-+2 him x + lim, 2= (1)? +2(-1) +2 = 1. Therefore, by the Squeeze Theorem, im, f() = 1 58 CCHAPTER2 LIMITS AND RATES OF CHANGE YW. 3x < f(x) $x +2 forO VE < Rll + sit Qn/s)] < 2VK, Sine tim, YE = Oand tim, 2/5 lim, [v¥ (1 + sin? @x/2))] = Oy the Squeeze Theorem. ), we have 37. Ih > —4,then be FAL =x44,50. lim, Ix +4l= lim, & +4) G44, “tn ka 444=0. Ifx < ~4, then px +4] tim Gs) =--444) soe Since the right and left limits are equal, tim, x +4 = 0. 38. Ifx < —4, then x +4] +4), 50_ tim = lim eq dod en Lif <2, then 38. Ifx > 2, then fr —2 bk-2 m G~ 290 Nim 2 AB aa AR ka =1. The tight and left limits ate be-21 disferent, 30 fin E=F does not exist (0,1 > 4, then 2x — 31 = 24 3,50 2x? — 3x 2x? — 3x x (2x — 3) fi FE tim 3 tim SRK D tim a = 15.1 px-3 lin, Broa = lite Bees = UM, aaa Ame bs a < Zhen 2x? — 3x ti 2x? — 3x im x (2x —3) lim Qx= 3) xons- = Qr 3) xan im =1.5. The right and Jf imi sas Be=3] 315 Fehr an * are different, 0 lim, “¥——+* does not exist aH 3 4. Since Ix ~xforx <0,vehie tim (£— 2) = tig (2-2) = tig 2, wien does not exis sine ano Ag 7) me Me the denominator approaches 0 and the numerator does not ~ a) walig (5-2) =. ee 42, Since [| =x forx > 0, we have tim ( B® (©) @ Since sen = 1 for > 0, tim, genx = im 1 Gi Since sgn s = = forx <0, tim sen x = tim ice im senx lim sens, lim, sgn.x doesnot exis. (iv) Since [sgn] = 1 forx 7 0, tim [sgn = im 1 SECTION 23 CALCULATING LIMITS USING THE UMIT LAWS O59 (in £¢4) = tim (9? -2 42) © x = lim x?-2 lim x + lim 2 Bat ae + a =Pa24 Hon, (6) = in, @— 5) = im, 3— im. x= 3—1 = 2 (©) fim, £() does not exist because lim f(x) tim, f(x) ml © 0) 0 tin PEP = ti St tg tym? © (0 in tal Spey = D8 (0 No i #4) does exis sein, re lin FO) 46. (a) @) tn, A(x) = lim, v=0P=0 {b) y (i ig He = lig + = 0,50 fim 4) = 0 ‘ iy 1) = fis Pet ; IN (iv) ig AG) = Nim a? =F = 4 ot + (0 in, 16) ig n=8- (i) Since im_h (x) ir, (x. im (x) doesnot exist 8.0) OP] =~2for~2. a isnot an integer. 48. (2) ©) @ im £8) = fim e— ED = tim bY) = at Gi tim, f(x) = tim, — © Jim FG) exists <> a isnot an integer 60 CHAPTER2. UMITS AND RATES OF CHANGE 49, The graph of f (x) = IE + I>; J (@) = 0 for any integer a. Thus, lim f(x) = Vand tim. fe £Q) = 121+ f-2]=2+ (-2)=0 oe ° Be (uJ a Jefl-hand limit is necessary since L is not defined for v > c. is the same as the graph of g (x) = —1 with holes at each integer, since $0 lim, f (2) = 1. oVT=T = 0. As the velocity approaches the speed of ight, the length approaches 0. A 51, Since p (x) is a polynomial, p(t) = ap + a1x + ax? +--+ + ax”. Thus, by the Limit Laws, dim, 2 () = fim, (ay + ax aya? +++ ay") ay + ay fit x + ap fim 3? +--+ fin x” Say + aya + ana ++ aga” = pla) ‘Thus, for any polynomial p, lim p (x) = p (a). 82. Let (x) = ee where p (x) and g (x) are any polynomials, and suppose that q (a) # 0. Thus, cy _ time) @ din (2) = fim 22) = LimitLaws) =2 (Exercise 51) =r =H Ge) = Tmgey MND = Gey xaos) =r @) 5B, Observe that 0 < f(x) < x? for all x, and is lim x?. So, bythe Squeeze Theorem, lim, f(x) = 0 54, Let (x) = [xD and g(x) = fx. Then lim f (2) and lim g(x) do not exist (Example 10) but Jim (7 @) +¢@)] = Lim (eI - BD = Limo =0. 55. Let f(s H (x) and g (x) = | ~ H (), where His the Heaviside function defined in Exercise 1.3.59. Thus, 7 (2) and fim g (2) do not exist, but sam) = fin (Vera = VS=RH1) _ 5 (Saxo 4 VIET “ih (pani e Veaa ea] en Saxo oma, (=) (V3=e+1) _ |, VS=R+1 “IR Gra (Veas+2) Roma 42 2 either 7 or g is 0 for any value of x. Then ‘Tim [7 @) 2 G01 = lin, 0 = 0. a) 57. Since the denominator approaches 0 as x -> ~2, the limit will exist only ifthe numerator also approaches 0 as x) 2, In order for this to happen, we need lim, (3x?-+ax-+a+3)=0 3-2? +a(-2)4a43=0 4 12-2a4a43 BHI HIB 34243) _ 3243) wt, Geyxsd x2 DEF 2 8. With a = 15, the limit becomes SECTION 24 THEPRECISE DEFINTIONOF ALIMIT. «61 58. Solution 1: First, we find the coordinates of P and Q as functions of. Then we can find the equation of the line determined by these two points, and thus find the x-intercept (the point K), and take the limit asr > 0. The coordinates of P are (0,7). The point Q is the point of intersection of the two circles x? + y? G-IP+y ex Eliminating y from these equations, we getr? =x? =1—(—1)2 2 4-2 Substituting back into the equation ofthe sri (eye (Viz F541) wow we take timitasy 08 tig x = im, 2 (Y= $9 +1) = in 2 (VT) So the limiting position of R is the point (4, 0) raat 0+ rot Soluion 2: We add a few lines to the diagram, as shown. Note that LP QS = 90° (subtended by diameter PS). So £S8QR = 90° = LOOT (subtended by diameter OT), I follows that COQS = ZTOR. Aiso LPSQ = 90F ~ LSPQ = LORP, Since AQOS is isosceles, so is GOT R, implying that OT = TR. As the circle shrinks, the point Q plainly approaches the origin, so the point R must approach a point twice as far from the origin as 7", that is, the point (4, 0), as ae . 1. ome = the Pre 1. (a) To have Sx +3 within a distance of 0.1 of 13, we must have 12.9 <5x+3<13.1 => 99<5x<101 => 1.98 29.99 < 6x < 30.01 = 4.9983 < x < 5.0018. Thus, x must be within 0.0016 units of 5 so that 6x — 1 is within 0.01 of 29, ¢ Definition of a Limit (6) As in part (@) with 0.001 in place oF 0.01, we obtain 0.00018. (6) As in part (a) with 0.0001 in place of 0.01, we obtain 0.000016. CHAPTER 2 UNITS AND RATES OF CHANGE 3. On the left side, we need |x — 2} < = 4. On the right sie, we need Ix ~ 21 < |#f — these conditions to be satisfied at once, we need the more restrictive of the two to hold, that is, Jy ~ 2] < $. So we ean choose 3 or any smaller positive number. 4. On the left side, we need [x — 5] < [4 — 5] = 1. On the right side, we need |x — 5] < [5.7 — 5] = 0.7. For both conditions to be satisfied at once, we need the more restrictive condition to hold; that is, x ~ 5] < 0.7. So we can choose 6 = 0.7, of any smaller positive number. the leftmost question mark isthe solution of / = 1.6 and the rightmost, / = 2.4. So the values are 1.6? = 2.56 and 2.4? = 5.76. On the left side, we need |x — 4] < [2.56 — 4] = 1.44. On the right side, we need |x — 4] < [5.76 — 41 = 1,76, To satisfy both conditions, we need the more restrictive condition to hold — namely, |x — 4] < 1.44, Thus, we can choose 6 = 1.44, or any smaller positive number. 6, The left-hand question mark is the positive solution of.x? = }, that is, x = 5, and the right-hand question mark is the postive solution of x? = 3, that is,x = y/3. On the lft side, we need [x ~ 11 < [45 ~ 1] = 0.293 On height side, werd = 11< |/f =| + 0.224 ounsng dawn to es), The more rei o these ‘wo conditions must apply, so we choose 6 = 0.224 (or any smaller positive number). 2, |VEFT 3) <05 2 2.5 < fax FT <3, Weplot the three prs of this inequality om the same sereen and identity the x-coordinates of the points of intrseston using the cursor. It appears that the inequality holds for 1.32 < x < 2.81, Sinee [2 = 132] = 0.68 and [2 - 2.811 0 <5 < min (0.68,081} = 0.68 81, we choose 8. |sinx — 3] <0.1 > 04 0) = 17.8412 em, 11786 <1 = 128888. [TBF — J ~ 004466 and fH ‘the radius within 0.0445 em of 17.8412, the area will be within 5 em? of 1000. (©) x is the radius, / (x) is the area, aris the target radius given in part (a), J. isthe target area (1000), is the tolerance in the area (5), and d isthe tolerance in the radius given in part (b). 1009 = 0.04455. So if the machinist gets 1M, (@) T= 0.1w? + 2.155w +20 and T= 200 => (b) From the graph, 199 < F< 201 => 0.1u? 4 2.135w+20= 200 => (by the 32.89 0) the target input power given in part (a), fis the aco, target temperature (200), ¢ is the tolerance in the temporatre (1), and isthe tolerance in the power input in watts indicated in part (b) (0.11 watts) as as (wats) 15, Given & > 0, we need d > O such that if [x — 2] <4, then IGx-2)-41<¢ @ Bx-6 (Gx —2) =A} < 8, Thus, fim (x —2) = 4 by the definition ofa limit 16. Given « > 0, we need d > 0 such that if lx — 4] <4, then [S-2x)-CO1 0, we need 5 > 0 such that if fe — (=1)| < 6, then [Gx48)-3) (Se +8) = 3] 0, we need 5 > such that if Jy — (DI < 6, then tee IB=4x)-I ce & [nde-dee oo dietllce @& el [r= (CDI < ¢/4. So choose 6 = #/4. Th M7- 1948) = 71 0, weneed 3> OsuchthatitO < jx —3] ° |x - 3] < Se. So choose § = Se. Then0 <|x-3} 0, weneed d > O such that iO < fx ~ 61 <4,then |(}-+3)—3| <0 e |¥—df [x6] Boo. 3 [ysl = +3) — 3] 0. weneedd> Osuehitarf x — C991 \(@-%) ce. Thos, im, ( -}) 7. by the definition of a limit, 4x12 iven 6 > 0, we need J > 0 such that if0 < |x ~ 3] < 8, then 0, we need 4 > O such that if |x — al < 6 then Jy ~a] < 2. Sod = 6 will work a ven > 0, we need > O such that if |x ~ al < 6 then je ~c| < #. But fe —el matter what 6 we pick. 0, so this will be true no B, Given: > 0, weed > Osuch that if|x| < Sthen x? =O] bby the definition of a timit. 26. Given © Then jx 0) <3 = 0, we need 3 > 0 such that ifr — 0) < 6 then IIx] — 0] < #. But |[xIl = b=. |. So this is true if we pick 65) CHAPTER2 LIils AND RATES OF CHANGE 28, Given: > 0, wenced d > 0 such that if 9-8 |Y=¥-0] 0, we need 3 = Osuch that if fx — 2] < dythen [(x?—4x-45)— 1] 0, we need d > Osu that if Wy ~ 3] Gerba > [rtdcd Soaked = min {1.2/8}. Then) =3] <8 > Kv=3)G +41 $ [83 =8- Le —3] <8) Se. So fi (2 4 = 4) = By hed jon of a limit BI, Given: > 0, we need & > O sue that if fx — (~2)1 < A then |(x? = 1) 3] < or upon simplitying we need x? =a] < ewhonever|y +21 <4. Notice that tix +2) < Lythen Tex $2<1 = —S fy = 2] © 5, Satake = min /5, I). Then fy ~ 2} < Sand [x 421 < /5. 50 (22 = 1) = 3) = HG 4 2p Ev — 291 = be 4 DIL — 2} < /5) (5) =e. Therefore, by the definition of a Limi firs, (2 <1) = 3 32, Given c > 0, we need 3 > O such that if by ~ 2] < d; then |x? — 8] f= 8) = fy 2 (x? 420 #4) < 19 =e, Soby the definition ofa limit, tim x* = 8. 38, Given # > 0, we ht) = min 2, §}. IFO < |e —3) O be given, We have to find a number 3 > 0 such that {S21 5, We find a positive constant C such that = ir BEB ep — jam ecanmabe fe ~2] Owe let 6 = min[1, 2x}. 160 < fr = 2] < then |x 2] <1 = Tov bat 226 Baxi . This shows toa Feed = jg) © 5 (osinpart Abo ir ~ 21 < 2r,50 yny= that SECTION 24 THEPREGSE DEFINITION OFA UMaTT 3. 1 Guessing a value for 6 Given e > 0, we must find & > 0 such that |Y¥ ~ Ja < « whenever O< Iya) <6. Bui Ye = Ya = ). Now if we can find a positive constant such that JE + Ya > C then < e,and we take [x = al < Ce, We ean find tis number by # n+ Ja Cc restricting x (0 fie in some interval Vit va> a+ Jas andsoc is bewal < (YFo- va)» Tis sugzes that weft = min [3 (Vier va) a] ntered ata. Ife al < Jauthen fa suitable choice for the constant, So 2 Shing tcl works Gene» 0, weltd~ min|Sa,(/fat Ya). 10 < al <3 en b-alcfo = eee eae: so _ We + Va) Ware Ja) 1 Given e = }, there exists 3 > O such that 0 < |e <6 = IHW@=Li<} @& Therefore, lim, JF = Jé by the definition of a limi. 36, Suppose that fim 1 (¢ L-$ $.Por-s<1<0HO= 1} <0 = <4}, Thivcontaies > J. Therefore, lim 1 ( does not exist 37. Suppose that lim, f (8) = FG there exists} > Osuch that 0 < |x| <3 = fC) L1 < }. Take any rational number r with < fr] < 8. Then f (-) = 0,30 0~ L| < 4,0 L < JE] < 4. Now take any irrational number s with O < [sf <6. Then f(s £ < $,90 lim £4) doesnot exis. 280 [I~ EL < $. Hence, 1—L < 4,50 > §. This contradicts 38, First suppose that lim, f(x) = L. Then, given ¢ > O there exists d > Oso that < |x—al <3 > IP) — Ll <6. Thena Sex 0< bal < S501 G)— LI O< Mal 0 be given, Since lim_f (x) = L, there exists 4) > 0.30 thata= 8) O sothat a a—d) 0, weneed 5 > Osuch that |r +31<8 > 1/(e43)"> M.Now os we 43) eee ererr i 1 HI < Te WHil< so fim G3! 68 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND RATES OF CHANGE 3 3 41, Let N< Obe given. Then, forx < =I, we have —— <, Sewtye @ Jeexthr Obe gi or hve SY VSO HD Yeeeah let (s 3 5 oe fe. men-t-o M+ t=e 00, there exists 41 > O-such that 0 < Ix —al <3) = Since fi 5 8G) =e, there exists ds > Osuch tha IgGe)—el g(x) > ¢= 1, Let be the smaller 05 and d:. Then 0 < |r =a) <3 = Fs) 490) > (M+ 1 = 6) + (= 1) = M. Thus, lim Lf 4) 4g G)] = 0 (b) Let A > Obe gi 0. Since Jim g (1) = ¢ > 0, there exists dy > O such that 0 < |x —al <0) = le) el €/2. Since fim F &) = 00, there exists bs > O such that O < fx ~ al < dp fea)» je tets=ins.9} Thad ME Jim £ (3) @ @) = 0. (©) Let N < O be given. Since lim g(x) = ¢ < 0, there ‘exists J; > O such that 0 < [xa] <3) > Ie) <-c/2 > 268) < 6/2. Since Jim, fe) = 90, thete exists bp > Ouch that 0 < [x — al <2 = f(x) > 2W/e. (Notethate 0.) Let d = min {é), 93). Then we O f&)>2N/e = fE)E@<—-F ¥, 80 fim f(x) g(x) = 00. =25 Continuity 1. From Equation 1, fin, (2) = £4. 2, The graph of doesn’t have any holes, jumps, or vertical asymptotes. 3. (a) The following are the numbers at which / is discontinuous and the type of discontinuity at that number: —5 (jump), ~3 (infinite), —1 (undefined), 3 (removable), 5 (infinite), 8 Gump), 10 (undefined), (b) 7 is continuous from the let at —§ and ~3, and continuous from the right at 8. It is continuous from neither side at 1, 3, 5, and 10, 4. g is continuous on [~6, 5], (5,3), (3, ~2), (-2, 1). (1,3). 13,5}. and (5, 7]. 5 6. SECTION2S CONTINUITY 68 7. (a) (b) There are discontinuities at ¢ = |, 2, 3, and 4. A person parking in the lot would want to keep in mind that the charge will jump at the beginning of each hour. 8. (a) Continuous; at the location in question, the temperature changes smoothly as time passes, without any instantaneous jumps from one temperature to another. (b) Continuous; the temperature ata specific time changes smoothly as the distance due west from New York City inereases, without any instantancous jumps. {€) Discontinuous, as the distance due west from New York City increases, the altitude above sea level may jump from one height to another without going through all of the intermediate values — at a cliff, for example. (@) Discontinuous; as the distance traveted increases, the cost ofthe ride jumps in small inerements, (©) Discontinuous; when the ights are switehed on (or off, the current suddenly changes between 0 and some ‘nonzero value, without passing through all ofthe intermediate values. This is debatable, though, depending on ‘your definition of current 9 Since f and g are continuous functions, im [2 (8) ~ x (8)] =2 lim, 2) ~ him, @ (by Limit Laws2 & 3) =2/ G)— £8) (by continuity of / and g at x = 3) =2:5-gG) =10-¢6) Since it is given that Jim [2 (x) ~ g (x)] = 4, we have 10 = g (3) = 4, or g3) =6. 10. Fin, £6) = fi, (2? + T=B) = tim? [lin TT = B+ VIRB = 16+ V3 =f By he definition of continuity, f is continuous at a = 4. 11 fin, £6) tim, (422)! (x2 fi ») eben lim, 3)! = 81 = f(-1). By the definition of continuity, / is continuous at a ceed tims t tina 441 12, Tim ¢ () = Jim, 2 (4). So g is continuous at 4 18. Ford ite 1B Aiscontinuous at 1 beea discontinuous at | sinee f (1) is lim f (x) does not exist. not defined. er WS | is discontinuous 18 Since f(x) = forx 1, we have ‘at —1 because f (—1) is not defined. ft, FG) = tim, x4 lim, & -)=-2. Bu SD = 6,80 fim, £4) # LCD. Therefore, Fis | diszominvost I a] : 18, Since f(x) al
  • 0} = (1 lil < 3) =[-5, 5}, Abso, 2¢ is continuous on R, so by Theorem 4 41, £0) = 2 + V25=F is comtinvous on its domain, which is (~5, 5] 28. e(x) =x ~ Land G (x) = x — 2 ate both polynomials, so by Theozem $ they ate continuous. Also f(x) = is continuous by Theorem 6, s0 f(g (x)) = &/x — 1 is continuous on R by Theorem 8. Thus, the product (x) = YE=T (x? ~ 2) iscontinuous on R by Theorem 4 4. ‘Fis continuous by Theorem 7. 1 whieh is 24, By Theorem 7, the trigonometric function sin.x and the polynornial function x + | are continuous on B. By Theorem 4, f(x) = = is continuous on its domain, (x |x 4 —1}, 25. By Theorem 5, the polynomial 1 ~ x? is continuous on (—c0, co). By Theorem 7, cos is continuous on its domain, R. By Theorem 9, cos (1 ~ x2) is continuous om its domain, which is R 26, By Theorem 5, the polynomial 2x is continuous on (00, 0¢). By Theorem 7, tan is continuous at every number in its domain; that is, {x |x # § +n). By Theorem 9, tan2x is continuous on its domain, which is fe 12x 4 $ +n} = {x |x x § + Fn} (the odd multiples of §). 27. By Theorem 7, the root function J and the trigonometric funetion sinx are continuous on their domains, [0, 00) ‘and (00, 00), respectively. Thus, the product F(x) = JX sinx is continuous on the intersection of those domains, (0,00), by Theorem 4 #4, 28. The sine and cosine functions are continuous everywhere by Theorem 7, so F (x) = sin (cos (sin x)), whieh is the composite of sine, cosine, and (once again) sine, is continuous everywhere by Theorem 9, 1 FE} _ ‘0 is undefined and hence discontinuous when sins Ttsinx =0 €9 sinx=-1 eo x=—§ 42an.manimeger oi} 0 30. 5 5 1 1 B= 200 5 a The funetion y trigonometric funetion and a root function, The square root function has domain (0,00) and the tangent function has domain {x |x # $ +n). So f is discontinuous when x

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