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Disorder: Progress in
Recognition and Treatment
SYNTHESIS
CLINICAL
Abstract: This review will address pathological narcissism and narcissistic personality disorder (NPD)—the clinical
presentation, the challenges involved in diagnosing NPD, and significant areas of co-occurring psychopathology
(i.e., affective disorder, substance usage, and suicide). Major depressive disorder is the most common comorbid disorder
in patients with pathological narcissism or NPD. Need for self-enhancement and chronic disillusionment with self make
these individuals particularly susceptible to substance use. Suicidal preoccupation in these patients is characterized by the
absence of depression, lack of communication, self-esteem dysregulation, and life events that decrease self-esteem. The
diagnostic focus on patients’ external characteristics and interpersonal behavior tends to dismiss the importance of their
internal distress and painful experiences of self-esteem fluctuations, self-criticism, and emotional dysregulation. A
collaborative and exploratory diagnostic approach to pathological narcissism and NPD is outlined that aims at engaging
the patients and promoting their curiosity, narration, and self-reflection. Alliance building with a narcissistic patient is
a slow and gradual process and mistakes are common. A central task is to balance these patients’ avoidance and sudden
urges to reject the therapist and drop out of treatment with the goal of encouraging and enabling them to face and reflect
upon their experiences and behavior. Implications for treatment and possible areas or indications of change include:
interpersonal and vocational functioning; sense of agency and self-direction; emotion regulation and ability to
understand, tolerate, and modulate feelings; reflective ability; and ability to mourn the loss of wished for or unreachable
internal self-states, relationships, and external ideals.
occasions she felt such fear of losing her competence—and entitlement, exploitiveness, arrogance, and envy.
hence her reputation in the lab and appreciation from No changes in the diagnostic criteria for NPD are
her supervisor—that she saw ending her life as the only expected in DSM-5 (2). Additional characteristics
way out. Ms. B did not suffer from a major depressive frequently found in patients with NPD are perfec-
disorder. Nevertheless, she had intermittent mood fluc- tionism and high standards, feelings of inferiority,
tuations that coincided with rapid shifts in her self- chronic envy, shame, rage, boredom and emptiness,
regulation, i.e., in her sense of agency, self-esteem, and hypervigilance, and affective reactivity (3–6). Em-
self-judgment. pirical studies have also confirmed that internal
emotional distress, interpersonal vulnerability,
avoidance, fear, pain, anxiety, and a sense of in-
CASE VIGNETTE #2: “SEEKING COMPETITION BUT
adequacy are associated with narcissistic personality
FINDING STAGNATION”
functioning (7, 8).
Mr. M, a successful financial investor in his early Narcissism ranges from healthy and proactive to
50s, began psychotherapy after facing an ultimatum pathological and malignant. Pathological narcissism
from his wife of 30 years who had threatened to leave can be expressed in temporary traits or in a stable,
him if he did not seek treatment and change his atti- enduring personality disorder. Both pathological
tudes and behavior. Mr. M described himself as narcissism and NPD can co-occur with consistent
a committed, goal-oriented, and success-focused man, areas and periods of high functioning, sense of agency,
but one also in need of many parallel intense activity and competence, or with intermittent qualities, ca-
tracks, including competitive sailing and extramarital pabilities, or social skills. Independent of the level of
affairs, to balance what he described as a deep internal severity, pathological narcissism can either be overt,
darkness that he had suffered from since early child- striking, and obtrusive or internally concealed and
hood. Easily irritated by others’ inconsistency and im- unnoticeable (9, 10). Recent research has confirmed
precision, he also described himself as distant, two types of NPD, one grandiose, arrogant, asser-
unempathic, and self-preoccupied. But most impor- tive, and aggressive and another vulnerable, shy,
tantly he struggled with a sense of emptiness and frus- insecure, hypersensitive, and shame-ridden. Each
tration of never reaching the satisfaction and sense of individual presentation of NPD can include traits
accomplishment that he so intensely desired. He felt and patterns of both phenotypes (7, 8, 11).
guilty for not being a good husband, and although he As a personality disorder, NPD is best identified in
loved his children and adored his grandchildren, he felt terms of self-regulation with fluctuating self-esteem
distant, struggled with urges to leave, and experienced ranging from grandiosity (in fantasy or behavior) and
a sense of deeper diffuse guilt, as if he did not deserve or overconfidence to inferiority and insecurity, with
could not embrace the fact that he indeed meant self-enhancing and self-serving interpersonal behav-
something and contributed to both his family and ior, high standards and aspirations, intense reactions
company. He felt trapped, unable to pursue what he to perceived threats, and compromised empathic
really wanted in life, and asked the therapist if there ability.
indeed was any help for this condition. In addition, depressivity, i.e. features related to
These case vignettes show a range of clinical depressive temperament and depressive personality
presentations and level of functioning in people with disorder (12, 13), can co-occur with hypersensitive
narcissistic personality disorder (NPD), with com- narcissistic personality functioning. The prevalence
mon underlying fragility and regulatory patterns. of NPD varies from 0%–6% in general popula-
They also highlight the variable motivation in people tion, 1.3%–17% in clinical population, and 8.5%–
with NPD that reflect the complex, unintegrated 20% in outpatient private practice (14). Since
nature of their sense of self and identity. This review co-occurrence of NPD with other personality dis-
of NPD will address pathological narcissism, the orders is common, it is important to identify the
clinical presentation and diagnosis of NPD, signif- discriminating features, especially since narcissistic
icant areas of co-occurring psychopathology (e.g., personality functioning can have significant treat-
substance usage and suicide), and treatment mo- ment implications (15) (Table 1).
dalities and some treatment considerations. Narcissistic personality functioning and NPD
have also gained considerable societal recognition,
PATHOLOGICAL NARCISSISM AND THE especially within corporative, organizational con-
DIAGNOSIS OF NPD texts. Exploitation of power and trust as a conse-
quence of narcissistic work ethics and leadership
NPD is diagnostically defined in the DSM (1) as has been documented, as well as the opposite, i.e.,
a pervasive pattern of grandiosity, need for admi- charisma and courage to implement constructive
ration, and lack of empathy, with interpersonal extraordinary changes or visionary goals.
168 Spring 2013, Vol. XI, No. 2 FOCUS THE JOURNAL OF LIFELONG LEARNING IN PSYCHIATRY
RONNINGSTAM AND WEINBERG
SYNTHESIS
CLINICAL
Paranoid personality disorder (PPD) Absence of pervasive distrust or search for hidden motives; belief that other people envy them
and want to hurt or counteract them.
THE NARCISSISTIC PATIENT high moral and ethical standards. Some are boastful,
assertive, and arrogant, and others can be modest and
Patients with NPD can be professionally suc- unassuming with an air of grace; still others can
cessful, consistently high-functioning, and socially present as perpetual failures, while constantly driven
well-connected (7), but they can also present with by unattainable, grandiose aims. One can be charm-
functional impairment, either with severely dis- ing and friendly, another shy and quiet, yet another
abling narcissistic traits and character functioning, domineering, aggressive, and manipulative. Some
with accompanying mental disorders (16) or with are intrusive and controlling, others are evasive and
malignant, antisocial, or psychopathic traits (17, 18). avoidant. Some can openly and bluntly exhibit most
Changes toward worsening as well as improvement extreme narcissistic features and strivings but still
in narcissistic functioning are often influenced by hide more significant narcissistic personality prob-
real-life experiences that can be either threatening lems. While some can give well-informed and ac-
and corrosive or encouraging and corrective (19). curate accounts of their pathological narcissistic
Patients can also present and experience themselves functioning, others may be totally oblivious of their
differently in different social or interpersonal con- problems and of why they seek treatment. Never-
texts; i.e., the same individual may present as dom- theless, the common and underlying indications of
inant and assertive in one setting and in another narcissistic personality functioning include grandi-
as avoidant and easily humiliated, struggling with osity and self-enhancement, vulnerability, and self-
feelings of envy or resentment. In addition, certain esteem fluctuations, limitations in interpersonal
circumstances can aggravate narcissistic traits in re- relationships, compromised empathic functioning
sponse to threatening or traumatic experiences (20). and emotion recognition (24–26), and intense emo-
Specific events, although not inherently traumatic, tional reactions to threats to self-experience and sense
can for some narcissistically fragile people take on of control.
an inner subjective traumatic meaning. Such nar- Patients with pathological narcissism and NPD
cissistic trauma threatens the individual’s sense of tend to evoke strong reaction in others, clinicians and
continuity, coherence, stability, and well-being (21). therapists included. Awareness of countertransfer-
Increased prevalence of PTSD (25.7%) has been ence (27) and attention to the clinician’s own in-
found in patients with NPD (16), and NPD can clination to judge the patient and react critically,
predict development of PTSD (22). This is also condescendingly, or with blame are important when
consistent with findings of trauma (20) and fear (23) helping these patients explore and understand the
in NPD. roots of their narcissistic functioning and to en-
Identifying patients with pathological narcissism courage their motivation and efforts to change.
and NPD can sometimes be difficult. Some patients
present with absence of symptoms or notable suf- DIAGNOSING NPD
fering while others report depression, substance use,
mood swings, or eating disorder. Some patients ef- There are several challenges involved in diagnos-
fectively hide their narcissistic characteristics, and ing patients with NPD. First, the diagnostic focus
others are initially friendly and tuned in but gradually on patients’ external characteristics tends to dismiss
turn distant and aloof. Some present with malignant, the importance of their internal distress and painful
antisocial, or psychopathic traits while others have experiences of self-esteem fluctuations, self-criticism,
and emotional dysregulation. Consequently, clini- grandiosity embraces both a sense of superiority and
cal definition and usage of the NPD diagnosis also fantasies of self-fulfillment. It is related to perfec-
tend to differ significantly from the official criteria tionism and high ideals, and the driving force be-
set. Second, the co-occurrence of NPD with acute hind self-enhancing and self-serving interpersonal
major mental disorders and their predominant behavior. Patients with NPD can have a range of
symptomatology, such as substance use, eating dynamic, cognitive, emotional, and interpersonal
disorder, bipolar spectrum disorder, or atypical ways to sustain and enhance grandiosity. Never-
mood disorder, can complicate or diffuse the di- theless, overt grandiosity is a state that is dependent
agnostic identification of NPD (28, 29). Third, the and fluctuating and hence not a reliable diagnostic
protective and regulatory patterns in individuals indicator of NPD (19). Narcissistic individuals
with narcissistic pathology and NPD, such as avoid- are also extremely sensitive to criticism and fail-
ance and need for control, shame and denial, and ures as well as to self-directed aggression, self-
limitations in ability for self-disclosure, self-awareness, doubts, shame, and fear. Subjectively perceived
and self-directed empathic capability and under- overwhelming failures or losses of self-esteem
standing, can easily lead to misinterpreting or and grandiosity-sustaining conditions can lead to
bypassing significant NPD traits. Fourth, the actual sudden, unexpected suicide (31).
narcissistic pattern or potential for developing a
personality disorder may not be manifest in higher COMORBIDITY OF NPD
functioning people until they face a corrosive life
event, a personal crisis or failure, or an acute onset of
a major mental illness (19, 20). Fifth, a trait-focused
diagnostic approach automatically tends to evoke
AFFECTIVE DISORDERS
defensive responses in narcissistic patients because Major depressive disorder (MDD) is the most
it fails to reach a meaningful correspondence with common comorbid disorder in NPD patients (45%–
their individual subjective correlates and experi- 50%) (16, 28). Though lower NPD rates were re-
ences. Patients tend to oppose being “labeled” NPD, ported in MDD patients (0%–16%) those patients
conceiving it as prejudicial and not informative. with a mixture of depression, dysthymia or cyclo-
A collaborative and exploratory diagnostic ap- thymia have a somewhat higher NPD prevalence
proach to pathological narcissism and NPD is highly (5%–11%) (28). Depression in MDD patients is
recommended. The major task in alliance-building typically precipitated by any life events that lead to
is to engage the patient and promote his/her curi- disillusionment with self, self-depreciation, or loss
osity, narration and self-reflection. Strategies that of internal or external sustaining resources, e.g.
encourage integration of the patient’s own accounts failures, divorces, rejections, physical illness or in-
and understanding with the clinician’s observations jury, and aging. Depression in NPD, on the other
and knowledge can help bridge the often painful and hand, is likely to be characterized by anger (32) or
inconceivable discrepancy between patient’s own transient quasi-paranoid thoughts (33), reactions
subjective experience and his/her interpersonal consistent with an externalizing, self-protective ori-
relating. Psychoeducation of the meaning and con- entation. Patients with dysthymia and NPD present
text of narcissistic traits and behavior can be an in- with chronic boredom, emptiness, aloneness, stim-
tegral part of the initial evaluation. Integrating a ulus hunger, dissatisfaction, and a sense of loss of
dimensional self-regulatory understanding of path- meaning (34).
ological narcissism with diagnostically meaningful Bipolar disorders are present in 5%–11% of NPD
characteristics can help to identify the patient’s patients, whereas about 0%–8% of euthymic bi-
fluctuating, variable, and fragile self-esteem and the polar patients meet criteria for NPD (28, 29). Hy-
co-occurrence of both grandiosity and inferiority. pomanic symptoms increase the likelihood of the
Such a diagnostic approach could identify and incorrect NPD diagnosis. The important distinctive
evaluate basic characteristics for narcissistic func- features of NPD versus hypomanic episode are the
tioning, differentiate temporary fluctuating or ex- need for admiration, devaluation of others, and envy
ternally triggered shifts from enduring indications of of others (35).
pathological narcissism, and acknowledge the nar-
cissistic individual’s internal emotional suffering
related to insecurity, self-criticism, anxiety, shame,
SUBSTANCE USE DISORDERS
170 Spring 2013, Vol. XI, No. 2 FOCUS THE JOURNAL OF LIFELONG LEARNING IN PSYCHIATRY
RONNINGSTAM AND WEINBERG
NPD in samples of patients with alcohol abuse or VIGNETTE #4: “SORROWS OF A VIRTUOSO
dependence was 6%–7%, whereas it was much SURGEON”
higher, 13%–38% in samples of patients who abused
Dr. B, a medical resident, spent many hours dedi-
other substances (28). Several hypotheses can explain
cated to his career. Little did his family and colleagues
the association between NPD and SUD:
know what he was hiding behind the external ap-
pearance of a promising, though slightly haughty
(i) both conditions stem from the same risk
trainee. Driven to become “the best”, he developed
factors (i.e. trauma, genetic factors)
(ii) NPD leads to SUD a habit of drinking daily at work two to three bottles of
(iii) SUD leads to NPD (e.g., substance-induced wine to fend off anxiety about his evaluation. He felt
personality or brain changes) that he must be “a real genius” if he could perform
complicated surgeries while intoxicated. Thinking of
SYNTHESIS
CLINICAL
All these hypotheses have accumulated some himself as an exceptional human being, he believed
that his drinking was excusable, if not commendable,
support in studies of personality disorders in gen-
that common rules did not apply to him, and that his
eral (36), but have not yet been tested for NPD
surgeries were better and his scientific writing more
specifically.
innovative compared with that of others. When his wife
Need for self-enhancement and chronic disillu-
noticed increased tremulousness and other withdrawal
sionment with self make NPD patients particularly
signs, she urged him to start treatment.
susceptible to substance use. Alcohol, benzodiaze-
pines, opiates, and cannabis decrease disillusion-
ment with self, whereas stimulants and cocaine SUICIDE IN NPD
create illusions of superiority, grandiosity, and self-
sufficiency (37). For example, DSM Cluster B Prevalence of suicidal behaviors in NPD is not
personality disorder patients report that they are known. Research is limited to only a few empirical
more likely to drink excessively for reasons related investigations and most available facts about suicide
to enhancement of positive mood and excitement- in NPD come from clinical studies as well as studies
seeking (38), as seen in vignette #3. that focused on concepts related to NPD, not nec-
essarily in NPD patients. The importance of this
subject is hard to overestimate, inasmuch as, in our
VIGNETTE #3: “PIANO FOR FOUR HANDS ONE experience, suicidal behaviors are closely associated
MORE TIME” with NPD. This seemingly paradoxical associa-
In his youth Mr. A, now an aging movie music tion of suicide (i.e., self-destruction) and narcissism
composer, was spoiled by local recognition and success. (i.e., self-expansion) reveals the complex nature of
Little was now left from his past grandeur: his job had both conditions. One of the earliest depictions—
come to a deadlock, his wife had died in a car accident, that of the brave warrior Ajax who threw himself on
and his body was aging and weak. Oblivious to his his sword following a defeat—demonstrates such
collapsing life, he started drinking heavily to blur the association.
distinction between sad reality and his idyllic memory Suicidal preoccupation in NPD has a number
of his past where he could be with his wife again and of unique characteristics, including the absence
they could play the piano together. He came to treat- of depression, lack of communication, self-esteem
ment upon the urgings of his worried children. dysregulation, and life events that decrease self-
Cocaine produces an expansive, grandiose sense esteem (31, 43). Some people with pathological
of self, as well as an illusion of control and in- narcissism or NPD can have suicidal ideas and
vulnerability. This makes cocaine a particularly apt fantasies that actually serve a narcissistically pro-
choice for patients with NPD since it propels their tective self-regulatory function. Knowing that sui-
vulnerable selves to a desired superiority (39, 40). cide is a possible option can sustain self-regulation
Stimulants or cocaine may in fact increase perfor- and sense of control, and help such people stay
mance and enjoyment of work, as well as prolong connected, work and function, and even enjoy life.
work hours, which may contribute to a faulty per- It is very important to differentiate between the life-
ception of those stimulants’ benefits, thus making it threatening and life-sustaining implications of these
challenging to give them up. Similarly, alcohol and patients’ suicididal thoughts and fantasies (44).
other anxiolytics have the potential of alleviating
academic and vocational stress, thus making some of
the career-focused NPD patients, such as medical
COMORBID PSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS
residents (41) and physicians (42), especially vul- Suicide risk in NPD patients escalates when NPD
nerable as seen in vignette #4. is comorbid with other psychiatric disorders. These
PERSONALITY TRAITS
Characteristics of
Table 2.
Suicidal Behaviors in NPD in Some personality traits are closely associated with
Absence of Major Mental the risk of suicide in NPD (Table 3).
Disorder Vulnerability of self-esteem, especially in response
to life events that challenge habitual ways in which
Loss of ideal self-state and the break-up of life dream
NPD patients sustain their lives, makes these patients
Not meeting high/perfectionist standards
particularly susceptible to suicide. Perceived failures
Sudden defense breakdown
and humiliations coupled with perfectionism in-
Turning revengeful wishes against oneself crease feelings of shame, paralysis, and defeat, whereas
Intolerance of passivity and assuming active role through inconsistent self-representation creates confusion,
suicidal action
inner tension, meaninglessness, and lack of control.
Intolerance of humiliation, defeat, entrapment, shame, or
envy
Consequently, the NPD patients feel besieged by
shaming, perfectionistic standards, a sense of failure
and defeat in their lives, while also being held back
comorbid disorders interact with NPD dynamics in by a defective, weak body. They may feel too
such way that they synergistically increase suicide ashamed to seek support, thus increasing their des-
risk. When MDD is present, suicidal dynamics are peration, and they are more likely to make planned
related to hopelessness, self-blame, anxiety, and suicides in which they try to preserve a sense of self-
other risk factors associated with suicide in MDD worth and escape their torturous prison.
(45). In addition, depressive episodes are deeply
shaming experiences for a patient with NPD who is LIFE EVENTS
likely to feel defeated and trapped by depressive
experiences that are at odds with the usual grandiose Stressful life events are also closely associated with
suicidal behaviors (75, 76), and certain life events are
sense of self and with expectations of functioning.
particularly pernicious for NPD patients:
Substance use can preserve grandiosity, yet it is
likely to spur suicidal action through its detrimental
(i) legal or disciplinary problems (75, 77)
effect on employment, quality of life, relationships,
(ii) unemployment (75)
as well as exacerbation of other psychiatric disorders
(iii) physical illness (75)
(46). Physical dependence is another humiliating (iv) financial problems (75)
experience of entrapment that is intolerable for (v) problems at school or job (77)
patients with NPD who wish to remain free. Both (vi) aging and aging-related losses and tran-
panic disorder and eating disorders (especially an- sitions (78)
orexia nervosa) are associated with an increased suicide
risk, although it is typically due to other comorbid These life events challenge narcissistic equilibrium
disorders (47–49). Comorbid BPD is likely to in- by removing internal or external sources of self-
crease suicide risk through a propensity for impulsive esteem and thus lead to suicidal crisis.
actions that cause havoc in interpersonal and pro-
fessional lives, thus precipitating a sense of failure
and defeat; emotional instability, associated with EMOTIONAL STATES
BPD, is humiliating for patients with NPD, who Negative emotional states are the best short-term
are invested in maintaining internal control (50). predictors of suicide. Narcissistic vulnerability cre-
Comorbid ASPD increases risk of suicide through ates susceptibility to feelings of shame, humiliation,
either shame and defeat associated with the failure of defeat, entrapment, and meaninglessness which
psychopathic manipulations to accomplish a plan- force them into a sense of desperation (79), thus
ned outcome; financial or interpersonal difficulties leading to suicidal behaviors. Association between
due to irresponsible, exploitative, or impulsive be- these feelings and suicide has been confirmed em-
haviors (51); a sense of helplessness when the person pirically (80–84).
gets caught or incarcerated (52); and regret over
misdeeds (53).
One of the unique characteristics of suicide in CASE VIGNETTE #5: “BETTER DEAD THAN
HUMILIATED”
NPD is that suicidal dynamics can be present in the
absence of other major mental disorders, particularly Mr. C is a 45-year-old, unemployed architect who
depression. This has been documented both em- came to treatment following loss of his fiancée, who
pirically (54) and clinically (31, 43, 55) (Table 2). succumbed to cancer. His savings had dwindled in the
172 Spring 2013, Vol. XI, No. 2 FOCUS THE JOURNAL OF LIFELONG LEARNING IN PSYCHIATRY
RONNINGSTAM AND WEINBERG
SYNTHESIS
CLINICAL
Dissociation (i) Detachment from one’s body (62, 63); body provides sense of being real and represents
valued part of the self; dissociation eliminates these feelings, making suicide easier to
carry out
(ii) Cognitive deconstruction (64) – defensive avoidance of thinking in meaningful ways because
of threats to self - increases propensity for destructive actions (65, 66)
(iii) Inner deadness, commonly found in NPD patients (67) as well as in suicidal people (68)
(i) - (iii) makes suicide more likely as an attempt to get rid of meaningless life and an already
dead self
Body hatred Expectations of Venus- or Apollo-like bodies or preoccupation with body imperfections (e.g.
body dysmorphic disorder) lead to desire to get rid of imperfect body (43, 69)
Inconsistent self-representation (i) Confused self-identity (70–72)
(ii) Inconsistent standards of self, such as ideals and obligations (73)
(iii) Propensity for self-disintegration (74)
(i) - (iii) increase suicide risk
course of taking care of her until her last breath. His to reach such an agreement. A flexible treatment
wealthy brother gave Mr. C an allowance and was approach, adjusted to the individual patient’s func-
paying his rent. Paralyzed by an agonizing fear of tioning, motivation and degree of self-awareness,
failure, Mr. C was procrastinating about his job search, is strongly recommended, as is a respectful, consis-
spending months in aimless smoking, painting action tent, attentive, and task-focused therapeutic atti-
figures, or in late-night bar visits. Avoidance preserved tude (30, 85).
the illusion of superiority and a secret triumph of his Alliance building with a narcissistic patient is a
competitive wishes vis-à-vis his brother. Frustrated by slow and gradual process. A central task is to balance
Mr. C’s stagnation, his brother made the allowance the patient’s avoidance and sudden urges to reject
conditional on performing some work. Plagued by the therapist and drop out of treatment with the goal
procrastination, Mr. C was unable to fulfill his work of encouraging and enabling the patient to face and
duties and became preoccupied with fears of losing the reflect upon their experiences and behavior. In ad-
allowance, becoming homeless, and living on the street. dition, there are a number of common mistakes in
He contemplated killing himself, hoping to avoid hu- treatments of NPD patients:
miliation and defeat through suicide. The crisis was
relieved when he became more accepting of himself and (i) directly confronting or criticizing grandiosity
took a less demanding job. (ii) over-attending to the patient’s grandiosity
by ignoring insecurity, vulnerability and fail-
TREATMENT OF NPD ures, as well as real personal capabilities and
assets
People with pathological narcissism and NPD can (iii) engaging in competitive, controlling rela-
seek treatment for various reasons and in different tionship with the patient
stages in life (Table 4). It is essential to handle the (iv) taking a passive approach, expecting the
initial contact with narcissistic patients in ways that patient will generate necessary solutions and
encourage their exploration of relevant problems progress without external help.
and their willingness to address these problems in
a meaningful way with the therapist. It is especially Awareness of these pitfalls can help to avoid
important to identify the patient’s own understand- impasses or early treatment terminations.
ing and description of problems and motivation to Several treatment approaches are specifically ad-
seek treatment, and several sessions may be required justed to pathological narcissism and NPD (Table 5),
but so far no single treatment strategy has proven patients’ hypersensitivity to side effects, especially
superior or reliable. Psychoanalytic and psychody- those affecting sexual and intellectual functioning,
namic therapy are the most common (86–96). call for extra caution. No specific pharmacotherapy
Transference-focused therapy, which applies an has proved to be effective for pathological narcissism
active and interactive approach with exploration and NPD.
and interpretation, has recently proven benefi- When people with NPD come to treatment be-
cial (97, 98). Within the cognitive realm, schema- cause of a major mental disorder, such as depression,
focused therapy (99, 100) and metacognitive in- dysthymic disorder, or substance use, case formu-
terpersonal therapy (101) are modalities developed lation and treatment planning should emphasize the
specifically for NPD, while DBT (102), originally centrality of NPD. As mentioned above, patients are
developed for treatment of BPD, can be useful for not likely to welcome discussion of the NPD di-
some patients who are motivated to learn skills agnosis, which can make them feel controlled or
for improving control, self-regulation, and agency. ashamed. However, experience near discussion of the
Psychoeducation can promote patients’ understand- patient’s difficulty to maintain stable self-esteem in
ing of their emotional and intrapsychic experiences, experience near terms is likely to help in alliance-
diminish fear of the unknown and uncontrollable, building and collaborative treatment planning.
and in a similar way help strengthen their sense of Comorbid disorders need to be recognized and
internal control and agency. Mentalization-based included in treatment. Depression usually improves
treatment (103) can be helpful for high achieving when the underlying narcissistic vulnerability re-
professional people in crises as it focuses on self- solves. Medications are typically only modestly
regulation and awareness of mental states in oth- helpful in addressing depression in NPD. Further,
ers. Similarly, group therapy (104, 105) and couples when depression improves due to resolution of the
therapy (106, 107) can for some people be of use, precipitating conditions (e.g., finding a new job, new
foremost depending upon their personality func- partner, healing of physical injuries), the patient may
tioning and life circumstances (Table 5). Psycho- lose motivation for further treatment. Such pre-
pharmacological treatment can be beneficial for mature terminations may be avoided if the patient
treating excessive aggressivity, or comorbid mental understands that the resolution of underlying vul-
disorders, such as bipolar disorder, major depression nerability is important in preventing future depres-
or substance usage disorder. However, narcissistic sions. Such explanation is helpful at the early stage of
174 Spring 2013, Vol. XI, No. 2 FOCUS THE JOURNAL OF LIFELONG LEARNING IN PSYCHIATRY
RONNINGSTAM AND WEINBERG
SYNTHESIS
CLINICAL
successful treatment of either of them. Schema-focused therapy
(SFT)
Metacognitive interpersonal
CASE VIGNETTE #6: “YOU WANT THE BEST, YOU therapy (MIT)
GOT THE BEST?” Group therapy
Couples therapy
Mr. D, an administrative assistant employed by his
father in the family business, wanted the best for
himself: the best job, the best romantic relationship,
and the best car. Fluent in administrative language, he and modification of self-serving and self-
concocted a term for his position that made it sound enhancing strivings and behavior; increased
unique and lucrative, though his performance was ability to modulate reactivity, self-serving
unreliable, and he maintained his job because of the manipulations and enactment.
“good heart” of his father. He dated a few women, 2. Sense of agency. Improved ability to maintain
whom he wished to view as a perfect extension of self-direction with less fear of losing compe-
himself, and he would typically dismiss them if they tence and internal control; tolerance of criti-
were disliked by his family or if they disagreed with cism, failures and defeat, with ownership of
him. Cocaine proved to be more reliable in producing actual competence and potentials; apply pro-
elation, a sense of well-being, and grandiose self- active self-evaluation and assessment.
perception. Through a series of ultimatums by his 3. Emotion regulation. Increased ability to un-
family, he was finally urged to come to treatment. He derstand, tolerate and modulate feelings, es-
demanded “the best room” in the treatment facility, pecially anger/rage, shame and envy; decrease
“the best therapist,” whom he immediately requested to automatic secondary feelings (feelings vis-à-vis
change, and offered to hire a personal psychiatrist for feelings, e.g. anger when feeling ashamed, or
himself whose salary he “generously” offered to pay. self-hatred when feeling insecure); tolerance of
Quoting his desire for the “best treatment,” he con- insecurity and inferiority; reduced excessive
tinued to order his treatment team around, avoiding self-criticism and paralyzing self-hatred.
exploring his own problems. Scared to focus on himself, 4. Reflective ability. Tolerance of and ability to
he asked for an early discharge and dismissed the rec- modulate variable self-states and fluctuations
ommended after-care, only to be found intoxicated 48 in self-esteem; ability to identify diffuse or
hours later. complex, often embarrassing and shameful
The expected outcome in treatment of NPD varies internal experiences; identify own and others’
and is dependent upon a number of factors: treat- perspectives, as well as perceptions of the im-
ment modality and focus, the patient’s motivation pact of contextual circumstances; coherent and
and ability to establish and sustain an alliance with meaningful narratives of internal and external
the treatment provider, type of identified and pro- experiences.
cessed problems, and external life circumstances 5. Ability to mourn. Processing of losses of
that either support or intervene with treatment. We wished for and unreachable internal self-states,
would like to highlight five general areas of change relationships and other ideal external con-
that are central to pathological narcissism and NPD: ditions; acceptance and surrender of un-
attainable goals and aspirations; recognition
1. Interpersonal and vocational functioning. and ownership of what indeed is attainable,
Ability to accept and maintain real relation- manageable, and available, of own real capa-
ships and/or consistent vocational functioning; bility and relativeness; access of consideration
ability to negotiate and collaborate; assessment and responsibility.
176 Spring 2013, Vol. XI, No. 2 FOCUS THE JOURNAL OF LIFELONG LEARNING IN PSYCHIATRY
RONNINGSTAM AND WEINBERG
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NOTES