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Research Methodology
MEANING OF RESEARCH:
• Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge.
• Once can also define research as a scientific & systematic search for pertinent information on a specific
topic.
In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation.
Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense.
According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or
suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and
at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
Objectives of Research
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this object in view are
termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies with this object
in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else
(studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as hypothesis-testing
research studies).

TYPES OF RESEARCH
1. Descriptive vs. Analytical:
Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds.
In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive research
studies.
The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report
what has happened or what is happening.
The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative
and correlation methods.
In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and
analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
2. Conceptual vs. Empirical
• Conceptual research is related to some abstract idea or theory. Used by philosophers and thinkers.
• Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone; it is data-based research;
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3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity – it is applicable to phenomena that can be
expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomena – relating to or involving quality or kind. Ex.-
motivation research.
4. Applied vs. Fundamental
Research can either be applied (action) research or fundamental (basic or pure). Applied research aims at finding
a solution for an immediate problem facing society or an organization, whereas, fundamental research is mainly
concerned with generalizations and with formulation of a theory.

5. Some Other Types of Research

One-time research or longitudinal research: In the former case the research is confined to a single time-period,
whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods.
Field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research: depending upon the environment in
which it is to be carried out.
Clinical or diagnostic research: Such research follows case-study methods or in-depth approaches to reach the
basic causal relations.
Conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented: While doing conclusion-oriented research, a researcher is free to
pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes.
The exploratory research: The objective of exploratory research is the development of hypotheses rather than
their testing, whereas formalized research studies are those with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses
to be tested.
Historical research: is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas
of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time.

Research Process
Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired
sequencing of these steps.
Research process Guidelines
1. Formulating the Research Problem:
Two types of problems:
• Problems related to state of nature
• Problems which relate to relationships between variables
The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem is the first step in scientific enquiry
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Two steps in formulating the research problem:

• Understanding the problem thoroughly
• Rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view

Must review two types of literature:

• The Conceptual literature concerning concepts and theories
• The Empirical literature consisting of earlier studies, which are similar to the one proposed
• Formulating/defining a research problem is of great importance and significance in the entire research
process
• The problem must be defined unambiguously
• Must verify the objectivity and validity of background facts concerning the problem
2. Extensive Literature Review
Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. It is compulsory for a research
worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary Committee
or the Research Board for approval.
3. Development of Working Hypothesis
• The researcher should state, in clear terms the working hypothesis
• Working Hypothesis is a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical
assumptions
• Hypothesis is the focal point of the research, for ex: “students who receive counseling will show a greater
increase in creativity than students not receiving counseling” or “car A is performing as well as car B”
Functions of a Hypothesis
• It guides the direction of the study.
• It identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not.
• It suggests which form of research design is likely to be most appropriate.
• It provides a framework for organizing the conclusions that result

4. Preparing the Research Design

Need to prepare a research design – a conceptual structure within which the research would be conducted The
primary objective of the research design is to collect the relevant data Research Purposes may be grouped into 1.
Exploration 2. Description 3. Diagnosis 4. Experimentation
5. Determining the Sample Design
• All the items under consideration in any field constitute a “Universe” or “Population”.
• A complete enumeration of all the items in the “population” is known as a “census enquiry”.
• Since a complete census enquiry is not possible generally, we select a ‘sample’ – a few items from the
“universe” for our study.
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• Researcher selects the sample by using ‘sampling design’ – a definite plan determined before any data is
actually collected

Types of Sampling
1. Deliberate Sampling 2. Simple Random Sampling 3. Systematic Sampling 4. Quota Sampling 5. Stratified
Sampling 6. Cluster/area Sampling 7. Multi-stage Sampling 8. Sequential Sampling

6. Collecting the Data

In Survey, data can be collected by the following methods: i. Observation ii. Personal Interview iii. Telephone
Interview iv. Mailing Questionnaires v. Through Schedules
7. Execution of the Project
The research study must be executed in a systematic manner to ensure that adequate and dependable data are
collected. Should be rigorously methodological
8. Analysis of Data
Requires that the data be necessarily condensed into manageable groups and tables for further analyses Should
classify the new data into some purposeful and usable categories Coding is done at this stage Tabulation –
classified data are put into tables Analysis, after tabulation is based on the computation of various percentages,
coefficients, etc. by applying statistics Tests of significance would be applied wherever relevant
9. Hypothesis Testing
Do the data support the hypothesis or they contrary? Chi Square test, t-test, f-test are normally used Hypothesis
testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it
10. Generalization & Interpretation
To arrive at a generalization, that is, to build a theory or to interpret the data in terms of existing state of knowledge
(theories)
11. Preparation of Report/Thesis
Has to prepare the report the layout of the report is as follows:
The prefatory part The Main Body/Text The Supplemental Part
The Prefatory Part
Title page Certification Acknowledgments Preface Contents page
The Main Body
Introduction Summary of Findings Main Report conclusion
The Supplemental Part
References, or Bibliography Appendices Index
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Research Method & Research Methodology

Research can be understood as the systematic and rigorous search for appropriate information on a specific
subject. It involves enunciation of the problem, developing a hypothesis, collecting and analysing data and
drawing conclusions, based on the facts and data collected. And to do so, the researcher uses research methods,
during the course of conducting research.
The research methods are often confused with research methodology, which implies the scientific analysis of the
research methods, so as to find a solution to the problem at hand. Hence, it seems apt to clarify the differences
between research method and research methodology at this juncture, have a look.

Comparison Chart

BASIS OF
RESEARCH METHOD RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
COMPARISON

Meaning Research Method implies the methods Research methodology signifies way to
employed by the researcher to efficiently solving research problems.
conduct research.

What is it? Behavior and instrument used in the Science of understanding, how research is
selection and construction of the performed methodically.
research technique.

Encompasses Carrying out experiment, test, surveys Study different techniques which can be
and so on. utilized in the performance of experiment,
test, surveys etc.

Comprise of Different investigation techniques. Entire strategy towards achievement of

objective.

Objective To discover solution to research To apply correct procedures so as to

problem. determine solutions.

Definition of Research Method

Research method pertains to all those methods, which a researcher employs to undertake research process, to
solve the given problem. The techniques and procedure, that are applied during the course of studying research
problem are known as the research method. It encompasses both qualitative and quantitative method of
performing research operations, such as survey, case study, interview, questionnaire, observation, etc.
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Definition of Research Methodology

Research Methodology, as its name suggest is the study of methods, so as to solve the research problem. It is the
science of learning the way research should be performed systematically. It refers to the rigorous analysis of the
methods applied in the stream of research, to ensure that the conclusions drawn are valid, reliable and credible
too.
Key Differences Between Research Method and Research Methodology
The differences between research method and research methodology can be drawn clearly on the following
grounds:
• The research method is defined as the procedure or technique applied by the researcher to undertake
research. On the other hand, research methodology is a system of methods, used scientifically for solving
the research problem.
• The research method is nothing but the behaviour or tool, employed in selecting and building research
technique. Conversely, research methodology implies the science of analysing, the manner in which
research is conducted appropriately.
• The research method is concerned with carrying out experiment, test, surveys, interviews, etc. As against
this, research methodology is concerned with learning various techniques which can be employed in the
performance of experiment, test or survey.
• Research method covers various investigation techniques. Unlike, research methodology, which consists
of complete approach aligned towards the attainment of purpose.
• Research method intends to discover the solution to the problem at hand. In contrast, research
methodology aspires to apply appropriate procedures, with a view to ascertaining solutions.
Conclusion
The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research method, as the latter is the part of the former.
For understanding the research problem thoroughly, the researcher should know the research methodology along
with the methods.
In a nutshell, research method refers to the technique which can be adopted to explore the nature of the world that
surrounds us. On the contrary, research methodology is the foundation, which helps us to understand the
determinants influencing the effectiveness of the methods applied.

Research Problem
Research problems are the educational issues, controversies, or concerns that guide the need for conducting a
study.
Characteristic of Research Problem
Any research is a difficult task to achieve and research needs to do a great effort. Selection of research topic is
the first step to success.
1. Research topic must be very clear and easy to understand. It should not distract people.
2. If a topic is well defined is the only way to successful research. The topic should not create doubt and
double impression.
3. Easy language is a key to success. Use technical words if necessary, otherwise focus of simplicity.
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4. Research title should be according to the rules of titling. There are different rules of titling, a researcher
must aware before writing a research title.
5. While selecting a research topic current importance of a researcher should also be considered. Topic
should not be obsolete and it should have great importance in the current day.

What are the Elements of a Research Problem?

1. Objective or aim of the problem which is to be investigated. This answers the question “Why?” Why is there a
need for investigation, inquiry or study?
2. The topic or theme which needs to be investigated. This answers the question “What?” What is to be researched
or studied?” For example: What would a rival company do if we decrease our prices by 25%? What would sales
be if prices were Rs. 89? Rs. 99? How would a rival firms action influence our sales and profits? The right question
needs to be addressed if research is to help decision makers. The decision maker can’t acquire all the information,
but it is often feasible to identify the factors that are critical to the existing problem. These factors are then included
in the problem definition.
3. The time dimension of a decision problem is always the future. The period or time of the study when the data
are to be gathered. This answers the question “When?” When is the research to be performed?” Managers
frequently run the risk of making the correct decision at incorrect time. It is essential that the decision maker as
well as the researcher determine the right time reference for-the decision.
4. The area or location in which the study is to be conducted. This answers the question “Where?” Where we need
to conduct the study? The space coordinates give you the geographic boundaries within which the action is to be
taken. In the problem definition, these lines are hardly ever neat political divisions or subdivisions. The universe
of interest should be defined either conceptually or by enumeration.
5. Population or universe from whom the data needs to be gathered. This answers the question “Who?” or “from
whom?” Who are the respondents? From who are the data to be collected?” They may include persons, groups of
persons, business establishments.
Criteria for selection of research problem depends on the following characteristics.
Personal Inclination. The chief motivation in the way of selecting research problem is the personal inclination
of the researcher. If a researcher has personal interest in the topic, he would select that problem for his research
work.
Resources Availability. During the selection, a researcher will see to the resources available. If these resources
like money, time, accommodation and transport are available to the selection place, then the selection of the
problem is easy.
Relative Importance. The importance and the problem also play a vital role in the selection of research problem.
If the problem is relatively important, then the researcher tends towards the selection of the problem.
Researcher Knowledge. The researcher knowledge should play a vital role in the selection of the research
problem. The wisdom and experience of an investigator is required for well collection of the research data. He
can bitterly select a problem.
Practicality: Practicality is also responsible for the selection. The practical usefulness of the problem is the main
motivation for a researcher to attend it.
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Time-lines of the Problem. some problems take little time for its solution while others take more time. So, it
depends on the time in which we have to complete his research work.
Data Availability. If the desired data is available to the researcher, then the problem would be selected.
Urgency. Urgency is a pinpoint in the way of the selection of research problem. Urgent problem must be given
priority because the immediate solution can benefit the people.
Feasibility. Feasibility is also an important factor for the selection of the research problem. The researcher
qualification, training and experience should match the problem.
Area Culture. The culture of the area for which a researcher conducts his research is also responsible for the
selection of research problem.

Literature Review
A literature review is a surveys scholarly articles, books and other sources relevant to a particular issue, area of
research, or theory, and by so doing, providing a description, summary, and critical evaluation of these works.
A literature review is a description of the literature relevant to a particular field or topic. It gives an overview of
what has been said, who the key writers are, what are the prevailing theories and hypotheses, what questions are
being asked, and what methods and methodologies are appropriate and useful.
A literature review is an objective, thorough summary and critical analysis of the relevant available research and
non-research literature on the topic being studied. Its goal is to bring the reader up-to-date with current literature
on a topic and form the basis for another goal, such as the justification for future research in the area. A good
literature review gathers information about a particular subject from many sources. It is well written and contains
few if any personal biases.
Literature review is different from an academic research paper. The main focus of an academic research paper is
to develop a new argument, and a research paper will contain a literature review as one of its parts. The focus of
a literature review, however, is to summarize and synthesize the arguments and ideas of others without adding
new contributions.
Systematic Literature Review
The purpose of a systematic literature review is to provide as complete a list as possible of all the published and
unpublished studies relating to a particular subject area.
Criteria of a systematic Literature review:
• Formulate the research question
• Set inclusion or exclusion criteria
• Select and access the literature
• Access the quality of the literature included in the review
• Analyze, synthesize and disseminate the findings
Steps in the Literature Review Process
1. Choosing a review topic
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The first task to tackle, often the most difficult, in writing a review of literature is choosing a topic. Often the task
is especially difficult because of a lack of knowledge in the content area. Below are some hints for facilitating
your selection of a topic.
• First, skim through your textbook and identify broad topics in the discipline that interest you.
• Second, read the chapters associated with the topics you pick to develop familiarity with the vocabulary
(key words), primary investigators, and issues or controversies in the area.
• Third, talking to others, such as expert, or reading around a topic can also help to identify what areas of
the subject the reviewer is interested in and may help indicate how much information exists on the topic.
• The next step, after choosing a topic, is to go to the library and search for journal articles published in the
area. Use key words to find article titles for specific topics; sometimes abstracts are provided for the
reader's reference. Abstracts can be useful, time saving devices because they aid in weeding good,
associated literature from unrelated, peripheral articles.
2. Searching and selecting appropriate articles
The next step after selected a topic is to identify, in a structured way, the appropriate and related information. A
systematic approach is considered most likely to generate a review that will be beneficial in informing practice.
Newell and Burnard (2006) suggest that comprehensiveness and relevance are what reviewers need to consider
and add that the more specific the topic or question being searched is, the more focused the result will be.
The type of articles that are selected for a good review of literature are theoretical presentations, review articles,
and empirical research articles. Choosing the work of a single researcher may be one method for starting a
literature review. Your presentation will be more powerful if conflicting theoretical positions and findings are
presented along with the position or prediction that you support in your paper. You should choose several
researchers' works that have added to the knowledge base in a specific area. Strive to eliminate (or explain away)
articles that have faulty methods or that use faulty reasoning to support their findings.

3. Analysing and synthesizing the literature

After you have collected the articles you intend to use in your literature review, you are ready to analyze each one
and then synthesize the collection of articles. There are a number of tools that can help us analyze and synthesize
our key sources.

4. Organization of writing the review

The main aim in structuring your review of the literature is to lead your reader to understand the need to conduct
precisely the form of literature review or research paper that you propose or have done. The key to a good literature
review or research paper is the ability to present the findings in such a way that it demonstrates your knowledge
in a clear and consistent way.
The introduction and conclusion to your review of the literature should show how your research project will join
the on-going conversation: identify the key terms and concepts and indicate how your research will resolve
unresolved questions in others' work.
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Introduction
the introduction should include the purpose of the review and a brief overview of the ‘problem’. It is important
that the literature sources and the key search terms are outlined. The introduction will not only present the main
topic, but will also make a statement about the status of knowledge in this area of research.
Main body
The main body of the report presents and discusses the findings from the literature. There are several ways in
which this can be done. Regardless of the manner in which the main body of the review is framed, there are key
points that must be considered.
• First, Group research studies and other literature according to common denominators such as qualitative
or quantitative approaches, purposes, theories, methodologies, or conclusions.
• Second, summarize individual studies in detail appropriate to its comparative importance in the literature
and to its relevance for your research.
• Third, use figures and/ or tables to present your own synthesis of the original data or to show key data
taken directly from the original papers.
Conclusion
The conclusion should provide a summary of findings from the literature review. Explain what your analysis of
the material leads you to conclude about the overall state of the literature, what it provides and where it is lacking.
Cronin et al (2008) mention that the review should conclude with a concise summary of the findings that describes
current knowledge and offer a rationale for conducting future research.
References
The literature review should conclude with a full bibliographical list of all the books, journal articles, reports and
other media, which were referred to in the work. Regardless of whether the review is part of a course of study or
for publication, it is an essential part of the process that all sourced material is acknowledged. This means that
every citation in the text must appear in the reference.

Sampling
The process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a way that the individuals represent the larger
group from which they were selected is known as sampling.
Types of sampling
There are mainly two types of sampling. They are:
1. Probability Sampling
2. Non probability sampling
1. Probability Sampling
Probability Sampling is a sampling technique in which sample from a larger population are chosen using a method
based on the theory of probability. For a participant to be considered as a probability sample, he/she must be
selected using a random selection.
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The most important requirement of probability sampling is that everyone in your population has a known and an
equal chance of getting selected.
Types of Probability Sampling
a. Simple random sampling as the name suggests is a completely random method of selecting the sample. This
sampling method is as easy as assigning numbers to the individuals (sample) and then randomly choosing from
those numbers through an automated process. Finally, the numbers that are chosen are the members that are
included in the sample.
There are two ways in which the samples are chosen in this method of sampling: Lottery system and using number
generating software/ random number table. This sampling technique usually works around large population and
has its fair share of advantages and disadvantages.
b. Stratified Random sampling involves a method where a larger population can be divided into smaller groups,
that usually don’t overlap but represent the entire population together. While sampling these groups can be
organized and then draw a sample from each group separately.
A common method is to arrange or classify by sex, age, ethnicity and similar ways. Splitting subjects into mutually
exclusive groups and then using simple random sampling to choose members from groups.
Members in each of these groups should be distinct so that every member of all groups get equal opportunity to
be selected using simple probability. This sampling method is also called “random quota sampling”
c. Cluster random sampling is a way to randomly select participants when they are geographically spread out.
For example, if you wanted to choose 100 participants from the entire population of the U.S., it is likely impossible
to get a complete list of everyone. Instead, the researcher randomly selects areas (i.e. cities or counties) and
randomly selects from within those boundaries.
Cluster sampling usually analyzes a particular population in which the sample consists of more than a few
elements, for example, city, family, university etc. The clusters are then selected by dividing the greater
population into various smaller sections.
d. Systematic Sampling is when you choose every “nth” individual to be a part of the sample. For example, you
can choose every 5th person to be in the sample. Systematic sampling is an extended implementation of the same
old probability technique in which each member of the group is selected at regular periods to form a sample.
There’s an equal opportunity for every member of a population to be selected using this sampling technique.
Advantages of Probability Sampling
• The absence of systematic error and sampling bias
• Higher level of reliability of research findings
• Increased accuracy of sampling error estimation
• The possibility to make inferences about the population
Disadvantages of Probability Sampling
• Higher complexity compared to non-probability sampling
• More time consuming
• Usually more expensive than non-probability sampling
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2. Non-probability sampling
Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique in which the researcher selects samples based on the subjective
judgment of the researcher rather than random selection.
In non-probability sampling, not all members of the population have a chance of participating in the study unlike
probability sampling, where each member of the population has a known chance of being selected.
Non-probability sampling is most useful for exploratory studies like pilot survey.

Types of non-probability sampling and examples

1. Convenience Sampling: Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where samples are
selected from the population only because they are conveniently available to researcher. These samples are
selected only because they are easy to recruit and researcher did not consider selecting sample that represents the
entire population.
Ideally, in research, it is good to test sample that represents the population. But, in some research, the population
is too large to test and consider the entire population. This is one of the reasons, why researchers rely on
convenience sampling, which is the most common non-probability sampling technique, because of its speed, cost-
effectiveness, and ease of availability of the sample.
An example of convenience sampling would be using student volunteers known to researcher. Researcher can
send the survey to students and they would act as sample in this situation.

2. Consecutive Sampling: This non-probability sampling technique is very similar to convenience sampling,
with a slight variation. Here, the researcher picks a single person or a group of sample, conducts research over a
period of time, analyzes the results and then moves on to another subject or group of subject if needed.
Consecutive sampling gives the researcher a chance to work with many subjects and fine tune his/her research by
collecting results that have vital insights.

3. Quota Sampling: Hypothetically consider, a researcher wants to study the career goals of male and female
employees in an organization. There are 500 employees in the organization. These 500 employees are known as
population. In order to understand better about a population, researcher will need only a sample, not the entire
population. Further, researcher is interested in particular strata within the population. Here is where quota
sampling helps in dividing the population into strata or groups.
For studying the career goals of 500 employees, technically the sample selected should have proportionate
numbers of males and females. Which means there should be 250 males and 250 females. Since, this is unlikely,
the groups or strata is selected using quota sampling.

4. Judgmental or Purposive Sampling: In judgmental sampling, the samples are selected based purely on
researcher’s knowledge and credibility. In other words, researchers choose only those who he feels are a right fit
(with respect to attributes and representation of a population) to participate in research study.
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This is not a scientific method of sampling and the downside to this sampling technique is that the results can be
influenced by the preconceived notions of a researcher. Thus, there is a high amount of ambiguity involved in
this research technique.
For example, this type of sampling method can be used in pilot studies.
5. Snowball Sampling: Snowball sampling helps researchers find sample when they are difficult to locate.
Researchers use this technique when the sample size is small and not easily available. This sampling system works
like the referral program. Once the researchers find suitable subjects, they are asked for assistance to seek similar
subjects to form a considerably good size sample.
For example, this type of sampling can be used to conduct research involving a particular illness in patients or a
rare disease. Researchers can seek help from subjects to refer other subjects suffering from the same ailment to
form a subjective sample to carry out the study.

Advantages of Non-Probability Sampling

• Possibility to reflect the descriptive comments about the sample
• Cost-effectiveness and time-effectiveness compared to probability sampling
• Effective when it is unfeasible or impractical to conduct probability sampling
Disadvantages of Non-Probability Sampling
• Unknown proportion of the entire population is not included in the sample group i.e. lack of representation
of the entire population
• Lower level of generalization of research findings compared to probability sampling
• Difficulties in estimating sampling variability and identifying possible bias

Variable
To put it in very simple terms, a variable is an entity whose value varies. A variable is an essential component of
any statistical data. It is a feature of a member of a given sample or population, which is unique, and can differ in
quantity or quantity from another member of the same sample or population. Example: gender, eye color,
motivation etc.
Types of Variables
Quantitative variables: varies in amount and degree but not in-kind Example: height, length, interest
Categorical variables: varies only in kind, not in degree or amount (qualitatively different). Example: eye color,
gender, occupation.
Independent variables: An independent variable is presumed to influence other variables. Sometimes
independent variables are called manipulated variables or experimental variables.
An independent variable may be either manipulated or selected:
– A manipulated variable is produced by the researcher Ex: amount of reinforcement
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– A selected variable is one that already exists and that the researcher locates and then chooses to study Ex:
Gender, mathematical ability, test anxiety
Dependent variables: A dependent variable is presumed to be affected by one or more independent variable. The
dependent variable is often called an outcome variable Example: Gender of teacher and subject matter taught.

More Variable Types

A moderator variable is a secondary independent variable that the researcher selects because he or she thinks it
may affect the relationship between the primary independent variable and the dependent variable.
A mediator variable is a variable that attempts to Explain the relationship between the 2 variables.
An extraneous variable is an independent variable that may have unintended effect on the dependent variable.