Load factors are numbers, almost always larger than 1.

0, that are used to increase the estimated

loads applied to structures

The loads are increased to attempt to account for the uncertainties involved
in estimating their magnitudes

You should note that the load factors for dead loads are much smaller than the ones used
for live and environmental loads. Obviously, the reason is that we can estimate the magnitudes
of dead loads much more accurately than we can the magnitudes of those other loads.
Service load= actuall level of load appling

Factored load= increase the load applied with the factos

to get to the ultimate state
Factored or incrase the load demand
Reduce the Capacity of stucture.
Ultimate strength design means in worst case scenario the structure should
never collapse
. Although smooth bars can be obtained, at present they are mostly deformed to improve their bonding
properties. Welded wire fabrics and meshes are being increasingly used as main reinforcement in
reinforced concrete slabs or supplemental reinforcement in prestressed slabs. They improve
substantially the cracking performance of slabs prestressed with unbonded tendons. Typical sizes of
wires, smooth or deformed, used separately or in welded meshes, are given in Table 2.2. Many sizes in
between those shown are also available. In practice, welded meshes having any reasonable size opening
of square or rectangular shape are manufactured as standard product or, on request, for a particular
design. Common wire spacing in one of the two principal directions of the mesh are 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, and
12 inches (50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300 mm). More details can be obtained from local suppliers or the
Wire Reinforcement Institute.

The minimum tensile properties of reinforcing bars and wires are summarized in Table 2.3. Also shown is
the corresponding ASTM standard designation. Although several grades are available, the most common
grade in the United States is the A615 grade 60 deformed steel, which gives a minimum yield strength
of 60 ksi (414 MPa). The A706 steel with the same minimum yield as the A615 has a higher strain to
failure and is more ductile; it is most suitable in applications where ductility (seismic construction),
weldability and bendability are important.

Grade 75 steel, which has a minimum yield strength of 75 ksi (517 Mpa) and a minimum tensile
strength of 100 ksi (690 MPa), is recommended mostly for use in large reinforced concrete columns.