JOINT AVIATION AUTHORITIES ~ AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT’S LICENCE Theoretical Knowledge Manual 050 METEOROLOGY First Edition, Second Impression. APPROVEDL@ This learning material has ol poproved JAA compliant by the United Kingd Civil ‘Aviation ‘Authority. (CRF ORD —:—- 3S jJEPPESEN. WIATION TRAININGChapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 ‘Chapter 11 ‘Chapter 12 ‘Chapter 13 ‘Chapter 14 ‘Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 ‘Chapter 18 Chapter 19 ‘Chapter 20 Chapter 21 Chapter 22 ‘Chapter 23 ‘Chapter 24 ‘Chapter 25 ‘Chapter 26 ‘Chapter 27 METEOROLOGY TABLE OF CONTENTS: The Atmosphere Pressure Density Synoptic Charts Pressure Systems Altimetry ‘Temperature Humidity Adiabatics & Stability Turbulence Winds Upper Winds Clouds Cloud Formation and Precipitation Thunderstorms Visibility Icing Documentation Weather Charts ‘Air Masses Occlusions Other Depressions Global Climatology Local Winds and Weather ‘Area Climatology Route Climatology Satellite ObservationsAMENDMENT SERVICE An amendment service to this series is provided free of charge on the Oxford Aviation Training website at http./www.oxfordaviation.nev/products/studyaids/amend.htm First Edition : May 2001 Second Impression : October 2001 - incorporating Amendment List 1 10 Edition 112 13 14 1s 16 17 18 19 110 LiL 112 CHAPTER ONE - THE ATMOSPHERE. Contents Page A DEFINITION OF METEOROLOGY... 20 .00000epeeeeeeseeeeee ded REASONS FOR STUDYING METEOROLOGY. ....... seceded A DEFINITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. ‘THE CONSTITUENTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE (BY VOLUME). .........1+2 PROPERTIES OF THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE. ...2.0000000200e0004. 122 ‘THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE... ‘THE SIGNIFICANCE OF TROPOPAUSE HEIGHT. wee wld TEMPERATURES. 6... ....0ce0cecceecesceeebeceeeteeresrsrsessses bed ATMOSPHERIC HAZARDS. . . THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (ISA). ........2....1+5 ISA DEVIATION. ... 21-6 ‘THE ICAO INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE. ............1-8 ATMOSPHERE QUESTIONS ..METEOROLOGY THE ATMOSPHERE 1 42 A DEFINITION OF METEOROLOGY "The branch of science dealing with the earth's atmosphere and the physical processes ccccurring init." REASONS FOR STUDYING METEOROLOGY a) ») ° d) °) To gain a better understanding of meteorologists’ deductions. To gain a better understanding of meteorologists! documentation. ‘To gain a better understanding of in-flight hazards. To gain a better understanding of data and its collection. To gain a better understanding of self-forecasting. ‘Weather is the one factor in modem aviation over which man has no control, a knowledge of ‘meteorology will at least enable the aviator to anticipate some of the difficulties which ‘weather may cause. ‘Weather - influenced accidents to UK transport aircraft Thiet Tapes ate 1978-94 (tacos ‘Acres Rane abana Yer Tost Wi Pram Tesl WT Pree Tom Perea ws on am 84a wos: a7 ST wesso 65 Sa soos 216" 2511s mame rors tons tsa + eh np aad a ae AE TROT POS TG 1 setons cain eee end ter cares pepe Roath arena Yer Tua WI Perce Tost WL Pert Tol WIt Peromt msm oo 8 8a a wasse Dm iooogt ink 28 2AM Bask oso 20 ake ata aaad ‘ble 2 Weather -inuence accidents to anspor azerat by cleat of weather, 1078 94 4-4 {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘THE ATMOSPHERE 13 14 15 ‘Alasoowe Feats iene Ne Feconage foal Ne Peerage oft) Vistity nom 66s Iioginow om 5 200 Wind weinee a3 2 Bs aio weray nous os ng 238 o 4 aie oe 100 Sse Table 1.2, For this course a knowledge of advanced physics is not required, but 4 knowledge of the elementary laws of motion, heating, cooling, condensation and evaporation will be useful. A DEFINITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE "The spheroidal gaseous envelope surrounding a heavenly body." THE CONSTITUENTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE (BY VOLUME) Nitrogen 78.09% Argon 0.93% Oxygen 20.98% Carbon Dioxide 0.03% Plus traces of: ‘Neon Nitrous Oxide Hetium Nitrogen Dioxide Krypton Carbon Monoxide Xenon ‘Sulphur Dioxide Hydrogen Ammonia Methane Todine and Ozone Plus water vapour and solid particles. ‘The proportions of the constituents remain constant up to a height of at least 60 kms (except for Ozone), but by 70 kms the force of gravity, being less, causes the proportions to change. ‘Although the trace of ozone in the atmosphere is important as a shield against ultra violet radiation, if the whole of the layer of ozone were brought down to sea level it would only be 3 mm thick. PROPERTIES OF THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE ‘The earth's atmosphere varies vertically and horizontally in: a) Pressure. b) Temperature, 1-2 @ Oxford Aviation Services LinedMETEOROLOGY 16 ° @ Density, ‘THE ATMOSPHERE Humidity. ‘The earth's atmosphere is a poor conductor. The earth's atmosphere is fluid ‘The earth's atmosphere supports life only at lower levels. ‘THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE a) ») ° ‘The Troposphere:- i) that layor of the earths atmosphere where temperature decreases with an increase in height. ii) consists of % ofthe total atmosphere in weight. iii) contains almost all the weather. ‘The Stratosphere may be defined as that layer above the troposphere where the temperature remains constant with an increase in height. (In fact temperature shows a ‘gradual increase with height, ¢ cially at the top, where the temperature is zero at $0 ‘kms. This is due to the absorptidii of the sun's ultra violet radiation by the concentration, of ozone at higher levels) ‘The Tropopause:- i) ii) ii) ‘marks the boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere and is where temperature ceases (o fall with an increase in height. (Practically taken as the height where the temperature fall is less than 2°C per 1,000 ft.) is nota continuous line -there is usually a gap at 40 degrees of latitude between the so-called polar and. tropical tropopauses. is not uniform in height - it varies with; 1 Latinude 2) Season of the year. 3) Temperature prevailing on the day’ 4) Time of day. 1-3 /© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY THE ATMOSPHERE. JANUARY 70° LT Figure 1.2. The Mean Height of the Tropopause at the Greenwich Meridian, ‘THE SIGNIFICANCE OF TROPOPAUSE HEIGHT ‘The significance of the tropopause height is that it usually mar 8) the maximum height ofthe cloud b) the presence of Jetstreams. ©) the presence of Clear Air Turbulence (CAT). 4) the maximum wind speed. ‘TEMPERATURES ‘Temperature in the troposphere increases from the poles to the equator. ‘Temperature in the lower stratosphere increases from the equator to the poles in summer but reaches max temperature in mid latitudes in winter, ‘The lapse rate (the rate of change of temperature with height) in the troposphere is produced by rising air, whilst that in the stratosphere is produced by solar radiation, and is in fact reversed. 1-4 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimiteMETEOROLOGY ‘THE ATMOSPHERE 19) 1.10 ATMOSPHERIC HAZARDS ‘As aircraft operating altitudes inetease, so concentrations of OZONE and COSMIC RADIATION become of greater importance to the aviator. Above 50,0008, normal concentrations of ozone exceed tolerable limits and air needs to be filtered before entering the cabin. The heat of the compressor system will assist in the breaking down of the ozone to an acceptable level Cosmic radiation is not normally hazardous, but at times of solar are activity a lower flight level may be necessary. Advances in meteorological forecasting and communications should result in pilots receiving prompt and accurate information regarding high altitude hazards, but it is important that they should be aware of these hazards and prepared to take the necessary re-planning action ‘THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (ISA) For a variety of reasons it is necessary to establish a standard average atmosphere, describing variations in temperature, pressure and density throughout altitude. ‘There have been several different Standard Atmospheres, but the one in general use now is the ‘ICAO ISA\, dated 1964 whieh covers an atmosphere from -16,400f(-Skm) to 262.464 The ISA is needed for;- a) the calibration of aireraft instruments b) the design and testing of aireraft ‘The ICAO ISA is defined as follows; a) a MSL temperature of +15° Celsius, b) a MSL pressure of 1013.25 millibars, ©) aMSL density of 1225 grammes / cubie metre, 4d) from_-Skm, a lapse rate of 1.98° Celsius /1000 ft (6.5 degs’km) up to 36,090 fL(11 kms), ©) constant temperature of -56.5° Celsius up to 65,617 ft (20 kms), 1) anincrease of temperature of 0.3° Celsius /1000 ft(1 deg/km),up to 104,987 ft 32 kms), 1-5 {© Otord Avation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘THE ATMOSPHERE ‘Upper Limit of Wright Air Development . 120 Centre Aimasphere 140,000. | i 120 i { < Mesophere 1 Stratopausp 194,987 ft ey fen oat Pole it of ICAO IBA 65,617 ft 20 ki Stratosphere ‘Altitude n 1,000 feet eS eel 8 B $ feo ee 2 8 8 3 g = Troposphere 10, [Temperate CY Pressure Mo Pilave Densiy Figure 1.2. The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) ISA DEVIATION ‘Although meteorological observations are made in absolute figures, itis usual, when making. calculations involving aircraft performance or corrections to instruments, to consider them relative to the ISA. These are known as "ISA deviations". If for instanee, the observed temperature were 5°C warmer than that expected in the ISA, then the deviation would be+5°C. FFor the temperatures below, calculate the ISA deviations;- 1-6 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘THE ATMOSPHERE i |e nepene[ pevinin 1500 428 17,500 “18 24,000 38 37,000 45 9,500 3 5,000 +15 31,000 50 57,000 $1. If the limiting deviation for your airccaft at an airfield 5,000 AMSL is ISA +10, what is, the maximum temp at which you can operate? If the deviation at 3,500 A is +12, what is the ambient temperature? 1-7 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitsMETEOROLOGY ‘THE ATMOSPHERE ° 1.12. THE ICAO INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE, Height (kms) | Height (f) || Temp @C) PPresue [gh Change Density (%) (ab) ger mb 47 89 1 La 1013.25 Note: ‘The above height change figures show how the pressure against height change equation is modified as altitude changes but the figures offered only relate to ISA conditions of Temperature and Pressure, We can assess changes outside these conditions by using the following formula: 96T where H height change per Mb / Hpa in feet A= ‘T= Actual Absolute Temperature at that level = Actual Pressure in Mb / Hpa K=96 (the equation constant) ‘The 4% Rule: The 4% rule is an extension of the above which states that when the ELR temp’ is 10°C away from ISA a 4% height change error is generated at or through any given altitude change. eg at FI 360 (H) = 96 x 226.5 divided by 228.2 ~ 95ft per Mb hight change at ‘that level which equates to 4% difference from the ISA change of 91ft. 1-8 © Oxtord Aviation Services LrritedMETEOROLOGY ‘THE ATMOSPHERE Atmosphere Questions 1, The international standard atmosphere assumes a lapse rate of: a) 2°C/1000 ft by) 1.5°C/1000 ©) FCM000f a) 1,98°C/1000 f 2. The tropopause is: “ay b) ° a ‘The line where the temperature no longer decreases with increase of height. ‘The layer between the tropopause and the stratosphere, ‘The layer beyond which only C1 cloud occurs. The line indicating clear ait turbulence. 3. One of the most important characteristics of the atmosphere is: a) Density is constant above 10 000 ft Yb) Theairis a poor conductor of heat, ©) Temperature lapse rate is very frequently above 3°C pet 1000 f. 4) The airis a good conductor of heat. 4, Most of the vapour in the atmosphere is contained in the: a) tropopause b) stratosphere Ye) troposphere )— sttatopause 5. The captain ofan aireraft needs to know the height of the Tropopause because: vay ») ° d) it normally represents the limit of weather density starts to increase there are no longer jet streams and CAT it indicates the height of the thermal wind 1-9 © Oxtord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘THE ATMOSPHERE 6 10. ‘The main Ozone layer is to be found in the: a) thermosphere ») troposphere ©) mesophere ~d) stratosphere ‘The level inthe atmosphere where the air temperature ceases to fall with increase in height is known as: 2) The troposphere. b) The Stratopause, ©) The Stratosphere. $d) The tropopause. ‘Which statement is comect when considering the lower layers of the atmosphere: a) *b) °) a the majority of the weather is contained in the stratosphere and its upper boundary isthe ‘tropopause the majority ofthe weather is contained in the troposphere and its upper boundary is the tropopause the majority of the weather is contained in the tropopause and its upper boundary isthe ‘troposphere the majority ofthe weather is contained in the troposphere and its upper boundary isthe ‘stratosphere ‘The atmosphere is a mixture of gasses of the following proportions: ~ a) by ©) a oxygen 21% nitrogen 78% other gasses 1%6 oxygen 21% hydrogen 78% other gasses 1% nitrogen 78% argon 21% oxygen 1% nitrogen 78% oxygen 21% hydrogen 1% In the ISA the temperature is isothermal: a) sy °) a Up to 36 090 f/L1 kms From 36 090 f¥/L1 kms to 65 617 1720 kms, From 36 090 f¥/11 kms to 106 987 fe/32 kms. From 36 090 fU/11 kms to 45 090 £413.75 kms. 1-10 (© Oxford Aviation Services LiritadMETEOROLOGY ‘THE ATMOSPHERE i. 12, ‘The International (ICAO) Standard Atmosphere assumes that the sea level atmospheric pressure is: a) 1013.25 mbs and decreases with an increase in height b) 1013.25 mbs and increases with an increase in height ©) 1013.25 mbs and falls to about half this value at 30000 4) 1013.25 mbs end decreases with an increase in height up to the tropopause. Above the tropopause it remains constant At sea level the ISA density is stated to be: Va) 1225 grammes per cubic metre 45. b) (252 grammes per cubic metre ©) 1013.2 mb (hp) d) 29.6 inches of mereury Which of the following statements is most correct when describing ISA: 2) the MSL pressure is 1013.25 mbs and the temperature is + 15°C b) the MSL pressure is 1013.25 mbs and the temperature is +15 C with a lapse rate of 1,98°C/1000 ft ©) the MSL pressure is 1013.25 mbs and the temperature is +15 C with a lapse rate of 1.98°C/1000R up to 36090 ft above which there is frequently an ‘inversion @ the MSL pressure is 1013.25 mbs and the teraperature is +15 C with a lapse rate of 1.98°C/1000 f up to 36090 ‘The following is true for the International Standard Atmosphere: a) _atmean sea level the following conditions prevail: tomperature +15 C, pressure 1013.25 hype, density 1125 gm/m b) within the troposphere the temperature decreases by 6.5 C per km ©) the tropopause is at a height of 36090 AGL. @) the temperature at the tropopause is 226.5°K Pressure will *¢e.co.< with increase of height and in the ISA pressure will be 10-000 ft and_> at 30-000 ft a) Inerease 800 mlb 400 mb b) Decrease. 700: mb 300 mb ©) Increase 200 mb 800 mb d) Decrease $00 mb 200 1-11 (© Ostord Aviston Sarvices LimitedMETEGROLOGY ANSWERS 1-12 ‘THE ATMOSPHERE ‘© Orford Aviation Sorvicas Lite QO)CHAPTER TWO - PRESSURE Contents 24 INTRODUCTION .........-.-- 2.2 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE 23 THEBAROGRAPH .......-.... 24 ISALLOBAR ..... sete - 2.5 TYPES OF PRESSURE ... . 2.6 VARIATIONS OF PRESSURE «0.0... 2000065 2.7 PRESSURE DEFINITIONS 28 SYNOPTIC CHARTS ..... PRESSURE QUESTIONS (© Owed Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY 2d 22 PRESSURE INTRODUCTION Variations in pressure have long been associated with changes in the weather the falling glass! usually indicating the approach of bad weather. The Handbook of Aviation Meteorology makes the statement: tong bane 21nd be “The study of atmospheric pressure may be said to form the foundations of the science of meteorology." oes arse 8 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE Atmospheric pressure isthe force per unit area exerted by the atmosphere on any surface in contact with it. If pressure is Se Ocoee ial considered as the weight of a ‘ABOVE column of air of unit cross | a COLUMN OF sectional area above a surface, | " UNIT CROSS —e| then it can be seen from the ‘SECTION diagram that the pressure (weight TOTALWEIGHT OF of the column above) at the upper surface will be less than that at the lower surface. ABOVE Figure 2.1. The Weight of the Atmosphere on the Thus atmospheric pressure will Surface of the Earth. decrease with an increase in height. a) Units of Measurement. The standard unit of force is the NEWTON (N) and an average for atmospheric pressure at sea level is 100,000 Newtons per square metre. (Pascals) This pressure is sometimes known as a BAR. To measure small. variations in pressure, it is convenient to divide the bar into 1000 parts and so the standard ‘meteorological unit of pressure is the MILLIBAR (Mb). In. some countries this is known as the hectopascal, Other units which are still in use are related to the height of a column of mercury in a barometer (see below) and thus: 1000 mb = 750.1 mm = 29.53 in = 100,000 N/M? x x Note: and It is possible to convert Mbs to Inches by using the formula 101325 "29.92 therefore ifwe are given (for example) 1000Mbs we may insert this into the formula and 1000 x which gives us an answer of 29.53Ins of mercury. 101325 "29.92 ‘© Oxford Aviation Seres LimitedMETEOROLOGY b) Mercury Barometer. The basic instrument used for the measurement of atmospheric pressure is the mercury barometer. The atmospheric pressure is measured by the height of a column of mercury and. this height can be read in terms of any of the units shown above. The USA still uses inches of mercury as their measurement of atmospheric, pressure. Figure 2.4. An Aneroid Barometer. 23 THE BAROGRAPH ‘To enable acontinuous record of pressure changes, to be made, a paper covered rotating drum is substituted for the scale and the instrument then becomes a barogroph, This instrument is used by the meteorologist to measure what is known as pressure tendency, the tise and fall of pressure over a period of time. Pressure tendency is an important forecasting tool, PRESSURE Tr fevers, indicated by a pointer moving over a scale. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE 0 ze ATMOSPHERIC| PRESSURE Figure 2.2. A Mercury Barometer ©) Aneroid Barometer. A more compact means of measuring atmospheric pressure is the Aneroid ‘Barometer. capsule which responds to changes in pressure by expanding and contracting, and by a system of It consists of a partially evacuated these changes of pressure being Figure 2.5. Met Office Aneroid Barometer {© Oxford Aviation Services Limites 4 (METEOROLOGY 2d sae sa Figure 2.6. A Barograph ISALLOBAR An isallobar is a line joining places of the same pressure tendency. /“gallobaric low -! I Isallobaric high wD ee Figure 2.7. An Isallobar Chart 2-3 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE 25 TYPES OF PRESSURE a) b) °o QFE. The atmospheric pressure read froma barometer on an airfield will give the aerodrome pressure, otherwise known as QFE. QFE 980 mb Figure 2.8. QFE. QFE. This is the barometric pressure at the surface (QFE) reduced to MSL using the observed temperature at the surface (this therefore assumes an isothermal layer from MSL to the surface). QFF accounts for the effect that temperature has on a pressute reading. From Figure 2.8 it ean be seen that although the pressure at the airfield was ‘980 mb/hPa, ifthe airfield was taken to Mean Sea Level, the pressure would be greater, but an account must also be made of the effect that temperature has had on the pressure, This allows us to accurately draw surface pressure charts. The cotrection to be made to the surface pressure will depend on the height of the surface (or airfield) AMSL and the temperature prevailing at the time. ‘The range of QFF so far recorded, low pressure to high pressure, is from 856 to 1083 mb, but meteorologically the range is taken from 950 t0 1080 mb. QNH. This is the barometric pressure at the airfield (QFE), reduced to MSL using the ISA temperature at the airfield, This will provide a pressure which does not account for any temperature deviation away ftom ISA. ‘The correction to be made to the surface pressure will depend solely upon the height of the airfield AMSL. In order to get QNH and QFF from a barometric reading at a surface we must use a formulae which will be shown on the next page. It is not necessary to know the formulae as such, but itis vital to know the difference that the temperature deviation will have when being asked to analyse QNH and QF. 2-4 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE ‘The correction M (in hPa‘mb), to be added or subtracted to the barometric pressure ssiven by: M=p(l0"-1) Where” = 18429.1 + 67.531 + 0.003h and p= barometer level pressure in hPa/mb t= the observed temperature at station level in °C (for QFF correction use observed temperature, for QNH correction use ISA temperature) ‘=the height of the station, in metres, above the level at which the corrected pressure is required i.e, above or below mean sea level for QFF and QNH, official aerodrome elevation for QFE and touchdown zone elevation for runway QFE, Note that h will be negative if below sea level. Example t: 1) What is the difference between QFF and QNH given: Station pressure = 1020 hPa Station height = 50m BELOW msl ‘Temperature = 30° C Station BELOW sea level, temperature WARMER than ISA. a) Caleulate QFF using the formulae on the previous page M=-5.6 hPa ‘The correction to be applied is: Station pressure 1020 -5.6= QRF 1014.4 hPa b) Calculate QNH using the formulae on the previous page M=-5.9 hPa The correction to be applied is: Station pressure 1020 - 5.9 = QNH 1014.1 hPa 2-5 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY Example 2: PRESSURE 1) What is the difference between QFF and QNH given: Station pressure = 920 hPa Station height = 300m ABOVE mst Temperature =-20° C Station ABOVE sea level, temperature COLDER than ISA. a) Calculate QFF using the formulae on the previous page M=41.2nPa ‘The correction to be applied is: Station pressure 920 + 41.2 = QFF 961.2 hPa 6) Caleulate QNH using the formulae on the previous page M 6.9 hPa ‘The correction to be applied i Station pressure 920 + 36.9 = QNH 956.9 hPa SUMMARY Stations ABOVE MSL a) HOTTER than ISA by COLDER than ISA Stations BELOW MSL. a) HOTTER than ISA b) COLDER than ISA QFF < QNH QPF > QNH QFF > QNH QFE < QNH © Onfoxd Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE 2.6 VARIATIONS OF PRESSURE a) b) Height, Although pressure will decrease with an increase in height, density will also dectease and therefore the reduction in weight of air above a surface will not vary linearly. Inthe ISA, a reduction in pressure of 1 mb would give a height difference of: 27 feet at MSL. } 36 feet at 10,000. | See Figure 1.3 73 feet at 30,000 | Diurnal Variation. There isa change in pressure during the day which although small (about 1 mb) in temperate latitudes, can be as much as 3 mb in the tropics and would need to be taken into account when considering pressure tendency as an indication of changing weather. ‘The variation is shown in Figure 2.10. URNAL THE DIURNAL VARIATION IN VARIATION IN THE. TEMPERATE TROPICS IS AS LATITUDES IS LESS THAN MEAN PRESSURE RECORDED PRESSURE Figure 2.10. Diurnal Variation. ‘The variation is difficult to explain, but is probably due to a natural oscillation of the atmosphere having @ period of about 12 hours, this oscillation being maintained by the 24 hour variation of temperature. 2-7 (© OMfrd Aviation Servions LimitecMETEOROLOGY 27 28 PRESSURE DEF TI QFE QFF QNH FORECAST QNH (RPS) QNE ISOBAR ISALLOBAR SYNOPTIC CHARTS Isobars on normal synoptic charts are Mean Sea Level Isobars (QFF) and are normally drawn for every even whole millibar, (ic. 1000, 1002, ete.). Figure 2.11, illustrates the isobars on a synoptic chart On larger area maps the spacing may be expanded to 4 or more millibars but this will be stated on the chart, PRESSURE IONS ‘The value of pressure, for a particular aerodrome and time, corrected to the official elevation, ‘The value of pressure reduced to MSL in accordance with isothermal conditions, The value of pressure, for a particular aerodrome and time, corrected to the MSL in accordance with the ICAO standard, A forecast, valid for one hour, of the lowest QNH expected in any part of the Altimeter Setting Region (ASR). ‘The height indicated on landing at an airfield when the altimeter sub- scale is set to 1013 mb or 29.92 ins. A line joining places of the same atmospheric pressure (usually MSL pressure QFF). A line joining places of the same pressure tendency. Figure 2.11. Isobars on a Synoptic Chart, 2-8 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE Pressure Questions ‘The barometric Pressure at the airfield datum point is known as: a) QNE 6) ONH QFE d) Standard Pressure ‘The instrument that gives a continuous printed reading and record of the atmospheric pressure a) barometer b)—hygrometer ©) anemograph @)—— barograph ‘The pressure of the atmosphere: a) decreases at an increasing rate as height increases, 1) decreases at a constant rate as height increases ©) decreases at a decreasing rate as height increases, d) decreases at a constant rate up to the tropopause and then remains constant ‘When considering the actual tropopause which statement is correct: 4) itis low over the poles and high over the equator b) itis high over the poles and low over the equator ©) itis the same height of 36090 ft all over the world 4) Itis ata constant altitude of 26000" Atmospheric pressure may be defined as: a) _the weight of the atmosphere exerted on any surface with which it is in contact b) the weight of the atmosphere at standard sea level ©) the foree per unit area exerted by the atmosphere on any surface with which it is in contact )—_ apressure exerted by the atmosphere of 1013.2 mbs 2-9 (© Oxford Aviation Servicos LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE 6 10. ‘The QPF is the atmospheric pressure: a) at the place where the reading is taken b) corrected for temperature difference from standard and adjusted to MSL assuming standard atmospheric conditions exist ©) ataplace where the reading is taken corrected to MSL taking into account the prevailing ‘temperature conditions d) —_asmeasured by a barometer at the aerodrome reference point. With 1013.25 mb set on the altimeter sub scale with an aircraft stationary on the airfield the altimeter will read. a) QNE by) QNH ©) QFE | QEF ‘The aircraft altimeter will read zero at aerodrome level with which pressure setting set on the altimeter sub scale: a b) °) a OFF QNH QNE QFE You are passed an altimeter setting of “29.53. You would then set your altimeter subscale to a b) °) d QFF 1013 1000 QFE ‘The aerodrome QFE is: a) b) ° d) the reading on the altimeter on an aerodrome when the aerodrome barometric pressure is set on the sub scale the reading on the altimeter on touchdown at an aerodrome when 1013.2 sub scale the reading on the altimeter on an aerodrome when the sea level barometric pressure is set on the sub scale the aerodrome barometric pressure. set on theMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE 12, 14. 16. When an altimeter sub scale is set to the aerodrome QFE, the altimeter reads: a) the elevation of the aerodrome at the aerodrome reference point b) zero at the aerodrome reference point ©) the pressure altitude at the aerodrome reference point 4) the appropriate altitude of the aircraft ‘The aerodrome QNH is the aerodrome barometric pressure: a) corrected to mean sea Jevel assuming standard atmospheric conditions exist b) corrected to mean sea level, assuming isothermal conditions exist ©) corrected for temperature and adjusted to MSL assuming standard atmosphere conditions exist d) corrected to MSL using ambient temperature. A line drawn on a chart joining places having the same barometric pressure at the same level and at the same time is a) anisotherm b) —— anisallobar ©) acontour d)— anisobar ‘An isobar on a meteorological chart joins all places having the same: a) QFE b) FF ©) QNH d QNE Pressure will -with increase of height and will be about— = at 30000 fk a) Increase 800 mb 400 mb b) Decrease 700 mb 300 mb ©) Increase 200 mb 800 mb d) Decrease 500 mb 200 mb An airfield in England is 100m above sea level, QFF is 1030hPa, temperature at the surface is -15°C. What is the value of QNH? a) Impossible to determine b) Less than 1030hPa ©) Same as QFF d) More than L030hPa 2-11 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE ANSWERS: Ques | Answer | Ques | Answer 1 c 9 c 2 10 D 3 c It B 4 A 12 A 5 c 13 D 6 c 14 B 1 A 15 B 8 D 16 B 2-12 {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedCHAPTER THREE - DENSITY Contents Page 3.1 INTRODUCTION vice 3-1 3.2 EFFECT OF CHANGES OF PRESSURE ON DENSITY ...... 3-1 33 EFFECT OF CHANGE OF TEMPERATURE ON DENSITY seed 3.4 ASIMPLE MATHEMATICAL TREATMENT .......... 3-2 3.5 EFFECT OF CHANGE OF ALTITUDE ON DENSITY 3.6 EFFECT OF CHANGE OF LATITUDE ON DENSITY ......00....20006..3-2 3.7 EFFECT OF CHANGES IN DENSITY ON AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS ...... 33 DENSITY QUESTIONS ........0..-. ce 3eS (© Osford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY DENSITY 3. 32 33 INTRODUCTION Density may be defined as mass per unit volume and may be expressed as: 1) Grammes per cubic metre, b) A percentage of the standard surface density - relative density. ©) The altitude in the standaed atmosphere to which the observed density corresponds ~ density altitude, EFFECT OF CHANGES OF PRESSURE ON DENSITY ‘As pressure in a container of unit volume is increased, the mass of air will be increased and therefore the density will rise. Likewise, if the pressure is reduced, the mass of ait will dcerease and so will the density. p (tho) = density We can therefore say that: DENSITY IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO PRESSURE. In the atmosphere density can be decreased by raising the volume of air to a greater height since we know that pressure decreases with an increase in altitude, Similarly, density can be inereased by lowering the volume of air to a lower height. EFFECT OF CHANGE OF TEMPERATURE ON DENSITY If a volume of air is heated it will expand and the mass of air contained in unit volume will be less. ‘Thus density ‘will decrease with an inerease in temperature and we can say: DENSITY IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO TEMPERATURE. 3-1 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY DENSITY 34 35 A SIMPLE MATHEMATICAL TREATMENT, ‘The Fundamental Gas Equation (Boyles + Charles Laws) says that py = RT (where R= gas constant) but - 4 ut p - 19 & = RT p - Pe and - £ ° RT Where P Pressure R Gas constant T Temperature p Den: Note: R for water vapour is 1.6 x that for dry air. ‘Therefore: p for water vapour is less than for dry air and so o for moist air must be less than p for dry air, EFFECT OF CHANGE OF ALTITUDE ON DENSITY Although raising and thus expanding the volume of air will decrease its density due to the reduction of pressure, at the same time the temperature will decrease and therefore the density should increase, the one effect cancelling out the other. In fact, there is a greater reduction in pressure as height increases and the overall effect is for the density to decrease with an increase of height. (p= 100% at sea level, 50% at 20,000", 25% at 40,000" and 10% at 60,000") Density will change by 1% for a 3 degree change in temperature or a 10 mb change in pressure. EFFECT OF CHANGE OF LATITUDE ON DENSITY a) at the surface density increases with an inerease in latitude. >) at about 26,000 ft density remains constant with an increase in latitude, ©) above 26,000 ft density deereases with an inerease in latitude. (Maximum deviation from standard occurs at about $0,000 ft.) 3-2 ‘@ Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY 37 DENSITY Figure 3.1. The Effect of Latitude on Density. ‘Thus aircraft with poor performance at low levels will perform better above the tropopause at the equator than at the poles. EFFECT OF CHANGES IN DENSITY ON AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS a) Accuracy of aircraft instruments - Mach meters, ASIs. b) Aircraft and engine performance - low density will reduce lift, increase take off run, reduce ma Where Lo = a Pp v s jum take off weight. (L=C, “pVv's) Lift = Coefficient of Lift = Density = TAS - ‘Wing area 3-3 © Orford Aviation Sevics LimitsMETEOROLOGY DENSITY ©) Airfields affected would be: i) High Denver Nairobi Sana ii) Hot Babrain Khartoum Singapore Humidity generally has a small effect on density (humidity reduces density), but must be taken into account at moist tropical airfields, e.g. Bahrain, Singapore. MSL Figure 3.2. An Illustration of Pressure Decrease with Height in Airmasses with Different Temperatures and therefore Different Densities 3-4 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY DENSITY Density Questions 1, Consider the following statements relative to Air Density and select the one which is correct ® Because air density increases with decrease of temperature, air density must increase with increase of height in the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA). b) At any given surface temperature the air density will be greater in anticyclonic conditions than it will be when the MSL pressure is lower. ©) Airdensity increases with increase of relative humidity. @) —_Theeffect of change of temperature on the air density is much greater than the effect of change of atmospherie pressure. 2, The tropopause in mid latitudes is: a) Lower in summer with a lower temperature b) Lower in winter with a higher temperature ©) Lower in summer with a higher temperature. d) Lower in winter with a lower temperature. 3. Generally as altitude increases: a) temperature decreases and density increases b) temperature, pressure and density decreases: ©) temperature and pressure increase and density decreases 4) temperature decreases and pressure density increases 4, Inthe troposphere: a) over cold air, the pressure is higher at upper levels than at similar levels over warm air b) over cold air, the pressure is lower at upper levels than at similar levels over warm air ©) over warmair, the pressure is lower at upper levels than at similar levels over warm air 4) the upper level pressure depends solely on the relative humidity below 5. Density at the surface will be low when: a) Pressure is high and temperature is high. b) Pressure is high and temperature is tow, ©) Pressure is low and temperature is low. 4) Pressure is low and temperature is high, 3-5 {© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ANSWERS Ques | Answer 1 B 2 3 B 4 B 8 D DENSITY ‘© Oxford Aviation Services Limited42 43 44 45 4.6 47 48 CHAPTER FOUR - SYNOPTIC CHARTS DEFINITION OBSERVATIONS ..... TIMING . PLOTTING .. DECODE. ANALYSIS... PROGNOSTIC CHARTS, EXERCISES Contents, © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY SYNOPTIC CHARTS. 4 4.2 DEFINITION Synoptic Meteorology is defined as being concemed with a description of current weather represented on geographical charts and applied especially tothe forecasting of future weather, OBSERVATIONS Weather forecasting has always depended upon accurate observation of the weather prevailing, and the availability of that information to all forecasters. Observations made at observing stations, will be encoded in a universally recognised numerical code (the SYNOP CODE), sent to a central communication centre (in the UK the National Meteorological Centre (NMC), Bracknell) and then re-transmitted to all interested parties in bulletin form, Figure 4.1. is an example of coded observations from London/Heathrow. You will not be required to decode such a message, but it is shown for information purposes. %s BLOCK NO (UK) > STATION NO (LHR) CLOUD COVER z, %, % WIND VELOCITY (290/18) % VISIBILTY, ®, PRESENT WEATHER %9___ PAST WEATHER 7 MSL PRESSURE ‘%z, ORY BULB PRESSURE AMOUNT TYPE & Low CLOUD &, TYPE OF MEDIUM CLOUD “%, , DEW POINT TEMP PRESSURE TENDENCY “©, RAINFALL “@ MAX OR MIN TEMP %, AMOUNT TYPE & HEIGHT &p OF LOWEST CLOUD %, & AMOUNT TYPE & HEIGHT OF SECOND CLOUD LAYER Figure 4.1. Heathrow Weather 4-4 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY SYNOPTIC CHARTS 4.3 44 TIMING “Main’ observations are made at 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800 UTC: ‘intermediate’ at 0300, 0900, 1500 and 2100 UTC. PLOTTING The information for each observing station is plotted in a standard format of numbers and symbols around the station on a geographical chart, Examples of a blank synoptic chart (Figure 4.2) and a station plot (Figure 4.3) are shown: See % Figure 4.2. Synoptic Chart. 4-2 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY SYNOPTIC CHARTS 45 DECODE A full decode of the numbers and symbols follow: user FORMOF HIGH CLOUD “ence from cu Are) FORM OF MEDIUM CLOUD — {formed orm spreasing 2) Ory BUCS EIGHT AND AMOUNT OF MEDIUM CLOUD me 4 (eis at12000%) ‘win piRECTION e077) Lf B PRESSURE (24 nbs 2° 124 PRESSURE CHANGE INLAST 3 HRS i (8 mos) 18) Nast HAS WiIBLITY (ake) 80 ina present wearien Ke ffrandersorms) usin owe) Dew Pont er) (ZX, TOTAL AMOUNT OF CLOUD 8 5° rou of Low ctoun (Cage eu) saMounT OF LOWEST CLOUD (8) HEIGHT OF Lowest cLoUD (00) Figure 4.4, Station Circle Decode. 4-3 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedSO TOD BBs Tied anneg stop Oerosiea — worm pats | Bees Foe BE ram om ee ees www sma pes oop wn ee 291 1921 MONANN PSS / Figure 4.5 The Station Circle DecodeMETEOROLOGY SYNOPTIC CHARTS 1 2 4.6 Ifthere are no symbols in the past weather position then it means that observed weather was not significant Past weather can have double symbol (W, W;) eg = Rain showers in the past 6 hours OR a double preci distinct from a single symbol: Rain showers throughout the past 6 hours. . Rain in the past 6 hours. oo Rain throughout the past 6 hours (NOTE: not slight continuous rain). Ifpast weather has a double character but using different symbols e.e. . 9 or * ee then the first symbol is the dominant characteristic. Hence the decode for the two examples above would be respectively: Rain during the past 6 hours with some drizzle: Snow during the past 6 hours with some rain, ast weather is in the past 6 hours for synoptic times: 0000, 0600, 1200, 1800 2. ast weather is in the past 3 hours for synoptic times: 0300, 0900, 1500, 2100 z, Past weather reports for any other times refer to weather in the past hour. ANALYSIS. a) Isobars, Once the data has been plotted on the chart, the meteorologist will draw in the isobars, using the plotted values of QFF, usually for even whole numbers on a chart ofthis size, Charts covering a greater area, like the North Atlantic, may space the isobars every four or even eight millibars. b) Fronts. The positioning of fronts on the chart will require a little more skill and a knowledge of the weather changes to be expected at frontal passage, It is common nowadays for this plotting procedure to be completely computerised and the resulting charts to be despatched by Fax. Figure 4.6. is an example of a completed (analysed) surface chart, 4-5 {© Oxford Aviation Servicos LimitedMETEOROLOGY SYNOPTIC CHARTS. Figure 4.6. Analysed Chart 4-6 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedN. Atlantic ASXX Analysis for 0000UTC 22 Novarr SLUVHD OUSONDOUd LFMETEOROLOGY SYNOPTIC CHARTS 4.8 EXERCISES ‘We use a number of these synoptic charts in practical exercises in this course and you will need. to be able to deduce the observed weather from the plotted station circles. ‘A simple exercise using such a chart is appended to this chapter (Chart 85.3). It covers MSL pressure, pressure tendeney and isobar values. More detailed exercises will follow later STATION CIRCLE DECODE EXERCISE (CHART 85/3) What is the pressure and pressure tendency at the stations listed below and what is the value of the isobar to the south of each station? 1 48N osw 2 SON ow 3. SON o4uw 4 ATAN aw 5. S34N 134W 6 SIN 1sw 7. S64N o7w. 8 SAN low 9 SSN oTAw 4-9 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY SYNOPTIC CHARTS vis “ERNE pA gy = Tew ee © Crown copyright Chart 85/3 4-10 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY SYNOPTIC CHARTS: ANSWERS PRESSURE, PRESSURE TENDENCY 1.4 Fall/Slight rise 1000 | 0.2 Slight falltise 994 | 0.1 Slight rise/fall 1006 | 1.2 Fall/Slight rise 996 | 0.0 Slight rise/fall 1002 | 0.8 Fall/Slight rise 992 | 0.4 Fall/sight rise 990 | 0.8 Fall 992 | 0.4 Fall/steady 4-11 {© Oxford Aviation Services Limited5. 52 53 s4 35 56 37 58 59 5.10 2 S53 Sul SAS 5.16 CHAPTER FIVE - PRESSURE SYSTEMS. Contents Page INTRODUCTION 60.0026 00060seteceeesees 25d DEPRESSIONS cee Sel DEPRESSION WEATHER ANTICYCLONES ....0000000005 cece eeeeeeeeee 5-2 ANTICYCLONIC WEATHER . ceeeteeteeeeee ee Sod TROUGHS 3-5 TROUGH WEATHER ........000.05 . RIDGES ceteeeeeeeee 57 RIDGE WEATHER... woe eteeeeeeeeees S28 ARIDGE BETWEEN TWO LOWS ..... veeeeee 5-8 COLS cones 5-8 COL WEATHER .. . 5-8 PRESSURE SYSTEMS MOVEMENT ........22022 5-10 TERMINOLOGY . . cece sell BUYS BALLOT'S LAW, fot eeeeeeeee Sell PRESSURE GRADIENT. ree 5-12 PRESSURE SYSTEMS QUESTIONS woes 5-13 {© Oxford Aviation Serdoes LimitedMETEOROLOGY 5. S2 INTRODUCTION Isobats can form patterns, which when they are recognized, can help us forecast the weather. ‘These patterns are called pressure distribution systems, They include a) Depressions, or lows, b) —_Anticyclones, or highs. ©) Troughs. 4d) Ridges. Cols, f) Secondary depressions (See Chapter 22) DEPRESSIONS A depression is a region of comparatively low pressure shown by more or less circular and concentric isobars surrounding the centre, where pressure is lowest. A depression is sometimes called a low or a cyclone. There are two types of depression, frontal and non-frontal. A. depression is a region of converging and rising air as shown in Figure 5. Surface winds blow anticlockwise around a low (in the northern hemisphere) and across the isobars towards the centre. PRESSURE SYSTEMS Figure 5.1. A Depression in the Norther Hemisphere. _ LOW PRESSURE CONVERGENCE Fig 5.2. Vertical Cross Section. 5-1 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS 53 sd DEPRESSION WEATHER Cloud 8/8 extending to tropopause and with a low base. Precipitation Can be continuous light to moderate and also heavy showers and thunderstorms. Visibility Poor in precipitation, otherwise good due to ascending air. ‘Temperature Mild. Winds Winds are usually strong- the deeper the depression and the closer the isobars, the stronger the wind. ANTICYCLONES, ;elone or high is a region of relatively high pressure. shown by more ot less circular isobars similar to a depression but with higher pressure at the centre, Isobars. are more widely spaced than with depressions. There are three types of anticyclone, warm, cold and temporary cold, They are regions of diverging and descending air. Surface ‘winds blow clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and across the isobars away from the centre Figure 5.3 An Anticycione in the Northern Hemisphere. 5-2 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘Warm Anticyclones ‘Warm anticyclones are caused by an excess ofairat high level. The descending air will be heated by compression and surface temperatures will rise as a result. Warm anticyclones normally coceut in lower latitudes, Cold Anticyclones ‘These are caused by high density and low surface temperatures. As a result, cold anticyclones Polar and high latitudes and are more seasonal (Winter) than warm anticyclones. ‘Temporary Cold Antieyelones A temporary cold anticyclone is produced in the cold air between depressions on the polar front. When eventually the cold air terminates the series of lows, the cold anticyclone may be of some size though not of great depth. Over the sea, and over the land in ‘Summer, such an antieyelone will last only a few days to be replaced by the subsequent polar frontal depression. PRESSURE SYSTEMS CONVERGENCE «© HIGH PRESSURE DIVERGENCE La | ‘Temporary {COLD HIGH aon i 1010 ! Figure 5.5 A Temporary Cold Anticycione. (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS 85 Blocking Anticyclones ‘Warm anticyclones, which are often an extension of high pressure areas developed in the sub- tropical regions, may hold up or divert the normal west-cast passage of polar front depressions and persist for several days. The diagram shows how the usual west-east flow becomes more north-south, or meridional as the effect of the extension of the Azores High affects the air flow. There is a decided tendency for blocking highs to persist in certain geographic areas such as 10 to 20W over the North Atlantic, The air within the systems is subsiding down from high levels ‘and this means that extensive sheets of Stratus or Strato cumulus may develop but there will be little vertical extent. It is worth noting that a warm anticyclone, in the South, may join up with ‘cold antieyclone from the North to create this meridional flow. Figure 5.3a. High from Azores to Scandinavia. ANTICYCLONIC WEATHER Cloud None except on the edge of the anticyclone, Precipitation None. Visibility Generally poorer than with a depression. Autumn/Winter - fog early morning, and night, Summer - haze is possible, otherwise good, ‘Temperature Dependent on type, Winds Light. 5-4 © Orford Aviation Services Limitedisobars extending re are indicated by lowe trough than on either side, Figure 5.6. A Trough of Low Pressure. © Oxford Aviation Services LiniledMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS: 5.7 TROUGH WEATHER Cloud Non-frontal: Great vertical development of cloud - CU and CB. Frontal: The cloud will depend on whether cold air is overtaking ‘warm, when the cloud tendsto be as above, or if warm air is overtaking cold, in which case the cloud is likely to have much less vertical development Showers, thunderstorms, hail, with non frontal orcold front; continuous drizzle, light or moderate rain with warm frontal trough. Precipi Visibility Fair except in showers, though at a warm frontal trough vi be poor in continuous rain. ity will Winds Moderate with gusts and squalls. \ ae “re 0000 GMT Sean coorare Figure 5.7. A Frontal Trough Extending from the North 5-6 (© Onord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS 58 RIDGES Ridges of high pressure are indicated by isobars extending outwards from an anticyelone and always rounded, never V-shaped as seen in a trough, They are also sometimes referred to as wedges’. Figure 6.8. A Ridge of High Pressure. 5-7 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS 59 5.10 SAL S12 RIDGE WEATHER Ridge weather is similar to anticyclonic weather. A RIDGE BETWEEN TWO LOWS. [A ridge often brings a period of good weather between two depressions, coLs Cols are regions of almost level pressure between two highs and two lows. It is an area of stagnation. This is illustrated in Figure 5.9. COL WEATHER Col weather is normally settled, but is dependent on changing pressure, In autumn and winter cols produce poor visibility and fog, whilst in summer thunderstorms are common. Figure 5.10 is an example of a weather forecast for a day when a col influenced the weather over the U.K. f Jowe - - DECEMBER. - - “y gy twee - -0300- GMT - Figure 5.9 A Col 5-8 (© Ovfore Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘GENERAL SITUATION: East counties of England and Scotian ‘aloe coud snd mist test wih some showers -AW2y ort ‘cast shoud brgtten up arough tris ils chance ofa “The rat ofthe UK wi Become very fem 91 singing, though seating of are expeced rom |ate-marning aowords ‘CHAN ISLES, LONDON, SE ENGLAND, CENTS ENGLAND, SW ENGLAND: Mit cleting to eave somo hot sunshine, A smal erance a thes anernoen, A igh and warble ‘we Man 73:79 (23280) MIDLANDS, CENT N ENGLAND, NW ENGLAND, WALES, LAKE DIST, 10M NIRELAND: Warm sndhumi wil sunny Seals. 40% chancel igntandvarabio wings, Max 73731 (25.260). I ANGLIA, E ENGLAND: Patchy fog are iu ci should certo eave good sats of warm sunshine bu may break futlaes AQM vorhamsterty wind, Max 8°72 (19-25) NE ENGLAND, SE SCOTLAND, EDREURGH, CUNDEE. Cet MeeShos Asensten bona Rt Ne SEA Sonata uryenne an im dearest ror Rigen i Coto ST 5# SCOTLAND. KW SCOTLAND, GLASGOW, ARGYLL: ary Sten 9 owe tk ESROOR, sto Sip ae nae oe eae (ORKNEY, SHETLAND: ESI on ow 003. ight south ‘aatry win. Max te (16 SNORTHSEA: Aight nxhsstery is Sit oo. [DOVER STRAT, ENGLISH CHANNEL, ST GEORGE'S CHA, ion Sea A its or som westery whe So bees eat hore, RANBIR. Vy moderne eth ras patch Sige sass ‘OUTLOOK: Unset n ne north-west a good dea of fo, war ‘wearin te south-east POLLEN: A moderate countin te south but high ne north ans ‘wot away fo coasts {Paten ferecas! rm the National Asthma Campaign) in v onten 96200 0 6329, Marcbne 9 pe rte "se or os swt Ser Moy se Safes tn T0shg Ri went Lends Bot stor “i ‘Dnt, $m (Sm Bena Odden (139m). 10 23 Ureptl 2 O2em D0 227 PRESSURE SYSTEMS eoupa in °C (°F in brackets). Aerows: wind ‘Pressure in mitibars (aches in brackets) High W will if act but Highs K znd O are slow moving Law Vis almost stnonary bet Low X wil develop as ‘trans quickly eastward, Love BY is hardly enone IN BRITAIN YESTEROAY —“Typemauith (Tyne ved Wei 0.21 fo Eoibowr (Et Sussex) 149 bs Figure 5.10, Col Weather. (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS 5.13 PRESSURE SYSTEMS MOVEMENT Weather pattems (pressure systems) vary across the globe, ‘They are mobile in high latitudes while slow moving in equatorial latitudes. Patterns of isobars which indicate weather will retain their general shape while moving, but change their numerical value. Movement of the systems is the key to accurate forecasting. The following figures show the movement of weather over a period of four successive days. Figure 5.11. Maintenance of Shape. 5-10 © Onlord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS Sid TERMINOLOGY Depressions will fill up or decay as pressure rises. Depressions will deepen as pressure falls. Depressions move rapidly, their average lifetime is 14 days. Anticyetones will build up as pressure rises. Antieyclones will weaken or collapse as pressure falls. Anticyclones are very slow moving, they can last for a lengthy period, up to 6 months, Cols last a few days only and are then absorbed into other systems. ‘Changes of shape and intensity are slight in tropical regions where pressure is generally low, but in temperate and polar latitudes changes are much more varied and rapid. BUYS BALLOT'S LAW Inthe 19 century the Dutch meteorologist Buys Ballot produced a law based on the observation of wind direction and pressure systems. Buys Ballot’s Law states that;- _________LOW PRESSURE i If'an observer stands with his back to the wind, the lower pressure is on his felt in the northern hemisphere, and on his right in the southern hemisphere. A corollary of this law is that if you are experiencing starboard dri in the northem hemisphere you are heading towards low pressure, This is illustrated Figure 5.12. Sen PRESSURE Figure 5.12. A Corollary of Buys Ballot's Law. 5-11 © Oord Aviston Services LimitesMETEOROLOGY 5.16 PRESSURE GRADIENT ‘The pressure gradient is the difference in pressure between consecutive isobars divided by the distance between them, this is illustrated in Figure 5.13 Note. ‘The greater the pressure change for a given distance the faster the wind velocity Air tries to move from high to low pressure and this will generate a pressure radient force which develops into the wind velocity that we feel. This will be discussed in full in chapter 11 PRESSURE SYSTEMS Figure 5.13. Pressure Gradient. Roll Fast, Rots Stowty co A 8 50 mis: ' 100 mis Figure 5.14. Why Speed Depends on Gradient. (© Oxford Aviation Serviens LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS Pressure Systems Questions ‘A trough of low pressure is generally associated with a) convergence causing increased cloud and precipitation b) divergence causing increased cloud and precipitation ©) subsidence causing increased cloud and precipitation d) subsidence causing decreased cloud and precipitation A ridge of high pressure is generally associated with: a) convergence causing increased cloud and precipitation b) divergence causing increased cloud and preci ©) divergence causing cloud to break up and more precipitation d) divergence and subsidence causing clear skies and good weather ‘A small low established within the circulation of another low is called a) atrough b) — acol ©) ananticyclone d) —_asecondary depression An area of indeterminate pressure between two lows and two highs is called: a) atrough b) ridge 2 acol 4) asaddle A trough of low pressure is: a) small Jow established within the citculation of another low b) _anextension or elongation of a low pressure system along an axis on each side of which pressure increases ©) acentre of pressure surrounded on all sides by higher pressure d) —_amarea where the pressure is lower than anywhere else in the area 5-13 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS 6 10. If in the southern hemisphere an aircraft in flight at 2000 ft is experiencing starboard drift, the aircraft is flying towards: a) by °) d an area of high pressure an area of low pressure a warm front a depression In the Southern Hemisphere, the surface winds at B1; and C2 would be respectively: a) b) °) d clockwise across the isobars away from the centre: and anti-clockwise across the isobar towards the centre, Anti-clockwise across the isobars towards the centre: and clockwise across the isobars away from the centre. Anti-clockwise across the isobars away from the centre: and clockwise across the isobats towards the centre, Clockwise across the isobars towards the centre: and Anti-clockwise across the isobars away from the centre, Subsidence in an anticyclone produces: a) b) °) d) saturated air and an inversion dry air and an inversion isothermal dry and stable air increased pressure at the surfuce With an anticyclone over the UK the expected weather is a) b) °) ad ‘Thunderstorms in summer, fog in winter, Stratus in summer with drizzle, CU and snow in winter. Clear skies or fair weather CU in summer, fog in winter Clear skies in summer with haze, cold frontal weather in winter. Refer to appendix A and answer questions 10 to 14 ‘The pressure systems at A2; BI; B2; B3; and C2 are respectively: a) b) °) d Depression; Anticyclone; Col; Ridge; and Trough. Ridge: Anticyclone; Col; Trough; and Depression ‘Trough; Depression; Col; Ridge; and Anticyclone. Ridge: Depression; Col; Trough; and Anticyclone. 5-14 1 Onfors Aviation Services LimteeMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS IL, Two important weather factors at B2 will be: a) b) ° a Frontal weather in winter, fog in summer. Clear conditions in summer, thunderstorms in winter. ‘Thunderstorms in summer, fog in winter, Fog in summer, thunderstorms in winter. 12. Haze in summer and radiation fog in winter can be expected at: a C2 b) BB °.) BI Ba 13. Inthe non-frontal pressure system at B3, the expected weather a) ST SC with drizzle or light precipitation. b) Clear skies with moderate winds. ©) CUCB with showers. 4) Light winds and haze with an inversion, Appendix A. 5-15 © Oxford Aviation Servis LimitedMETEOROLOGY ANSWERS: Ques _| Answer | Ques | Answer 1 A 8 D 2 D 9 3 D 10 D 4 c ul c 5 B 12 A 6 A 1B c 1 D 5-16 PRESSURE SYSTEMS (© Oxford Aviation Services Limited61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 CHAPTER SIX - ALTIMETRY Contents THE ALTIMETER ... ALTIMETER SETTINGS . TERMINOLOGY ALTIMETER ERRORS ALTIMETRY QUESTIONS . TERRAIN CLEARANCE MINIMUM FLIGHT LEVEL .... TRANSITION ALTITUDE . TRANSITION LEVEL TRANSITION LAYER . ALTIMETRY QUESTIONS ... © Onford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY 61 THE ALTIMETER Analtimeter is an instrument which measures pressure and causes a needle to move across a dial, The dial is calibrated in feet rather than pressure as we know that pressure decreases as altitude increases. The instrument is calibrated in accordance with the ICAO International Standard Atmosphere so that all altimeters will read the same altitude for the same pressure. (See previous notes on the need for the ISA). Inaddition, altimetershave a means of adjusting the needle setting to take changes in the surface atmospheric pressure into ‘PARTIALLY EVACUATED account. STATIC PRESSURE PARTIAL Figure 6.1. showshow the Figure 6.1. A Simple Altimeter. altimeter reading will change with a change in pressure. In Figure 6.2. section A, the pressure at the airfield, which is at sea level, is 1010 mb, The altimeter reads zero feet. In section B, the pressure at the airfield has fallen to 1000 mb and the altimeter, rather than showing a decrease in pressure, shows an increase in height. Figure 6.2. The Altimeter Responding to Changes in Pressure. 6-1 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY a) ») When flying at a constant indicated altitude, outside air pressure must remain the same. To achieve this we must fly along @ pressure level. However, when we fly to an area of lower pressure, these pressure lines will dip, consequently our true altitude will decrease. Conversely when flying into a region of higher pressure, the pressure lines will rise and our true altitude will increase. Figure 6.3 HIGHER PRESSURE; TRUE ALTITUDE > INDICATED ALTITUDE, LOWER PRESSURE; TRUE ALTITUDE < INDICATED ALTITUDE Varying temperatures within the atmosphere have significant effects on the pressure and the shape of the pressure lines. Cold air will tend to compact and lower pressure lines whilst warm air will expand and raise pressure lines. Using Figure 64 you can see that when flying to a colder area at a constant indicated altitude your true altitude decreases. Conversely, when flying into warmer region your true altitude will increase, Figure 6.4 COLDER THAN ISA; TRUE ALTITUDE < INDICATED ALTITUDE WARMER THAN ISA; TRUE ALTITUDE > INDICATED ALTITUDE ‘There is a need to be able to reset the altimeter to take account of the fall in pressure. Consequently, if the altimeter is reset when the pressure changes, the altimeter will read correctly. We may, by altering the altimeter subscale setting, set QFE, QNH or SPS for use ‘when we fly to ensure more accurate readings. 6-2 © Oxord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY 62 ALTIMETER SETTINGS QFE Airfield pressure. With this pressure set on the altimeter, the instrument will read zero on the ground , or the height of the aireraft above the airfield Figure 6.5. Airfield Pressure - QFE. QNH ‘This is the airfield pressure converted to MSL in accordance with the ICAO ISA. The altimeter will then read the height of the airfield above MSL, or the aircraft's height AMSL, Figure 6.6, Mean Sea Level Pressure - QNH. Forecast QNH ‘The lowest forecast QNH within an area, forecast for one hour ahead. The altimeter will be in error, but as the setting is the lowest forecast, the actual pressure will always be higher, orat least equal to the forecast QNH, and the altimeter will read low (or safe) or the correct altitude. 6-3 © Oxtord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY Figure 6.7. FOUK 70 EGRR 11 00600 FOQNH VALIDITY PERIOD 070% 01992 62995-63003 M4007 0301 _-REGION NUMBER O71 oxo vor 0014 11018 12019 13020, M401S— SOIT 1698717998 THD RPS 1999820008 2198122987 25001 24011 2spi4 Note: The Cotswold area where Kidlington is situated is No.15 on the above decode table 6-4 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY SPS (Standard Pressure Setting) Ifthe standard pressure of 1013 mb is set on the altimeter, the instrument will read what is known as pressure altitude height in the Standard Atmosphere. This is the altimeter setting used when flying above the transition altitude, 6.3 TERMINOLOGY Altitude Vertical distance above mean sea level. Height Vertical distance of a level or point measured from a specific datum, ¢.8, height above a surface. Elevation Height when the datum is MSL. Flight Level Surface of constant atmospheric pressure measured from the 1013.25 datum used for vertical separation by specified pressure intervals (usually S00 oF 1,000 ft), Flight Level is measured in hundreds of feet eg. FL 35 35,000 FT. (eressune “F rucur Ssmuae tever “tom ros ELEVATION, Cee) Figure 6.9 Altimetry Terminology. 6.4 ALTIMETER ERRORS Apart from instrument errors, there are two errors of interest meteorologically. They are: a) Barometric Error - Errors caused by setting a pressure on the subscale other than the correct one. 6-5 © Oxtors Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY INDICATED HEIGHT 4.000 FT ——S—E TRUE HEIGHT 3,850 FT SUBSCALE SETTING 1010 TRUE MSL PRESSURE 1005 mb Figure 6.10. Barometric Error. b) Temperature error The altimeter is calibrated in accordance with the ICAO ISA. If the temperature is other than that in the ISA, the altimeter will be in error. Corrected altitude is calculated by using a navigational computer, ora correction table. HI-LO-HI ‘ill stil apply. An example of a temperature error correction is shown: |ETER TEMPERATURE ERROR CORRECTION a) Pressure altimeters are calibrated to indicate true altitude under ISA conditions. Any deviation from ISA will result in erroneous readings. b) When temperatures are tess than ISA an aircraft will be lower than the altimeter reading, ©) Theerror is proportional to the difference between actual and ISA temperature, and the vertical distance of the aircraft above the altimeter setting datum, i.e. height above touchdown, ‘The error is approximately 4f1/1000ft for each °C of difference 6) To ensure adequate obstacle clearance on approach add figure in body of table to caleulated DH/MDH, 6-6 {© Oxford Aviation Services LinitedMETEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY ISATEMP | HEIGHT ABOVE TOUCHDOWN OR HEIGHT ABOVE AERODROME IN DEVIATION | FEET °C 200 300400500600 7008009001000 QUESTIONS ON ALTIMETRY. For all of the following questions assume that Imb=27ft. 1. Anaireraftis at an airfield with an elevation of 350 ft, The altimeter setting is 1002, but the actual QNH is 993, What is the altimeter reading? Assume that | mb = 278. 2. Anaireraft is on an airfield, elevation 190 ft and has an altimeter reading of 70 ft with a setting of 1005. What is the actual QNH?. 3. What is the altimeter reading if the setting is 978, the QNH 993 and the airfield elevation TOR? 4, The regional pressure setting is 1012, the altimeter setting is 1022 and the indicated altitude is 4100 fl. Ahead is some high ground shown on the map as being at 3700 ft. Will the aircraft clear the high ground, and if'so, by how much? 6-7 © Odlrd Aviation Services LimiteMETEOROLOGY 65 66 TERRAIN CLEARANCE The question above leads to another aspect of Altimetry - Terrain Clearanee. Figure 6.12. explains what we need to know to determine this. MINIMUM FLIGHT LEVEL ‘To determine the minimum safe flight level that we can fly along a particular route, we should need to know the elevation of the highest ground/obstacle along our track, the ‘minimum terrain clearance (varies with ‘company regulations) and the QNH. Figure 6.13. shows how we should caleulate MSFL. ALTIMETRY ALT SETTING Figure 6.12 Terrain Clearance. 1013] Figure 6.13. Minimum Flight Level Calculation, ‘NH [ALTIMETER ALTIMETER] SETTING ALTITUDE |_ READING 1012 | 1010 4,060 : 7015 [| 1010 5,000 Fill in the blank spaces in the 7010 650 560 following examples. 1020 1013 710,500 Assume I mb = 27f¢ Seo | 1018 _|__8.500 1015 35 125 1017 | __1027 3,300 1012 330 0 0 993 a5 [oi 7025 [1015 4760 6-8 ‘© Oxlord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY Altimetry Questions 1. Anaircraft is flying at 3000 fect indicated with the altimeter sub scale set to 1020 mb towards a mountain range with an elevation of 1600 feet. If during the flight the QNH in the area falls to 989 mb and the altimeter sub scale is not reset, the expected clearance over the ‘mountain range will be: (assume 27 feet = 1 mb) a) 1400 b) 470 ) 830f 563 ft 2. When flying towards @ depression at a constant indicated altitude, the true altitude will be: a) Lower than indicated. b) Higher than indicated. ©) The same as indicated. 4) Lower than indicated at first then the same as indicated later. 3. The name given to the lowest forecast mean sea level pressure in an area is a) QFE b) Regional QNH ©) QFF ) QNE 4. The Altimeter will always read a) With 1013 set the altitude above MSL 'b) With airfield QNH set the height above the airfield datum ©) The vertical distance above the pressure level set 4) the correct flight level with regional QFE set 5. Anaircrafl at airfield P elevation 270 fi has the airfield QNH 1012 mbs correctly set. The altimeter setting is not changed. Later on landing at aitfield Q elevation 450 ft the aircraft altimeter reads 531 ft. What is the correct QNH at airfield Q? ( Assume 27 ft = | mb) a) 1014.7 mbs b) 1009.3 mbs ©) 1015 mbs 1009 mbs 6-11 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY 6. The altimeter subscale is set to 1030 mbs and the altimeter reads 4500’. QNH is 996 mbs. ‘What is the altitude of the aircraft ? (Assume 1 mb = 27") a) 3480" by) 3990" co) S48" d) 3582" 7. Anairerafi flies over high ground 4730 metres above msl. ‘The track is 140°M and the QNH 995 mbs. The required clearance is a minimum of 1500’, What is the minimum flight level in cloud? (Assume 1 mb=27') a) 17S by) 19s 190 a 2s 8. Anairerafi, flying at FL100 at a constant RAS, flies from an area of warm air into an area of cold air. The QNH is unchanged, How has the aircraft altitude and TAS changed? 10. Altitude a) decreased b) Increased ©) decreased 4) Increased An aircraft flies on a track of 356°M over high ground which rises to 4693 metres above msl Drift is 10° Port and the regional QNH 993 mbs, ‘The aircraft is required to clear this high ‘What is the minimum quadrantal rules flight level? (Assume | mb=27') ‘ground by 1500" a) FL210 by) FL 205 FL 190 a) L185 QNH at Johannesburg is 1025 hPa, elevation is 1600m amsl. What is the QFE. (Assume 1 mb = 8m) a) 1000.8 hPa by) 830.6 hPa ) 1002 hPa 4) 825 hPa TAS increased increased decreased. decreased (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY i. When flying from Paris (QNH 1012) to London (QNH 1015) at FL 100, You neglect to reset your altimeter but why does your true altitude remain the same throughout the flight. a) by °) o Paris has a higher pressure than London ‘The air at London is warmer than Paris, London is at a lower altitude than Paris, ‘The air at Paris is warmer than London An airfield in Holland is 20m below sea level, QFF is 1020 hPa, temperature at the surface is 430°C, What is the value of QNH. a) b) ©) a Impossible to determine Less than 1020 hPa Same as QFF More than 1020 hPa 6-13 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ANSWERS Ques Answers 6 olelolololal> slols ALTIMETRY (© Oxford Aviation Servicws Limited1 13 14 7S 16 a 78 CHAPTER SEVEN - TEMPERATURE Contents Page INTRODUCTION 0000.00.00. Steet Tel MEASUREMENT ..... . . fete Tol INSTRUMENTS 600.00. . . ceeee To? HEATING OF THE ATMOSPHERE . 7-4 ‘TEMPERATURE VARIATION WITH HEIGHT ..... 7-7 LAPSE RATE 7-7 INVERSIONS, . SURFACE TEMPERATURE. . . cee 78 TEMPERATURE QUESTIONS ........ . . -7-18 |@ Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE. WA 72 INTRODUCTION One of the important variables in the atmosphere is temperature. The study of temperature variation, both horizontally and vertically has considerable significance in the study of meteorology. MEASUREMENT There are three seales which may be used to measure temperature though only Celsius and Kelvin are used in meteorology. ‘The figures show the melting point of ice and the boiling point of water (at STP) in each scale, a) The FAHRENHEIT scale: +32 to +212 degrees. b) The CELSIUS (or Centigrade) scale: 0 10 +100 degrees, ©) The KELVIN (or Absolute) scale: +273 t0 4373 degrees Conversion factors: ce 8 poe. : C5 CF 82) (56) op 9 one F °C. 32 (18) K~ °C) 273 7-4 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE 7.3 INSTRUMENTS The standard means of measurement on the ground is a mercury thermometer placed in a Stevenson Sereen. Flectrical resistence thermometers may be used where the Sereen is not readily accessible to the observer. Figure 7.1. The Stevenson Screen. A Thermogeaph (similar in its output to a Barograph) will also be found inside the screen, The Stevenson Sercen is a louvred box 4 feet (1.22m) above the ground. ‘This sereen, shown in Figure 7.1, is used worldwide. Figure 7.2. Thermograph 7-2 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE Upper air temperatures are taken using a Radiosonde, shown in Figure 7.5, - a device transmitting continuous readings of temperature, pressure and humidity whilst being carried aloft beneath a balloon, Rate of climb is 1200 fpm and maximum ceiling between 65,000 and. 115,000 fi BALLOON REFLECTOR GROUND RADAR, Figure 7.3. A Radiosonde. Airoraft readings, though often the only way in which atmospheric temperature may be measured over the oceans and other areas far away from meteorological stations, are notasaccurate asthey are affected by compressibility and lag. The electrical thermometer will give a digital readout of temperature and this can be automatically calibrated and transmitted on some modern: raft / Figure 7.4, Electrical Thermometer 7-3 (© Ovlrd Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE 7.4 HEATING OF THE ATMOSPHERE, ‘The atmosphere is heated by 5 different processes: a) b) Solar Radiation. Radiation from the sun is of Short wave-length (4) and passes through the atmosphere almost without heating it at all A= 0.15'¢ 4 microns (micron p 10° m) Some solar radiation is reflected back to the upper air from cloud tops and from water surfaces on the earth The rest of this radiation heats the earths surface The process whereby the surface is heated by solar radiation is called insolation Figure 7.5. Solar Radiation. ‘Terrestrial Radiation, ‘The earth radiates heat at all times. It is relatively long wave radiation = 4 to 80 microns, peaking at 10 It is absorbed and then retransmitted as heat by the water vapour and co2 in the atmosphere. This retransmission of heat to the surrounding, air i the main method by which theatmosphere is, hneated and explains why the atmosphere reduces in temperature with an increase in height. It is heated from below - hhence there is @ lapse rate, Figure 7.6. Terrestrial Radiation. 7-4 (© Orlorc Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘TEMPERATURE ° a Conduction. Air lying in contact with the earths surface by day will be heated by conduction, At night air in contact with the earths surface will be cooled by conduction, Because of the air’s poor conductivity, the air at a higher level will remain at the same temperature as during the day and an inversion will result Figure 7.7. Conduction. Convection. Air heated by conduction will be less dense and will therefore rise. This ‘will produce up currents called thermals or convection currents. These will take the warm air to the upper levels, thus helping to heat the upper atmosphere Figure 7.8. Convection Currents. 7-5 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘TEMPERATURE ©) Condensation. As the air is lifted it will cool by adiabatic process and the water vapour in the air will condense out as visible droplets forming cloud. As this occurs latent heat will be released by the water vapour nd this will heat the atmosphere. a Katiials RELEASED WATER VAPOUR RISES [SURFACE WATER EVAPORATED Brere a anh Figure 7.9. Latent Heat being released through Condensation. Figure 7.10. Heat Processes in the Atmosphere. 7-6 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘TEMPERATURE 1S 71.6 WW 7.8 TEMPERATURE VARIATION WITH HEIGHT. We have seen that although our source of heat is the sun, because of the ‘atmosphere’s virtual transparency to insolation, it is in fact heated (by long wave TR) from the surface upwards. ‘Thus as we move further and further from 5 the surface we would expect the heating | effects to diminish, TEMPERATURE > Figure 7.11. Temperature Variation with Height LAPSE RATE, ‘The rate at which temperature falls with an increase in height is called the Lapse Rate. An ideal uniform atmosphere would show a constant lapse rate rather like the ISA, which is 1.98°C (2°) per L000f. ISOTHERM If temperature remains constant with height it is called an isothermal layer. INVERSIONS Where the temperature inereases with an increase in height, then we have what is called an inversion, We have already scen that at night we ean expect an inversion above the surface, but this can occur in many different ways. Radiation, on anight of clear skies, will also result ina temperature inversion above the surface. This is called a Radiation Inversion. When we look at cloud formation, we shall see that because of turbulence in the layer closest to the surface we can have an inversion at a height of 2 or 3 thousand feet. Quite often, at the tropopause instead of the temp. remaining constant, it may show a slight rise for a few thousand feet. At the higher levels of the stratosphere, temp. will show an increase with height (in ISA from (65,61 7f temperature increases at « rate of 0.3°/1000f). 7-7 (© Orford Aviation Servioes LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘TEMPERATURE Ima high pressure system, air descends at the centre. As the air descends it will be heated adiabatically (more of this later) and will be warmer than the air ata lower level, This is called «a Subsidence Inversion. —_—FROPOPAUSE ISOTHERMAL| LAYER (ATYPICAL EARLY ‘MORNING INVERSION, AFTER ACLEAR NIGHT SKY HEIGHT. TEMPERATURE. Figure 7.12. Inversions, 7.9 SURFACE TEMPERATURE ‘The surface air temperature measured in a Stevenson Screen is subject to considerable variations: Latitude Effect, Seasonal Effect, Diurnal Variation and multiple effects due to cloud and wind, 8) The angular elevation of the sun. i) Latitude Effect. At the equator ae only a small area is affected by the suns rays and therefore will be subject to the greatest heat/unit area. At the poles the suns rays will cover a larger area and there will be the least heat/unit area, ‘The actual distance of polar regions from the i “nit ane sun is only fractionally more than that from the equator, and the effect may be ignored. Figure 7.13. The Effect of Latitude. 7-8 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE ii) b) ii) iti) Seasonal Effect. On the, Maret, ‘and 23 September (the Vernal and Te > ‘Autumnal Equinxes) the sun_ is Ci as directly overhead the equator and = maximum heating occurs. On 21 June. the sun is overhead the Tropic of Cancer and maximum heating will occur there. In the Northern hemisphere the temperature will increase as the sun moves north and decrease as it moves South, reaching minimum about 23 December Figure 7.14. The Seasonal Effect. ‘Time of Day (Diurnal Variation). The sun is at its highest elevation at noon, but for two to three hours after this time, the earth is receiving more solar radiation than it is giving up as terrestrial radiation (Thermal Inertia). As a result temperature is highest at about 15:00 (Tmax). From 15:00 onwards, the temperature falls continuously until a little after sunrise. The lowest temperature occurs at about 0500 (T min) C. Diurnal Variation is greatest with clear skies and little wind. DV varies with a number of factors, but in temperate latitudes is about + 6 degrees about the mean. 0000 (0600 1200 1800 2400 TEMPERATURE DIURNAL VARIATION ‘OVER THE SEA _mmcapamvans 4 DIURNAL VARIATION IN aise clam ai conomions MINIMUM DIURNAL VARIATION with + CLOUD COVER OR STRONG an i TEMPERATURE | Figure 7.1. Diurnal Variation. 7-9 © Ovlord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE 1. Cloud cover by day. By day some of the solar radiation is reflected back by the cloud tops and T Max is reduced. Figure 7.16. Cloud Cover by Day Figure 7.17. Cloud Cover by Night 2. Cloud cover by night, By night terrestrial radiation is absorbed and radiated back to the earth’s surface from the clouds. T min is increased. Note, The so called greenhouse effect has a similar affect upon temperature as that of cloud cover by night but is generated differently in that long wave radiation from the Barth heats up the large quantities of carbon dioxide trapped in the lower levels of the atmosphere. This process continues day oF night and is said to be leading to an overall increase in atmospheric temperature. 7-10 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE 3. Effect of wind by day. By day wind will eause turbulent mixing of the warm air atthe surface with cold air above, reducing Tmax. Wind will also reduce the time fact with the warm ground. the air is in com DIRECTION, Figure 7.18. The Effect of Wind by Day 4, Effect of wind by night, By aight there will normally be an inversion above the surface and wind will cause cold airto be turbulently mixed with warm air above thus increasing T min. NCIS Figure 7.19. The Effect of Wind by Night. 7-11 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE In summary, wind on cloud cover will cause T max to be reduced and T min to be increased. ‘Therefore DV will be reduced. DY over sea. As the Specific Heat (SH) of water is unity, compared to other substances whose SH is much less, and as the temperature rise is inversely proportional to the Specific Heat , the temperature rise and fall over the sea is small, generally less than 1°C. ©) Nature of the Surface. i) Sea, The sea takes a long time to heat (and cool) and as we have seen has a very small DY. ‘The difference in DV values between land and sea is the cause of sea breezes. ‘The minimal DV of sea temperature is the reason why the most common form of fog, radiation fog, never forms over the sea. ‘When the angular elevation of the sun is low, much solar radiation is reflected back to the atmosphere. Figure 7.20. Diurnal Variation Over the Sea. 7-12 © Oxlerd Aviation Services Limitedaumjesodiuo jo oBues Ayep Uesyy 12"Z eunbi4METEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE ii) Land. Bare rock, sand, dry soil, tarred roads and concrete runways attain a higher temperature by insolation than woods, lakes, grasslands and wet soil ‘The temperature difference between air above concrete runways and adjacent grass can beas much as 4 degrees. Higher temperature surfaces provide strong up currents called thermals or convection currents. Figure 7.22. July Average Temperatures. In fig 7.23 we may note that the sea temperature remains “coo!” in July in the Northern Hemisphere but the desert land areas of Africa and neighbouring Asia get very warm. Air over snow covered surfaces is very cold. Some 80% of solar radiation is reflected from snow surfaces. Snow does not prevent the earth from radiating its heat, Henee surface air temperatures oversnow will become colder day by day. Temperatures in Siberia can reach -72°C after a long cold winter. This very cold air results in high density and the development of anticyciones, 7-14 (© Oxford Aviation Services LitesMETEOROLOGY ‘TEMPERATURE d) Location. i) Over Land. Air ina valley will tend to be more static than air in an exposed position. Therefore by night the air is in contact with the ground for a longer time and the air temperature is lower than on a hill. Additionally, ina valley, cold air tends to sink from the hills above at night, again causing lower ‘temperatures. It is for these reasons that mist and fog tend to form firstly in valleys. Figure 7.23. Location Effect. Over Oceans. The fact that seas tend to have a very small DV of temperature hhas been stated above, On a wide scale this means that in winter the sea is ‘warmer than the land and thus there is a widespread movement of air from land to sea (monsoon effect). There is an opposite tendency in summer. Figure 7.24 Monsoon Effect in Winter 7-15 © Orford Aviation Senvices LimitedMETEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE ©) Origin of air supply. Air tends to retain its temperature and humidity for a considerable time, therefore air from high latitudes will bring lower temperatures to UK for example. A southerly wind, however, will normally provide an increase in temperature, Figure 7.25 Origin of Air Supply 7-16 (© Orord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE ‘Temperature Questions 1. The measurement of surface temperature is made: a) at ground level b) at approximately 10 metres from ground level ©) at approximately 4 feet above ground level ) at approximately 4 metres above ground level 2. The purpose of a "Stevenson Seren" is to: a) maintain a moist atmosphere so that the wet bulb thermometer can function correctly b) to prevent the mercury freezing in the low winter temperatures: ©) protect the thermometer from wind, weather and from direct sunshine d) keep the wet and dry bulb thermometers away from surface extremes of temperature 3. If temperature remains constant with an inerease in altitude there is a) aninyersion b) —_aninversion aloft ©) uniform lapse rate 4) an isothermal layer ‘ 4, The surface of the earth is heated by: ) convection b) conduction ©) Tong wave solar radiation d) short wave solar radiation 5. Cloud cover will reduce diumal variation of temperature because: a) incoming solar radiation is reflected back to space and outgoing terrestrial radiation is reflected back to earth b) incoming solar radiation is re-radiated back to space and atmospheric heating by convection will stop at the level of the cloud layer ) the cloud stops the suns rays getting through fo the earth and also reduces outgoing conduction d) incoming solar radiation is reflected back to space and outgoing terrestrial radiation is re-radiated from the cloud layer back to the surface 7-17 18 Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE 6 10. Diurnal variation of the surface temperature will: a) b) °) a) be unaffected by a change of wind speed decrease as wind speed inereases increase as wind speed increases be at a minimum in calm conditions Which of the following surfaces is likely to produce « higher than average diumal variation of temperature: a) rock or conerete by) water ©) snow @) vegetation Most accurate temperatures above ground level are obtained by’ a) b) °) a) ‘The method by which energy a) b) ° d tephigram aireraft reports temperature probe radio sonde wransferred from one body to another by contact is called: radiation convection conduction latent heat ‘The diurnal variation of temperature is: a) ») ° d) greater over the sea than overland less over desert areas then over temperate grassland reduced anywhere by the presence of eloud increased anywhere as wind speed increases ‘The troposphere is heated largely by’ a) b) ° a absorption of the sun's short wave radiation radiation of heat from cloud tops and the earth's surface absorption by ozone of the sun’s short wave radiation conduction from the surface, convection and the release of latent heat 7-18 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘TEMPERATURE 12, 13, 4, ‘An inversion is one in which: a) there is no horizontal gradient of temperature b) there isno change of temperature with height c) there is an inerease of temperature as height increases @) there isa decrease of temperature as height increases ‘The sun gives out amount of energy with, wavelengths. The earth gives out relatively. ‘amounts of energy with relatively wavelengths: a) Large, large, small, small b) Small, small, large, large. ©) Large, large, small, large. d) Large, small, small, large, a clear night sky, the temperature change with height by early moming is most likely to show: a) Assteady lapse rate averaging 2 C per 1000 f b) stable lapse rate of | C per 1000 ft. ©) An inversion above the surface with an isothermal layer above. d) An inversion from near the surface and a 2.C per 1000 ft lapse rate above. Over continents and oceans, the relative temperature conditions are: a) Warmer in winter over land, colder in summer over sea, b) Colder in winter over land, warmer in winter over sea. ©) Cold in winter over land and sea. 6) Warmer in summer over land and sea. 7-19 (© Ovlord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ANSWERS TEMPERATURE Ques | Answer | Ques | Answer L c 9 c 2 10 c 3 D u D 4 D 12 c 5 b 1B D 6 B 4 D 7 A 15 B 8 D 7-20 (© Oxfors Aviation Services LimitedCHAPTER EIGHT - HUMIDITY Contents Page 8.1 DEFINITION OF LATENT HEAT... cecct eet teeters Bod 8.2 EVAPORATION ...... fe Bel 83 SATURATION ce Bel 8.4 CONDENSATION .....0000000000 eee . 8-1 B.S FREEZING 222.222 20.0 - 8-1 8.6 MELTING . 8-2 8.7 SUBLIMATION . ccc 8-2 8.8 HUMIDITY MEASUREMENT. ceceeeeteeteeeeeeceerse Bo? 8.9 WET BULB TEMPERATURE .......0...000005 feet eee Bod 8.10 DRY-BULB AND WET-BULB HYGROMETER OR PSYCHROMETER .... 8-4 8.11 DEWPOINT TEMPERATURE .. . 8-4 8.12 DIURNAL VARIATION OF HUMIDITY 28-5 HUMIDITY QUESTIONS coe a cee BHT (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY HUMIDITY at 82 83 Rd DEFINITION OF LATE! HEAT The latent heat of a substance is the heat absorbed or released without change of temperature when the substance changes state. Latent heat differs according to the state of the substance, When ice changes to water, or water changes to water vapour, latent heat is absorbed. When water vapour changes to water, o water changes to ice, latent heat is released, EVAPORATION Evaporation is the change of state from liqui vapour. Latent heat is absorbed, wo Evaporation can occur at any temperature, even from ice, For a particular temperature there is a particular amount of water per unit volume that the air can hold. — When this, maximum is reached, evaporation will cease. Figure 8.1. The Change of State from Solid to Liquid to Gas and Back Again, SATURATION Air becomes saturated by adding more water vapour to it, Alternatively, as warm air can hold ‘more water vapour than cold, saturation can be achieved by cooling the ait Air is saturated if it contains the maximum amount of water vapour that it can hold at that temperature, If saturated air is cooled, condensation will occur CONDENSATION Condensation is the change of state from vapour to liquid. Latent heat is released. Condensation causes cloud and fog to form, Condensation will require minute impurities or particles called condensation nuclei: without these nuclei, the vapour would become super= saturated which is 100% Humidity but still in gas form, FREEZING Ifthe water droplet is cooled below zero, then it may change state again to tee, The process is called freezing (the droplet may cool to considerably below zero - called supercooling) Freezing may also require the existence of freezing mucteii, 8-1 {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY HUMIDITY 86 &7 88 MELTING ‘The opposite change of state, from solid to li state). is called melting, (There is no superfrozen SUBLIMATION Sublimation is the change of state directly from water vapour to iee without water droplets being formed. Latent heat is released. ‘This process is also known as deposition, ‘The change of state from ice directly to water vapour is also called sublimation, HUMIDITY MEASUREMENT a) Absolute Humidity is the weight of water vapour in unit volume of air. Absolute Humidity is usually expressed in gms/m b) Humidity Mixing Ratio (HMR) is the weight of water vapour contained in unit mass, of dry air. The Humidity Mixing Ratio is usually expressed in gms/kg, HMR in temperate latitudes usually between 5 & 50 gims/kg. In unsaturated air, HMR remains constant during ascent while temperature and pressure decreases. ©) Saturation Mixing Ratio is the HMR when the parcel of air is saturated. d) Relative Humidity. HMR The ratio HR Saturation mixing ratio. x 100%, or more simply, the amount of water vapour present ina volume of sir divided by the maximum amount of water vapour which that volume could hold at that temperature expressed as a percentage RH 100% = SATURATION 8-2 ‘© Orford Aviation Services LimiteMETEOROLOGY HUMIDITY 30 25 VAPOUR /|CUBIC METRE} (RAMMES OF cere 20 OF AIR All SATURATION 15 10 30-20-1000 TEMPERATURE IN °C. Figure 8.2. The Amount of Water Vapour the Air can Hold when Saturated at Different Temperatures. 8.9 WET BULB TEMPERATURE The lowest temperature to which air may be cooled by the evaporation of water is known as the wet bulb temperature. In conjunction with the dry bulb temperature, this forms the standard method of measuring humidity at the earth's surface. 8-3 {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY HUMIDITY 8.10 atl DRY-BULB AND WET-BULB HYGROMETER OR PSYCHROMETER 2) Tair is dry, water will evaporate from the muslin covering the wet bull and latent heat will lower the temperature, b) Tair is saturated, no evaporation will oceur and thermometers will read the same. ©) Dewpoint, relative thumidity and HMR are read from tables or slide rule by entering with the two temperatures obtained. d) The dewpoint may be | DISTILLED approximated from the humidity | WATER ——>| using the formula CONTAINER Figure 8.3. Dry-Bulb and Wet-Bulb Hygrometer or Psychrometer Difference between Temp and DP =(100 = Hum) 5 Humidit 00 - (Diff x 5) Note that the Dewpoint temperature is not the same as the Wet bulb temperature (except at saturation). DEWPOINT TEMPERATURE, Dewpoint is the temperature to which air must be cooled at constant pressure for saturation to occur. NOTE: 1. ‘The Dewpoint will only change if the amount of water vapour in the air changes. 2. When Dry Bulb Temperature ~ Dewpoint then Relative Humidity = 100% and a little further cooling and some air movement will produce cloud or fog. 3. Donot confuse the Dewpoint with Wet Bulb Temperature 4, ‘The Dewpoint has a small lapse rate of about 14° per 1000 ff 8-4 © Odford Aviation Servis LimitesMETEOROLOGY HUMIDITY 8.12 DIURNAL VARIATION OF HUMIDITY By day, as the temperature increases, RH will decrease Teena ‘because the maximum amount of water vapour air can hold increases as the temperature tises, Afler 1500 hrs, the temperature ill start to fall and the maximum amount of water yapour the air can hold will fall and thus the RH will inerease. The higher RH at night is the reason for the formation of mist and fog after dark in autumn and winter Figure 8.4. Diurnal Variation of Humidity. RH is maximum at dawn when the temperature is minimum. Figure 8.5. shows graph of relative humidity at RAP Waddington overa number of years. The ‘maximum and minimum times and the sinusoidal curve confirm Figure 8.4. 3 0 es suyy.90 B eo auy-91 = 315 i ayo br g 65 2 July-93 3 2° + uy94 36 50 = uy 95 4 02 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 1 mm mw Hou UTC Figure 8.5. NOTE: If the RH is less than 100% then the air is considered to be dry. cg RH= 99.9%, the air is dry, RH = 20%, the air is dry. 8-5 Onford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY HUMIDITY Humidity Questions ‘Throughout the 24 hrs of a day the Relative Humidity can be expected to: a) Inerease during the day and decrease at night. b) Stay reasonably constant throughout the 24 hours, ©) Reduce during the day and increase at night. 4) Only change with a change of airmass. During a night with a clear sky, surface temperature will RH will and Dewpoint will a) Fall, Rise, Rise. b) Rise, Rise, Fall, ©) Fall, Rise, Remain the same, d) Fall, Fall, Remain the same A change of state directly from a solid to a vapour or vice versa is: a) insolation b) condensation ©) evaporation sublimation ‘The instrument used for measuring the humidity of air is a: a) hydrometer b)—hygrometer ©) wer bulb thermometer 4) hygroseope ‘The process of change of state from a gas to a liquid is: a) evaporation in which latent heat is absorbed b) evaporation in which latent heat is released ©) condensation in which latent heat is absorbed 4) condensation in which latent heat is released 8-7 © Oxford Aviation Servioes LimitedMETEOROLOGY HUMIDITY 6 The process of change of state from a liquid to a gas is: a) b) ©) a condensation in which latent heat is released evaporation in which latent heat is released ‘condensation in which latent heat is absorbed ‘evaporation in which latent heat is absorbed Air is classified as dry or saturated according to its relative humidity. If the relative humidity were 95% the air would be classified as’ a) b) o a conditionally saturated partially saturated saturated ary On a wet bulb thermometer in an unsaturated atmosphere there will be a reduction of temperature below that of the dry bulb thermometer because’ a) bd ° Y Relative humidity i a) b) © a heat is absorbed during the process of condensation hicat is released during the process of condensation heat is absorbed by the thermometer during the process of evaporation heat is released from the thermometer during the process of evaporation air temperature over wet bulb temperature x 100 air temperature over dew point temperature x 100 the actual amount of water vapour ina sample of ait over the maximum amount of water ‘vapour that the sample ean contain x 100 the maximum amount of water vapour that a sample of air ean contain over the actual amount of water vapour the sample does contain x 100 Absolute humidity is: a) b) ° a) the number of water droplets in a given quantity of air the amount of water vapour that a given quantity of air holds the maximum amount of water vapour that a given quantity of air can hold the maximum number of water droplets that @ given quantity of air ean hold 8-8 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY HUMIDITY IL 12, Wet bulb temperature would normally be lower than the dry bully temperature because: 4) condensation causes a release of latent heat b) evaporation causes cooling ©) latent heat is absorbed by the bulb thermometer 4) of condensation on the muslin wiek of the bulb ‘The wet bulb temperature: a) is measured using a hydrometer b) is the minimum temperature to which a thermometer bulb can be cooled by the evaporation of water ©) measures the dew point of the air d) is the minimum temperature reached by the surface of the earth as measured by a thermometer placed 1.2 metres above the ground. Which one of the following statements relating to atmospheric humidity is correct: ) Ifthe airtemperature falls then the absolute humidity must increase. b) The absolute humidity is the mass of water vapour contained in unit volume of air. ©) The diurnal variation of dewpoint temperature is greatest when skies are clear at night. «The dewpoint temperature is the temperature indicated by the wet bulb thermometer. When condensation takes place, the higher the temperature, the the amount of latent hea a) lesser released, b) greater: absorbed, ©) greater; released. 4) lesser; absorbed, When water vapour changes to ice: Latent heat is absorbed b) Specific heat is released. ©) Latent heat is released. d) Specific heat is absorbed. 8-9 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ANSWERS Ques | Answer | Ques | Answer I c 9 c 2 c 10 B 3 D u B 4 B 12 B 5 D 13 B 6 D 4 c 7 D 15 c 8 D , 8-10 HUMIDITY (© Oord Aviation Services LimitedContents 9.1 ADIABATIC TEMPERATURE CHANGES, ce 9-1 9.2 THE DRY ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE -DALR ..... 9.3. THE SATURATED ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE (SALR) ..- 9.4 THE REASON FOR THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DALR AND SALR .....9-2 9.5 THE REASON FOR THE SALR VARIATION WITH TEMPERATURE ..... 9-2 9.6 THE ENVIRONMENTAL LAPSE RATE .........- 9-2 97 STABILITY 2.0.2... c eee 293 9.8 INSTABILITY . 194 9.9 CONDITIONAL INSTABILITY... 2925 9.10 NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM 9-6 9.11 | STABILITY SUMMARY wee 9-6 9.12 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ELR/DALR/DP/SALRY CLOUD BASE AND TOP . 9.13 EXAMPLES ADIABATICS AND STABILITY QUESTIONS ......- ‘© Oxford Aviation Services Limited4 METEOROLOGY ADIABATICS AND STABILITY 9.1 ADIABATIC TEMPERATURE CHANGES, ‘An adiabatic temperature change ‘occurs when air is compressed or expanded and there is no external PISTON PISTON GOING GOING 92 93 transfer of heat, If air is lifted it expands and will ‘cool adiabatically, whilst if it is brought down it compresses and will warm adiabatically. Any heat transfer by conduction, turbulent mixing or radiation will be very small and too slow to be effective, An example of adiabatic heating is, in an anticyclone, where descending air warms, ‘THE DRY ADIABATICLAPSE RATE-DALR ‘The Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) is the lapse rate for rising dry (ie not saturated) air. It has @ constant value of about 3°C/1000 ft (1°C/100m) as illustrated in Figure 9.2. THE SATURATED ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE (SALR) ‘The Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR) is the lapse rate for rising air which is saturated (RH 100%). It has an average value in temperate latitudes near the ground of 1.8°C/1000 ft or 0.6°C/100m. SALR is not constant, varying with temperature and approaching the DALR as temperature decreases and/or altitude increases. Figure 9.1. HEIGHT DRY ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE (OALR) ‘311000 FEET “TEMPERATURE ——————. Figure 9.3 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ADIABATICS AND STABILITY 94 98 96 THE REASON FOR THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DALR AND SALR As saturated air cools, water vapour will condense out as water droplets forming cloud. Latent heat will be released and thus the rate of cooling of the rising air will be reduced. THE REASON FOR THE SALR VARIATION WITH TEMPERATURE, ‘The amount of latent heat released by a volume of saturated air depends upon its temperature. At low temperatures the amount of water vapour required to saturate the air is small and therefore the amount of latent heat released will also be small At high altitudes (and latitudes) temperatures are low, little latent heat is released and thus DALR and SALR are nearly the same. Conversely, at low latitudes and altitudes temperature is high, consequently SALR is shallow. The difference between DALR and SALR is shown in Figure 9.3. A.comparison between SALR’S at different latitudes is shown at Figure 8.3.2 Figure 9.4 SALR Differences ‘THE ENVIRONMENTAL LAPSE RATE ‘The ELR is the lapse rate of the air surrounding the rising air considered in the previous two cases. It is important because this variable lapse rate controls the stability of the air. Figure 9.5 Variable ELR 9-2 @ Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY 97 ADIABATICS AND STABILITY STABILITY Ifthe prevailing wind causes air to be forced up the side of a mountain then, i this lifting force is removed, the air returns to its original position. The atmosphere is stable, as illustrated in Figure 9.6. At every level that the air is forced t0 rise to, it will always be colder than the surrounding air and therefore more dense. The air is stable when the ELR is less than the SALR. STABLE AIR WHEN ELR < SALR e.g. ELR 1°C/1000 Ft Figure 9.6, ‘TEMPERATURE > Figure 9.7. - ABSOLUTE ELRC SALR= STABILITY 9-3 © Oxord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ADIABATICS AND STABILITY 98 INSTABILITY IF the prevailing wind causes air to be forced up the side of a mountain then, if this lifting force is removed, the air will continue to rise. The atmosphere is unstable, as illustrated in Figure 9.8, At every level that the air is forced to rise to, it will always be warmer than the surrounding air and therefore less dense. ‘The air is unstable when the ELR is greater than the DALR. UNSTABLE AIR WHEN ELR > DALR e.g. ELR 4°C/1000 Ft A LIFTED DRY AIR LIFTED SATURATED AIR. Figure 9.8, © ‘TEMPERATURE Figure 9.9, ELR = ABSOLUTE. RDOALR- INSTABILITY 9-4 (© Oxford Aviation Servicas LimitedMETEOROLOGY ADIABATICS AND STABILITY 9.9 — CONDITIONAL Y “ABI Ifthe prevailing wind causes air to be forced up the side of a mountain then, if this lifting force is removed, the air will either continue to rise if saturated (RH 100%) or return to its original position if unsaturated ( ELR > SALR: |. ELR 2°C/1000 Ft LIFTED DRY AIR SATURATED AIR IF ITIS DRY IT IS STABLE IF IT IS SATURATED IT IS UNSTABLE Figure 9.10. The air is conditionally unstable when ELR is between the SALR, and the DALR as illustrated in Figure 9.11. Xe Kp TEMPERATURE HEIGHT. Figure 9.11 9-5 {© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ADIABATICS AND STABILITY 9.10 NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM If the lifted air’s lapse rate is the same as the environmental lapse rate then we have neutral stability. At every level the air is forced to rise it will have the same temperature as the surrounding air and therefore the same density. NEUTRAL STABILITY DALR OR SALR LIFTED DRY AIR ELR = DALR ELR = SALR Figure 9.12. 9.11 STABILITY SUMMARY a) THE ELR CONTROLS STABILITY. b) Ifthe BLR is fess than 1.8°C/ 10008, the air is stable - absolute stability. Stable weather Bad visibility Light turbulence Stratiform cloud. Intermittent to continuous precipitation c) Ifthe ELR is greater than 3°C/1000 ft the air is unstable - absolute instability. Unstable weather Good visibility Moderate turbulence Cumuliform cloud Showery precipitation 9-6 © Oxore Awation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ADIABATICS AND STABILITY 0 °) If the ELR is between 1,8°C and 3°C/1000 ft, the air is stable if dry and unstable if saturated - conditional instability. ‘The clouds which form in stable air tend t0 be stnall in vertical extent and large in horizontal extent - layer clouds, Layer clouds may include stratocumulus as shown in Figure 9.13. which is identified by its well defined shape, whereas stratus is il defined in shape but can cover equally large areas. The clouds which form in unstable air tend to be large in vertical extent and small in horizontal extent - heap elouds. Figure 9.14, Cumulus of moderate or strong vertical development. 9-7 {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ADIABATICS AND STABILITY 942 ‘THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ELR/DALR/DP/SALR/CLOUD BASE AND TOP Figure 9.15 is a temperature/hcight diagram which represents graphically the process of comparing the temperature of lifted air with that of its environment. In this example the temperature of the airat the earth's surfuce is 12° C and its dew point is 6°C. With these two facts and the knowledge that the DALR and the SALR are 3°C and 1.8°C respectively, the temperature of an ascending bubble may be calculated and plotted for each successive 1,000 feet level, By plotting the measured ELR on the same diagram the expected temperature of the bubble may readily be compared with that of its environment at any level ‘The first part of the ascent may be called the ‘dry stage’, Here the air cools at the DALR until it reaches its dew point temperature (don’t forget that the dew point temperature is modified by half a degree for every 1000ft ascent as pressure drops) - about 2,400 feet and 5°C in this case. At this height the air becomes saturated and condensation starts - the air enters the wet” or ‘cloud’ stage. Fromnow on the air cools at the SALR and water continues to condense out until the rising air arrives at a level where its temperature is the same as that of its environment. At this point (just below 4,000 feet) further ascent is resisted and upward movement ceases quickly. From just below 4,000 ft upwards, no more condensation takes place and so this Level will mark the top of the cloud. ‘Note that initially the adiabatically cooled bubble is warmer than its environment and the air therefore is unstable up to just below the 4,000 ft level. Above this level the temperature relationship is reversed and the air is stable. It may be seen from Figure 9.15. that given a ‘trigger’, clouds will develop with the base at 2,400 feet and the tops at just below 4,000 ft, We ‘can approximate this cloud base using the following formula, Cloud Base = Surface Temperature - Surface Dewpoint x 400 Applying this formula to the example in figure 9.15 ean quite accurately calculate the cloud bi To sum up, ifthe surface temperature and dew point of an air sample are known and if the ELR is accurately measured, then we can use the DALR and SALR graphs to produce a very good estimation of the heights of the base and top of clouds formed in freely convecting air. 9-8 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ADIABATICS AND STABILITY Figure 9.15. ELR / DALR | DEWPOINT / SALR / CLOUD BASE / CLOUDTOP. 9.13 EXAMPLES Assuming a constant lapse rate in the layer between 2000 ft and 5000 ft and ignoring the effects ‘of pressure change, what is the state of stability when: TEMPAT | TEMP AT RH STABILITY 20007 5,000" STATE? 1 oP +P 60% 2 15° + 100% (2 = 100% [acne 4 +168 32 75% [oo 3 +1 45° 100% 6 ane 8° 100% [ar 7 o 3 88% 425 8 +e 7 % 9 +15" 1 98% 10 45° oe 100% ul 10° 10° 90% rite i 2 [0° +15? 100% ve What else is unusual about the environment with regard to questions 11 and 12? 9-9 © Orford Aviation Services LimitesMETEOROLOGY ADIABATICS AND STABILITY Adiabatics and Stability Questions 1, The actual change of temperature with height is known as: a) the environmental Japse rate b) the adiabatic lapse rate ) the temperature curve @) the tephigram 2, Anadiabatic process is defined as a) the cooling of the atmosphere at 3°C/1000 ft b) a change of temperature brought about by a change of pressure acting on an insulated parcel of air c) —_achange of temperature brought about by air being forced to rise d) an increase of temperature in an insulated parcel of air in which the pressure has been decreased 3. Ima given atmosphere where the relative humidity is 60% and the ELR is less then the DALR. fair is forced to rise itis: a) unstable and will carry on rising, b) stable and will carry on rising ©) unstable and will tend to regain its former position d) stable and will tend to regain its former position 4, Ina saturated atmosphere air which is Forced to rise will a) tend to regain its former position if the ELR is fess than the SALR ) tend to regain its former position if the ELR is greater than the SALR. ©) carry on rising if the ELR is less than the SALR d) classified as stable air when the ELR is greater than the SALR 5. The DALR is greater than the SALR because: a) b) °) a saturated vapour pressure increases with increasing temperature convection is more active in dry air than in moist air the rate of cooling of saturated air is reduced by the release of latent heat of condensation because of the release of latent heat of evaporation 9-11 © Oxtore Avation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ADIABATICS AND STABILITY 6. Study the information given in the table below. If the air is forced to rise, the conditions most likely to lead to instability are given in which line? ‘Temperature ‘Temperature Relative Humidity at 2000 ft sat 5000 ft ayelsec 49°C 50% byHisec +10°c 100% eye s°C +UPeC 100% ayiseC 412°C 50% If the dry bulb temperature at the surface is +7.5°C and the observed temperature at 4000 ft is 45.5°C, the air could be best described as: a) b) ° d Absolutely stable, Conditionally unstable. Unstable. Absolutely unstable, - instability exists when the... is..........than the DALR: ‘Complete the sentence above using the correct words from the 4 sets given: a) bd) °) ad mal SALR less, conditional. — ELR ‘greater absolute SALR less absolute ELR greater A large cumulus cloud base 2000 ft is reported at an airfield. If the surface temperature is 21 C the height of the freezing level in the cloud is likely to be: a) by °) d 10330. 7000 1. 10500 ft 18000 ft 9-12 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ADIABATICS AND STABILITY 10, Ifthe temperature near the surface in Hong Kong is +31 C then rising saturated air will cool at arate of: a) 3 C/L000 b) 2.5 C/L000 1.5 C/1000 1 Crl000 Neutral equilibrium in the atmosphere occurs when a) anyairwhichis displaced upwards remains in its new position, once the displacing foree is removed. This displaced air having no tendency to rise further ot to sink back down b) there isa thin stable layer at low levels but a much thicker unstable layer aloft ©) there isa state in which there is high relative humidity at low levels and a low relative humidity at high levels, d) there isa state in which there is low relative humidity at low levels and a high relative humidity at high levels Which of the following statements is true? a) the tropopause is the dividing line between the stratosphere and the tropopause b) stability increases as the environmental lapse rate decreases ©) heat is added to the environment by the evaporation of raindrops d) high surface temperatures and a plentiful supply of moisture are the only conditions required for the development of thunderstorms When condensation takes place, the higher the temperature the the amount of latent heat, a) b) ©) Greater, released, d) Lesser, absorbed. ‘The air is stable if: a) Itmoves very little, b) There are few changes in pressure, ©) When a lifting force is removed the air tries to return to its original position 4) When a lifting force is removed the air continues to rise. 9-13 © Ovlord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY 15, Absolute instability occurs when: a) b) ©) d DALR> ELR ELR >DALR SALR = ELR SALR|o cle|elol>lole alalo 9-14 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedCHAPTER TEN - TURBULENCE Contents Page 10.1 INTRODUCTION 210-1 10.2 CAUSES: cece eeeeeeeeeeeseeseseeeees 1021 10,3 GUSTS AND SQUALLS . 10-1 10.4 AREAS .2..222cecc2eceeeeeeeee cece 101 10,5. IN THE FRICTION LAYER cee voce eee eeeeeeeees 12 10.6 THERMAL TURBULENCE .... cece eeeeeeeeeeeesees 10-2 10.7 MECHANICAL TURBULENCE. 10-2 10.8 INCLOUDS cece 10-3 10.9 INCLEAR AIR .........5526 : 10-3 10. 10. STANDING (OR MOUNTAIN) WAVES (MTW) 0. cece 10-3 10. LL CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR FORMATION OF STANDING WAVES . 10-4 10. 12. TURBULENCE EFFECTS OF STANDING WAVES. ...0..0..0..050--.- 10-4) 10.13 VISUAL RECOGNITION FEATURES OF STANDING WAVES .... 10.14 ACTION TO AVOID THE WORST EFFECTS OF STANDING WAVES ... 10-5 10.15. ROTOR STREAMING. <<... - 2-226 10.16 JETSTREAMS ..... 10-6 10.17 AIR SURROUNDING CUMULO NIMBUS CLOUDS. ... 210-7 10,18 TURBULENCE AROUND UPPER LEVEL TROUGHS AND RIDGI 10-7 10.19 TURBULENCE REPORTING CRITERIA. cece 1-8 10.20 LOW ALTITUDE WINDSHEAR .......+ cee ceseeee 10-9 ‘TURBULENCE QUESTIONS. .. 10-11 © Onford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TURBULENCE 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 INTRODUCTION A dictionary definition of turbulence isa “disturbed state” and so from the aviation point of view this would mean disturbed or rough air. There are different ways in which this turbulence is caused and also different parts of the atmosphere where it occurs. CAUSES ‘Turbulence is caused by up and down currents which imerfere with the normal horizontal flow of air. The two types of turbulence are: a) ‘Thermal b) Frictional or mechanical GUSTS AND SQUALLS ‘A gust is a rapid increase in wind strength, of short duration (less than 1 minute). Gustiness is an indivation of the rate of change of wind speed and is found by using the formula: range of fluctuation mean wind speed x 100% = GUST FACTOR eg Gust to 45 kts, lulls o 15 kt Mean windspeed 30 kt Gust Factor 100% (please note that the gusts may relate to mean w/v only without any apparent lulls) ‘A squall is a sudden increase of windspeed of at least 16 kt rising to 22 kt or more and lasting at LEAST | minute. A squall may be accompanied by a marked drop in temperature, cloud and. precipitation, AREAS Turbulence occurs: a) Inthe Frietion Layer. b) In Clouds. ©) InClear Air. 10-1 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TURBULENCE 10.5 10.6 10.7 IN THE FRICTION LAYER The friction layer isa layer of air on the earth's surface 2000 to 3000f%(which may be written as up to 1Km) thick where both thermal and mechanical turbulence occur. THERMAL TURBULENCE, This is caused by convection currents resulting from insolation, The convection will obstruct the normal flow of air and this effect can be inereased by variable convection ‘Thermal turbulence is greatest around 1500 hrs on clear sunny days. There is mo thermal turbulence over the sea. RAD RIVER Figure 10.1. Thermal Turbulence. MECHANICAL TURBULENCE This is caused by physical obstructions to the normal flow of air such as coasts, trees and buildings. lls, mountains, Figure 10.2. Mechanical Turbulence. 10-2 © Ostend Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘TURBULENCE 10.8 10.9 10.10 IN CLOUDS y yyy, ‘There will be turbulence Ui Z y ti ge in clouds due to the up and down currents associated with the formation of clouds. The greatest effect will be in heap clouds formed in unstable conditions. ‘UNSTABLE CONDITIONS STRONG TURBULENCE LLL Figure 10.3. Turbulence in Cloud CLEAR AIR Turbulence can occur in clear air, particularly near the Tropopause. Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) isassociated with Jet Streams, Standing Waves, air surrounding Cumulo Nimbus (CB) cloud, Upper Level Troughs, and sometimes Upper Level Ridges. Itis caused by horizontal or vertical windshear and can lead to Stalling, Loss of Control and Airframe Damage. STANDING (OR MOUNTAIN) WAVES (MTW) ‘These are turbulent waves « of air which can form above and downwind of a mountain range to an average distance of 50 to 8. 100 nm at all heights up to, and even above, the i tropopause. i Vertical currents may be quite strong: up to 2000 fip.m, have occured in the UK, whilst in western USA, currents of 3,000 fp.m have been recorded. Figure 10.4, A Well Developed Mountain Wave Showing ‘Typical Features. 10-3 ‘© Oxtord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TURBULENCE 10.11 10. 12 10.13 CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR FORMATION OF STANDING WAVES a) Windspeed at mountain height must be at least 15 kts, increasing with height. b) The wind must blow within 30 degrees of the perpendicular to the range of hills/mountains. ©) There must be a region of marked stability such as an inversion or isothermal layer at ‘mountain top height with less stable air above and below. TURBULENCE EFFECTS OF STANDING WAV! Most severe turbulence can occur in the Rotor Zone lying beneath the crests of lee waves and is often marked by Rll Clouds. The most powerful rotor lies beneath the first wave crest. Flight in waves can be smooth, but severe turbulence may occur. Occasionally violent turbulence will occur, due to wave ‘breaking. ‘Normal turbulence associated with flight across jet streams is frequently greatly increased ‘when the jet passes over mountainous areas, particularly when mountain waves are present, It has been found that turbulence caused in the troposphere due to mountain waves may continue well into the stratosphere. An aircraft flying close to its ceiling on these occasions might find itself in serious difficulty, VISUAL RECOGNITION FEATURES OF STANDING WAVES Providing there is sufficient moisture in the atmosphere, distinctive clouds are formed with mountain waves and these provide useful warning of the presence of such waves. The clouds, 4) Lenticular, or lens shaped clouds which form on the crests of standing waves, ‘They appear a few thousand feet above the mountain tops and at any level up to the tropopause, and sometimes above. Ragged edges indicate turbulence. b) Rotor, or roll-clouds occur under the crests of strong waves down wind of the ridge. The strongest rotor is normally formed in the first wave downwind and will, be level or slightly above the ridge crest. ©) Cap clouds form on the ridge and strong winds may sweep the cloud down the lee slopes. Note: 1. The characteristic clouds above may be obscured by other clouds and the presence of standing waves may thus not be evidenced. 2. Ifthe air is dry, clouds may not form at all, even though standing waves are present. 10-4 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TURBULENCE 10.14 ACTION TO AVOID THE WORST EFFECTS OF STANDING WAVES 10.15, a) bv ° ad h) i i) Read the Met. Forecast Asrange to cross mountain ranges at 90 degrees. Fly at the recommended turbulence speed. Do not fly parallel to and just downwind of the range. Avoid flight through or near the rotor zone. Avoid flight levels within 5000 ft of stable layer where severe turbulence is most likely. Allow a height clearance above highest ground at least equal tothe height ofthat ground above local terrain, Avoid low altitude flight towards the mountain range from the Lee side, Aircraft height variations will be out of phase with waves and downdraughts will be hazardous. Avoid high altitude flight on the lee side of the mountain range downwind. Buffet ‘margin at high level may be small, and speed of approaching standing waves will be high, with subsequently greater loads applied to the airframe. Be prepared for icing in cloud ROTOR STREAMING If the range are strong only at lower levels and fall off or reverse levels, Rotor Streaming may result, This comprises violent rotors moving downwind from the ridge. Unlike the stationary rotors described above, these rotors travel downwind after forming on the lee slopes, Figure 10.5. shows Rotor Streaming, winds approaching a mountain ction at higher Figure 10.5. Rotor Streaming. 10-5 (© Oxford Aviation Sorvicas LiitodMETEOROLOGY TURBULENCE 10.16 JETSTREAMS Turbulence at jet streams is caused by the marked wind shears which occur when crossing a jet as is illustrated in Figure 10.6, Turbulence in jet streams is most severe: a) b) ° a ° With stronger winds, With curved jets Above and to the Jee of mountain ranges. ‘The primary area for Maximum CAT associated with a jet stream is near to or below the jet axis on the cold air (low pressure) side, In the Northern Hemisphere this will be found by looking downstream to the left hand side; in the Southetn Hemisphere looking downstream to the right hand side of the jet core. With developing and rapidly moving jets Figure 10.6 A Vertical Cross Section Through a Jetstream. 10-6 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TURBULENCE 7 10.18, AIR SURROUNDING CUMULO NIMBUS CLOUDS Cumulonimbus clouds, by their nature, consist of powerful up- currents of air. A considerable amount of air outside the cloud will be drawn in by these up- currents and there will consequently be very strong up currents in the clear air both beside, under and to a lesser extent above the cloud. This effect is shown in Figure 10.7. Figure 10.7, Clear Air Turbulence Surrounding ‘Cumulo Nimbus Clouds. TURBULENCE AROUND UPPER LEVEL TROUGHS AND RIDGES Since upper level winds are stronger than those at the surface, the sharp changes in wind direction at upper level troughs are likely to produce considerable horizontal windshear and ‘consequent disturbance which may be experienced as Clear Air Turbulence (CAT)... As upper level ridges tend to be more gently curved than troughs, the direction changes and consequent turbulence will be less severe. LWW SS \ \ SSS (=) ea Yo Ree \ i PS) Figure. 08 ee Rages at Upper 10-7 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TURBULENCE 10.19 TURBULENCE REPORTING CRITERIA Clear Air Turbulence (TURB) ‘TURB remains an important operational factor at all levels but particularly above FL 150, The best information on TURB is obtained from pilots” Special Aircraft Observations; all pilots encountering TURB ate requested to report time, location, level, intensity and aircraft type to the ATS Unit with whom they are in radio contact. High level turbulence (normally above FL, 150 not associated with cumuliform cloud, including thunderstorms) should be reported as TURB, preceded by the appropriate intensity or preceded by Light or Moderate Chop. “Table 9.5.6.1 - TUR and other Turbulence Criteria Table Incidence: Occasional-less than 19102) ___Intermittent- 1/310 2/3 Continuous - more than 264 Intensity ‘Aerat Reaction (anspor size areraf) Roacton inside Alert Litt Turbulence that momentary causes sioht, eratc changes | Occupants may foo a sight sain (ot shown on | in situde andlor attitude (tc, ol yaw). ‘saninst seat bets or shoulder straps Sig WXehars) | IAS Muctuates §- 15k. (20.5 gat the art's conte of | Unsecured objects may be iepiaced sraviy) slightly. Food sence may be Report as ‘Light Turbulenca’. or conucted an lite ono elicit is {urbulence that causes sight, apid and somewhat mythmic | encountered in waking bumpiness without appreciable changes in alice or tude NNoIAS fluctuations. Report as ‘Light Chop’ ‘Moderate “Turbulence tha is similar to ight Turbulence but of greater | Occupants feel definite stains against Intensty. Changes i alttude andr atituae occur but the | seatbelts o shoulder straps, aircraft remains in positive contol a all times. Unsecured objects aro disiodged, IAS fluctuates 15-25 kt. (0.5-1.09 atthe aircrafts conte of | Food service and walking ate dificl. ‘gravily). Report as ‘Moderate Turbulence’. or Turbulence that is simiar to Light Choo but of greater intensity. It causes rapid bumps or jolts without appreciable ‘changes in alitide or attitude, IAS may fluctuate sig. Report as Moderate Chop. Severe “Turbulence that causes large, abrupt changes in atiude | Occupants are foced violently against ‘andlor atitude. Arcratt may be mamentarly out of contol. | seat Belts or shoulder straps. IAS fluctuates more than 25 Kt, (>1.0g at the acralts Unsecured objects are tossed about ‘entre of gravity), Report as ‘Severe Turbulence Food service and walking impossible, Note 1: Pils should report location(s), time(s) (UTC), incidence, intensity, wether in or near clouds, aititude(s) and ype of aera. Allocations shou be readily identifiable. Turbulence repars should bbe mace on request, orn accordance with paragraph 2 Example: (2) Over Polo hill 1230 intonmitent Sovere Turbulanee in loud, FL 310, 8747, (©) From 50 miles north of Glasgow to 30 miles west of Heathrow 1210, occasional moderate Chop TURS, FL 330, M80, Nola 2: The UK does not use the term ‘Extreme’ fa reation to turbulence, 10-8 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TURBULENCE 10.20 LOW ALTITUDE WINDSHEAR The remainder of this chapter consists of a UK Civil Aviation Authority Aeronautical Information Circular covering low altitude windshear, Some of this material has already been covered, but those parts which are new should be highlighted. 10-9 © Oxford Aviation Services Livted@ UNITED KINGDOM AIC 33/1997 (Pink 140) AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION CIRCULAR 25 March ‘Civil Aviation Authority ‘Aeronautical Information Service Control Tower Building, London Heathrow Airport Hounslow, Middlesex TW6 1) Editonal: 0189-745 2456 Distribution: 01282-235151 Content: 01293-573486 Fight Ops Policy Cancels AIC 48/1992 (Pink 42) LOW ALTITUDE WINDSHEAR, 1° Introduction 1,1._Research and experiment into windshear has continued in several countries, with the USA leading the field. Despite their ciforts and a greater understanding of the threat, together with training to meet it, accidents stl occur in which windshear i cited Ss 2 primary or contributory cause, These accents are a potent reminder of the windshear hazard and the need for pilots to be ‘aware of the dangers. although the United Kingdom isin no sense affected by windshears of the Intensity and frequency that may bbe met in seme ateas abroad, a lesser risk does eust here and in any event, many plots fly overseas and may encounter the storms \with which the most dangerous forms of windsheas ten to be associated. The sim of this Ceular is to provide an understanding of the nature of windshear, an appreciation of ts dangers and guigance on how best to avoid windshear, or how the arerat might be handle if is encountered. This wl be covered inthe following Sections: 2. Definitions and the meteorological background; 3. The effects of windshear on an aircrattin fight: 4 Techniques to counter the effect of windshear 5 Windshear warning and reporting: 6 Conclusions. 2 Definitions and the Meteorological Background. 2.1. In discussing windshear itis not easy to find a definition which will satisty both meteorologist and pilot. At its simplest it ean bbe described as a change in wind direction anc/or speed in space, including updraughts and downdraughts. Despite the emphasis fon the windshear hazard in recent years, thee are stil some who would argue that we have been living with windshear since ti Sawn of aviation, seeing it as an extreme form of wind gradient, which would itself fil this definition, 2.2 The definition which will escibe windshear in this Circulars as fellows: (2) Variations in vector wind along the srcraft fight path of» pattern, intensity and duration to displace an ‘rom is intended path such that substantial contel action is required: (0) Low Altitude Windshear is: \Windshear along the final approach path or along the runway and along the take-off and intial cimb-out flight path: (2) Further refinement offers: (Vertical windshear as the change of horizontal wind vector with height, as might be determined by 2 or more anemometers a different heights on 2 mast; (i) Horizontal windshear as the change of horizontal wind vector with horizontal distance as might be determined by 2 lor more anermometers mounted at the same height at different points along 8 runway, (i) Updraughvdewndraught shear as changes inthe vertical component of wind with horizontal distance. 2.3 _ Setting aside the basic windshear defition in paragraph 2.2, the others allow for changes of vector wind from the relatively ‘minor event upwrards, The essence ofthe windshear with which this Ceulars concerned is spelt out by the basic definition with its tmphass on abrupt displacement from the fight path and the need for substantial control action to counteract it. A windshear encounter is a highly dynamic event which can be extremely uncomfortable; to think of windshear as an aggravated form of wind (adient is unwise, ast can strike suddenly and with devestating effect which has been beyond the recovery powe's of experienced Bilets fying modem and powerful sieraft ‘An encounter may cause alarm, a damaged landing gear, oF a total catastrophe. The first and most vital defence is avoidance and this wll be the recurrent theme of this Circular, 2.4 Meteorological Features 2.4.1 The most potent examples of windshear are associated with thunderstorms (cumulonimbus clouds), but windshear can also be experienced in association with other meteorological features such as the passage of a front, a marked temperature inversion, 2 fowsievel wind maximum or a turbulent boundary layer. Topography or buildings can exacerbate the situation, particularly when there isa strong wind.‘Thunderstorms ‘This is no place for discussion on thunderstorm formation, which is described in AIC 124/1996 (Pink 129) on thunderstorms, ther to describe the wind flows in and around them which cause the most severe windshears (see figure 1). Diagrams can do stce to the violence of thunderstorms: which are totaly dynamic and unpredictable, with turbulence, hel, windsheat and ing 28 separate or joint hazards. Shears and draughts may strike from all angles and are certainly not limited to the horizontal tical: an assessment of rafts actual angle of attack relative to some thunderstorm wind flows is dificult to make, which mm makes the risk cf stall harder to gauge. This can be significant ia thunderstorm is encountered on the approach of ding take-off. There ae features of thunderstorms (in this discussion cumulonimbus and thunderstorms are considered as Y merit separate description: (a) Gust Front. Some thunderstorms may have a well defined area of cold air lowing out from a downdraught in all directions, but tending to lead the storm along ts ine of movement. At ts worst, 2 gust font might stretch out 24 to 32 km {rom the storm centre or even further from an organised line of storms and affect the area from the surface up to about {6000 ft._It wil be @ region of great turbulence with a potential for vertical shear between the outflowing cold air Lndercutting inflowing warm air” The leading edge is often an area without precipitation so will nt be detectable on faireaft weather radars and could be encountered without much warning, but there can be 2 roll doud effect which may bbe associated with the onset of precipitation. Less well developed storms usually have @ period of strong gusts before the ‘onset of Reavy rain, which sa gust ffont in miniature and can be very unpleasant to fly through; (b) Microbursts._in accident reports whieh give windthear as a likely or contributory cause, there i often mention of @ ‘mieroburst. This is a highly concentrated powerful downdraught of air, typically less than'S km across, lasting from, Tito 5 minutes. These have proved to be the most lethal form of thunderstorm windshear giving downdraught speeds az high az 60 kt. possibly more” will be obvious that vertical shaft ofa, a= approaches the ground must splay out in all directions with some reduction of speed, but vertical components have been recorded, albeit very rarely, ot heights a low as 300 ft and wind speed differences atthe surface as high as 90 kt have been known, These are probably extreme values but they do show how its possible for large and powerful aircraft to come to gref when they meet such examples Of the microburst, These values were admittedly messured in the USA where microbursts are all too commen in Cental ‘and Mig-Western States and also Eastern states in thelr season. Less is known of the European mieroburst, but would bbe most unvse to assume they do not exist because they are less prevalent. Undoubtedly violent downbursts of rain and wind do occur and may give itle warning of onset. Microbursts can be either Wet or ‘ry, that is with or without fain and/or hal, which again poses a radar Identification problem Hf there is no precipitation. The wet’ microburst is Associated with intense precipitation which falls in shafts below a cumulonimbus cloud. ‘Dry’ microbursts, on the other hhand, ae linked with high-based cumulus clouds or altocumulus clouds, and also the citus cloud overhang from 2 cumulonimbus coud (anal). In each case when precipitation fall from these clouds (indicated by ‘wirga’).and evoporates Inthe dry air beneath the cloud the process of evaporative cooling enhances the downdraught, Frontal Passage Fronts, whether wacm, oid ot oscluded, vary in strength 1s only well developed active font, with narrow surface frontal 2 and with marked temperature siferenes between the two ar master, which te iy tent a kof windshesr Warming te took out for nude sharp changer wind Grecton inated cn the esther charts by an acute angle ofthe icbers ay crom the ont, Equsly» temperature difeence ofS degrees Cor more acon the frontal Zore an the speed of movement of font epecily 4 80 & ot more. shoul alan te porable marked windshest. Having sid this R shoul be mentionee tat [heer hat Beet krowm in ons which are sow roving, onary er even fevers cvecton” nthe United Yingcor. ft ably the passage ef vigorous cld fom wich poses the Qrester rk though felaie to a warn front, the period of shear probabil sil tobe mach sore and wl occur jut ster the airtace paige ofthe ene. With a warm fore the < wil precede the passage and be moe prionges. Te ustrate the potential severy of ronal wndshear, even nthe Uited dom there the cave of ‘win jet arcrft which was caught bythe passage of old font whe ring to lend: within about sands the wind shifted from 230/10.K to 3407/16 R20 that 410 Rt croswind from the lef and sight tal wind, changed °o Ic cross rom he ight win 4 ead, he pt, fingdrecona cnt fo ning tobe acl sy ered smssed approach from very low lve. Ths s a asic cave of horizontal windsNear, A sey reer fomt my occasionally ct» nator sample #¥ impinges ona thunderstorm t may signicat)y ater tne outfiow from the stun cotasrophic ent in the USAin 1375 contained sucha feature2.7. inversions 2.7.1 Vertical windshear is nearly always present in the boundary layer, but this normaly invlves a gradual change in the wind with ‘hich plots are well famiar. & hazard can exis however, when an Unexpectedly strong vertical swear develops and ths can Occur broadly in two stations: (©) low level jet (more accurately refered to 088 low level wind maximum) can form just below the top of, or sometimes Wvthin.a song radiation inversion, which may develop a¢ night under clear sis” “Other low level jets tay Gerson Mh {sociation wth a surface font prtcularly ahead of cold rons: (©) On occasions tow level inversions may develop and decouple a relatively strong upper flow from layers of stagnant or slow moving ar near the surface. Windshear may be pronounced across the interface, 2.8 Turbulent Boundary Layer 2.8.1 Within the boundary layer, turbulence can become a windshear hazard in two different situations: (@) Strong surface winds are generally accompanied by large guste and lulls (horizontal windshesr). Roughly speaking, the stronger the mean wind, the greater the gust or lull (6) Thermal turbulence (updraughts and downdraughts) is caused by intense solar heating of the ground, which of course iz ‘more common in hot countries, but can occur anywhere on a hot sunny day, 2.9 Topographical Windshears 2.9.1 Either natural or man made features can affect the steady state wind flow and cause windshears of varying severity. The Strength and direction of the wind relative to the obstacle are significant and a change of direction of relatively few degrees may ‘Sppreciably ater the residual effec. The flow of wind across a mountain range le a simple large scale example, with waves and ppotsibly a rotor forming on the leeside. Wind blowing between two hills or along a valley, or even between two large buildings may be funnelleg, change direction and increase in speed, o” a strong flow may be heavily dampes. Either way, the possibilty for she {s created, with sudden changes of wind vector becoming a hazard. Usually such local efects become well known and predictable, with warnings given on aerodrome approach plates, e9 Gibraltar. Large airport buildings adjacent to Busy runways can create hazardous local effects and typical windshear problems, such as loss of afspeed and abrupt crosswind changes, 0 causing upsets to airliner-size aircraft which have been near to major accidents. On smaller aerodromes, ines of trees can mask off the Wind and ‘cause problems at alate stage on the approach. These incidents usually contribute to 2 pilots stock of experience, but damaged landing gear can be the result of wind effects of greater significance than o steep wind gradient or low level turbulence alone. 3 The Effects of Windshear on an Airerattin Flight 3.1_Windshear wil afect aircraft in many different ways and during an encounter the situation will be constantly changing, ‘especially during the more dynamic thunderstorm windshears. Particular types of aircraft wil vary in their reaction to a given sheaf; 8 light high-wing piston-engined aircraft may react in a totaly different way to a swept-wing four-engined jet I is not easy to ‘escrbe the effects in general terms, as they do not apply universally. The notes which follow can only hope to describe styised ‘windshears and the progressive eHects which can occur. Windshear can, of course, be encountered at any Height and the effects ‘ill be similar. It wil be obvious that it s the windshear encounter at low level which i ® great hazard; It's this which must be Borne in mind when the eects ate described 3.2 _ An understanding of windshear is dificult, unless the relationship of an aeroplane in a moving ait mass to its two reference Points is appreciated. One reference is the ar mass itself and the other isthe ground. In a windshest encounter tis not only the magnitude of the change of wind vector that counts but the rate at which ft happens. An aeroplane at 1000 ft agi may have 3 hheadwind component of 30 Kt, but the surface wind report shows that the headwind is only 10 kt on the runway. That 20 kt difference may taper off evenly and the effect will be that of a reasonable wind gradient. Or, t may be noticed that the 20 Kt ‘ifferentat stil exsts at 200 f and it will be cbvious that the change, when it comes, s going to be far more sudden and its effects more marked. Shear implies a narrow bordetine and the 20 kt of wind speed may wel be lost over a vertical distance of 100 fsa, asthe acraft descends from 300 to 200 ft. Ths wil be the elfect: Res cco Indeses a spees 13047 Groune speed 10047 a ‘okt sok Figure 2: Enoat of toss of neni Energy Loss-1 the plot wanted # stabilised approach sped of 130k, he would have set is power according to conditions to give him his ired airspeed and rate of descent. id -2 On passing through the shear lin, the loss of airspeed will be sudden, but the inertia of the aircraft wil at first keep it at its jinal ground speed of 100 kt and power will be needed to accelerate the aircraft back to its ir speed when the ground ed will be 120 Kt, This wil take time: meanwhile the aircraft having lost 20 Kt of airspeed, willbe sinking faster as a substantil unt of lift will also have been lost. The heacwind was a form or energy and when it dropped 20 Kt an equivalent amount of ray loss occurred. One source available to balance that loss would be engine power: this would arrest the increased rate of cent and start the process of accelerating back tothe approach reference speed, eater ees Grund sos gure 3: et of erase macnn Err Gla ‘The opposite effect can be illustrated using similar conditions, but seen from the point of view of an aeroplane taking of aly along the runway and into the second segment of the climb, with a 10 kt headwing, becoming a 30 kt headwind fte> countering the shear between 200 and 300 ft. Assuming a target climbing speed of 120 Kt, the effect of a sudden transition cugh the shear line, ito. 20 kt increase of Headwing, will increase the IAS by the same amount until the momentum of the und speed is lost. This is a case of temporary energy gan, lift wall be added and the aircraft will cimb more rapidly. Ths mple shows the windshear as being posttively beneficial and it is true to tay that 2 rapid increase in headwnd (or loss of wind), because they are ‘energy gains, will emparariy enhance performance, may help the understanding of windshear to see terms of energy changes, when i will be readily apparent that the windshear which causes temporary loss of energy (sudden p of headwind or increase in tallwind, and downdraughts) isthe main danger at low altitude. ‘he effect of a downdraught isnot always easy to visualise, as we normally think of the aeroplane in relation to an allow ng the ight path even when climbing or descending. Itis now necessary to envisage fying suddenly from a horizontal low into with a vertical component. In turbulent conditions ai in motion may stke the aeroplane from an angle and the situation may constantly changing, but in thunderstorms substantial shafts of air may be encountered, with no waming, which can be moving er vertically up or Gown; such shafts may be virtually side by side and the shear then wall be very marked and violent. Entering & al updaaht of dondiaght fom & hrdorta silo. the aetopianes momentum wll a fat hep on toga ath tive to the new direction of low. In addition to loss of airspeed, it will also be realized thatthe shit of relative airflow wal ct the angle of attack ofthe wing, which may result in ether an increase or a decrease, Although a slight increase of angie may ‘cause much concern, ifthe aicrat is already on the approach with 8 high angle of attack, an increase might put the wing neo! Stall and any decrease will bring about a loss of lit nether result Being desrable when near the ground. Normally the rk c vnrought wil be more likly than an updraught when below 1000 ft. Ly 2S SHEAR LINE as neem 43.5 _Having described the basic effects, the combination of increasing headwind, followed by downdraught., followed by increasing tailwind should be considered, as this is the sequence which might be encountered in a microburst on the approach, of following take-off. This may be a rare occurrence in the United Kingdom or Europe, but it needs to be appreciated by thoze fiyng to the USA. Even on this side of the Atlantic an encounter with a downburst is possible, then a headwind followed by downdraught, fora downdraught followed by talwind may cause problems. Figure §: Mlercburst eects 3.5.1 An aircraft, approaching on a 3 LS glidepath might see ahead an area of heavy rin: idealy this might alert the pilot to the posible danger and he could then cay out massed spproschin ood tie, though eer ths might taken nto the mcrosuse he would then, however, have gained precous exra height. Given thet the approach i contnced towards the mjroburst he Ieading edge con produce» rapidly increasing headwind: the atspeedinceases tnd the cafe goes high on the gidepath The key reaction ts fo reduce power £0 increase the rate of descent and adjust atstude fo reduce airpeed. Then comes the downdraught. The rate of descent increases reply, the srret passe through and below te ghdepeth sl possibly withthe nese high and the power low. Power fz reapplied, but W takes time to spool Up the engines, meanwhile the alcat passes rom downdraughts to erasing tal wind ane the asped is repping, the rte of descene hos not been checked andthe nove NG Bowers increasing. No figues have been attached to this description, merely the ikely sequence of events that wl be noticed, A ‘ery strong mcreburst vill have a more pronounced effect onthe tise and fall of aspeed and extremes of rate of descent The power resenes aalable andthe rte at which they ean be applied and bait upto gve maximum us wil determine the acrafrs Sblity fo counteract the energy loss of downdraught and increasing tallwind, This dynamic sequence of events a) bs {czompanied by strong wind buteting, the lahing of ain and possibly relved by Binding fashes of ightning eth 0 lock picture, matches the descriptions of those who have flown through & msrcburst and would probably be echoed by sorme Wid fave tie but falied ty through one. The sim must be to avoid severe windshearat all cass thet the prime messoge ofthis Greta. 3.5 _ It might be thought that an encounter with windshear from a microburst after take-off is likely to be less hazardous than ‘when approaching to land. The aieraftis at high power and is not constrained by the need to hold # precise glide path. ‘The temporary energy gein from meeting the increasing headwind, with a burst of higher airspeed and rate of climb may seem positively beneficial The transition to downdraught wil soon kil any rise in airspeed, which may even drop. The rate of climb may fessen or even show a rate of descert. which wil be enhanced by the shit to increasing tailing, when the airspeed (withthe aweraft dose 13 ‘the ground) may drop further. Any benefits of high power may be balanced by higher aircraft weight. There may be a small power reserve in han ana ths mayor may not, be suiclert to enable the ara of trough the mcroburst or downburst, opether ‘with other measures described ater, 4 Techniques to Counter the Effects of Windshear 4.1 _ By now it will be apparent that windshear can vary enormously in its impact and effect. There is as yet no international agreement on definitions for grading windshear, but clearly some shears will be more severe and consequently more dangerous than, ‘thers. In discussing guidance on countering the eects of windshear, one murt inevitably deal with the worse case situation. If the golden rule of Avoidance has filed for whatever reason, itis impossible to precict at the first stages of 2 windshear encounter how severe it wil be and itis not bad advice to suggest that recovery action should anticipate the worst. 42 No pllot who studies the meteorological situation carefully in advance and updates his knowledge with the latest reports during fight should be taken totaly by surprise by windshear. He should Know in broad terms what might be expected. If thunderstorms are forecast in the vicinity of the planned destination and then are reported as being active and are seen on the weather radar or vsualy, then a mental Windshear Alert should register. At this tage, depending on the evidence, a diversion might be considered, a windshear avoidance isthe safest course.If it is decided to continue to the destination, then the crew should consider 9 few basic measures to anticipate a possible shear encounter. One of these is to increase the airspeed on the approach.” The amount of airspeed increase to be nmended i es easy to assess, as what might be suitable for» ight twinpiston engined aetolane might be quite roprate for a swept-wing jet. Rule hump guidance include adding half the headwind component of the reported surface 10 VAT, of, half the mean wind speed plus half the gust factor, in each case up to a maximum of 20 kt. This may be actory fora strong but turbulent wind, But may not meet the thunderstorm case, where itis not uncomman for ight and se winds to precede the onslaught ofa gust front or downburst. The unpredictability of windshea ix such that, if t does not alse, the aircraft can arrive at threshold with excessive speed to be shed and that could be embarrassing on a short runway. Ise the amount of airspeed margin’ js related to the sitrafts acceleration potential, the relatively slow propeller driven aircraft bably at an advantage over a faster jet aircraft. Remember thatthe rate of shear is important and the aireraft which penetrates hear Zone more slowiy wil experience a lower rate of shear the rapid response of propeller driven airflow over a wing will also ‘The windshear encounter which produces a sudden increase in airspeed (temporary energy gain) on the approach will abise it to a greater of lesser extent, which wil call for some control adjustment. The normal reaction to the ise above the path will be to reduce power to regain the glidepath and at the deviation wil have been sudden the power reduction wall bly be more than just a sight one. The pilot must then be alert to the need to re-apply power in good time to avoid dropping 1 the glidepath. If the wind component then stabilise, leaving the aircraft merely with a stronger headwind, a further power tment will be needed to higher setting than the inal one wich had given a sable airspeed and rate of descent |When an aicrafton the glidepath inthe later stages of an approach runs into an ‘energy loss! windshear, it can be much more ious. The shear might be caused by a building oF line of trees obstructing the windtlow and the resuting drop in the wind J might bring about a very sudden drop in sirspeed with a consequent increase in the rate of descent. Ia heavy and premature ng is to be avoided, a rapid and positive increase in power is needed. Another likely effect is for the nose to drop initially and vil need to be checked wth an increase in pitch attitude = but not so much that this causes a further loss of airspeed; as always and attitude adjustments must be co-otdinated. These actions may enable the aiteraft to regein the gidepath and continue proach: anticipate the power reduction to avoid flying through the glidepath and expect to set slighty est power than that rally used, the approach isto be contnued. If the approach has been baaly de-stabilzed, full missed approach action may be fast and tafer option, witha zeccnd approach made with an aitspeed margin to counter the anticipated windshear effect. Vital Actions to counter loss of airspeed caused by windshear near the ground: (2). Brishly increase power (fll'go-around! power if necessary): (6) Raise the nose to check descent; (2) Co-ordinate power and pitch: (6) Be prepared to cary out a missed approach rather than risk landing from a de-stabilised approach. To counter the effect of a downburst or microburst on an approach or take-off will all for more stringent measures. it must rized that any well-founded report of either phenomenon must be treated seriously and the approach of take-off delayed until anger has pasted. If there isan inadvertent encounter, the aireraft may be affected by wind from any lank by the descending suttowing column of air, but again the worst case will be considered - entry on one side, through the centre and est through ther side. It willbe a turbulent and unpleasant experience which will tax the abilities ofthe most skilful pilots to ther limits. ‘The effect ofa microburs is described in paragraph 3.5. The technique for dealing with it sas fellows: (3). The presence of thunderstorms should be known and obvious, so the increase in speed caused by the ising headwind should be seen as the forerunner of a dowmburst or microburst: any hope of a stabilised approach is abandoned and a ‘missed approach isthe only safe course of action - the technique is to make it as safe as possible; (©) the initial rise in airspeed and rise above the approach path should be seen as a bonus and capitalised. Without hesitation, increase to go-around power, being prepared to go to maximum power necessary, select pitch angle consistent with a missed approach, typicaly about 15" and hold i against turbulence and buffeting! (2) the next phase may wall see the intial advantages of increased airspeed and rate of climb being rapidly eroded. The downdraught now strikes, airspeed may be lost and the aircraft may stat to descend despite the high power and pitch ‘angle. It wil be impossible to gauge the true angle of attack, so there isa possibilty thet the stick shaker (i fitted) may ‘be triggered; only then should the attempt to held the pitch angle normally be relaxed; (@) the point at which downdraught begins to change to increasing tailwind may well be the most critical period. The rate of ‘descent may lessen, But the aifspeed may stil continue to fall: the height loss may have eut seriously into ground obstacle ‘learance margins, Given that madmum thrust is already appli, a5 an extreme measure ifthe “sk of striking the found or an obstacle sil ests it may be necessary to increase the pitch angle further and deliberately raise the nose Uti stick shaker is fet, when an easing forward of the control column to try and hold this higher pitch angle should Be ‘made, until the situation eases with the aiteraft Beginning to escape from the effects of the microburst. ‘The effect of 2 downbursvmicroburst encounter during or just after take-off has been described in paragraph 3.6. When isan indefinite risk of shear, it may be possible to use a longer runway, or one that points away from an area of potential It may also be an option to rotate ata lightly higher speed, provided this does not cause undue tyre stressor any handling lems. The high power setting and high pitch angle after rotate, already put the aitcaft into ® good configuration should 8 sburst then be encountered. The is litle safety margin anc the ride can be rough. Mf there it mca power avaiable, it should be used without hestation. Ignore noise abatement procedures and maintain the high pitch ‘watching out for sick shaker indications ava signal to eave the controls forward, In both approach and take-off cases, vital Actions are: (@)_ Use the maximum power avalable as soon as possible; (8) Adopt a pitch angle of around 15" and try and held that attitude. Do not chase airspeed; (2 Be guided by stick shaker indications when holding or increasing pitch attitude, easing the back pressure as required to attain and held a sightly lower attitude.410. The best techniques to use will vary between aircraft within the broad guide lines suggested. The response required of the pilot may not seem natural, nr may the arcratts attitude or trim forces. In this respect, if a windshear programme can be used ins Smulator, there is no better training to practice the techniques needed. There are realistic windshesr programmes available and ‘their vale cannot be over-estimated. Such training is NOT designed to encourage pilots to think that they can tackle windshears ‘with impunity - windshears are to be avoided. The object of the training is to enable the recommended techniques to be leant and practised so that an inadvertent encounter is les likely to end in disaster. 4.11 It is difficult to be specific on the use of auto-pilots, auto-throttles and flight directors. Most airline auto-pilots and ‘auto-throttes should be able to cope with holding attitude in moderate windshear encounters, but will need close monitering, Use ‘of speed, height or rate of climb/descent locks is not recommended. Auto-twottles rexpond quicky but they are not paid to think, 50.2 rapid windshearinduced rise in airspeed may lead to an undesirably low throttle setting leading in tum to slow power recovery ‘when itis needed. In a severe encounter itis probably best to revert to manual handling linked with a high level of crew co-operation and instrument monitcring. On the later point, fight directors should be switched off, unless they are specifically ‘designed to provide guidance during windshear. 5 Windshear Warning and Reporting 5.1. Windshear warning can be provided in several way: (3). Meteorological warning: () ATS warning: (©) Pilot warning: (@) On board pre-encounter warning: {€) On board encounter warning andor guidance. 5.2. Waming of windshear from meteorological sources may start at the prelght briefing stage and pim-point the possibility of {frontal shear or inversion shear. Any mention of an area of thunderstorms should slet a ple to think ofthe risk of wandshear, In the United Kingdom a more positive, albeit subjective, form of windshear warning is provided at London Heathrow an at Belfasv/Aldergrove. A Windshear Alert'i issued on ATIS broadcasts at London Heathrow and on RIF at Befasvaldergrove i any of the fllowing criteria are met: (@)_ The mean surface wind exceeds 20 kt; {b) The vector aitference between the mean surface wind and the gradient wind at about 2000 ft exceeds 40 kt; (@)_ Thunderstorms or heavy showers are within about § nm of the Airport. 5.2.1 From Secton 2 itil be evident that such contitions can produce windshear, so, if they exist the alert is given as Windshear forecast. W this forecast is verified by an aircraft report, the alert becomes ‘Windshear forecast and reported. this being much more ‘meaningful. may happen that an aircraft reports windshear, although the forecast conditions are not met: the alert is then ‘Windshear reported. This alerting system is purely qualitative and no attempt is made to indicate the whereabouts or magnitude of the shear sufficient that it does, or may exist and pilots are on thelt guard. if there is a Windshenr forecast but s plot Goes not hhave a windshear encounter, this should net undermine his opinion of the value of the system, he was merely fortunste enough to avoid an encounter 5.3 _ Inthe United Kingdom, ATS warnings of windsheat will be derived almost entirely from pilot reports, which wil be passed on a5 and when they occur; there is no ather postive method of detecting windshear. Routine wind velocity reports from controllers should alert pilots to the risk of windshear if the mean wind is high and gusting = anything over 20 kt contains a threat of Wwindshear. Crews flying to many major aerodromes in the USA may be passed windshear warnings based on the Low Level Windshear Alerting system (LLWAS). The system consists of a centre field anemometer and 2 number (usually around 6) outfeld anemometers, Continuous computerised monitoring of the output from these anemometers is geared to detecting a 15 kt vector Giferental between the centre fed instrument and any other outer ring tensors: when ths threshold is met or exceeded, 8 Warring {ashes on the display and the information is broadcast. This system can really only detect orizontal windshear and is limitations {for detecting microburst type windshears have been recognised, x0 research continues to perfect system which can detect shears ‘of any kind which lie along the approach and climb-out areas 5.4 From the previous paragraphs, pilots reports of windshear encounters are seen as important for warning other pilots of the ‘danger. The practice of reporting hazards fr the benefit of others is well established in fying, s0 any informavon fret pilot Who ‘may have just experienced a windshesr encounter, possibly quite an alarming one, of which ne had no prior warning, is going to be ‘well appreciated by another pilot, Equally. a plot who sees evidence of posible windshesr, {rom the air or while'on the ground, should report it, Guidance on what ts required for reporting windshear le given in the AIP at MET 0-10. Because fight ‘hrough \windsheat may be short, sharp and violet, a pilot may not have a clear picture of what happened, nevertheless something is better ‘than nothing: for convenience the AIP entry i repeated here! ‘Windshear Reporting? ‘ils using navigation systems providing direct wind velocity read out should report the wind and alttude/height above and below the shear layer and it location. Other plots should report the loss or gain of atspeed anclor the presence of up-or dawn, seauahts o 9 daca change in csewind eid. the aitudefght and locaton te hase of ght and attra ype Pilots not able to report windshear in these specific terms should do sa in terms of its effect onthe aircraft, the altitucerhelght {and location and aiterat type, for example, ‘abrupt windshesr at 500 f QFE on finals, maximum thrust required, B77. Pies ‘encountering windsheat are requested to make a repor even if windshear has previously been forecast or teported.| a pilot can be wamed in advance of the presence of windshear, he is obviously in a beter postion to avoid it altogether diversion, delay or trying to discover the nature of the particular shear. Equipment which wil help tends to be relat sophisticated and therefore expensive. None of these symptoms can be guaranteed to give positive indications of windsheat in ll stuations, but certain equipment can point to a probabilty. Modem digitaVcolour weather radars can display Teves of Precipitation and its not too difficult to detect thunderstorms and areas of very heavy rain of hail which will be ltked with ‘he probabiity of strong downdraughts. A doppler capability is incorporated in some of the most modern sets which can detect turbulence and windshear effects to a certain extent. With al weather radars, their successful use Gepends on the Skil ‘and experience of the operator and the time he has available to get the best out of the set, particularly to scan with the tit ‘mechanism. Radar does suffer from attenuation and shielding problems and will not detect dry’ windshear associated with ‘ust fronts and some microburss; despite this it is a useful tool. INS-equipped aircraft have the abilty to compare wind ‘elocity atthe start of an approach with the surface velocity, and a marked difference may indieate shear ax mentioned eacr. The human eye has an important role: it can see thunderstorms and hence give a mental tigger to think windshear. Once alerted, lookout for telltale signs such as: (@) Divergent windsleeves or smoke; (8) Strong shafts of rain or hall also Viga' (see paragraph 2.5.1(b)); (0) Divergent wind patterns indicated by gras, crops or trees being beaten down of leshed; () Rising dust or sand. observe and recognise any of the above will suggest that windshear danger is very cose, if not imminent: nevertheless @ few onds of advance warning may make al the difference, if the warning is heeded and those seconds put to good use. A Laser True Speed system was developed experimentally by the Royal Aircraft Establishment; this only gave about 3 seconds warning of a7, but this was enough to make it an efficent and safe research tool when installed in @ HS 125, | Warning that an aircraft is being affected by windshear will come from a range of instruments, some of which, possibly ause of lag, it may be best to ignore. Disregard physiological sensations also. OF the basic instruments, the airspeed ard vertical ed indicators are likely to give the fist hints. Depending on whether the windshear confers gain er loss of energy. s0 will the speed rise of fall and the vertical speed increase or decrease. There are specilly designed windshear warning devices available, ich sense windshear induced accelerations and if they exceed predetermined thresholds linked with recovery power availabe, fo or visual warnings wil be triggered. With purely basic instrumentation there is No recovery guidance, t's Worth mentioning a standard engaged flight director could be very misleading in a windshear encounter ifthe pict tres to follow the guidelines en in Section 4; fight divectors should be disengaged and the basic ADI used for pitch angle aszessment. Modified fight directors being developed and installed in some production airliners, which, linked with windshear warning devices, wil provide the sary guidance in pitch control; such guidance should enable aircraft to excape, given that power svalable is used to the zimum and exceeds the energy loss imparted by the shear, Conclusions ‘Most pilots will experience windshear in some form or other for most it may be ne more than a very firm landing or a swing take-off er landing requiring momentary use of, perhaps, fll rudder for correction; they wil probably put i down to ‘gusts, ne fev plots will experience mare authentic examples of windshear which wil stretch thet sks to the limit. A very smal nber may find their skills inadequate. There is no sure way of knowing in advance the severity of windshear which will be countered, s0 its better not to put one's sil to the test rather than find them inadequate. Windshear, particulary wien linked h thunderstorms, has caused cisaster in the past and may wel cause disaster again, butt will not harm those who understand rs wer and have the good sense to avoid it. An inadvertent encounter on the approach is most ikely to de-stablive t to such an ent that a missed approach is the only safe course and the sooner that decision iz made, the safer itis likely to be. Other cunters must be treated on their ments, but any hint of energy loss should be met with frm and postive response inline With ‘Quidance put forward in this Creuar Recognise - that windshear isa hazard. and Recognise ~ the signs which may indicat its presence Avoid ~ _windshear by delay or diversion, Prepare ~ for the inadvertent encounter by a speed margin’ if energy loss windshearis suspected, Recover - know the techniques recommended for your aitcraft and use them without hesitation if windshear is encountered. ‘his Circulars issued for information, guidance and necessary action. J cbt by Varta Big td OeterhanMETEOROLOGY TURBULENCE ‘TURBULENCE QUESTIONS Maximum turbulence associated with the standing waves is likely to be 2) Two wavelengths down wind and just above the surface. b) Approximately one wavelength down wind of, and approximately level with, the top of the ridge. ©) Just below the tropopause above the ridge. 4) Down the lee side of the ridge and along the surface. For the formation of mountain waves, the wind above the level of the ridge should: a) Decrease or even reverse direction. b) _ Increase initially then decrease. ©) Increase with little change in direction. d) Increase and then reverse in direction, ‘When flying in IMC in a region close to a range of hills 2000 ft high, in stable airand with wind direction at right angles to the axis of the range of hills, which of the following is probably the most dangerous practice: a) Flying towards the hills, into the wind, at flight level 65 b) Flying parallel to the hills on the downwind side at flight level 40. ©) Flying towards the hills downwind at flight level 55 4) Flying parallel to the hills on the upwind side at flight level 40. Which of the following statements referring to Jet Streams is correct: a) CAT associated with Jet Streams is probably associated with the rapid wind shear in the vicinity of the jet. 6) The maximum windspeed in a Jet Stream inereases with increase of height up to the ‘tropopause and remains constant thereafter. ©) The core of a Jet Siream is usually located just below the tropopause in the colder air ‘mass. d) The rate of change of windspeed at any given level is usually greatest on the warmer side of the jet. 40-11 (© Ovlors Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘TURBULENCE Refer to the diagram (Appendix A) below for questions 5-8 APPENDIX A. 20,000" 10,000" MS.L. A 5, The wind at square A3 is likely to be: a) 35kt b) SOK c) 25kt ) light 6. The wind at ABC 4 is likely to be: a) Skt b) 40k ©) 35kt 4) ajet stream 7. light conditions at BI are likely to be: a) Smooth b) Turbulent ) Turbulent in breaking wave crests 4) Turbulent due to marked up and down currents 10-12 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TURBULENCE 8 12, ‘The most extreme turbulence can occur: a) b) °) a ALBI AtA2 AL ABC 4 At B2, 3, 4 and at C2, 3,4 ‘The significance of lenticular cloud is: a) b) ° a ‘There may be mountain waves present and there will be severe turbulence, ‘There are mountain waves present but they may not give severe turbulence ‘A Fobn wind can be expected with no turbulence. 'A Katabatic wind is present which may lead to fog in the valleys, ‘A mountain range is aligned in an East/West direction. Select the conditions from the table below that will give rise to Standing Waves: a) ») °) a 2000 ft 5000 fe 10000 f 020/40 020/30 020/50 170/20 190/40 210/60 270/15 270/20 270/40 090/20 990/40 090/60 For standing waves to form, the wind direction must be near perpendicular to @ ridge ot range of mountains and the speed must a) >) 3 d Decrease with height within a stable layer above the hill, Increase with height within an unstable layer above the hill. Decrease with height within an unstable layer above the hill. Increase with height within a stable layer above the hill. A north/south mountain range, height 10,000 ft is producing marked mountain waves. ‘The greatest potential danger exists for an aircraft flying: a) by ° a on the windward side of the ridge at FL 350 over and parallel to the ridge towards the ridge from the lee side at FL 140 above a line of clouds parallel to the ridge on the lee side at FL 25 10-13 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TURBULENCE 13. 15. Clear air turbulence, in association with a polar front jet stream in the Northern Hemisphere, is ‘more severe: a) Underneath the jet core b) Inthe centre of the jet core ©) Looking downstream on the right hand side Looking downstream on the left hand side Mountain waves ean occur: a) b) °) d) Up toa maximum of 5000 ft above the mountains and 50 nm to 100 nm downwind Up to mountain height only and SO nm to 100 nm downwind. Above the mountain and downwind up to a maximum height atthe tropopause and S0 ‘nm to 100 nm downwind. In the stratosphere. CAT should be reported whenever it is experienced. What should be reported if crew and passengers feel a definite strain against their seat or shoulder straps, food service and walking, is difficult and loose objects become dislodged: a) » °) a Light CAT Extreme CAT Severe CAT Moderate CAT ANSWERS: Ques | Answer | Ques | Answer 1 B 10 2 c ul D 3 B 12 D 4 A 13 D 5 B 4 D 6 D 15 D 7 D 8 A 9 B 10-14 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMA 11.2 1.3 11.4 1.5 11.6 1.7 11.8 1.9 11.10 WAL 112 113 Ad 11S 11.16 117 1118 119) 11.20 121 11.22 123 11.24 11.25 11.26 127 CHAPTER ELEVEN - Wi Contents Page INTRODUCTION. ..00.00e00ccceeee oe wet GUSTS AND LULLS oo. 0600 eccccecceeeseeeeceeeseeesseeceeeee 22 SQUALLS ...... Bees 11-2 GALES. HURRICANES, MEASUREMENT OF WINDS. ..-.-.00.0.-+ 11-3 PRESSURE GRADIENT FORCE (PGE). 0.002.000 eee Hd GEOSTROPHIC FORCEAGF). . 1-4 GEOSTROPHIC WIND. ..... re MEASURING GEOSTROPHIC WIND covet tere trteeeeee HESS ‘THE EFFECT OF LATITUDE ON GEOSTROPHIC WIND SPEED. ....... 11-7 CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR THE WIND TO BE GEOSTROPHIC .... 11 -7 ‘THE GRADIENT WIND . feet eee eceeeeee HEAT CYCLOSTROPHIC FORCE, 6.0... 11-8 GRADIENT WIND IN A DEPRESSION. ..... 11-8 GRADIENT WIND IN A HIGH. ...... ee cee WD THE CYCLOSTROPHIC WIND. ....2022005 cee AD WINDS BELOW 2000 FEET. voces ee ROUGH RULES. ....... ce cece =O DIURNAL VARIATION OF THE SURFACE WIND... elle 14 DIURNAL VARIATION OF 1500 FT AND SURFACE WIND VELOCITY 11 - 15 LAND AND SEA BREEZES . 1-17 PRACTICAL COASTAL EFFECTS, «..00.000000005 oe 18 VALLBY OR RAVINE WINDS ....0.2000000002005 HL 19 KATABATIC WINDS 00.2.0 0 cceeees ce 11-20 ANABATIC WINDS. weet ceeeeceseee ees HE=20 FOHN WINDS, 11-21 LOW LEVEL WIND QUESTIONS 0.000000 0000000000ccceeeeeeeeeee HE+23 © Osford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ua INTRODUCTION WINDS Wind is air in horizontal motion. Wind Velocity (W/V) has both direction and speed. Wind direetion is always given as the ditection from which the wind is blowing; this is illustrated in Figure 11.1. Itis normally given in degrees true, but wind direction given to a pilot by ATC will be given in degrees magnetic. Wind speed is usually given in knots, but some countries give thespeed in metres per second and the Met. Office often work internally in kilometres per hour, shown as KMH if it reaches a TAF/METAR, IND DIRECTION 090° T —_______, AIRCRAFT HEADING 090° T Figure 11.1. Wind Direction. WwW Okt okt 15kt SO kt 65 kt Figure 11.2. Surface Wind Indications on the Station Circle. 1-4 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS 12 ‘A veer is a change in wind direction in a clockwise direction. THE WIND VEERING THE WIND BACKIt e.g. FROM 090° e.g. FROM 340° TO 190° TO 240° Pp Figure 11.3. The Wind Veering and Backing. A back is change in wind direction in an anti-clockwise direction, ‘This applies in both hemispheres. GUSTS AND LULLS ‘A gust is # sudden increase in wind speed, often with a change in direction. It lasts only for a few seconds and is very local. A lull is a sudden decrease in windspeed. A gust factor is sometimes used to indicate the amount of gustiness. Range of Changes MeanWindspeed GF * 100% e.g. With gusts up 10 60 kts and lulls of 30 kts; the mean wind speed must be 45 kts oF - 2.100% - 66.7% 45 SQUALLS A squall isa sudden increase in wind speed, often with a change in direction. It lasts for some minutes and can cover a wide area. It is associated with cumulo nimbus cloud and cold fronts. GALES A gale isa condition where the wind speed exceeds 33 kts, or if the wind gusts exceed 42 kts, HURRICANES A Hurricane (Typhoon, Cyclone) means a wind speed exceeding 63 kts. 11-2 (© Oxford Aviation Servicos LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS 11.6 MEASUREMENT OF WINDS Surface wind is measured by a wind vane which aligns itself with the wind direction, and an esthe speed. An anemometeris.a set of 3 hemispherical cups which rotate on a shaft with the effect of the wind. The speed of rotation of the shaft is directly proportional to the windspeed. ‘The rotation is used fo drive a small generator, the output of which is then displayed on a gauge which is calibrated in knots, anemometer which measu Both vane and anemometer are positioned 33 ft (10 m) AGL and they are located clear of buildings and obstructions which could affect the airflow and hence accuracy. An anemograph records windspeed and sometimes direction, Wind drecton iicatiog dal Wind Speed heating bat Figure 11.4 A Wind Vane and Anemometer Upper winds are measured by radar tracking of a radio sonde and by aireraft reports. 1-3 © Odlord Aviation Servions LimiteMETEOROLOGY WINDS 1.7 PRESSURE GRADIENT FORCE (PGF) Pressure Gradient Force, (PGF), is the force [Hf HL L caused by the pressure gradient which tries 10 move the air from high pressure to low pressure H HyL L Figure 11.5. Pressure Gradient Force (P.G.F.). GEOSTROPHIC FORCE (GF) Geostrophic Force(GF), is the force caused by HEMISPHERE MOVING a he earth AIRIS DEFLECTED TO the rotation of the ea SDEFLECTE It will make a moving mass of air turn to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the IN THE SOUTHERN left in the Southern HEMISPHERE MOVING ‘ ‘AIR IS DEFLECTED TO hemisphere. ‘THE LEFT GF is maximum at the | ain MoViNG TOWARDS THE AIR MOVING TOWARDS THE oles and mi POLE OVERTAKES THE EQUATOR LAGS BEHIND THE poles a ‘SLOWER MOVING EARTH'S: FASTER MOVING EARTH'S. the equator. ‘SURFACE IN HIGHER ‘SURFACE IN LOWER LATITUDES, LATITUDES. Figure 11.6. An Illustration of Geostrophic Force. GF=2QpVsind where ©= angular rotation of the earth p= density v nd speed 0 = tatiude 1-4 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS 11.9 11.410 GEOSTROPHIC WIND ‘The geostrophic wind is the wind which blows when the GF is balanced by the PGE. This, balance can only occur when it is not affected by other forces and therefore the geostrophic ‘wind can only blow above the Friction Layer at about 2- 3000 f( Km) and above. ‘The balance between the two forces is such that the wind direction is parallel to the — Isobars in accordance with Buys Ballots law, which states that if you stand with your back to the wind in the northem hemisphere, the low pressure is on your left [1004 mb. - GF always acts a 90deg, to the wind direction and or Increases with increasing wind speeds. Figure 11.7, The Geostrophic Wind. MEASURING GEOSTROPHIC WIND As GF=20p¥sin0. v -__oF . ed 22p sin 0 if GF = PGF PGF. 2.9 sind ‘The Geostrophic wind speed is directly proportional to the PGF and where the density (ie. height) and latitude are more or less constant, a scale can be drawn to enable PGF (in the form of PG) to be converted to wind speed. Such a scale is called a Geastrophic Wind Scale and is printed on synoptic charts and may be shown as in Figure 1 .8b. ifthe chart covers a wide Jatitude band. 1-5 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY a (© Grown Copyrant wae WIND SCALE IN KNOTS FOR 4 MB INTERVAS 70° a 50° aye Figure 11.8b Geostrophic Wind Scale 1-6 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS Wat 112 11.13 ‘THE EFFECT OF LATITUDE ON GEOSTROPHIC WIND SPEED Fora particular PG value, the Geostrophic Wind Speed will increase as latitude reduces, (see equation 3 above). y= — PGF __ 29 p sind Within 5 degrees of the equator the GF is zero. Within 15 degrees the GF is very small, so that the geostrophie formula no longer applies. CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR THE WIND TO BE GEOSTROPHIC For the wind to be geostrophic, it has to oceur;- a) Above the friction layer. b) Ata latitude greater than 15 degrees. ©) When the pressure situation is not changing rapidly. 4) With the isobars straight and parallel. ‘The geostrophic wind can apply at all heights above the friction layer. However, with an increase in height, the windspeed should increase due to the reduction in density. THE GRADIENT WIND ‘The gradient wind occurs when the isobars are curved. This brings into play a force which ‘makes the wind follow a curved path parallel to the isobars. ‘The gradient wind then is the wind which blows parallel to curved isobars due toa combination of 3 forces: a) PGF b) GF ©) Cyelostrophic Force 1-7 (© Onord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS 11.14 CYCLOSTROPHIC FORCE Cyclostrophie force is the force acting towards the centre of a pressure system when the ROTATION CENTRIPETAL OR CYCLOSTROPHIC CENTRIFUGAL FORCE Figure 11.9 Cyclostrophic Force 11S GRADIE! WIND IN A DEPRESSION fair is moving steadily around a depression, then the cyclostrophic force is provided from the PGF V gradient = V geostrophic - cyclostrophic effect lv LOW PRESSURE GRADIENGEOSTROPHIC FORCE eycLosfrorty PRESSURE» "°"* VGRADIENT = VGEOSTROPHIp~ CYCLOSTROPHIC EFFECT Figure 11.10. Gradient Wind Speed Around a Depression. 1-8 {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS 11.16 a7 1.18 The gradient wind speed around a depression is less than the geostrophic wind for the same isobar interval. Hence if the Geostrophie Wind Scale (GWS) is used, it will overread. GRADIENT WIND IN A HIGH Ifair is moving steadily around a high, then the eyclostrophic force is provided from the GF. V gradient = V geostrophic + cyclostrophie effect The gradient wind speed around an anticyclone is greater than the geostrophic wind for the same isobar interval. Hence if the Geostrophic Wind Scale (GWS) is used, it will underread. THE CYCLOSTROPHIC WIND ‘The wind which blows in low latitudes where the GF is very small is called the eyclostrophie wind. {tis a combination of PGF and eyelostrophie force. This wind occurs in tropical revolving storms, \V GRADIENT = V GEOSTROPWIC + CYCLOSTROPHIC EFFECT Figure 11.11. Gradient Wind Speed Around a High. WINDS BELOW 2000 - 3000f¢(1 Km). Friction between moving air and the land surface will reduce wind speed near the ground. This reduction also reduces the GF which can no longer balance the PGF. Asaresult he surface winds blow across the isobars at a small angle towards the lower pressure 11-9 {© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS 11.19 ROUGH RULES a) The surface wind over land is backed by 30 degrees from the geostrophic wind and its, speed is reduced by 50%. 220°) 15 kt aw 250° / 30 kt 4 0 108 > HIGH S55 ccostnorie wv no on8 SS5— suneace wv over iano Figure 11.12. An Example of Rough Rules Over Land. b) Over the sea friction is very much less and the surface winds are closer to geostrophic values. Surface wind over the sea is backed by 10 degrees from the geostrophic wind and speed reduced to 70% (susface winds will veer in the southern hemisphere). LOW a ago 240" / 20 kt 250° / 30 kt md. aot HIGH pS ceos ror wv 4908 SSS— currace ww over seal Figure 11.13 An Example of Rough Rules Over Sea. 11-10 (© Oxford Aviation Serices LiedMETEOROLOGY WINDS SURFACE AND 2000 FT WINDS ON CHART CA 85/3 (page 11-11) What is the 2000 ft wind and surface wind at the following positions ? POSITION 2000 W/V SURFACE W/V 1 S3°N 4.5°W 2. S6°N_13°W 3 52.5°N 6.5°W 4. 53.5°N 13.5°W 5. 49°N 02°. W114 © Ostord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS a Por 5a 00, 12 ea? = er - eee © 1» Skin SRE GTR Sam AEN oe | e o~ se © crown coovight Figure 85/3 11-12 © Onford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS SURFACE AND 2000 FT WINDS ON CHART CA 85/3 (page 11-11) ANSWERS, ‘What is the 2000 ft wind at the following positions ? : POSITION. 1 53°N 4.5°W 1807/27kt 150°%/13kt 085°/1 Tkt OTS LK 280°/37kt 250°/18kt 2 56°N 13°W 3. 52.5°N 6.5°W. 4 53.5°N 13.5°W. 49°N 02°W 301°30kt 2912/20kt 210°/42kt 200°/28kt Note: ‘The surface wind velocities have been obtained by using the approximate figures of 10°(sea) and 30°%land) but these figures could be modified dramatically by local topography. 11-13 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS 11.20 DIURNAL VARIATION OF THE SURFACE WIND ‘There can be a regular change in the surface wind in each 24 hr period. It veers and increases by day reaching maximum strength about 1500 hrs. It backs and decreases thereafter with ‘minimum strength around dawn, This diurnal variation is due to thermal turbulence which mixes the air at the surface with air moving freely above. It is therefore most marked on clear sunny days, and particularly in polar maritime air, with sunny days, clear nights and unstable air. Amey A841 a ererecemmee Surface WIV decreased (No mixing) & backed. Figure 11.14 Diumal variation of the surface wind 11-14 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS 1121 DIURNAL VARIATION OF 1500 FT AND SURFACE WIND VELOCITY a) Fig 11.15 shows the effect of diurnal temperature variation on both the 1500 ft W/V and the surface W/V, OF FRICTION LA 1500" WIV increases xd (No mixing) & veered. Figure 11.15 Diurnal variation of 1500' wind velocity b) —_ ByDay. Thermal Currents are greater on sunny days and at 1500 hours, They will cause interaction between the surface and the top of the friction layer. The 2000 ft W/V will with descent be increasingly affected by the surface friction and will therefore steadily reduce in speed and turn towards the low pressure. (Back in Northem Hemisphere or veer in Southem Hemisphere). 11-15 {© Orford Aveton Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS ©) By Night, Thermal currents cease. The top of the friction layer effectively drops below 1500 ft where the W/V will assume 2000 ft direction and speed thus becoming faster and veering (NH). The surface W/V no longer has interaction with the stronger wind above and will therefore decrease and back (NH). Thus a marked wind shear can occur between 1500 ft and the surface, affecting handling for example on an approach, [pay NIGHT 20008 285145 Fr "ie ton layey 15008. 280/40 ‘SURFACE 255120 2401 08 Friction Layer effectively lowers from 2000ft to below 1500ft as the Convection Currents Decrease. Figure 11.16. Diumal Variation of 1500' And Surface Wind Velocities. 4) DV of surface wind aids the formation of radiation fog at night and early morning, and its dispersal by day. ©) Diumal effect over the sea is small because DV of sea temperature is small SUMMARY DAY NIGHT INCREASES | DECREASES SURFACE. VEERS BACKS DECREAS soon BACKS | INCREASES VEERS Figure 11.16a. Summary of Diurnal Variation and Surface Wind Velocities 11-16 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS 11.22, LAND AND SEA BREEZES Sea breezes. On a sunny day, particularly in an anticyclone with a light PG, the land will heat quickly. The airin contact will be warmed and will rise and expand so that pressure at about 1000 ft will be higher than pressure at the same level over the sea. This will cause a drift of air from over the land to over the sea at about 1000 fi. The drift of air will cause the surface pressure over the land to fall, and the surface pressure over the sea to rise. ‘Asa result there will be a flow of air from sea to land - a sea breeze. On average, sea breezes extend 8 to 14 nm either side of the coast and the speed is EE (EO about 10 kts, In the tropics HTT 1,000 FEET 10) speed is 15 kts or more and the inland extent is greater. | ‘The direction of the sea breeze is more or less at right Hy angles to the coast, but after 40 KNOTS on some time it will veer under seen the influence of GF, It will back in the southern hemisphere. An illustration Figure 11.17. The Sea Breeze. of the formation of a sea breeze is shown in Figure WAT. Land breezes. After sunset the situation will reverse. The land will cool rapidly whilst the sea will retain its heat There will be an increase in pressure at the surface over the land whilst the pressure over the sea will fall - there will be a land breeze, The speed will be about 5 kts and the breeze will extend about 5 nm out to sea. ‘This effect is shown in Figure L118. Figure 11.18. The Influence of the Geostrophic : Force on Sea Breezes over time. 1-47 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS ee te ow | _ HIGH a P| HIG! reverterd very 5 KNOTS. cos SE Figure 11.19. The Land Breeze. 11,23 PRACTICAL COASTAL EFFECTS a) The direction of take-off and tanding cam be reversed with the ARN het cer change from sea to land breeze. ‘This is shown in Figure 11.20. ear) DIRECTION Figure 11.20. Reversal of Direction of Take off and Landing. b) Fog at sea can be blown inland by day to affect coastal airfields. This is illustrated in Figure 11.21, Figure 11.21. Fog Being Blown Inland by the Sea Breeze. 11-18 © Ontors Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ©) The lifting of air over land with the sea breeze can cause small clouds to formas shown in Figure 11.22, These are a navigational feature of coastline. 11.24 VALLEY OR RAVINE WINDS A wind blowing against a mountain is impeded. Ifthe barrier is broken by a gap ot valley, the ‘wind will blow along the valley at an increased speed due to the restriction. This is illustrated in Figure 11.23. With a valley wind, if there is a relatively small change in the general direction, itis possible for the valley wind to reverse completely as shown in Figure 11.24, The combination of high wind speed and rough terrain is likely to give rise to considerable turbulence at low level, landing at airfields in such areas may be difficult. WINDS good Figure 11.22 Cloud Formation Over a Coastline. Figure 11.23. A Valley or Ravine Wind. as i Re Koes ) asquall ©) agale dg) ablast The force which causes the air to flow parallel to the curved isobars is call a) centrifugal force b) —_cyclostrophie force ©) geostrophic force d) gradient forve ‘The deflection of the surface wind direction from the geostrophic is, on average: a) over the land by night - 35° in cloudy conditions, b) over the land by day - 35” in cloudy conditions ©) overthe sea - 30° 4) over the sea - 10°, veered in the southern hemisphere A ravine or valley wind: a) Isa wind blowing at increased speed along a valley. b) _Isawind blowing from a hill to a valley below. ©) Isawind blowing up a hill from a valley. 4) Isawind blowing at reduced speed along a valley. 11-25 © Oxfors Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY 15, WINDS In an anticyclone at 2000 fi, in the northern hemisphere, the wind was 060/20 kt. The likely surface w/v over land is a) b) °) ad O70/15 kt 050/10 kt 030/10 kt 030/15 kt ANSWERS Ques | Answer | Ques | Answer 1 D 9 B 2 B 10 B 3 c u B 4 c 12 B 5 B 13 D 6 A 14 A 7 D 15 c 8 D 11-26 {© Orford Aviation Services LimitedCHAPTER TWELVE - UPPER WINDS Contents Page 121 INTRODUCTION, «0.0... . cee ddd 122 CONTOUR CHARTS - CONSTANT PRESSURE CHARTS .......- 12-1 123 ISOTACHS 0.02.0 cceeeeccee . 12-3 124 THERMAL WIND 212-3 125 THICKNESS CHARTS . wees wedded 126 THERMAL WIND LAWS. wee eter teee eee 2-8 12.7 ADDITIONAL RULES. . 12-9 128 JETSTREAMS .......0000eece . 212-9 129 CAUSES 12-10 12.10 LOCATIONS ... . fee eects cteeeseees ID=10 12.]1 DIRECTION AND SPEED. 12-13 12.12 CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE (TURB). .. 12-13 12.13 MOVEMENT ......000000065 cee 1213 12.14 RECOGNITION 12-13 12.15 FORECASTING : 12-14 UPPER WIND QUESTIONS 12-17 (© Oxford Aviation Servioes LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS, a 12.2 INTRODUCTION Upper winds are caused by Pressure Gradient Force (PGF), Geostrophie Foree (GF) and ‘Cyclostrophic Forces in the same way as the wind immediately above the friction layer. ‘The winds are stronger because the density is less ~ PGF 29 p sing ‘At 20,000 fi, for the same PGF, the wind speed is double the surface wind speed, since density is half that atthe surface. Pressure charts for heights above mean sea level could be drawn to find the upper winds, but it ‘would be a labourious task and there are advantages in using a different system. CONTOUR CHARTS - CONSTANT PRESSURE CHARTS. A Constant Pressure or Contour Chart isa chart where the pressure is constant everywhere. For example, as shown in Figure 12.1 we can see that the 1000 mb pressure level varies with height. These heights are plotted as contour lines with the reference being MSL. The heights give us an indication of the distance that a pressure level is from MSL. If the contours are high values (in comparison to other values on the chart) then we can assume a high pressure exists. Conversely if the contours are lower values then we can assume a low pressure. Figure 12.1. 12-4 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS ‘These charts provide valuable information to us about how the pressure is changing over a distance. If the contours are closely spaced we can assume a high pressure gradient exists. If ‘we can identify where the low pressure is we can then discover what the strength and direction of the resulting wind will be. Again we can use buys ballots law so that with our back to the wind in the Northem Hemisphere the lower value contour is on the left, which is effectively a lower pressure. ‘The upper winds will blow parallel to the contour lines (just like surface winds and isobars). ‘This wind speed is proportional to the distance between the contour lines, The wind that we find from this are for the height of the constant pressure chart, eg 500 mbs chart is about 18,000 ft in ISA. Figure 12.2 above shows contours of the 300m pressure level as black lines. The contour lines are 400ft apart and we can sce high value contours in the bottom of the diagram, The value of the highest contour is 308 which is 30,800ft AMSL. Moving up the chart we see the values decrease to 276 (27,600ft) which is in the top left hand side. We said that low values indicate lower pressure and as such the area has been labelled with an L or MIN. We also said we can assume the direction of winds because they blow parallel to the contour lines with the low pressure to the left in the Norther Hemisphere. The blue lines represent strong winds and are found where the contour lines are closely spaced. The dashed red lines are Isotachs which join places of equal wind speed. Again, these will be high values when the contours are close together. 12-2 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS ‘The heights shown on contour charts are heights AMSL, Charts are drawn for: 700 mbs - 10,000 ft 500 mbs - 18,000 ft 300 mbs - 30,000 ft 250 mbs - 34,000 ft 200 mbss ~ 39,000 ft 100 mbs - 53,000 ft 123 ISOTACHS Isotachs are lines joining places of equal windspeed, 124 THERMAL Wi D The pressure changes that exist in the upper atmosphere that control our upper windsare directly related to the temperature differences between air masses. Figure 12.3 shows that the temperature difference between two air masses dictates the presstire we find in the upper atmosphere. Tinos btweon 1000 mp ibaa ton metres = deca | MSL Figure 12.3. Pressure Changes at Height in Airmasses of Different Temperature 12-3 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS. Rs ‘The pressure difference created by different temperatures will cause winds. In the northern hemisphere with your back to the wind the cold air will be on the left, (because this cold gives, us a low pressure in the upper atmosphere). ‘This wind is known as the thermal wind. ‘The thermal wind is the component which when added vectorially (o the geostrophie wind near the surface will provide the upper wind. THERMAL WIV GENERATED BETWEEN TWO LEVELS LOWER LEVEL WIND VELocITY RESULTANT UPPER WIND. VELOCITY Figure 12.4, The Thermal Wind Component, Isotherms can help inform us where the cold and warm air is. Once this is identified we can presume the direction of the thermal wind, In the northern hemisphere it will blow parallel to the isotherms with the low temperatures to the left of the wind. The speed of the thermal wind is inversely proportional to the distance between the isotherms. THICKNESS CHARTS Rather than drawing isotherms of mean temperature, the meteorologist has traditionally drawn Isopleths/Isohypse that produce thickness charts. These show the difference in height between two pressure levels usually the 500mb and 1000mb levels. If you look at Figure 12.3 you can see that in cold air the thickness or distance between the isobars is much Tess than in warm air. If we plot these values on a chart we will be able to see different thickness values, Low thickness value or decameters show we have very cold ar, and large thickness values show warm air, These are respectively called cold pools and warm domes. Figure 12.5 shows a typical thickness charts by plotting isohypses/isopleths. 12-4 © Onford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS Looking at Figure 12.5 we can identify high value enclosed isopleths would therefore indicate ‘a warm dome (as shown in area B) or conversely, we can see low valued enclosed isopleths indicating a cold pool (as shown in area A). Isopleths that are very close together show very steep horizontal temperature gradients (as shown in areas E). This suggests that the temperature difference between the air masses is steep indicating the possibility of strong upper winds. Similarly with isobars and contours, the upper ‘wind will blow parallel to the isohypse/isopleths. The most important feature about thickness charts is the shape of the isopleths. Like pressure charts with troughs and ridges, we can also find tongues of cold or warm air. If we have cold air advection (horizontal movement) undercutting the warmer air (as shown in Figure 12.5 between ‘Areas C and D), this would foree the warmer air to rise and thus cteate the potential for significant cloud development if there is sufficient moisture, This is essential frontal weather where we have cold air undercutting warm, as seen on the cold front. Whenever the cold air ‘moves and undercuts warm air the chart will show a front. In addition to the assessment of cloud and “weather” a rough estimate of the thermal wind speed can be made by using the following: Thermal wind speed = temp gradient per 100 nm x attde of eg, ifthe temperature gradient through 40,000 ftis 3 degrees/100-nm, then the thermal W/S will be 120 kts. ‘This rough indication of the thermal wind speed which is usually assessed by the meteorologist in narrow height bands is valid for 50 degrees latitude only. However, it is quite possible by using the basic triangle of forces’ principle to identify positions of isotherms and theoretically determine thermal wind velocity, 12-5 © Oxlord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS. hr PROG VI 7) | Figure 12.5 Thickness Chart 500-1000mb. KEY A: COLD POOL (QUASI-STATIONARY, LONG-LASTING TYPE) B: WARM DOME €: COLD POOL (TRANSITORY/MOBILE TYPE) C: COLD POOL (TRANSITORY /SLOW-MOVING TYPE) D: COLD POOL (LOW-LATITUDE TYPE) FE: BAROCLINIC ZONES 12-6 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS Question 1. {In the Northern Hemisphere the wind at 2,000 fl is 210° / 60. The thermal wind is 20 knots, With the lowest mean temperature in the North West. The upper wind is; a) 210°/40 kts, ©) 300°/ 40 kts b) 210° 80 kts, 4) 030°/ 80 kis, Question 2, In the Northem Hemisphere the wind at 2,000 ft is 270° /20. ‘The wind at 8,000 ft is 325° / 35 ‘ts, In these conditions the isotherms of mean temperature will increase from; a) North to South, ©) South to North, b) East to West. d) West to East. Question 3. In the Northern Hemisphere, if the 2,000 ft wind velocity is 360° / 30 kts. and the thermal wind speed is 30 kts. being generated by lower temperature in the North. What will be the resultant upper wind; a) 135°/ 30 kts, ©) 315° 42 kets by 045° 42 kets, d)-225°/ 30 kts, Question 4, AL S0°N the thermal component of the upper W/V produced by a 4° temperature difference between two columns of air 200 nm apart between the 700 mb level and the 300 mb level is likely to be: a) 80 knots ©) 40 knots b) a8 knots d) 28 knots 12-7 {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY 126 UPPER WINDS. THERMAL WIND LAWS. ‘Temperature in the troposphere decreases from the equator to the poles so isotherms of mean temperature are roughly parallel to parallels of latitude. Hence the average thermal wind must be westerly outside the tropics. This leads to the following rough rules: WIND NEAR SURFACE UPPER WIND Northerly Will back towards westerly (See Figure 12.6.) Southerly Will veer towards westerly (See Figure 12.7) Westerly Will increase in speed but maintain (See Figure 12.8) direction Easterly Will decrease in speed and then veer or back (See Figure 12.9) to become light westerly T u s s U 7 Figure 12.6 Figure 12.7 Ss T U Ss =» Figure 12.8 Figure 12.9 12-8 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS 127 12.8 In the tropics (0/to 20 degrees, but varying with season) the winds up to 40,000 fi are generally easterly. ADDITIONAL RULES If low pressure is associated with low mean temperature in the air above, the upper wind direction will not change from the geostrophic near the surface, but windspeed will increase. IC high pressure is associated with low mean temperature inthe ar above, then the upper wind will decrease in speed and may reverse in direction. Ifthe Geostrophic Wind near the surface blows across the isotherms of mean temperature from warm to cold, the wind will veer with increase in height (backs in the southern hemisphere), If the Geostrophic Wind near the surface blows across the isotherms from eold to warm, the ‘wind backs with height (veers in the southern hemisphere). JETSTREAMS Jetstreams are strong narrow currents of air with speeds greater than 60 kts. They are concentrated along quasi-horizontal axes in the upper troposphere or stratosphere and are characterised by strong vertical and lateral wind shears, Jetstreams may have more than one velocity maximum. They are usually about 1500 nm long, 200 nm wide 12,000 ft deep. Figure 16.5. Typical Dimensions of a Jet Stream. 12-9 {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS, 129 CAUSES. Jotstreams are caused by large mean temperature differences in the horizontal, i.e. large thermal components 12.10 LOCATIONS There are two main locations a) Sub tropical jetsteams form in the area of the sub-tropical anti-cyclones, They are more of less permanent but move seasonally with the sub-tropical highs. They occur in the latitude bands 25° to 40° in winter and 40° to 45° in summer. The jet core is at the 200 mb level. Figure 12.12. Sub-Tropical Jetstreams. 12-10 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS. » ©) 4 e) Polar front jetstreams form in the polar front region in both hemispheres 40° to 65° N and around 50° S and near any front which is separate from the polar front. The Jetstreams in a polar front depression lie parallel to the fronts. They are located in the ‘warm air. Polar Night Jets occur in higher middle latitudes in mid-winter near the top of the stratosphere (50 mb level). Direction is westerly and speeds average 150 kts. Speeds ‘of 350 kts have been noted, ‘Tropical Fasterly Jet (Equatorial Easterly Jet). Strong easterlies that occur in the northern hemisphere’s, summer between 10° and 20° north, where the contrast between intensely heated central Asian plateaux and upper air further south is greatest. It runs, from South China Sea westwards across Souther India, Ethiopia and the sub Sahara ‘Typically heights circa 150hPa (13-14 km; 45,000 ft) Aretic Jet Stream found between the boundary of aretic air and polarair. Typically in winter at around 60° north but in the USA around 45° to 50° north. ‘The core varies between 300 and 400hPa. It is a transient feature found over large continents during aretic air outbreaks. GROUND LEVEL LOW’ Figure 12.13. Polar Front Jetstreams. 12-11 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS, Figure 12.14. A Vertical Cross Section Through a Jetstream. Figure 12.15. Average Upper Winds - 300 mbs to 200 mbs Note: This general disposition of winds will move some 15° South in January and a ° ‘some 15° North in July. Local Jets may arise due to local thermal or dynamic: Findlater jet off East Africa rcumstances e.g. the Somali, or Other Jets. ‘Jets’ as opposed to Jet Streams may exist as narrow, fast currents of air at Iw level 12-12 (© Ofer Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS. wat 12.42 12.13 12.14 DIRECTION AND SPEED The direction of jetstreams is generally westerly, maximum speeds occur near the tropopause, 200 kts have been recorded in Europe/N Atlantic and 300 kts in Asia In equatorial regions there are however some easterly jets. CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE (TURB) Clear air turbulence (TURB) occurs around the boundaries of jetstreams because of the large horizontal and vertical windshears. It is strongest near to, or just below, the jet axis on the cold air (low pressure) side with a secondary area above the axis. MOVEMENT ‘As with most other weather phenomena, Jetstreams move with the sun Sub-tropical jets, based on Hadley Cells, will move north in the northern summer as the heat equator moves north and then south in the northem winter. Polar Front Jets in the northern hemisphere will move north (and decrease in speed) as the Polar Front moves north in summer. During the winter the Polar Front moves south and because of the greater temperature difference, the speed will increase, RECOGNITION a) From the ground, when the cloud amounts allow, jets may be recognised by wind blown wisps of CIRRUS cloud blowing at right angles to the clouds at lower levels. Figure 12.16 Recognition by Clouds 12-13 {© Oxford Aviation Servicos LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS b) _ Inthe Air, the presence of a jet will be difficult to SEE, but temperature differences, increases in windspeed, drift and clear air turbulence are all evidence of jet streams. c) On Charts, jets may be picked out quite easily by inspection of Upperwind Charts and ‘more graphically perhaps by looking at a Significant Weather Chart. UR uns /TEeS PL 340 01/12002 yon oan azce 23/07/00 12.15 FORECASTING ‘The forecasting of jet streams is largely a matter of producing charts from upper air soundings by Radio Sonde. Thickness charts were mentioned earlier as a means of establishing thermal ‘wind patterns, but for forecasting, meteorologists use contour charts. In-flight reports of temperature and wind velocities are a useful confirmation of upper air soundings and over oceans (and deserts) are vital supplements. 12-14 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS TRE DE Fanaa COE Figure 12.18. Jet Streams on Sig/Wx Chart 12-15 © Onford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS. UPPER WIND QUESTIONS ‘An Aircraft on a transatlantic flight from New York to London is forecast to cross the surface position of a cold front at 1000 UTC. The cold front jet is aligned SW-NE and is associated with the cold front, Using the above information answer the following three questions, 1, The direction of maximum drift and the time it is encountered a) Right and after 1000 UTC, b) —_Leftand before 1000 UTC. ©) Leftand after 1000 UTC. @) Right and before 1000 UTC. 2. Just after 1000 UTC the upper wind is most likely to be: a) Backing and increasing, b) Backing and decreasing, ) —_ Veering and increasing. )— Veering and decreasing, 3. Strong wind shear is likely to be found: a) Above the jet core and also on the warm air side of the jet core. b) _Direcily below the jet core and also on the cold air side of the jet core. ©) Level with the axis on the cold air side and above the jet core. 4d) Afler the jet core has been passed. 4, Flights eastbound over the North Atlantic in winter at the 200 mb level will on average experience a tailwind of: a) 100k by 80kt cy 50K dy) T0kt 5. The 2000" wind is 040/20 kt in the southern hemisphere. The thermal wind component is 30 kt with the warm air to the north and cold to south, What is resulting wind aloft: a) 070/46 by 315/23 ©) 250/46 d) 135/23 12-47 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS 6. 10. From summer to winter the movement of the jet streams over the North Atlantic and the speed change will be: a) North with a speed increase. b) North with a speed reduction. ©) South with a speed inerease. d South with a speed reduction In the N. hemisphere if the geostrophic wind near the surface was 210/60 kt. The thermal wind ‘was 20 kt with the lowest mean temperature in the northwest, ‘The upper wind was: a) 210/40 kt b) 210/80 kt ©) 300/40 kt 4) OB0/80 kt In middle latitudes the westerly component of the upper wind normally increases with height because: a) The pressure gradient force increases. b) The geostrophie force increases. ©) The density increases. 4) The thermal wind component on average is westerly In the Northern hemisphere the wind at 2000 ft is 270/20. The wind at 8000 ft is 325/35. In these conditions the isotherms of mean temperature will increase from: a) by ©) 0 North to South, West to Bast. South to North, East to West. Accontour chart cannot be used: a) b) °) 4) To find upper winds. To find the thermal wind, To locate jet streams, To locate upper ridges and troughs. 12-18 “© Onford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS. ul 15. A line drawn on a chart joining places having the same temperature at the same level and at the same time is: a) b) °) a In the northern hemisphere the speed of the thermal wind component in the layer between 5000 fi and 14000 ft is given as 40 kts and low temperature lies to the north. The geostrophic wind at S000 fis 235/35. Which of the following is the most likely wind at 14000 ft: a) 270140 b) 255/70 ©) 330/25, d) 305/35 In the southern hemisphere the 2000 ft W/V is 000/30, the wind at 8000 ft is 325/35. In these conditions the isotherms of mean temperature will increase from: a) North to south, >) South to north. ©) East to west. d) West to east Typically a jet stream is: a) 1000 nm or mote long, 200 nm wide and 5 nm deep b) 1000 nmor more long, 200 nm wide and 5000 ft 0 10000 ft deep ©) 1000 nm or more long, $000 ft to 10000 ft wide and 1000 ft deep 4) 150 nm long, $00 nm wide and S000 ft deep When associated with a typical mid latitude frontal depression, a jet stream core would be located: ) in the cold air, just above the polar tropopause b) in the warm air, just above the warm air tropopause ©) im the warm air, just below the tropopause d) onthe frontal surface 12-19 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS. ANSWERS Ques | Answer | Ques | Answer l B 14 B 2 D 1s c 3 c 4 c 5 B 6 c 7 B 8 D 9 D 10 B u A 12 B 1B B 12-20 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedCHAPTER THIRTEEN - CLOUDS Contents 13.1 INTRODUCTION. 13.2 CLOUD AMOUNT .........565 133. CLOUD BASE... 134 CLOUD CEILING ....... 13.5. MEASUREMENT OF CLOUD BASE. 13.6 THE CLOUD BASE RECORDER. 13.7 MEASUREMENT OF CLOUD TOPS. 138 CLOUD MOVEMENT . 139 CLOUD CLASSIFICATION. 13.10 BASIC CLOUDS 13.11 OTHER CLOUDS 200.000.0000 13.12. HEIGHTS FOR TEMPERATE LATITUDES. 13.13. STATION CIRCLE CLOUD DECODE .. CLOUD QUESTIONS Page 13-1 13-1 13-1 - 13-1 cect ceceeees B= 13-3 13-4 134 13-5 13-6 (8 Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY cLoups Bd 13.2 1B3 134 13.5 INTRODUCTION Clouds are signposts in the sky which indicate to the pilot possible weather problems, such as:= a) Turbulence, b) Poor Visibility. ©) Precipitation. @ Icing CLOUD AMOUNT Cloud amounts are reported in OKTAS (1/8ths). It is assumed that the sky is divided into 8 ‘equal parts and the total cloud amount is reported by an assessment of the number of eighths of the sky covered by cloud, CLOUD BASE “That lowest zone in which the type of obscuration perceptibly changes from that corresponding to clear air haze to that corresponding to water droplets or ice crystals.” The cloud base is the height of the base of the cloud above ground - above official aerodrome level. CLOUD CEILING “The height above aerodrome level of the lowest layer of cloud of more than 4 oktas” MEASUREMENT OF CLOUD BASE a) By day: As illustrated in Figure 13.1., a balloon with a known rate of ascent is released and the time between release and the disappearance of the balloon into cloud is noted. From this cloud base can be calculated. Figure 13.1. Finding the Cloudbase by Releasing a Balloon with a Known Rate of Ascent. 13-4 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY cLoups b) By night: An Alidade, shown in Figure 13.2., is positioned a known distance from a searchlight and is used to measure the angle above the horizontal ofthe searchlight glow on the base of the cloud. ‘The height of the cloud base is then calculated by trigonometry. Figure 13.2 An Alidade KNOWN DISTANCE Figure 13.3 Finding the Height of the Cloud Base. 13-2 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY cLoups 13.6 THE CLOUD BASE RECORDER ‘The cloud base recorder, which is illustrated in Figure 13.4., gives a continuous readout of cloud base by day and night. It is used at major airports. The system has a transmitter with a narrow beam of light which swings from 8 degrees above the horizontal to the vertical and back again, continuously. ie ce sia ett hat iy) Receiver Figure 13.5 Using the Cloud Base Recorder 13-3 © Onord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY cLoups 13.7 13.8 The receiver isa shrouded photo-clectric cell which will only accept light from the vertical. For any cloud base there will be only one angle of the transmitter (TX) beam which will provide vertical light into the receiver (RX). The angle will be known because of the position of the beam at the time an electrical current is received at the RX. The information is sent by land line to a recorder display in ATC. MEASUREMENT OF CLOUD TOPS The height of cloud tops is obviously not as easy to measure as that of the cloud base. Meteorologists may be able to make a visual assessment, if conditions permit, but more usually they will use RADAR or employ aircraft observation, CLOUD MOVEMENT Meteorological stations measure the movement of clouds by means of a Nephoscope. This ‘measures the angular speed of movement of cloud and if the base height is known, the speed of movement may be calculated. A Besson Nephoscope is shown below. DIRECTION PLATE DIRECTION INDICATING STRIP Figure 13.6 Example of a Besson Nephoscope 13-4 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY cLoups Bo CLOUD CLASSIFICATION Clouds are classified in three basic forms: a) Stratiform A level sheet of horizontal development, layered and if of strato cumulus, with some discernable shape. b) — Cumuliform Vertical development cloud, rounded and heaped. ©) Cirriform —_ Fibrous, feathery cloud - high level. Figure 13.9 Cirriform Cloud 13-5 (© Oxford Aviation Services Limited9- eb ber aien (+suntel - $) 2 14 000'sr 99 quou4 WEN JO peouy (+sqW000L) 3 sminwno wupos 01 008 goos 311no | TIN aN sieiski 29} 009'91 -OuNID (+swyeL - s) 89 44 000'sr quos wie Jo peoyy (+sa1woooL) oO} SNLVYLS wuoos 01 008 009 31ND | “IN aN sieishio ©9} 00¢'91 “ONNID (suet - s) 44 000'Sp quo wuej Jo peouy (+siuioo01) or 5 wu9d9 01 oo goose 3nd | TIN aIN STeISKIQ 29 os‘ smi (aun.veadwaL) TOaWAS SONVOIJINOIS Aumiaisia | oniol | 3oNaTNgYNL | NOLLISOdWoo 3ONVY LHOISH BaWVN sano? dIsva_ oretber egeL enoge S199 winipay | sy oyu) BuiBsowy 4OKyL we sleshig 34,000°S1 01 000'01 SN quacelpe ( sqwigz - OL) lanes 1085, 99) 1Ng ‘s}ajdouq ‘eqhew - 14 00S'9 SNLWHLS quoly WEN, wood 0} aieuapony 01 a1e40poW, sien Auiew | 0} 19A07 puna eseg | -O@WIN ‘mojoq pur pulyeg ‘snyes-OquIN (sw2 - Z) jut saBiew ueyo 14 000'¢@, sv quay uueye | (sqWO001 - 02) seis 89] pue oO ‘SNLWHLS Jo peaye wugoz: ulvs ‘SesBPOW 0} YB] | eyesepoy) 0} 1467 | Sjejdouq JeIeEM oos'9 “OL quoly We, (sw - Z) ~ ® 40 yoeoidde L4000'e2 ov ‘9y) Se}eo1pUl (snwoool - 02) sieisfu 29) pue o sminwno sowiawiog uiva are9poW OF NBN | eresepoW 0114617 | sie!douq Jee M o0s'9 “ol (3qnLuWw7 auniveaewaL) JOaWAS AONVOISINSIS ALTIBISIA 1 BoNaTNauNL | NOILISodWoo BONVY LHOISH 2 aNVNwr enero. (saws > ww ey ‘Bunnys 200 sieiskig eo} | (+swyeL- 0) ~% 'SUMOISHEPUNYL ‘snwioz >) | esenog aionog fie, 009 | puesiaidoig | 14 000'Sr snawin pno|o) AMIeIsUt 1004 oy aresapow | aionag 0} a1210poyy J31eM, oy jaaa7 pune | ornwno (sawot > (+su2 - 0) ao 9 o1u dojonep ew 290 steyskig 20} 43000'Sz saaam ng aBieq uory | ‘snwioz >) au0nag pue sieidouq o i) Plog ‘pnoja Ayigeysuy | 400g or areispoyy | aianag 01 aeepo/ seem tener punowg | snanwno wdg wr) 6oq (enue BIeIpOW (swyg-0) _ uesty “uowes wueM | -O1)4004 | VUE seidoig .4003'9 “pnoig eouainqiny | oy ajexepow | euo1se90Q Jee 0 jana7 punoig | sniveis (sqwoe a pnoig no - OW) (sus - 0) um parenossy uayo | 100g a1es8poWN, syaidoug 44 0089 smnwno “pnojg sousinqiny | or ayeispow | 0114877 sye19po 0414617 sere 01 19R07 punoig | -OLvELS (s3qn.uw7 aunivaadWal) | TOaWAs AONVOIINOIS ALITIBISIA ‘NID! 3ONaTNGYNL | NOILISOdWOD | 3ONVYLHOH |B aNWN6-eb wet oigeL noi ereydsosew Vv “pnojg 19 eM Jeu}eY 800] “‘YoZUOY 84 MOJAq .O1 8 .9 UBAMISG UNS @Yy YIM SYJUOWY OWNS sjeysiD (14 00'00z SAOay) Buunp epnyyey G9 ¥ .0G UBaNqaq pariasqo Aj\soyy 20) INU AIGeqod wy06-S2 NOD LNSONWLOON yesung punose JeqUIyA UI SepMINeT BIH UI UOES AyEUOISED9 ysng pue sieyshig PNOID UES JO JOLOWY, SB UROL ESWUEYIO, 99) Aigeqoud 4.4000'001 O1 000'02 Gno70 snosHoWN | souaingin | a1anag s1e}SA1D 29] (swy2 - Z) SIeWINOLLNAT ‘ayeaipur Aeyy “Sane (UIeJUNOWY) BuIpueIS Jo UOReOIPU| | pue sjeidouq Jae, 14 000'€z O1 009° smAWNsOLv soy sseuuly ewNUeN JeIO4 BuILuMeY “gD Buldojenep sieiskig 29) (swyi2 - z) SMNVTISLSWO. Aiqyssod ‘jane J8y6iH Wy sty eIqe;sUN a}eo1pul pue sjajdoig s81e/\\ 14 000'€2 9 00S'9 SMNWNDOLIY BONVOISINOIS NOILISOAWOD ONVY LHOISH TOBWAS # WN SQNO19 YAHLO TETMETEOROLOGY cLoups 13.12 HEIGHTS FOR TEMPERATE LATITUDES, pro ey STABLE AIR UNSTABLE AIR LAYER CLOUDS HEAP CLOUDS ey LOW MED HIGH LOW MED I I I I I St Ac Ci Cu Acc I I I I Sc As Cs Cb I I Ns | Cc 1 I 6,500 23,000 45,000 T.P. 25,00023,000 wvtice ofoo — 1bso0 sutacesuntacee,ton Figure 13.10 Cloud Heights for Temperate Latitudes. STATION CIRCLE CLOUD DECODE Il cloud amount in oktas is shown in the centre of the station circle, Additionally and types are shown at the 6 o’clock and 12 o'clock positions. jual cloud amounts, sd decode is at Figure 4.4. 13-10 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY cLoups ‘Cloud Questions 1. ‘The size of raindrops from a cloud is greater if. a) Airis stable and cloud is layer type. 6) Airis unstable and cloud is heap type. ©) Cloud type is AC or NS. d) The relative humidity is high. Which piece of equipment is used to measure cloud base: a) barograph b) —_hygrometer ©) alidade 4) barometer In aerodrome reports and forecasts the height of the cloud base refers to: a) the height above mean sea level b) the height above aerodrome elevation ©) the pressure altitude of the cloud base 4) the height above the average ground level for the area Cloud types are classified under three basic family headings, these are: a) Cirviform, Stratiform, Cumuliform b) ——Stratiform, Heap, Citriform ©) Cimus, Cumulus and layer 4) Cumulus, Layer and Heap Low cloud in temperate climates, excluding heap are those existing from: a) the surface to 6500 ft b) 1000 fw 6500 FE c) the surface to 7500 ft d) the surface to 7500 metres Lumpy or heaped white cloud is: a) altocirrus b) cumulus ©) cumulonimbus d) —_nimbostratus 13-11 (© Ortord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY cLoups 7. 8 10. 1 In temperate latitudes which statement is correct: a) Ci only occurs above 15000 ft b) ——Cionly occurs above 16500 ft ©) Cionly occurs above 25000 ft 4) Cionly occurs above 30000 ft ‘Typical base heights in temperate latitudes, of altocumulus cloud are in the range of: a) 6500 ft to 23000 ft b) $000 ft to 15000 ft c) 8500 ft to 18000 ft d) 1000 ft to 6500 ft Continuous type precipitation is expected from layer clouds because: 8) The vertical extent of the cloud is small. b). The upcurrents are not very strong. ©) The airis stable, ) The cloud is large in horizontal extent. The expected average height ranges for low, medium and high layer clouds in temperate latitudes are: 8) Low: Surface - 10 000": Medium 10 000'- 20 000 High 20 000'- 45 000" b) Low: Surface - 6500' : Medium 6500’ -23 000 High 23 000' -45 000" ©) Low: Surface - 8000' : Medium 6500" - 16 500" High 16 500'- 45 000° 4) Low: Surface - 6500" : Medium 6500’ -23 000" High 16 500'- 45 000" The turbulence associated with cumulus cloud is: a) Moderate. b) Slight to nil. ) Nil. d) Moderate possibly severe. 13-12 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY cLoups 12, When the met observer reports the amount of cloud present at a station, it will be given as: a) Clear, seattered, broken or overcast b) The amount of cloud, in tenths of the sky covered , using the term oktas ©) The amount of cloud, in quarters of the sky covered, using the term oktas d) The amount of cloud, in eighths of the sky covered, using the term oktas. (On weather charts, the station circle shows the height of the cloud base: a) above ground level b) above mean sea level ©) ata pressure altitude 4) in metres above surface level Which of the following clouds is never a hazard to aviation: a) Nimbostratus b) —_Noctilucent cloud ©) Cumulonimbus cloud d) Stratus cloud 13-13 © Orford Aviation Services LimiteMETEOROLOGY ANSWERS: Ques Answer Ques Answer 8 A 9 10 i 12 elol>|>lolo wl>lololo 13-14 cLouDSs (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedCHAPTER FOURTEEN - CLOUD FORMATION AND PRECIPITATION Contents Page 14,1 VERTICAL MOTION, .. Ft Med 142 CONDENSATION LEVEL. .........2... . cece 4-1 143 TURBULENCE CLOUD, .....22222000005 14-2 144 THE SITUATION AT THE START OF TURBULENCE. ................ 14-2 145 THE SITUATION AFTER FULL TURBULENCE. <2... oe 14-2 14.6 OROGRAPHIC CLOUD. . 1403 14.7 CONVECTION CLOUD. ..... 0.22000. e0ceeceeeeeceeee 144 14.8 WIDESPREAD ASCENT (FRONTAL UPLIFT)... . 14-6 14.9 CONVERGENCE CLOUD. . 14-7 14,10 MOUNTAINOUS AREAS. «0.0.2... ce 14-8 14.11 INVERSIONS . 14-8 14.12. PRECIPITATION . cose eee ee eens cee 14-9 14.13 BERGERON THEORY ceeceeee veceeeeeee 14.14 COALESCENCE THEORY. oe 14-9 14,15 PRECIPITATION TYPES. .. 14-10 14.16 PRECIPITATION SUMMARY .... ce l4-1 14.17 RECORDING. ............ ceeeeeeeeee 4-12 14.18 CLOUD ON THE STATION MODEL (STATION CIRCLE) ............- 14-12 CLOUD FORMATION QUESTIONS . 214-13 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION 14.1 14.2 VERTICAL MOTION Cloud is formed by air being lifted and cooled adiabatically until the water vapour condenses out as water droplets. The height at which this occurs is called the condensation level. Itis also the height of the eloud base. ‘The means whereby the initial lifting of the air occurs are as follows: a) Turbulence, b) —— Orographic Uplift. ©) Convection. 4) Slow, widespread ascent (frontal uplift) ©) Convergence NOTE: ‘The lifting processes above are strictly all ‘convection’; process ¢) is free convection, the rest are forced convection CONDENSATION LEVEL Figure 14.1 shows a temperature/height diagram to illustrate the location of the condensation level. In the diagram rising air will cool at the DALR until it reaches the ELR. If at the same time it reaches the DP line the air will be saturated and cloud will form. This will be the condensation level. Figure 14.1 Condensation Level 14-4 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION 143 144 145 TURBULENCE CLOUD ‘The conditions which are necessary for turbulence clouds to form are:- a) Stable air. b) Sufficient turbulent mixing, to inerease the lapse rate. ©) Sufficient humidity to place the condensation level within the turbulence layer. ‘THE SITUATION AT THE START OF TURBULENCE, Airmixed within the turbulent layer forces the surface air to 000° eG +e rise to the top of the TOP OF TURBULENCE turbulence, and the air at the . J top of the turbulence layer to S000 sr. se HO be forced to the surface, This Yeas adiabatic cooling and heating zy’ eer sre respectively will be done at DALR. A new environmental lapse rate will be formed based upon the mean temperatures between the air that is being forced to rise and the air that is being forced to sink. Figure 14.2. The Situation at the Start of Turbulence. THE SITUATION AFTER FULL TURBULENCE The cloud formed is St or Se, which will give drizzle or ight precipitation. The inversion above the top of the turbulence gives very smooth air and a flat top to the cloud, ca [Hore wise OUDELR Figure 14.3. The Situation After Full Turbulence. 14-2 {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY 146 OP ee ee ae TEMPERATURE (°C) CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION Figure 14.4 Temperature/Height Diagram. OROGRAPHIC CLOUD Air meeting a ridge of high ground will be forced to rise. If the air is sufficiently humid the condensation level will appear below the crest of the ridge & cloud will form, Ifthe airis stable and precipitation occurs, the air will descend on the LEE side and the cloud base will be higher than on the windward side and this will generate warmer surface temperature - the Foehn effect. If the air is dryer, then the cloud base will be above the ridge and lenticular cloud would result, 14-3 Figure14.5 Orographic Cloud - Stable Conditions Figure 14.6, Orographic Cloud - stable, but dryer © Oxford Aviation Sorvicas LimosMETEOROLOGY CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION 14.7 Lifting in unstable conditions can produce Cu or Cb clouds and also thunderstorms if ‘there is enough water vapour present. Strong winds with moist air ean cause convective instability and Cb and thunderstorms. The Cb can be embedded in other cloud types, eg frontal or Turbulence cloud. Figure 14,7. Orographic Cloud Formin Unstable Conditions. Temperature —————> Figure 14.8. Temperature/Height Diagram CONVECTION CLOUD Critical Temperature. Before dealing with the formation of convection cloud we mustconsider the critical, or convective temperature. Fig 14.9 shows air rising and cooling at the DALR at (0700,0800 & 0900 hrs. The first two ascents result inthe ai falling back on reaching the ELR, ‘but at 0900 the rising air reaches the Dew Point line, cloud forms and the air now cools at the SALR & continues rising. 14-4 (© Onford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION 10 oo? 6 73 Rising temp ——_____________» Temperature Figure 14.9 Critical Temperature ‘There are two particular cases: a) fair weather Cu, which often forms early in the morning, b) large Cu/Cb, which often oceur later in the day. Figure 14.10. The Formation of Convection Cloud 14-5 {© Oxford Aviation Services LiitodMETEOROLOGY CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION 14.8 Convection cloud is heap type,Cu or Cb.. Its isolated, often forming over a place, then being, blown away by the wind and further clouds forming over the same place. ‘The surface air temperature required for the air to be lifted to the condensation level and for cloud to form is called the eritieal temperature, ‘The cloud base will vary due to the varying temperatures on the ground surfaces. Cloud tops, however, are usually limited by mixing with and evaporating into a drier environment. The tops are then lower than the limit of uplif. If there is turbulence with the convection, then Sc can form, the Cu being spread out to form the layer cloud. Pure convection cloud cannot form over the sea but where ther surface the air will become unstable and convection type cloud ean form. This movement is called advection. cold air moving overa warm Convection clond formed over land by surface heating soon dissipates at night because olation stops and the cloud droplets evaporate. WIDESPREAD ASCENT (FRONTAL UPLIFT) ‘Ata front there is widespread lifting of air as warm air comes into contact with colder air. Layer type clouds form in the stable air at a warm front and heap clouds in the unstable air at a cold front. Figure 14.11. The Formation of Frontal Cloud. 14-6 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY 14.9 CONVERGENCE CLOUD. When there is low pressure there is always convergence at the surface which leads to air being lifted. Thus in depressions and troughs, where there are no actual fronts, cloud formation occurs. See Figure 14.12. With strong convergence at a trough, lifting can cause instability to develop so that the cloud type is Cu or Cb with possible ‘thunderstorms, CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION CONVERGING AIR FALLING ;ESSURE, Figure 14.12 Convergence This is particularly the case when saturation oceurs carly, with an average or high ELR. NOTE: With circular isobars at a non-frontal low, normally only SUSc cloud will be formed by convergence. 14-7 Cloud Formation through Convergence. {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION 14.10 MOUNTAINOUS AREAS We have seen how ‘orographic lifting produces cloud; in mountainous areas this may be very active and produce Unstable Air- extensive cloud and Extensive Vertical Development vertical development dueto Convective Instability, Additionally, this may increase the intensity of precipitation, Figure 14.14 Mountainous terrain 14.11 INVERSIONS ‘An inversion in the atmosphere is where temperature rises with an increase in height. This producesextreme stability and must inhibit the formation of cloud. An inversion always. exists above turbulence cloud and inversions have a similar effect at ANY altitude, Temperature ——————> Figure 14.15 Effect of inversions 14-8 © Orford Aviation Servioes LimitesMETEOROLOGY CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION 14.12 14.13 14.14 PRECIPITATION ‘Clouds consist of water droplets averaging 0.02 mm in diameter and the rate of fall is negligible. By colliding with other droplets they may increase in size until they are too heavy to be supported by the upcurrents in the cloud and they drop out as precipitation ‘There are currently two theories governing the formation of these precipitation drops. Figure 14.16 Precipitation BERGERON THEORY The Bergeron theory presumes that at high levels in the cloud, some of the water droplets will turn to ice and will grow in size by sublimation of water vapour and collision with supercooled water droplets. The frozen droplets will be much heavier than the existing water droplets and rop out atthe bottom of the cloud, eitheras Snow or Raindrops, depending on the temperature. COALESCENCE THEORY Itis difficult to see how the above can account for summer precipitation where the whole of the cloud is at a temperature above zero and the coalescence theory may provide a better answer. This assumes the presence of a range of droplet sizes, the larger falling faster and uniting with the smaller until eventually the overweight drop falls out as drizzle or rain, 14-9 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LiitedMETEOROLOGY CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION 14.15 PRECIPITATION TYPES a) ») °) °) Drizzle. . Soft Hail or Graupel: Ice Pellets Diameter: 0.2 t00.5mm Visibility 500 to 3,000m Imperceptible impact. Diameter: 0.5 to 5.5mm Visibility: 3,000 to 5.5km (1,000m in heavy rain) Perceptible impact. Grains/Needles: Diameter 4 4 10-50 . * . * ° * cLouD TYPE INTENSITY HEAP co Rain/Snow showers Light to moderate (instability) Cb Rain/Snow/Hail showers Moderate to heavy oe vv LAYER C: (subilty) Ce N 1 L Cs As, St, Ae, Se Rain/Snow Slight Ns Rain/Snow Moderate to heavy 14-11 © Oxtord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION 14.17 RECORDING 14.18 Rainfall recorders are used at some Met. Offices. They will indicate rate of fall (intensity) of precipitation. TD oe 2a A Collecting chamber B Plastic float C Knife edges D Double siphon tubes E Trigger F Counterweight G Rain trap eh H Pen-lifting rod is Figure 14.17 Rainfall Recorder Rain GAUGES merely measure the amount of precipitation falling at the station, ‘The intensity would have to be estimated, and where visibility is measured a table may be used (Figure 14.18.) CLOUD ON THE STATION MODEL (STATION CIRCLE) Chapter 4 dealt with Synoptic Charts and how weather information is plotted on them. At this stage we should be able to decode all the information (including cloud and precipitation) so depicted. An exercise in the complete decoding of information is included as an annex to this chapter, 14-12 {© Oxford Aviation Services Limited