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1. General Introduction
1.3.2 The taxonomical characteristics of Shorea leprosula Miq.
Seedling (Fig. 1.5A)

A S. leprosula seedling has an epigeal germination, cotyledons equal and spreading
vertically with first leaves opposite (Foxworthy, 1932). The seedlings are very easy
to recognize because they have domatia at the back of the leaf along the main nerve
but these will become less abundant when the seedling reaches pole size.
Furthermore, Meijer and Wood (1964), Yasman (1994), Newman et al. (2000) and
Sidiyasa (2001) describe the seedling of S. leprosula as follows: Main stem, twigs
and petioles glabrous or with soft hairs; Stipules 0.5 by 0.1 to 0.2 mm, oblong,
reddish green, c. 4-nerved, stellate pubescent, persistent; petiole 0.7 cm; Leaves 4 to
5.6 by 9 to 12.7 cm, oblong or oblong lanceolate including 0.7 cm long gradually
tapering acumen, glabrous above except for minute stellate hairs on midrib and
nerve bases, 12 to15 nerves, glabrous below except for fine, small stellate hairs on
the midrib, on upper surface margin of midrib swollen by the domatia, center
sunken, below elevated and densely longitudinally channeled; base rounded or
almost truncate; nerves sharply turned up at the margin; petiole 0.3 in. long;
Domatia present on lower surface, arranged continuously along the main nerve
(midrib) or sometimes up to half the base of the secondary nerve when young.
A B
Figure 1.5 Seedling (A) and sapling (B) of Shorea leprosula Miq.
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Dipterocarpaceae: Forest Fires and Forest Recovery
maximum diversity within the area, while avoiding an undue bias due to possible
pseudo replications.
burned
unburned
unburned
burned
burned
unburned
PSP 1 PSP 2
Figure 2.1 Situation map of Balikpapan, Sungai Wain (burned and unburned) forests reserve, East
Kalimantan and Permanent Sampling Plots (PSP) locations.
All individual plants were sampled within their respective subplots, and 200
butterflies were sampled per total plot. Standardising sample size is preferable for
mobile animals because sampling regimes based on a standard amount of sampling
days can introduce an unacceptable bias when weather conditions are adverse.
Relative density in this case is the frequency of encounter (number of individuals
per species divided by sampling time). The area sampled is the same for all plots.
The frequency of encounter can be used to estimate the density based on the total
length of the transect sampled, crypsis and effective search width (MacKinnon et al.,
1996) all of which are standardised here so that only the actual frequency is given.
The collection was discontinued under adverse weather conditions (rain). In addition
to limiting weather bias, standardising sample size facilitated the comparison of
species richness, since species richness is a function of the sample size.
20
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burned unburned burned unburned burned unburned
Figure 2.2 Distance from the edge versus three abiotic variables. Data points are daily
measurements over a 30-day period. Humidity and temperature follow a standard
linear model. Light follows an exponential model. Both temperature and humidity
show no significant pattern at 07.00 hrs and a maximum variation between burned
and unburned areas at 12.00 hrs. Average maximum and minimum are calculated at
the extremes of the 200 m transect. Maximum average humidity is 91.07% (±
1.47%) and minimum average humidity is 74.88% (±1.47%) which is a difference
of 16.18% between burned and unburned forest. The maximum average
temperature is 30.85°C (± 0.30) and the minimum average temperature is 29.39°C
(± 0.30) which is a difference of 1.46°C between burned and unburned forest. Light
is even more extreme and ranges from 183.428 Lux in unburned forest to 2170.16
Lux in burned forest, which is more than a ten-fold increase in light intensity.
26
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a. b.
burned unburned burned unburned
burned unburned burned unburned
Figure 2.3 Distance from the edge versus height (cm) and growth of seedlings and saplings. Data
points are measurements of individual plants in 2 x 2 m subplots (seedlings) and 5 x 5 m
subplots (saplings). Seedling height (a) is significantly greater in unburned than in
burned forest. Seedling growth however, is significantly greater in the burned forest.
Those data points greater than 100 in plot (b) all belong to either Mallotus mollissimus
or Mallotus paniculatus (Euphorbiaceae). Sapling height (c) is significantly greater in
burned than in unburned forest. Compared to unburned forest all saplings shorter than 5
m died. In the burned area there is a patch of unburned forest (Plot 4, subplots 7 and 9)
that can be seen in plot (c). There is no significant difference between the growth of
saplings in burned and unburned forest. It is evident, however, that there was very little
growth for saplings outside the unburned patch in the burned forest.
2.3.2 Species richness and density

The species richness (Ancova) and density (Anova) of seedlings is significantly
lower in burned than in unburned forest (Table 2.3). In butterflies, only the tree-und
functional group has significantly fewer species in burned forest than in unburned
forest. However, there is much stronger variation in pooled functional group density
with significantly higher densities of mix-gap, mix-und, shrub-und and tree-und
butterflies in unburned forest. The mix-edge functional group has a significantly
28
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Figure 2.4 Biplot of the butterfly community from the correspondence analysis of all butterfly
species (n > 5). The largest amount of variation (16.48%) in the butterfly community is
between burned and unburned states along CA-1. Species to the extreme left of the
biplot (low CA-values) are strongly associated with unburned forest, i.e. Arhopala
pseudomuta and Arhopala norda. Species to the extreme right of the biplot are
associated with burned forest, i.e. Appias paulina and Eurema lacteola (Appendix 2).
Figure 2.5 Biplot of the seedling plant community from the correspondence analysis. As in the
butterfly community the largest amount of variation (23.34%) is between burned and
unburned sites along CA-1. Plant species to the extreme right are strongly associated
with unburned forest i.e. Aglaia simplicifolia (Meliaceae) and Dipterocarpus convertus
(Dipterocarpaceae). Plant species to the extreme left are strongly associated with burned
forest, i.e. Dillenia sp. (Dilleniaceae) and Macaranga gigantea (Euphorbiaceae). The
latter are typical pioneer species (see Appendix 3).
30
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2. The Initial Impact of Forest Fires on Plant and Butterfly Communities in the Sungai Wain Forest
significant preference for unburned forest. The seeds of understory tree Fordia
splendidissima were clearly the most successful of the pre-fire trees although it also
showed a significant preference for unburned forest.
It is interesting (see Figure 2.8) that many typical forest butterflies such as J. pura,
various Tanaecia species and Erites elegans (not shown) exhibited a rather
abnormal behaviour by their often pronounced presence in severely perturbed,
burned areas. Normally these species are confined to the forest.
Figure 2.8 Distribution of the four most abundant butterfly and seedling species in the Sungai
Wain forest. All species except T. clathrata show a significant preference for either
burned or unburned forest. The preference of germination for seedlings is marked
with almost no germination of rainforest trees such as S. laevis and M. lowii in
burned forest and no germination of the pioneer M. gigantea in unburned forest.
With the seedling species the third column indicates the number of saplings.
Saplings indicate the prefire forest community and most of them died in the burned
forest. The pioneer M. gigantea, for example, was absent from the prefire forest as
indicated by the complete lack of saplings. The butterfly species O. medus is also a
typical pioneer associated with secondary vegetation. The relatively high
proportion of butterflies in burned forest is related to both the proximity of the
burned and unburned plots and the very open nature of the forest edge.
35
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4. The Impact of Environmental Conditions on the Growth of S. leprosula: the Greenhouse Studies
but reduces the number of unwanted contaminant organisms, i.e. pasteurisation. The
experimental result hence is only considered as far as the statistical outcomes are
highly significant, because a significance at lower levels may be a false significance,
due to ‘environmental noise’, i.e. a variation in environmental factors that is random
in the context of the experiment.
In the light of laboratory science, such an experimental set-up is unsatisfactory. As a

field experiment, it has the drawback of many artificial structures and factors. Still,
it is preferred in the present book to remain closer to natural conditions than to
perfect laboratory regulation of experimental conditions. Our experiments, therefore,
have the virtue of streamlining mere empirical data from nursery practices while at
the same time the results are directly relevant to silvicultural practices. This
viewpoint will be evaluated in the discussion at the end of this chapter.
4.2 EXPERIMENT 1:
THE INFLUENCE OF SOIL TYPES AND ORIGINAL
POPULATION ON Shorea leprosula. Assessment of factors buffering
stress in S. leprosula; origin of the plant material versus soil type.
4.2.1 Location and time of the experiment

The experiment was carried out in a greenhouse at the Wanariset Samboja research
station (0°59’48” latitude South and 116°58’37” longitude East), located some 38
kilometers northeast of Balikpapan in Samboja village, Kutai district, East Kalimantan
(Fig. 4.1). The experiment started in April 2000 by planting S. leprosula wildlings and
ended after 20 months in December 2001.
INDONESIA
Greenhouse of Wanariset Samboja

EAST KALIMANTAN
Figure 4.1 Map of the Wanariset Samboja research station, East Kalimantan and picture of the
greenhouse
57
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Appendix 1. Fire Damage Classification in East Kalimantan 1997-98 Based on ERS-SAR Images
APPENDIX 1
Fire damage classification in East Kalimantan 1997-98 based on
ERS-SAR images (after Hoffmann et al., 1999 and von
Gemmingen, 2001)
193
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APPENDIX 10 (Continued)
Profile Description
Ah Horizon: 7.5 YR 5/4
(Brown), interior large
peds, moist; Loam, fine
weak sub angular blocky,
slightly sticky and slightly
plastic wet, very friable; no
mottles, many fine to
medium roots, no coarse
roots; many fine to medium
pores, no coarse pores;
clear smooth boundary to
EB Horizon: 10 YR 6/6
(Brownish yellow), interior
large peds, moist; Clay
loam to Clay, fine to
medium weak sub angular
blocky, slightly sticky and
slightly plastic wet, very
friable moist; no mottles, many fine and few medium roots, many coarse
roots; many fine and medium moderate pores, no coarse pores; gradually
wavy boundary to
Bt1 Horizon: 10 YR 6/6 (Brownish yellow), interior large peds, moist; Clay, medium
moderate sub angular blocky, slightly sticky and slightly plastic wet,
friable moist; faint irregular reduction (10 YR 7/4), mottles interior large
peds, few fine to medium roots, no coarse roots; many fine pores, no
medium and coarse pores; gradually wavy boundary to
Bt2.1 Horizon: 7.5 YR 6/8 (Reddish yellow), interior large peds, moist; Clay, medium
to coarse moderate sub angular blocky, sticky and plastic wet, friable
moist; few faint irregular reduction (10 YR 7/4), mottles interior large
peds, few fine roots, no medium to coarse roots; many fine pores, no
medium and coarse pores; gradually wavy boundary to
Bt2.2 Horizon: 7.5 YR 5/8 (Strong brown), interior large peds, moist; Clay, medium to
coarse moderate sub angular blocky, sticky and plastic wet, friable moist;
many faint distinct irregular reduction (10 YR 7/4), mottles interior large
peds, much fine faint irregular oxidation (2.5 YR 5/8) mottles interior
large peds; few fine roots, no medium to coarse roots; moderate fine
pores, no medium and coarse pores; irregular, wavy boundary to
C Horizon: Ironstone, very coarse, very strong, extremely firm; boundary not
reached.
214

Deforestation and Forest Recovery in Indonesia

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Deforestation and Forest Recovery in Indonesia

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1.3.2 The taxonomical characteristics of Shorea leprosula Miq.

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2.3.2 Species richness and density

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