UNIT-1 ECONOMIC OPERATION OF POWER SYSTEMS 1.1, Introduction Power systems need to be operated economically to make electrical ¢ nergy cost-effective to the consumer in the face of constantly rising, prices of fuel wages, salaries, ete. In the operation of power systems, the contribution from cach load and from each unit within a plant must be such that the cost of electrical energy produced is @ minimum 1.2. Optimal operation of generators in thermal power stations In general, the optimal operation of power stem involves the generation of economy of operation, system security, emissions at certain plants, etc. In this chapter, we consider the economy of operation only, also called the economic load dispatch problem. The main aim in the economic load dispatch problem is to minimize the total cost of generating real power (production cost) at various stations while satisfying the loads and the losses in the transmission lines. : The economic load dispatch problem involves the solution of two different problems. Those are Unit commitment and Load scheduling problem. Unit commitment: It is required to select optimally out of the available generating sources to operate, to meet the excepted load and provide a specified margin of operating reserve over a specified period of time. Load scheduling: It is required to distribute the load among the generating unit in such manner as to minimize the total cost of supplying the minute-to- minute requirements of the system. In load flow studies for a particular load demand, the generation at all the generator buses are fixed except at one generator bus known as slack bus They are allow thé genération to take value within the certain limits. In case of economic load dispatch the generations are not fixed but they are allowed to take values again within the certain limits so as to meet a particular load demand with minimum fuel consumption. This means economic load dispatch problem is really the solution of a large number of load flow problems and choosing the one which is optimal in the sense that it needs minimum cost of generation. Now it is c! ear that since total cost of generation is a function of individual generation of the sources which can take values within certain constraints The cost of generation will depend upon the system constraint for a particular load demand .This means that cost of generation is not fixed for a particular load demand, but depends upon the operating constraints of the resources. y1.2.1.System Constraints: The economic power system operation needs to satis of constraints. (1) Equality constraints The sum of real power generation of all the v fy the following types ous units must always be equal to the total real-power demand on the system p= YP, for) SP, -P, -0 a, Pais the teal power demand. th eG FS Kin iknow? neglected (2) Inequality constraints s the real power balance equation when losses are These constraints considered in_an economic power sy: em operation due to the physical and operational limitations of the units and components. The inequality constraints are classified as: (a) According to the! nature ue According to,nature, the inequality constraints are classified into the following constraints: (i) Hard-type constraints: These constraints are definite and specific in nature. No flexibility will take place in violating these constraints. types. of Ex:-The range of tapping of an on-load tap changing transformer. (ii) Soft-type constraints: These constraints have some flexibility with them in violating. Ex:-Magnitudes of bus voltages and the phe (b) According to power system parameters According to power system parameters, the inequality constraints are angle between them. classified into the following categories. (i) Output power constraints: yg qenextting Anald bled Each generating unit should notAperate above its rating oF below some minimum generation. This minimum value of real power generation is determined from the technical feasibility. > Po, min) = Po. G,tmax} Similarly, the limits may also have to be considered over the range of reactive power capabilities of the generator unit requiring thatQ QQ for isd, n and the constraint Py 4 Q! | ,) must be satisfied, where S is the rating of the snerating unit for limiting the overheating of stator (i) Voltage magnitude and phase angle constraints: Por maintaining better voltage profile and limiting, overloading, it is sential that the bus voltage magnitude and phase at various buses should vary within the limits. Otherwise most of the devices connected to the ystem will not operate satis factorily or additional use of voltage regulating devices will make the system uneconomical, thus for i=1, 2,3,....n Varma S Vy S Vimagt 3 8 sb, <8 vitmny S By SB ypemant for i= nl Where j=1, 2, . . ., m, j4i, n is the number of units, and m is the number of loads connected to each unit. (iii) Spare capacity constraints: These constraints are required to meet the following criteria. (a) Errors in load prediction. (b) The unexpected and fast changes in load demand. (c) Forced outages of one or more units on the system. The total power generation at any time must be more than the total load demand and system losses by an amount not less tharra specified minimum spare capacity (P,,). i.e., P. 2 (Py + PL) + Pop Where is P,the total power generation, P, +P, is the total load demand and system losses, and p,,is the specified minimum spare power. (iv) Transformer tap position/setting constraints: The tap position (or) setting of a transformer (T) must lie within the available range: Trniny © TS Tass For an autotransformer, the tap setting constraints are OST <1_ For a 2-winding transformer, tap setting constraint areOis the ratio of the incremental fuel energy input in Btu to the 6 incremental energy output in kWh, which is called ‘incremental heat rate’. : The fuel cost is the major component and the remaining costs such as maintenance, salaries, etc. will be of very small percentage of fuel cost. Hence, IFC is very significant in the economic loading of a generating unit 1.8. Incremental production costThe production cost of the power generated actually depends on several such as oil, water and items such a fucl cost, labour charges, cost of items other supplies needed and also the cost of maintenance — > The sum of incremental fuel cost and other incremental running expenses is called incremental production cost However, no methods are presently available for expressing the cost of labor, suppliers, or maintenance accurately as a function of output. So, in many systems, the incremental production cost is assumed to be equal to the IFC. 1.9, Incremental efficiency It is the reciprocal of the incremental fuel rate or heat rate, which is defined as the ratio of output energy to input ener _ output _ dP; Le. cremental efficiens input 1.10. Optimum generation allocation with line losses neglected Consider a power station having ‘n’ number of units. Let us assume that each unit does not violate the inequality constraints and let the transmission losses be neglected. The cost of production of electrical energy C= 2 CP.) (1.1) Where C,is the cost function of the i" unit This cost is to be minimized subject to the equality constraint given by p,-YP, = YP, -P,=0 (1.2) a a Where p, is the real power generation of the junit and ‘n’ is the number of generators on the bus. This is a constrained optimization problem. To get the solution for the optimization problem, we will define an objective function by augmenting equation (1.1) with an equality constraints equation (1.2) through the lagrangian multiplier (A). The objective function is obtained as é Yor, 1-1] Sm, Fo] (1.3) lia Where Ais the lagrangian multiplier.The condition fer optimality of such an aupimented objective tanehon 4 0 oP, 7, 6& ec, }, oP, > a » OP, Ps, APs Po, In equation (1.5), cach of these derivations represents the individual incremental cost of every unit. Hence, the condition for the optimal of the total load among the various units, when neglecting the trar is that the incremental costs of the individual units are equal, It mission loss called “co-ordination equation” 1.11. Computational methods Different types of computational methods for optimization problem are as follows: 1. Analytical method 2. Graphical method. 3. Using a digital computer. 1.11.1. Analytical method When the number of units is small (2 or 3), incremental cost curv approximated as a linear. We know that the IFC of the i' unit io, = SS ap, vb, aP. d G, solving the above For an optimal solution, the IFC of all the units must be the same a, «, eH, a, @P,, OP, OP, aP,, ie, The analytical method consists of the following steps: (i) Choose a particle value of 2. ie, R= aP, +b, (i) Computep, ~*~). , for the i unit. (iii) Find total real power generation - > p, for all i=1, 2,..., n. 7(iv) Repeat the procedure from step(ii) for different values of > (v) Plot a graph between total power generation andi (vi) For given power demand (P,), estimate the value of 2from fig.1.6 value of will be the optimal solution for optimization problem, Value of A Total real power generation (Mw) Fig. 1.6.Estimation of optimum value of % 1.11.2. Graphical method (i) Consider the incremental cost curves of all units: a,Po, +b, for all i=1, 2,....n. and the total load demand (P,) is given. (ii) For each unit, draw a graph between P,and (IC) as shown in fig1.7. Po, Pa, Po, Po, Total real power generation (MW) Pa, B Fig].7.Graphical method ) Choose a particular value of ). and Ai. (i (iv) Determine the corresponding real-power generations of all units: ie, Py, »Pa,oPa (v) Compute the total real power generation = Jp, . m (vi) Check the real power balance of equation.(1.2) as follows: (a) fp, —p, <0, then % choosen will be the optimal solution and incremental costs of all units become equal.(HIN pp \, Oinerease A by AX and repeat the procedure form step (iv) (WY pp,» odeer > ® by AR and repeat the procedure form step (iv) (vii) This process is repeats until Sop, —P, is within specified tolerance (2), say 1 MW. ie., y PP, -Py , @when losses-are neglected) —~ ~~ Let a, =P &p, = and so on (1.6) Py =a, + B,C), + 7,(IC)? +++ for =1,2,. 0 (1.7) The number of terms included depends on the degree of accuracy required and coefficient a,,B,and 7, are to be taken as input. Algorithm for 2 -iterative method (i) Guess the initial value of 2° with the use of cost-curve equations. (ii) Calculate according to equation (1.7), ic.,Pe, =a, + BR), + 1,2)? + (iii) Calculate (iv) If Sip, =p, then 2 choosen will be the optimal solution and incremental costs of all units become equal. (v) ny P®, p,, set a new value ford, je. 2 =) .° — AX and repeat from step (ii) till the tolerance value is satisfied. W444 This process is repeats until y P,, ~ P, is within specified tolerance (2), say 5 1 MW.1.12. The Flowchart for optimal scheduling of generating units Ming units is represented by the flow ‘The optimal scheduling of ¢ chart shown in fig. 1.8 Read 11,245D,,Ppyo# Pa jan» Pesinog9@ NA Choose a suitable valuc of A Set gen count, | 4 Compute P, |
Pamay "|e Be “Gytmax) | Yes | 7 Et J set Po, = Poa | __{t | Compute | | 4p=[eP, | oe Yes [Print power generation of all Ap <© | units and compute cost of generation | Increment? by a Yes Reh+ an | 7 | Decrease Xby AR Yes A=A- Fig. 1.8. Flowchart1.13. Problems 1. The fuel cost of two units are given by C, = C\(P,)) = 1.0 + 25P,, + 0.25P,7 Rs / hr C, = C,(Py,)= 1.54 45P,, +0.2P,,° Rs /hr If the total demand on the generators is 250MW, calculate the economical load scheduling of the two units. Sol The condition for economic load scheduling when neglecting, the transmission losses is fori =1,2,...,.9 dc, _ dc, ac, : w= Se ak APs) Pao AP in From given data, C, = C\(Pg:) = 1.0 + 25P,, +0.25P,,° Rs /hr 7 Get AC) 95 +0.5P,, Rs./MWh aP,, C, = C, (Pgs) = 1.5 + 45P,, +0.2P,," Rs /hr GS 245 +0.4P,, Rs./MWh For economical load dispatch, ae aC, dP, Poo s 7 25 +0.5P5, = 45 + 0.4Pop a = Py, =1.25P2 - 50 1 lyse The total load demand is Pj, + Pos = 3oomw 1g.66mo From above two equations, we get Po, -1BEFIMW and P,, = 88-88MW 2. Three power plants of total capacity 425MW are scheduling for operation to supply total system load of 300MW.Find the optimum load scheduling, The following are the incremental cost characteristics and the gencrator ma 525 < Py, $125 constraints. 2=40+0.20P\, ;30 0.15P,, -0.20P,, = =P, =05P,,-50 = Pe Similarly, oa dc, _ dC, dP,, dP., 3040. 1SP,, = 15+0.18P,, = 0.15P,,-0.18P,, =-15 => Ph, 0.834P,, 4.83.34 Substitute P,3and P,,in total load demand equation, we get P,, +059 3p" 50 40.834P,, +83.34 = 300 2334, ~ = 266.67 P,, = 103.22MW >.» = 27.42MW P., = 169.35MW It is observed that real power generation of unit-2 isd7.11MW_ and it is voilating its minimum generation limit.Hence,we have to fix its value a its minimum generation, i.e. Pj, = 30MW The remaining load of 270MW is to be distributed optimally between Unit-] and Unit-3 as follows:dc, dc dP, dP, 30+0.15P,, =15+0.18P,, => 0.15P,, ~0.18P,, =-15 => P,, = 0.834P,, +83.34 But P,, +Pg3 = 270 From above equations, we get Pys = 168.22MW and P,, = 101.77MW 3. The fuel cost curves of two generators are given as under C,(Pc,) = 800 + 45P,, + 0.01P,,,” Cy (Poy) = 2000 + 43P,,, + 0.003P,,/ and if the total load supplied is 7OOMW,find the opimal dispatch with and __without considering the generator limits wl the limits have been expressed as: Pet a c SOMW 0.02P,, - 0.006P,,, = -2 = Py, = 0.3P,,,~ 100 ‘os The total load demand is P,, + Pay = 700MW From above two equations, we get Py, =615.38MW and P,, = 84.61MW with considering the generator limits: ; It is observed that real power generation of unit-B is 615.383MW and it is nce,we have to fix its value at voilating its maximum generation limit.} its maximum generation, i.e. Pay =600MW Pg, = LOOMW Because total load demand is 70OMW. 4. Constant load of 400MW is supplied by two 250MW generators 1 and 2, for which the fuel costs characteristics are given as below: C, = 0.05P,,? +20P,, +35 Rs/hr C, = 0.06P,,7 +15P,,+40 Rs/hr The real power generations of the units P,and P,, are in MW. Determine (i) the most economical load sharing between the generators.(ii) the saving in Rs/day there by obtained compared to equal load sharing between two generators. Sol: From the given data, the incremental fuel costs are C, = 0.05P,,? +20P,, +35 Rs/hr SC, _ 9040.1, dP, C, = 0.06P,,? +15P,, +40 Rs/hr 82 _1540.12P,, dPo» (i) For optimal sharing of load, the condition is dc, _ dc, aP,, dP,» 0.1P,, +20 =0.12P,, +15 = 0.1P,, —0.12P,, =-5 => P,, =1.2P,, -50 But total load demand is Pg, + Pog = 400 Solving above two equations, we get Pg: = 204.54MW Substituting P,, in above equation, we get Pa, = 400 -204.54 = 195.45MWThe load of 400MW is economically shared by the on lwo generators with P,, = 195.45MW and P,., = 204.54MW fH (ii) When the load is shared between the generators equally, the P., = 200MW and P,, = 200MW. With this equal sharing of load, the P,, value is increased from 195.45 with economical sharing to 200MW. Increase in operation cost of generator 1 t Pr } 200 <1 ap, = 0.1P,, +20)4P, 200 =[0.05P,,? + 20P a1 Iron as = 0.05(200? - 195.45?) + 20(200 - 195.45) = 89.96 + 91.00 - —=180.96Rs./hr —-——~ - The Pop value is decreased from 204.54 to 200 MW. Decrease in operation cost of generator 2 2 (ac 200 J (= Pa = | (0.12P,, +15)}4P,, 204.54 203.54 = [0.06P,,? +15P,, ]" |, = 0.06(200? ~ 204.54?) +15(200 ~ 204.54) = -110.44 -68.25 =-178.69Rs. / hr Saving in cost =180.96-178.69=2.27 Rs. /hr ‘The saving in cost per day=2.27x24=56.75 Rs. /day. 5. Obtain the economical operation schedule for three thermal units delivering a total load of 750MW by considering with and without generator limits. Unit1:P,,,, = GOOMW,P,,, = 1SOMW F,(P,) = 570+ 7.5P, + 0.0017P,’Rs / he Unit2:P,,, = SOOMW,P,,,, =125MW F,(P,) = 380 + 7.8P, + 0.002P, Rs / hr Unit3:P,,,, = SOOMW,P,,,, = 125MW F,(P,) = 200 + 7.9P, + 0.005P,° Rs /hr Sol: Without generator limits: The condition for economic load scheduling when neglecting the ; dc, _, transmission losses is ——'=% fori =1,2,...,.ndc, dc, dc, revap, dP, dP, From given data, F,(P,) = 570 + 7.5P, + 0.0017P, dF, 5 + 0.0034P, dP, F,(P,) = 380 + 7.8P, + 0.002P,” af. 7.3 40.004P, dP, ? F,(P,) = 200 + 7.9P, + 0.005P,’ oe 7.9+0.01P, dP, For economical load dispatch, dc, _ dC, _ ae. ap, dP; From above equations, dc, _ dc, dP, Po. 7.5 +0.0034P, =7.8 + 0.004P, = P, = 0.85P, -75 Similarly, 7.5 +0.0034P, = 7.9 +0.01P, -34P, - 40 Substitute P,and P, in total load demand equation i.e., P, +P, +P, = 750MW, we get P, +0.85P, -75 +0.34P, - 40 = 750 2.19P, = 865 P, =394.97MW ~ P, = 260.72MW “ P, =94.28MW / With generator limits: =>P,=