GEOLO CRYSTALLOGRAPHY AND 1 GY AND cry ENGing MINERALOGY 8-43 CHAPTERS i, a 1 lao nd png omy deme u and Ditfeeat Branches o's, Feces Oped Pen ot anon oe 12” Different Branches of Got ; Cae ees ce Ca vig = i ia Nat a 14 Delfsiton of Engineering Geotozy (a eee ee = and Tasks Of An Eaginering Gacoc ItsImportance In The Conte oh ise 4 verovocy 4492 Most Probable Qnestions — Pasa essa ~ “41 Inrodution: Petrology P ~ 12) Rak and Rock yee Iaroecton : 43) Clailenion, Stace, Fen 43 2 BASIC REVIEWS OF THE Eaay <4 adacenstpt tua of Roce care nel or Pyacal a |, Eteieting Tropics of Folwing Connon Rock Tipe CHAPTER erm 1 Found in Earth’ Crust: Gravite. Rhyolite. Gat Pegmitte, Syenite, Shale, Sisto, Limestone, Sand Conglomerates, Bros State, Piss, Schist, Gress @ Earth: Tes Origin, Age, Components, Stucts pte Pee cn wubie hes Conpone : ‘Most Probable Questions Introduction to The History of Farh: Geoiogical tox Past Questions Solutions — Origin and Evolution of Life Physical Features of The Earth Surface: Com Deans ae (og Plateau and Shields 5 ‘STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY Internal Structure of The Earth CHAPTER Plate Tectonics and Mountain Building Process soi!" 5.1” Roek Deformations and Reasons 93, of Himalayas 5.2 Attnde of Geological Structures ————————--. 95 Mest Probable Questions Past Questions Solutions 53° Measurement of Orientation of Gsologieal Siva Usin Geological Maps, Geological Compass and Ploting of Da js pecs{4 Geologal Stes nn Be Seondary (Deformation) Structures Se Fad eretion Ceri oF Glog! Sry, £> ninccingSinitiance of Geological stvetins ‘Mest Probable Questions (Pat QncionsSolationt GEOLOGY AND CIVIL 6 pasicat ceovocy ENGINEERING 61 Inoduction: Definition, different geological 62 Guomompologel Processes: Weathering & torn, AM secs «a Gata! Crt. ——— ar 1.1.1 Introduction to geolo, Wavaatsa WcsundVanutmasee, 6 area pee er ae ee mas 7 at Ons Sore = 112 itterent brancnes of science 7 () Geography GEOLOGY OF NEPAL ..... 171- ey A fol of science that deals withthe stedy of the lands, features the inhabitants, andthe phonomenn ofthe eat A litera ansation would be 7 Neninee fof Pysbgrephy and Tectonic Disin 0} oes) ‘The scieee that uses th tools and. principles of chemisty 1 xpin the earth's cust, oceans al ear gol ten ues the sty ofthe chemical composien of substances and their properies and diffrent Inner sts ee actions occuring in rocks, I< © Geodetic * Thescience of measurement ofthe earth (@) Climatology i ‘Also called climate sconce Study of climate,© Mineralogy ‘© The study of chemical composition nd snstre of mineral (i) Petrology + The study of origi and composition of rocks. (i) Geomorphology ‘The study of crigin of landforms and their modifcaion by the geology ofthe Sea poe Gs) Geochemistry '¢ The study of chemical composition of earth materials and the chemical changes that occur within the earth and omits surface (9) Geopnsies ‘= The study of the behavior of tock materials in response to stresses using the principle of physics. Fock materials in response, (09 Sedimentology ‘+The science ofthe erosion and deposition of rock panics by toe ere inten agentes. {geography are closely (ci Structural geology Theaspects of one sc; eochemisty, cic ‘+ The study of the forces that’ deform the carh’s rocks and ‘description and mapping of deformed rock bodies 3 (ill) Eeonomic geology Jim Measurement of gece ‘* The study of the exploration and recovery of natural resources, ithe rocks, soil, etc. and x such as ores and petroleum, ‘Oreans also play rior neg) Bagineering geology Bees Plats ten ‘+ The study of the interactions of the earth's emost with human — ‘made structures such as tunnels, mines, dams, bridges, ete (b) Historical geology ‘Deals with the historical development ofthe earth from the study of its rocks, Includes paleontology (the systematic study of past life forms by study of fossils, stratigraphy (study of arrangement of layered rocks), ee 1.2.2 Interrelationships between the different branches of geology All the branches of geology ae closely inerelated to each other. Without the study of mineralogical composition, the nature, engineering propertis ‘of rocks eannot be known, Similarly without applying the principles of stresses (physics, mechanics), chemistry (chemical composition ee. thengincering geology reqires knowledge of mechanical somite of he rocks, The mechanical study cannot be dns the stay of mineralogial characteristics, composition, geops Soa ‘should go hand in hand for complete geological studies, oo Ci 3. 1.1 Scope of geology Geology hus an untied scope in diferent fed. eS een is. Some of ey + Gesloy movies inxemation about the iho th a eerste sonsrucon of buildings, dams, reads, bridges, ct. ‘ Eke lore met import ling me o Phase ofa engterng poe {Beology and statizraphy is essen mig ck dpe on es ‘be ‘coticerned with loca! ne of mineral commodities. (09 Urban and tand use planing een rban and land se pltning rcs are also divided or allt’ for specific activity, tach as groundwater recharge sie, waste {spoval site ete. onthe basis of heal and regional geology of (09 Karthquake Eoginecring JAtfaninguake enginering ses cannot be performed without dy of stactrl geology othe aca “eCorrec demarcation of ful, fold, joints and depth of bed rock fn the acai esse (i Oceanography 2 Al the aeeanographical 1.3.2 Objectives of geology eo interpret the landforms and earth processes to identify Forclialgeochacards dat can have a great impact on chil Engineering structures. “s To stuly about various geologic structures Tike’ folds, faults, Joins ete. and their influences onthe strength ofthe rooks and .itability for enginecringconstrvton. t= To study about various iypes of rocks, their origin, strenath mineralogy. ec. and their cil eagineetingsigniican = To stay about various geologic processes, evens, ete and their influence onthe earth's geology ‘= To overcome and minimize the pools ‘be encountered daring any civil engineer 1.33 Importance of geology in Civil Engineering [2069- Chaitra} ‘The success of various civil engnccring projects Uke roads, canals, funnels, etc highly depends upon ihe geological consition ofthe area on hich they are constructed, All these structures are built on or im the {Bound So its must to understand how the ground wil bchave daring, find afer the formation ofthe structures. Al the earth materials can pose Significant probs that need tobe predicted, planned and accocdinly Gricture should be designed. [tis imperative to stdy al the geological Tors affecting the location, design and consiruction, operation and “ainicnance ofthe project. studies are nase on geology of oceanic related risks that ean =Sone import oes f geology 0 civil eninesin a PT Geen provides knowledge about the nature ty sohich ery aceaary fr diferent projects like ron Truidam dectmining the stability of cts and slopes ee" ‘eProvies Knowledge aboot assessmctt of soi! Condi, erosion. 4+ The oundtion problems of dams, bridges ar uly Airy rlted wih pokey ofthe area. The Toco Scares ardscided ater eli geological surcy. ‘+ Water resoure cnginceing_ projets cannot be tiiouthydrogsologal stay. The knowledge of sro. ces in connection wih iigation, excavation wo. supp, + Geol mops ad sctions help in planning ft syn. pects Moreover, gooay provides a systematic Ke feosrcton mstris “he geological sutures ike fuss, lds eta infarc he stuctureand heace hve w be sul ve) Geological studies provie in depth knowledge aout thew fra dst lke catguakes, Nooding, et. ad le ‘nib mignion AEC), Scope, 14.1 Definition : of engineering geology (IAEG) of Aatliuionofgotogicl sciences . eg ar rh arg tla Sp, courts, cpeation and maintenance of engine: 2. TAKG statutes, 192 2 The science devoed 10 the investigation study and station of he engineering and environmental problems which way ais 9 the cena of he interaction between geology andthe works and evelopment of maser for prevention or remedinion of peological hazards 142 Role and task of an engineering geologist Role #) To perform dewiled technical analysis of cath material and the Fisk assesment of geological hzans {iy Tome that geological factor affecting coginesring works are ‘denied and de bi, To nsess the integrity of sol, tock ground-water and other tural conditions prior to constuction project fy) To advise on procedures required and. the suitability of appropriate costuction atecals in a proj To analyze sites and design for caviar developmens Tasks Engincecing ec tit investigation and some of daly tasks can include ‘) Combing geological maps and arial photographs to advice on site selection li) Gollecting data and producing repo. ii) Planning detailed field inveszations by diling and analyzing samples of deposits bedrock iy) Supervising stead ground iivestigations vi) Making visto new projec sits. i) Advising on problems such as subsidence. ii) Advising on and testing a range of construction materials nly. sensitive ‘encompasses engineering geotechnical work and 1143 Scope, objectives and its importance in the context of Nepal Geologially young and tectnially sctve Himalaya Range is highly thamcteized by highly elevated mountains end deep rier valleys, The Imouttains terans of ‘Nepal Himalays are characterized by high! igri physical’ prdgess. So," the impleinemtition of infrastructure ‘ev Sfopmenic project is & big challenge, Without a better understanding of the geological nature of the trains and the interaction of various a7ftom of natn. hazards, tbe “devlopmeny faraimisis et possible, snd mignon of raat hava foo, Many const and running projects have faced variou,y fhrng suyey, dein ard constuction phases ee tn feasenion oth govouy. Ths, tho study ofengnering sos,” Ge elesion insure, desig, construction and mainerance foe ifr and sustainable egincering development in New aio 1, Enlist the main and allied branches of geology. ‘Aus: Themain branches of geology are: (Physical geology G)— Mineralory (ii) Pevology (iv) Structural geology (8) Historical geotogy (Stratigraphy) Palaetogeotogy wi) (vil) Economic geology The allied branches of geology are: (Engineering geology () Mining geology i) Geophysics © Gv) Geochemistry strong and stable abutment rocks; and for earth dams, even weak Foundation rocks meat there. portance of geology in civil engineering with Ans! As in the dum sits, sletion of suble sites for locating seo eats snopes 6 make te mes Jnfavourable geological conditions lead to quick sling of reservoirs, thereby decrtstng its ie, and profused leakage to Stored water, Intense inctring in the rocks epsieam eases iin problems esos and permeability of rocks ccerence a alos and cher weak. planes case leakage problems. Groundwater onions alo ply eye ninfaencing leakage Tes, proper Studies of geological condos tay proposed seni ste will Forewarn a engine of the problems fan. teestons Soutin ‘What is the importance of geology? What are the different branches of geology? 72068 - Basak) ‘Ans; Refer 133 for fst part and refer 1.2.1 forthe sez pat, a low do you differentiate betmecn geology and engineering geology? 12071-Shrawan, Back Exam] ‘Ans: The differences besween geology sil engineer sy re Geology Engineering Geology Tr Whiva general seicnce |. Its specialized rab- Which covers wide range of subjects and section of geology tories al Geology isthe sudy of [2° Wisan applied discipline the earth which dea of geo el sie at | sims at applying the Knowledge of geology to smoothly conduct and to stain the eid with all the features of| auth surface its ongin; its composition, its structure snd inhabitants ofthe earth, © | engincering structures. 5, Geology studies he 3. Enginecring geology rocks, soils, geomorphic | stu all hese opies features, folds and fas. |__ffom the perspective of enginoering constructions.2 BASIC REVIEWS OF THE EARTH ‘The earth isthe only plant ofthe solar system to suppor li 1 Origin of the earth, ‘Various theories have been proposed regarding the origin of the car. 1 Nebular Hypothesis ‘Proposed by Kane & Laplace. {Explains the formation of stars and planets. According to this thoory, a rotting nebula, somewhere during the rotation, cooled and contacted, faftening info disc shape vil an increasing concentration of mas atthe enter. + The mutter in the disc condensed into planes, thir moons Asteroids and comes, while the reat mas at the center became the sun with the passage of time. 2. Planetesimal hypothesis Proposed by Chamberlain & Multon (1908. ‘According to this theory, sun existed before the formation of Mics age ar ae ht thi, alco bin | rere soparted from the sun de 1 the ition pol of be Es +The snl bodies called planstesinals cones ovr» pexod rime toma ples Toe pants calidad overtime and more lanes withthe mons were formed Tidal hypothesis :tothis theory, when a large star came close 1 a loft star eased 8 E2200 tide on he” pen and hn, gasecusfagments were detached «Fes and sine were formed by: eral cooing rm ‘mopman 234 © Prog i According to this theory, before the formation of planets, is, teas a twin star system iit the sun bad © companion." eset eee ie ae enn. ., eee ese ce Saas aaen 24.2 Age ofthe earth “ting is about 4600 million yeas. Before the discovery of radi hing, several tempts were made to determine the age of the cat = Important ones areas fellows: |, From evolutionary change of animals, appeared on * Mh fin fame ails wer unesiblrwich rn Yariows phases of evolutionary processes 8 mul! rims vr ee the sty of fess, biologists have estimated the ge ehotesbow lb milonyeas, 2.Fromrate of sedimentation * This method aks into account the average rate of sediments ad the thickness of all strta deposed. during. thew" ‘Tg: of i earth Was found tobe $10 milion yeas, ws by dividing the total thickness of sediments tht ering the ex's Hey by anual —— the wmount of sais cared to the ocean each year y ves ‘nov, itcan be calculated how mach ine i ook to acute ari te prem in ccen 4+ Thi mathod gave an age of about 120 milion ye 4 From rate of coaing of earth 1 Kelvin estimated the age of eats rom he epee difeenes| af between the isl mater plant ands preven sate Hl asumed the ate of best loss was contant thoughout + This method gave the age of earth to be about 20 to 40 ailion year metric dating ‘The basic principle of radiometric dating is erent isotope decays ito <1 stable dag ‘+The age of rocks and minerals ha contain adiontve isstope it Aetermined by measuring the socumultion of daughter topes int them. ‘+The methods which are’commonly use for dating rocks include Potassium, “Argon method, Robidiam Stour method & Uranium Load method ‘© The basic enuation for calculating the age of rock sample is sven’ Age of oa A radioactive 3.23 Tog (1¥) Where, Ny = No. of atoms present in. daughter. isotope. Np—No. of atoms ofthe parent isotope present toy “T= Hale if of adioative substance ‘+The age of cart was found to be 4600 milion years by this method 2.1.3 Components of the earth ‘The ent hs five components: () The atmosphere ‘© Tho earth's atmosphere it thin ayer of gases that surounds the anh. + eonsists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen & 1% of oher gases i) The biosphere ‘© isthe layer of the planet earth wher life exists 3rocks, molten rocks, seimens inde ol minerals rocks, oi * nis that sape te earth's ura Mtns he ocean er acm AD, grout ‘apr oftiear To Winsldes tbe frozen part ofthe earth system like sno " salkeete, of the earth sternal structure ofthe earth ‘anh a terrestrial planet, with rocky body © Tesape ofthat is approximately a sphere Maton’ 1 ___, theasisfom pole such that there is bulge around ine cacy “+ Theis ound ent cat's src are made pote ‘teri than those forming the rocks a interior ofthe or £2068- Chitra) Iinowledge about the structure of earth's inter _ silo om be tly of asap of Seismic wanes _ On the car's interior hasbeen broadly divided into three mas pars: 1. Crust 2.Mantle 3. Core and granitic in characteris the lower layer which is basaltic in Gras & as tickness of abot i through the 11s divided into-two layers vie. the upper manile& the ower tis mini composed of silicate rocks tht are ie ron ad magnesiom, The bourvary between the semi rigid inner molten outer core is called “Guitenber Discontinuity” Whine Velocity o P-waves are abruptly reduced & Sauron dccppeae ‘The upper mantle is believed to be the sure af aor earthquakes, voleanic aciviies, gontinchal ‘mane and the fete 3. Thecore Tes the inert part ofthe earth This divided into two layers viz the outer ore & the inne cor. The outer core is assumed tobe Hiuid becuse S-maves do oot passthrough it The inner core is assumed to be through it at higher velocity. ie nickel end iron de il because P-waves pass Teieved i contain mete ‘The geological timescale i the break up of history of the earth into hierarchical sets of divisions or unis that contain eon, era, period, epoch and age.I ret on, nichntuma ddd in pesca 2 Comins etre : «noon tenn yey reno a + hotest crn a sa sonia ans ‘© Mountains, plateau & shields azo some continental feiures hich are described below: 1. Mountain =A. mountain large tandform that stretches above he ‘surrounding and in a limited area, usually in the form ofa peak, ‘A mountain i generally sosper than il. ‘© Mountains ae formed trough econ force or volcanism. ‘A few mountains are isolated summits, bat most of tera occu in a eens: Pec IRs a ty rohan, eae, a os gnome Se 2. Plateau ‘+ A plana isan aca of highland, usualy consisting of reatively ‘at terrain tats raised significantly above the sounding are, often wit one oF more sides with step slopes. thas larger summit area than a mountain. Formation of plateaus Plateais are formed by & number of process, inciding ‘upwelling of voleanic magma, extrusion of lava ani erosion by ater & glaciers ‘When magms rises up from mantic toward the eat’ crust but fils to breakthrough the crs, then 2 setton ofthe earth's erst is ised to give toa plateau, Plateaus can also be built up by lave spreading outward from cracks & weak areas inthe rast. ‘Water ean erode mountsis and otber landforms to form plateaus. Plateaus can also be formed by erosional processes on mountain * ranges, leaving them siting between the moansin ranges. Classification of platens : Ploteous are clasifed according o their surrounding environment follows:as Oe aac Bet om Se igen eS erated eateed poses 4+ Example: Tibetan plateau. (i) Volani platen + Thoy ae prodeod by voeanic activi The Word piedmont means Yt ofa mountain’ They re oftwo types vz av les and pyochstc lca + Tieplies which ae ited athe tty nouns on + Lava plate are formed by highly tid bac In hea beckon te trie ya pin areas Pyeclsti platens sre praced by musve pyre Nene ; ; opener fit ite 077A diesel penis placas aed tata Yen svrly Terao lle plates of demsaion css hes rode that he et say. Sach an met way aa ‘pate were high to the level of mountains which have ROW bec: ‘mountainous. = lel whe feel of mamas by wai ns + Dict pcos ae ings Bets bythe lak offing csenive fun secon Magatic sctvity that” some baling. 2. Shia * A shies that pan of cone crust in which pccamtrian Heneous aod bigh grade metamorphic rocks re expend at Te src These are relatively fat eas nd are etn tbe 232 Oceanic features + The features felted tothe occan re cle ocean er, + The common oceanic testes ar abyoal fa, aby plan archipelago, pein, land, coral et ee ) Abysat fan * Underater oleic! stuctues sociated wih large scale sediment dopston + Fonmed ty turbidity caret i Abyssal pain ‘Vast, fat, sediment covered areas of deep ocean floor. ny (eunaincnn tafe Bem oy, (iy Archipelago found in open sea. Agee fan tana tl OF VIC ct, tie ca a by water on three sides but copy ‘to:mainland on the fourth side. Ct adam om (si Coral cet an ion resistant mound composed of compsctes | Refersection 2142 an 251 Pe exon + Mis + sleite teary that exis to global cistron ‘geological phenomenon such as seismicity, volcanism, contin: 4p tnd mounsin bung in tems of formation” dears: ‘ovement nd intercon of eat’ mph pat Th hry sats tt the crs eutemoet ayer te litosph » fot io 7 isi pce eld pce the Aes Ns fee Set Ame Aa, Ari Seal ist including the Arb: Pilipins * is. graviy plate are ak’ - ‘The source of energy responsible for generating the heat and convection currents that move the plates is most Weel the radiontivity, tht takes place dep inthe earth's mantle “Types of plate boundaries 1. Convergent plate boundaries (Destructive plate boundaries) ‘+ Occurs Shon two plates move ownrds cach other & collide Alan callod dontrvtive Boundaries because crs is destoyed by the subduction of denser pte under the les dense plate ‘+ Sabduetion zones eccur when one or both ofthe tectonic plates te composed of oceanic crust. The denser plate is subducted tndemeath theless dense plates. The plate being freed under is ‘ventually melted and destoyed celal wy ae Fig22 Converge boardary Geographical features at convergent plate boundaries 0 rust meets Oceanic crust ‘ceanie trenches oscur when both ofthe tectonic plates are made of oceanic crust. Zones of active seafloor ‘spreading can also occur behind the island ae, known as back are basins, ‘© They ae often asociated with submarine volcanoes. (i) Where Oceanic crust meets Continental cust The denser oceanic plate i subducted, often forming & mountain * ange on the continent. ‘© The Andes mounting of South America is the résult of such collision Fig.2:3 Ocean Continemal ConergenceSEV +The reitve mation of pes zona Han Osea PAS (ay Where Coninntl east meets Continental crux. ', Both continental erste Bing 00 lange (0 subdue, termes wo continental plates crunches and fds th water o on lund. ‘ ‘boundary, lifting it up and leading 10 the formation on... ‘+ Because of friction, the plates cannot simply ide past =< 2 Tae mnt spear examples of this clision 1" tthe Rater, er ap on bot pats and We 8 the threshold of racks, ihe energy. is relesed emusiog Himalayas. earthquakes Fig 24 Contino Continetal Convergence 2 Divergent plate boundaries (Constrictive plate boundaries) 4 Occurs when two plates move away from each other. Also called constructive boundaries because when the plate rox: 282. Mountain building process fue from cach otber, megma rises'upffom the mantle to Yor, + Mountain formation refers tothe geological processes that undedic sewer the formation of mountsins ‘+ Mountain formation is mainly related to plate tctonics. However, folding, faulting, volcanic activity, igneous intrusion & processes of metamorphism iso contribute v meouniin building Fig 26 Traform fo bowery ‘Types of mountains 1. Voleanie mounts ‘© Voleanic mountains are formed when molten magia deep within the earth, erupts & piles upon the surface, 1© They are buile up frm eruptions th cccur over thousands or ‘even millions of yeas 2, Fold mountains ‘© When plates collide or undergo subduction, the plates tend 0 ‘buckle and fold Forming fold mountains. ‘© They reformed along convergent plate boundaries. 3. Fault-block mountains ‘© These mountains are formed when fais or crack in the earth's ‘rust force some materials or blocks of rocks upwards © Higher blocks ar'elled horsts and troughs are called graben 2Je mountains (Upwarped mountains) + emt jne moun re armed WED FM AMON fr inapna) poses ts way Wp unde te cat's crust, hy: ‘Shay ech th sur anc + Withoactaty ening ono surfs the mazms px, the overlying rock layers, ace the magma cools, icy." Inge dome of derek unde the urs. ‘ier conental plat is caused the continental faulting by compressional f ‘+ "Around 20 million years ago, sediments rising from ii Himalayas, The Himalgyas ae sill rising contol gow i Him fecctonic plate still mon However, the forces of Himalayas at about the same ate uM ‘Ans Explain the process of formation of fold mountains wart. tsctonie movement, FFold mountains are formed due to the collision of two tectonic plates moving towards each other (a convergent plate boundary), Fold mountains are usualy farmed from sedimentary rocks which are accumulated along the margins of continents. When plates and the continents riding on them collide, the accumulated layers of rock may crumple and fold giving rise to the fold mountsins, Some ‘examples of fold mountains are the Himalayas (Asia), Rockies (USA), Andes (South America) and Alps (Europe) Explain the process of formation of Fault Block-mountains. The Fault-Block mountains ae created wien faults or cracks in the art's crust force materials or blocks of rocks upward or down. ‘The uplifted blocks are block mountains or hort. The intervening dropped blocks are called graben which can be small or form rift valley systems. These block mounains break up into chunks oF blocks and move either up ot down. When they move apart, blocks of rocks get sacked of one another. Feul-Block mountains usually hhave a steep front side and then a sloping backside. The Sierra Nevada Mountains in North America and the Harz mountains in Germany are examples of Fault-Bloek mountain.are volcanic mouitaas formed? We tiie ctie phe eee volcanoes long, overeat of tin, pte Sat fa sn fre. Ye gcc apt ek th any edgadietsoldemirtal perry poser" tyes heaps around the efice of erption. St nies fr thousand of Years or mor, eee eee ee ‘mourns. Mount Agung, Mount ‘samples of sch mountains. x Bina and Mount Fuji" ‘Mention any three evidences of plate tectontes, ‘Ans, Evidence of plate tectonic re ©The shapes of | separated isc 2069 - Chair, IS ae such that the For example: the), lative to the iat they were coms fectonics, 4 fit ek marc (By Ocean expanses) Ans: Sad in the pass» EE Formed win: till growing Ans: At the locations where two tsion Describe plate boundary. How is mountain formed? 12073-Shrawan, Back Examp nie plates interact, a boundary between these pas exist which is calles plate Downiogy TRE ‘ats ltosphere is composed of seven or eight aj place aed ‘any minor plates. Where the plates mec. thelr lative ments determines: the type of boundary: converge divergent er transform, Earthquakes, vokanic activity, maunain Baldy sad ‘eeanic trench formation accu along those bowen. Formation of Mountain New mountains are built when rocks are pushed upwards by the ‘movement of giant rocky plates that makeup the eon focksare pushod upward in two. wayy formed when layers of rock become buckled and) BLOCK, ‘mountains are formed when gia lumps of rock "se oe fal Volcanic eruptions also create moun have been built up and eroded away Apart from these, igneous intrusions and’ processes st ‘metamorphism also contribute to mountsin building, Briefly deseribe the process of Hi different types of plate Houndaries. Process of Himalayan Evolution The evolution of Himalayas is Wisible creations of modem plate tectonic forees The Hina which setch over 2400km are the result ofan ongoing oroscns, the result of collision between the Indian plate and Eurasian plate Eighty Million years ago, india was approximaicly 6400 kas South ‘of the Eurasian plate. Separating the two was the Tethys sea, For millions of years, India made its way across the sea towards the Eurasian plate, Around 40 million years ago, the Indian plate sort, The FOLD mountains ate tains. Many mountain ranges sincg the earth was formed, alayan evolut 07 Mer -Chatray record ofthe most dramatic and » moving Northwards collided with the Eurasian plate. The Eurtsian ‘late was partly crumpled and buckled up above the much denser Indian plate, The Tethys sea disappeared compleely 20 ‘million Years ago and sediments rising from its seabed gave rise to the Tormation of Himalayas For 2nd part refer section 2.1,CRYSTALLOGRAPHY ay, ~ MINERALOGY 3.1 Introduction ‘ekscinbeinfemed. "es spy “the study of eral”, 1 Meptology fre studied in ders) epi mt sen ony, a sui i . ‘Mineralogy is the branch OF peology that cals With the study of rae at stu pysal and! optical prs ‘Scopraphhical distribution, as well ‘aStheir utilization ‘of atoms, molecules or ions ic Sueture, forming a crys ‘Contains all the structural sed ‘ue. smallest complet: ‘unit cells stacked! ‘Angle between adjacent faces ofa cya, Constant for the erytls of a articular mineral speci invespective of the piace of Tontation and cccueave te ners ‘Intertscia angles are measur i ‘ora reflecting gontomctr ) Crystallographic Axes ‘Imaginary tines tht can be drawn within the exystal latices, 4 These wil define a coorinate system within the cya # We need 3 or 4 (in some cases) cry irctions within the crystal aie ‘+ May or may not be perpendicular depending onthe the latice, andthe divisions along the = With a contact gonitometer raph anes to define yansty of 5 may OF may not be cual Length of the axes are proportional othe lative spacing slong the axes, © “These axes are used to define different srystal syscms ©) Axial Ratio * Detincias the relative length ofthe erysiallograpic axa [Normally taken relative ofthe b crystallographic axn © Axial Ratio = a/: bib: of by € ar actual lengths ofthe a b and ¢ crystallographic axia respectively Eg: For isometric crystals a-b-e; axial ratio= 1:1 4) Crystal faces External faces (squared, rectangular, triangular, et.) on a crystal are called crystal faces, ° : / A c & Fig. 312A craoe im FeeUIae ty, EpSAl about whic, et exactly the sin 4 oF 6 times, three-fold, fo the a fol er aE! the 4 yp. of, similar point (egco™ by a similar pal is said to have so" fof symmetry wb ore 3.1.4 Crystal Form a » ° A set of crystal faces defined according to this relationship to the erystal ates refers to erysal for ‘A crystal form consists of set of planes which have the same relation t0 the elemebts of symmetry and display the same chemical and physical properties, Some ofthe common crystal farms ac Pedian: A single face Pinacoid: Two parallel laces on opposite sides ofa cater -} Prism: Thre or more fates all parallel to and symmetrical about an axis, | i Pyramid: Three or mofo non-parallel faces that inersect at & ‘common punt and is. mh form, 3inet SE RTH we oo ENE closed fy, longed rie cya ris | Bene i a iment (staid | Oaabaon iano Reed | Cyst ming na enti | Cos [Pity [Fa bette waiteane | 34.6. Crystal systems, ‘© Also called crystal fuily atic system, ‘© Refer to any of the 6 main clussifcation of crystals and of crystal Iatices according to their symmetry sometic. hexagonal. tetragonal, oxthorhombic, monoclinic, and tilinis, ‘+The seven crystal classes are formed by spliting the hexagonal family ino the bexagonal and trigonal erystal sytem | Aerytals can be grouped ito 32 crystal eases, | ate = Gopi yen | Late | Symmeey | eS | — aebee | | ene anpey|c | None tt | s40he Lawwfusskot Masini | 2545 Jermain | Ata x wip | ‘Sherrie. 3.90 den of ron | Orton coed | gece | Snierpan j | GM | Lert ior of ge Ske | naanSzhiysal Choma an pt Properties of Mine 2) el oe : 22068- Chainrg . ners possess some distinguishing qualities (pra whieh at be said ysl, These are iemed "9 Phys + Miner Sid one bso tee popes Swe of ti 0 Cas important physi properties ofthe minerals area ton. () Now Metalic lustre: Translucent or transparent riers avieg colorless or white streak show 200 ‘metalic hse. 1 non-cash ype ate a fallow ‘Vitreous lay appearance, ike quart crystal Resins Like resi, example slr Pearly: Pet ike, example Ibrarite Sky Sik ike, example gypsum Adamantine : good looking minerals with high index of refraction, like dimond eeret (9) Hardness Resistance to seach scaled hardnes ‘Minerals that produce lee powder and more noise on rubbing by ‘standard knife bade are hare. A series of 10 minerals that are sed as sele of bardness is Seveloped by Mineralogist F Mohs, which is known at Mohs Tale | [Gypsum Cait Fluorite Apatite Ontoclase ‘Quartz Hardness of knife bade ~ $ ~ 55, glas plate = 7.0, fingemail = 2~25, copper coin = 3.0. These substances ae useful tools for testing the hardness and identifying minerals and rocks in field. (©) Transparency Ability of minerals to pass light through it ‘Types of transarcney (4) Transparent : Allows ight to pss fully ‘Example : quartz (colorless varieties) (b) Semi-transparent : Allows light o pass partially Example Calcite 8nt: Alows col a ised ih 1 ie ‘Sulfur (e) Sphatery # Mineral ret wih ough woody tee — (a ante Example re (@) Even: Mineral breaks with smooth and flat surface. seers th rato ofthe weight a mineral 10 the Weight of, (©) Uneven : Mineral breaks with imeglar surface which i er ei seen Ragen rant st tenants es, 32a cael prope Nea em ait exp ‘© Resiniance tht a mineral offers t0 breaking, crshing, coal sndeang ical ee, SSeS pct ba chskica vets rt claw ean the mineral canbe identified. TBrample I the composition of an unknown mineral e found to be + Diveat pes of teracity ar: fead sulfide (PBS), then that mineral must be only gers (@)Secl: Minerals an be ct int thin layers with Anis (Nut: Mise galscan be hammered int secs, Toe propria which are dry rede the chem compotion of Example Gold, copper, te. onbeca blow fe (©) Pele: Minerals dont resume the orignal shape jr @) isomorphism “The phencmcnon by whch mineral show aconnuous variation Soe: che (© le: Mies reine the egal supe sf tex x, ber shel cpio a yl rer feed Be arc tsinctae ay Ea Mase os ares stp es inl, Sate Resort cian Aly fel bak ocone ng nh as FOV 1 se iam of wa dng bce ates veerstc Get cme myn it > Rome pet Bsn e cheapest Ceswags is said to be perfect ifthe ; ‘+ The minerals which have identical chemical composton but 1 coh Bae ans ae cus” ent ti rcs wld payor ‘Mineral may have no cleavage or one or more sts of ck * or came oho of ton a pope ‘and diamond nce clean: eos ceo opt Se erence Mintionooe oes: cp euttnchion 4 Beth inne caved fm of ccs nin Species, the phenomenon is called pseudomorph, ‘Mineral pseudomorphs are formed when one mineral i replaced bby another without any change in the outer for ofthe original mineral. Thus, the chemical composition and structure of @ peudomoprh Belongs to one mineral species wheres the crystal orm corresponds io another ‘A common example of pseudomorph is apiece of fosi-wood ‘where wood fibres have been replaced by silica. a* 12068-Cha, Be wierd tracr”™ 323 optical POPS ig of light, struct’ fom oF ck baving assem), tau wig poloniZing micoscone Smo Ne ‘Vagus opal popes f mines a: ae Ris ne nan Nagy 2nd kine nb mine Eronple diamond. overpaint, ite eri I rs cee inl Ae c= a Didcpomaetediee te ates esp Geen Spel pele uot icra > Tie eierlan EEA Menge sod xu cana Cape oll cote cla temp oct leg 0 se tt ope ft mr (it nea + Ths mala csi! i rhombi, mov i apace +, Tecoma oes + Tis mina hele metry in eel ‘oa anil ial an i hs ck of cy (©) Pleechroism ae tea sit tae '* The primary cause of pleochroism in Adsorption of diferent wavelength oft ily of « mineral to exhibit different colours, > at ciferent angles, especially with plane polar” is due 10 ts light 33.1 Classification of minerals “The broadest visions of he clasiSatio of miner a (4) Native elements "Gesu in mata ina pore (ie, ancomhined orm, Canbe metal, semimetals or non-metal, Have simple cyst sructre ‘Beample = gold platinum asec, sulfur diamovd, et. (Satis ‘One or more metals combined with sf, Exaple = Galena (PbS), Pyrite (FS), (© Oxides and nydroxides ‘Oxides consist of orygen combined with oe o more metals J) Hydrides are chamcterized by hydroxyl (OMT) groups. zane : Cope (Cu:0), corundum (ALO), Magnet (Fei0,) (@ Hatides + Consist of alogen anions ie. Buample Halite (NaC), forte (CaF) (0 Carbonates ‘Contain the anionic complex (CO; Example : Calcite (CaCO), dotomit (CaMe{CO})) Magnesite (MsCO,) (ONurates + Have NOx groups. Example : Niter(KNO>), nitrate (NaNO) (@)Sultates + Have anionic (S07) groups Example : gypsum (CaSO) 280), arte (BxS0.), (2 Phosphates ‘© Have PO," groups Example Apatite (Cas(PO4)(F, C108) (Borates, Contain boron ~ oxygen groups. xunple: Borax [NaB,0(OM, 810), 933. “Example = Hoenbleode Allother mineras which arvontes ceca be grouped 3.2 Identification of Rock forming minerals physical, chomical and fection, + The diagnostic properties of os ina eld Co ewan Bie as am al ie a ne ee epee ost ste campend of vena oT isi Ri | ‘wha | Uneven + He Si," een eto SF") Bonded 0 ao + Compass os ro Sof eg earn cen | Wie | a —.. aa Saiper goer ie ere: eae . Aas "ioe powdered fons called steak. tis more consistent and raiabe then body colour of mine. The steak Chiained by rubbing miner agsinet an ngazed porn pl, ms ke oxide, _ all th steak plate The dy of ereak in mon wef in exe ot ‘coloured minerals which often give a much lighter steak than their ; body colour. For example, hacmatite which appears slmost Mack minerals gives a red coloured steak. However, te streak is less wef for the study of u: Identifying most of the silicates, carbonates and tranporent in previo. iinerals because they give white streak, Define rock forming minerals and ore forming minerals. a5 read metal, as concrete aggregate, as building stones, as flooring f9F roofing matcral, as decorative material et. All properties of fone miner Amst Rock forming minerals are those which are found in abeundance in som the oer tho rocks of earths erst + The following table helps fommon roi Ore forming mincrals are those which ae of economic value and forming mineral: . ; ‘which do aot eccu in abaundance in rocks. Tiss 3. Write short notes on civil engineering importance of rock [omer [ect |S cee Sieh nese Bowe [Rare | Oak Miscou Am: Knowledge of rock-forming minerals is very much nécesary from | te Be tery pout of Yin Te el ge alt [Common] Wie | 3 i ieciou the properties of rocks precscly to enable them to consider White [3 ca diferent rocks for any required purpose, ic, as foundation reks, ‘Wie Pink Colores ocks ate, in tur, dependent on the properties of their constituent tinerals. Thus, properties of civil-engineering importance such a8 |. strength, durability and appearance of rocks can be assessed only == ‘with the knowledge of the minerals that form rock (jc. rock il forming minerals) i de Compare and contrast cleavage and fracture of minerals. ‘Ans: Cleavage and fractures are both the physical properties of minerals ie that tells how a mineral breaks when stressed. Cleavage isthe way aSOF ineral and frac, ff the mine Gi such a way ,,"" Rete ace ‘mineral breaj., Pieces, rather SERIE more ran I can be scratched by herder miner Iatbold the crystals together nsoft minmal ne seas iecronee ralare weaker and Pe of crystals ae inertial an sak ratio and crystal faces which are decree en s. cysallogaphic fsometri system of crystal, fs that can be teed tothe craic Mehich are esservially equal in Teng! Se ee Rian echt ec fe system) of crystals. The empty building block. ofall erry cach of wiich proeete tegoauny rash aan Al three axes are oq in Jength and all are perpendicular to one another Isometric (cubic) erystal ‘stem. ‘minerals. How do you differentiate between silieate ‘and carbonate minerals in field? [2071-Chaitr {sw naturally occurring inorganic solid which has & more efinite chemical composition and definite tonic stroce. Ihave erystalline structure and posses properties. The minerals may ‘a rock-forming minerals and cuore eer seen ae mee cn er are ater. Aime acop eta Se BAe domo tte wat a eerertocn an on on se ‘of silicate minerals.45 Plate tectonic movernent is responsible for she recycling of rock peesal din carr teeter ce ona Fig Li Rock Cele ‘The tree groups of rocks change to cach other in the following way @ 3) Tiguaus’ rocks on weathering give rise to sedimentary rocks. Bimonary rocks. on mactmorphism give tse 10 ‘orthometanorphic rocks. Selimentary rocks when burl w© gat pa ue 1 ec Sehiis). form magma on meting and subsequently soidily 10 foam taneous rocks, Igneous rocks on metamorphism ive se to phic rocks Rrcmorphig rocks on weahering give rise to eeiments which ocr to form sedimentary rocks later. Metamorphic rocks when, Gaia gren eps due toto atv willmeli and. Bie ta orga, whch x cooling Forms ges rocs ot rocks are classified a follows: Te Tancous ook _ Sedimentary rocks | Metamorphic oeks4 ew ty te cooing and sofcation oF mo, ‘Eiee blow oc on the surface ofthe earth are cacy rt a Row high temperate snd mole SATE 80 ry py, endions o e formation of gnu rocks {£3.14 Cases oF gnenns rocks (6) On the base of mode of occurrence intnaive res: 1 ono by slow cooing of magma aside the cath + Theyre care rind deo low cooling of nn + Example : Granite, gabbro, pegmatite, diorite. 12069 Chai Ina neous rots ar farther lass: (0 Phone rocks + Formed at = et Famed at ae dts blow the sutice of * Example: Granite, syenite, gabbro et. (0 Hypa roc + Formed by cooling of cas sarice(Qtg) ne Slow dep bei (U) Estrasive rocks (volcanic rocks) £ Fomedty cooling of ava atthe * Toolateae surftce of be carb uth surfge nt GHP 1, IEE cooing‘ of lava at «Empl: Beit, andesite and bs, © Banple:c (Fake ( Matie rocks * Rocks contig davk colored minerals like pyroxene, amphibole, ovine, biotite, rom oxide et ‘© They are ech in magnesium & ion “© Example: basa, dolerite, pabbeo ee (¢ Matie ~ Magnes & Feri (iron in abundance) nit, yee Felder and slic in abundance) rocks Contains felsic as well as mati mineral + Example: Andesite, dite (9) Ulramate rocks ‘Rocks containing mostly matic minerals, + Low silica content + Example: Carbanatites (8 1UGS classtiation of lncous rocks ‘Iie a standard scheme to classify igneous rocks based on mineralogic composition (MODE) + The relative percontage’of Quare4Q), Alkali fldspar(A) and plagioclse(P) is represented. by the corners of equilateral triangle, the length of whose sides are divided into 100 equal parts. Any composition ploued at 2 comer, therefore, represents 100% ofthe caresponding minerals. + Any point on the sides of triangle represents a mode composed of two adjacent comer components. For example; a rock with 60% Q and 40% A will plot on QA side at a location 60% of the distance from A to QA rock containing all three components is ploted within the triangle. This system of class clasification is mostly used for plutonic rocks.(9 Vesteutar struct ©The escape of gates lade Tamsin ac oto ive dog ts cooling eds to the ‘on ape de i “hese empty cavities stn nese “whole is known as vesicular structure, ee Commonly cberedin veka ea (i) Amygdatoldal structures ‘the empty cavities (vesicles) are filed by secondary mincrals such as cae, silica, zeolites ee. then thes nilings ae called ‘amygdales' and the structure asa whole is known as amygdaloid structure + _Bxample : Amyadaloidal basa, emp aee) BROS oS a4 or Fig 43.) Vesicular aructare and () anyplace Gi) Columnar structure ‘© In voleanic rocks, cooling of magma leds to the formation of polygonal cracks. ‘© These cracks continue depthise for considerable thickness in the body of rocks dividing it into polygonal blocks or columns. ‘© Thestrucure so developed is called columnar structure.Har i blew da adc wy ees a ot se ee fofevising rocket ced witin Ge fe = — eae te Bs on as SE OTE OF Iss pai the bedng pane of aang odie formed when he nine magn oh 4 cating he ening rece ue ae ea peut aos the Bedding planes of xing ka, bodies sheet lke concordant bay thst firs beeen Inge of socks. ay be horizontal, inclined or vericsl depending upon he ie of strata in which they are intraded. noe ade up of doles and bats, dant lens shaped body tha typically ocupis the © oF trough ofa synclne. formed when igneous material invades the folded ‘materials accumulates atthe crests and troughs of these are the zones of minimum sts, injected is along the that i cannot ow ot distances and instead gets collected in the form the orifie of eruption thereby pushing uP the ody with roughly Mat op and comes ss pipe below. It is just the reverse ol...... + etd ee es cot Pay wate “ype of dhcordan bodes Dake vty mao tla dscordant bod. that is e705, + Arr cx socks eter verily ralost vertically ory Tone re forme by the nasion of magma ip. cing ices te 05k 4 They are wualy made up of hypubyssal rocks pontiores et showing all the textures phan pe. (Battin Ale iegular discordant boxy that hs serounding sata at great depth “+ Batts hae sides sloping sway rom. them larger and larger downwards and oom. ‘+ They ae usualy of granitic or greaodioite (ap Voteanie neek (volcanic plug) ‘Tubular, roughly vertical body that may for an extn! volcano. + has roughly oval or cieular cross ‘ysallne rock oF fragmentary material or dv) Stock and boss ‘+ Iregular igneous masses of bathoithic {is usually between 101020 kilometers are “¢) The term ‘bose! is applied to those approximately circular outline, (9 Xenolith ‘© Relic orrerinant of parent materials within Tig 47 Fors of ase gnc 00s ‘of igneous rocks 12069- Chaitra} (of a rock is the shape, size and arangerent ofthe (Holo = Complete) tock is mate entirely of crystals, then is texte is a8 holocrystallne. line (Hemi = Half)a ee ‘When sexs cole noha ae eR EE rs coe coe oI re es Ippenoftestue which cn besoin a MA SOME re oman ergransartextare a 2 ew ep, wi id es. I recente co Ore eee “ ere. ans ena tg nw 2 ee ...., a an ‘ =a Bees 2 nok fe crate Siecle Sere - Bee interrovah ex. esac, then they coarse cn Ss ccs icom Crystal are of approximately same size, (i Ineuigranlar texture + Crystals ar of ferent size. + Htcanbe furor lsd as: ie texture Pee textures inci th Formation of rocks. Exam! Sedimentary rocks (Seconda fhe rocks which sre formed from the pre eceumlation, compaction and consolidaion sedimentary rocks, creat of fw of magma teeltictoae rocks) sing rocks by () Porphyritie texture + Lae td come called penser ae surcunde ty ‘secumulation and compaction of vr ee Becta ne «epidemic om eo Toon nays 851 G)Clstock i) Nols ok rocks are made up of pices (lass) of pre-cxsting rocks ‘Of rocks are loosened by weathering and then sediments Srranspored to some basin whore thy ext pt up amt by compaction and comentaion to fom, clastic tary rocks fname and sizeof sediments are given the table beiow TName of sediment Sl of edineat, Chay + Salyers Seulcont of pagal are around y lager eis si Fine Sendcn sedimentary recy ‘structural features ot ein Tamination, graded bedding, poe a ed ng different planes are called bedding sacs, texture, color & tre, color & thickness of dient bs basis of diference in color ed in fine grained sedimentary rots ike tale hues pe fistN Fig 411.67 being "YY undulations seen onthe sutace of te the orientation of wster urs ae the characicrsics of shallow v wae deposition Seer a rota inet ‘this feature, ae marks (0) Ripple marks (Ameo ple Fig-.12: Ripple mars formed duc to aerate wong found in fine grained sedimentary rok fa network of fissures and they develop uncer sallowAverage cast size between Sam, ge cas size < tm + Clats are of round stage: + Class are parially round + Clasts ar of angular packed. : Casts are packed lonely ly packed: Class are packed tity sorted +: Class are of vari sz. + Class are of uniform siz99 small 1 be dis, fie granular text" pails when th ‘morph = form) the older rocks wns changes in rocks are bx And chemically active i, vith depth and as a sc H BS dps In the cue par» empertures isthe inasion 0 of metamorphinm Of met a Se tment tamorphism (Contact ret fof metamorphism that ule york. process, minerals grow 4 ‘metamorphism (Catacasticmetanorphisa pe of metamorphism tat oc y for Tatra stress in pro je metamorphism esses are caused by cant ing. type of metamorphism cass sr gh pressures bur the rv omic cha metamorphsim (Resjona irected pressure and heat act ox Tnydrothermal fui, the This. kind ng rocks. duces both foliated rosks fend ion-fliated rocks such as qurtaite 86 are subjected to regional metamorphism Sin early stages to sphst nth miles the highest temperatures of regional ne metamorphism Bef metamorphism in which ume inant is called geothermal mets"of material pt of hycothernt 9, S8and pressre as affects Will be the dee Miffrent mine syepossle and Hence cers ine of emetic nd psu ce se ie Bec evcnnen er ization of eslcaroossecimen id reerysalizaion of sone tary rocks a jon of new erphic sks. lopment of foliation (o tention of ainrals of pares rocks, ie, deveapmen for schistoe siuctres. i in egillacoes rcs. Mppures, represents a typeof fliton cl tat excellently in very fie grained rock elongated minerals re aligned is rough frocks develop a platy or sect ike sustre h different kinds of mine ple: Slate schist, eis et. gf Non-follated rocks, fp not have a platy or shes ike sirctare gn only one main miner (quatzte, marble, amphibolite etures of metamorphic rocks bund structures in metamorphic roebs ae Prater intense shearing stress and TO EEN pe by the presence of fine woven fe my crush breccia, mylonite & satPFUb raat. tinder itor, MsioMal miner ion while ie ismall proporti; and heat bands of schiso, Of minerals unde fed appearance which 1 Bees Syrils (cal Sd rocks 6 split up along the Het smooth hag lt a erty FO and generaly accom ation o lesen wd congas a Sol, ome (ow cleaves) five 10 gral! arangemen pels mics ly Sloe ve ona ay may develop paris to ow vanon meee ee ray vain ange whe insate & phylite perc oresntion of very Sac xtc SBeveloped in mineals of rock. wt phism. Mow cleavage, there is no pull lgnment of wins Hpecc cleavage is formed by shearing ots. eure of metamorphic rocks Show perfec ices & forms de texture "8p not have any dfiite faces & forms te texture ied in 2 it Pidicblasts occur as lee crysis porprobat. d groundmass, the texture is ale ste texture phic rock, if the major consti! Mat, the extre is-caled grants ots ae grou preserved i the texture rexare ofthe parent rock found rook scaled palimpsest stfag competent rocks, tun ey ning leo ate Bho foundaion rock, big err flooring inmaking bride pers ang suns, sa glance (From exam point ot yan Platonic rock ani (Quart, feldspar, mics an spiel ie 19 Very coarse PET is an acy os Of only. prima, : eer nn strength > 200 MPs I Sich a homens eile ns coefieient = WVesand hard vek. Gra fie grained rock. Vlei esa Pa, Eira exes Colored como whi lh Mineral composition of rye i sir ial mineral are alkali feldspar ah gt | peal ined. Porphyritc texture is ofsn found wbee oor GE Fler ae acti cone gn sn BY 1%) 20r permeable Show a flow stricture ging 8 bat ces End ings a luring tunneling. te Very hard. This makes a atdness coercion Inbuildings and rods, acting ts glance g Extrusive janeoss rock ‘Acidic ite grey, lit black oa ibually porphyrtc but can spanie (2 “Alkali feldspars, quar et Dense and compact ® an)im grained, minerals lke avec i fo ulrabasic in chars Of ‘calcio plagiccne So there may be an te but canbe porphyiic sinitures. Colusnner eases ce massive basalts, due ‘aviies which make ock, They need no planes to prevent one. Hxisive igneous rock Basic uliabase ke, dak sey. {suallyaphartc bu canbe rch pealee plagioclase flispur eo Dw 1% 296 ely couse grained. Corin gf Most pegnaites contin th com es bat they are of exterely arp: si Tus sen and. mica. Crystals of the mincals memwng G files do n01 Show any special ere expe grained and ineguigraulr iil engineering point fv the presence of ext ies the physical properties los and ex fs cannot behave uniformly througout asin pegmaits: Tis makes the rock weak So, ts ifable to be used asa building soe an alo undesrable site of foundation of major const ata glance fe lsirusve igneous sk ined and inegigrnait ly coarse grained an {Coarse to very coarse esined. Quartz, feldspar and micaely used as materiis i fare characterized by very high Widely used in mot oe (erent rocks, though equals ental buildings br fds mish tocks, hard & stronz or most of evil enginosring roo rocks in tunnels ofall types Ot be expected to hold oil or Bont a, ts Boletgecs ine vot Shales are composed mainly Mlonite end iit. Soa wa of 9 ines ag fine gained with grin size ies pple marks, cos being an fy ies of civil engineering importance eben Sfuratod with Wier, vcr posure Tubricating materials making sinnce ‘Therefore, they aro unsiabie ‘of important civil enginceine sina fe known for thee fis ty (prone planes into thin shoes, Ths, material, as road metal set TEisily workable, they need not be for minor ensiructon Tghly porous and of ge Thus, from di for civil engince Frtion, they produce soils which ae inkspewate 1 ad ary He Whit, red, yolow, ay. f quartz, mica fipe grained with ly porous. (ay hi shan 001 13. gin ses tn 001 rea pares © *but no lamination. Hosed for building its on, fT main use is a5 alow gust ly available. D med chemically or organically. « ‘coloured. Limesiones are identifcs effervescence in dilute hydrochloric sc [Galsiom carbonate is the chiet consis is abo present in variable amouns. Che), as impurities, oad bearing siength also will gt reduced s sPesial treatment (Such as grouting) muy b: improve site conditions, Quartz $6 the chit mi Bi of feldspar, wica, gamer cc fea let iron oxide, orks and ain pins 5-27 ind uses ofclvil engineering importance, Igampetency of sandstones dcpeals van the composition ofc fof cementation is ess for tunneling and soon. sandstone may iniallyb sandstones ae-not dsb vith water forms weak and 1b eetegpic wd provides sinpen be tacos dpenting eli silos: cares cain Heementing material 6 sii respectively avert son, 0nd ses one Z fre used as building tone nsterilfor cones are also used a5 3 00al mounts of feAspr, 1, imedium grained 1 fine" 3" eton euent Being, pple)" opt stain Te cog mits her See clas rte soln BNE fine eincd, because oc 1 Stes ging oc ine matrix of clayey ra at gla Clan, ralacoous ro vaca fie Rownded pebbIc to copy i rnc! ma pMery couse grains. aceon rocks, nd angle ede Coeur 4g Angular frag rained. fe decorative wall lngularity ofthe Fagen atfered very litle or ex ounded shape of pebbles [pebbles have been tas. the original angular nee of sein BE rocks fare extremely well information for corsrton gs, rods ec ter supplics, salt and roo fiance of Sedimentary ig materials play impor in percentage of oxanc ‘Study of Metamorphic Rocks low grade metamctic Pol Rey have 2 eat rks foamed fined grained, | ee prphism of shalesiam 0 pln thin, BIE follows Mos sts ae bck or dark ey in cola ae ‘Sts are very dense looking andy 4s in which ndvidual eran are tog lees. Folaton is leary visible though the fine and unecopnizabl, This i the." soft when ‘or ia PATE 10 other Oe a tm wih seis, since ty ‘sentially composed of silicate minerals, railway ballast, concrete 00d resistance to wear and cleavage, 864 for flooring, roofing tc and can be split ip into thin and A Tne grained, fst Héynamo-thermal claro pings of metancrphism tenses, consis of cho, y Hock sre 0 fine that ingen fan unaided cy an gine. os folate SUC. spits seg gn slate and phylite pared 0 slate, piylite bas bigs er texte anger grain sizes fe has a brighter use surfaces of plies are net But on account of thir sm have sisilar engineering pops rained metamorphic rocks Istocity along which the rock my ‘important details of me: areas follows: rent shi schist (muscovit schists jet black in colour, cl and soon. 2 Some schists m grained oF coarse gz Most varices of © while microerysalline si fs few types show lnextion and Po 2 Constituent mine Tineation or fliato imerals, Prismatic mines! line, sctnote, silane © na “a, msi at ie i, 5 Exner x Ie coyocieg ing importance 8 weak incompetcn, tedeinbe nots from th civil engineering. point ot a nee Sn ‘Sch, ia general, re considered to foliation, encies prim ker enous ‘rod mt ay bac : linn wo RSG ete 0 ground wa Bees slong te ee twaneling a! ge unfit for any ensin ‘aie nao. , oe Se HI, gp Re Pie MEH, AC . hard, dense ilicio for thermal ory recrystalization proce 68 of clas jens, a quartzite TUsually white or pale col Mi brown, areen, rey ci. in se: Variable: some 10 oarse grained. land structure: Aquat mall aos of Miteous to subir. (Lo uate wally make up the bute Nery arnt each ier mi cw eh ncn teat wih dark tans of such as biotite or homblende. ~ is silica rich rock. it % fases of civil engineering importPDICUE Ane tthe, ral (quar). gand durable are hy on arailway ballast. eguire any lining, a Wek formed by i, aluable rock inn hamming trarsicen, Pleasant sha also occur {Ronin but the roc i ® All marbles are dense, compet Slganibxe anche. Flo (9) Minerals presen, Marble bie of mins! ‘ate (CaCO). Other ee Blivine, serpentin: inet €¥t mechanically by wie sas into thi hae o) Tp iy, aeetleenc: Pare white marbles are reasonably rash Dilton Mates act vigorosly even wih old tice Properties & ses ofc engineering i importance Sp ct ty a 3 c leavages. This ‘oheren weakness mate the ck li up eat vee re ED By, he cl conte comeing pie 0 ay Scorn Wy te. fee ka kes the rock hollow &insamgeas TEE Sginering ctr hon en tones for temples, rmmenal econ go ifleance of Metamorphic rocks and depree of foliation hight ae te sbity focks are weak in siength whereas nord al Hgparzis, marbles and amphiboles are conse sa ing construction. ferentiate rocks and minerals prainer rocks and ine with a very) chemical) regular Rocks dott EneBes conse that cools do, Sowly beneath he Hthe cart can Toe such 4 Braite oF abbr, Mone another by sr the cases, cate shoul sharctrized by th all drettons vith ro finequigranus, I basic janeous ovis darker colour and whether © ‘ealearcous oF - in clr atte ipo Graton, neimentry rocks ws (ests ich, Sinerty omy be rel oe ee oe nl cine! tog, Sp ar ‘ont ‘Metamorphic Rocks ysoline metamorphic rocks die fom gnsous rocks in their crystals ar aligned in parle dirction, Tn, they ae distinguished by ther fisted character Sues hare any i aspteds tive shiny und get iors eY folised metamorphic rocks hike matics and anche ee gaily distinguished by their composition and relasne hardoos ave low hardness while quarzes ar exemely td td cocks? nd extrsive Gifferences between intrusive and exrusive igneous rocks ate lows: [—“Bxtasive igneous rocks | STnrusive rocks are formed | 1. Extrusive rook ae formed | fiom magma They ae formed dep fuside the surface of the | surface of the earth when ‘magia finds a way wo por | 5 ‘ou othe surface, Going and solidification | 3, Contact with air and water takes place very slowly ‘causes. cooling of such rocks to take place at a very rapid te % They have tay ayeale| ‘hat can be seen only with the microscope. ial Example: Basal yale, | andesite ce a the civil engineering Importance of sedimentary rocks cover great part ofthe eat’ ens they make {0.80% of the surface are ofthe land mas. Is with these “of rocks that an engincer has to deal with in majonty of Itis, therefore, essential fora evil engineer to know as much bout the salient features ofthese rocks. He has to see, if such rocks would withstand loads under heavy and also if they could be trstd in cus and runnin asreaver Ts, semaine Mtr Safa meson, a ae al To ina rs Bre ies rots fron, Sediy emo eks and sedimentary iy Sedimentary racks They are Tors (conc ‘eementing and harden} |__afesising cts. Not very fan, ak {porous 4 Rich in essT concn — 3. Tendency to react bodies (sa, oceans ete.) 7 Examples, ‘hal limestone, sandstone ec between igneous rocks rocks change thei o the differences between sedimenia SE 0 OF Hore] einen. | 10 igneous roxy jerustor mantle. | surface. mn te erts| Granite |9.— Exams bro.cte. | quartic i i FY rocks and differences between sedimentary x rocks are as follows oes not fill up the| ds between the grains Rarely cons Pound in waicr|6. Usually fond ‘ocean etc.) :)_| Qu Limestone, ‘conglomerates‘content because thy that do not destroy fost rarely contains foi been put under rau and fesils usualy dc are extremely fine pring feeenyiaois, Sr being oa esding orcumen oss of cementing tera? rence of fol diventry of tacks and ais, ence of maderack, Porous, conertonsry, now n= née of ripple mas of metamorphic rocks icharaiers of metamorphic rcs ite silimante,kyanitand panes, sruetures and textes he ton, Sng iy encissosty and sity cleavage ae carn ofthe metamorphic rocks Metamorphic tock re composed o cane pin But sone, th necmomic naa ah eS and structures of parent gnu: an slay features are call ‘on civil enginecring importance a petri. much important fom the cil engi se this provides a proper concept and logical bs Physical properties of rocks. Ths, the sway of ‘mineral composition, chemical compton 8 afl necessary dtils remding the sn jour, appearance, workability thera oeks are of chief concern fora civil nga the suitability of rocks ocuring st BS pi purpose, This is necesary boas iest rent spi proses a 9 sted forallpuposofsosmsion ite ke rocks being haw, comps dun ws Planes are suitable for fundaion mur ble for cheap and small constuctionBip el exmnhe yun yr Wey ryt 0 have very tel cat le down very cy on cea Dee growth of su, if th sedanentary rocks formed? mse of avaiayy Ta Flos of tomes ot ex (27th ay ie hy arr bl Sete Sea es on: foeks Ths poco of change of ise & Tieton 8 tne td eyes ie of wd com Hgneous i 0 ahead pars rally Bh fed oss vt Bie toms ot ie woes bone reels esinesay rocks fica a ise ormatin proces of mtameie rs. ome Hike construc enc i res OF ifthe elemars seo Mi coesierabs pbs bow oie oe th. Ts 5 ernoned to snple mins elves tc growth oe esta nhs ck ae limestone, sino py ay ne Mesding io fine-scale lysing i the ek. THs Sealed fas. Uaike boing in einen) wo Steno be igual yey ed iret materal: Mebecteriics of igus, stein, md rocks. oor kard, Buk is of igneous rocks maga ova ous. Mo leatd temperature conions : or esti: intisve igneous rok ean nines ier ly or cours m7 ey os of trapped zases and bats pot react wi 65gy isthe study ofthe tee din ‘with respest to thet defornatcn! ly wide spread pate “i gd mechanical propenes of st nl 5 fils, folds, foisios and juts ux Gf Focks which may ale the say of hone such as dans, roa cus, san structures are explained ati his hi ‘means bending, sting and shssine deals wih the mestaisn aad one of Fock that were cxgnlly depot i bial i ores! poological pro a due to various sires reals ino © ike folds, fs, ourtsis ck deformation cae the min ‘changes, weiting and drying,ion (Sin, plate tectonics, tion oft downward sce, iy increasing continuous force fraetare on the rook fer ely ‘hich is called bite derma ~ rit tock lik: granite et, formation of rack, fits et, J ee fwthout fracturing. This is cali “ Formation of folds ee undergoes defermaion (expansion sl costa {and fallin the temperature 09 the sri: fon and contraction can rl io Ginsu $10 the geomeiric rina sf 069 Chat) ar features a she nrface of bl nent Jor more points on points lie at the some Prorizontl surfceplne scaled bythe inerssion of 0 SB planar geological eae (e=Iorizonts pa ge a of tea bearing is measures ‘ fn reaton oy Me pn Ae direction pependiuts lower contour direction. pis tho steepest path down 2 Wate wll ow dt ip is te inclaon of govlog le x fom oss section not perpen oe sie of Bead ros scion. is poet te Been in ces seven cis he wois 122 and 11 ‘he trae dip amot®® 2070" Nt 251° (ce) by fracturing o breaking id have ee part of ihosphee, close othe tae in gen m sus, ant at sh of applied forces or «rapidly inpisd dima, Pies called bite demas, isa fracture, it mean tht rock loss exe (i. bonds ae broken) and rock beaks dna ii te ‘by bending, shortening ce stchng sido structures ‘art of lithosphere, or in generat eae ih and pressures (but sil below the ming pois ow intensity of applic fos ra xe 5 tion, rocks low or changes sae. Ts alld Impics beading, fone, sin, and alignment of ans fe fliation 068. Chair) asthe sedimentay rok HtFear forme y the pe frock salle foliation, ean ve layering in memo, Heine for ot in es ta pa forentation of clay fake) tte grins, ofplanar large mics Nal Pie 8 Foaed type of foliation reformed in metamorphic ne g) by two oF mere ses distin te en an carly planar ft iby a later planar fabric ook sel eon. These a8 tubular body of competent te ded), it breaks formingpeat ta of he 2s Ee enw ton ad shorn pias ek i 2 eee eens meso are Pedal a curved OiB-20 srt othr wads way andlations inthe sectinguit, + Foi my pokes In cael ls ‘S815 Falls Fas ay be defied 8 gma Srustes show Seaside see mee te [AS dhcile defomacons cane (Frocks and may be of any shang joint where curvature is mau tas fiom the hinge pon: Socks oceur in a sequence, th is called hinge line ‘and axial plane [surface is the surface drawn by throughout the depth of a fl fal the points of maximum cu surface ifs of planar nature it scaled scp Parallel to hinge line drawn to reeset the gees failed the axis ofa fold. by intersection ofthe axial plane with ny bl [sequence can have numberof as Bs the angle of inclination of as measured in a vertical pans like dip (ce bh in ters of dren of iplunge.) aap acted igh running through the highest point jerest (in fig 5.12)ig 514.0vertured fold ip ofthe two limbs may or my 9" bettePig 5 18Now pain fa ig .19.Puning Feldig bed, causing folding deformation structures continuous deformation rsp © that in a rock such asa joint or fwo or more picces ae called racks materials lst wcoss exceeding the rock sen permeability, make gules 108fect) in oc, p Weture da fine isthe intersection et of We a Pie basin Wall's the ck ay eae eaten ARG te ag fo the attitude oF ether pany = — escarpment erwoen the ifferetdicin, of sips ar I): Movement parle te (AE): Moyerocn paral! (AD): Movemsat cig bt Pesan nf faults flassified on the basis ofthe direction of das Blocks along the factueplane. Ive iisplocernent of the rock Wocks oot Fai nd (iin be Sie gy in te direction of dip sd (0 fault plane.ns on te pes of movement leer, ‘ms Nema oak oes downvaed lt¥E 10 th Ey Pi 2kAama fe soning placement othe Boks elon he Rowe © Rage ema wane te ort i ‘fault, : ln. a. ee can. Seen iouaetaree el ‘deplacement is lager in trust, iis called overthrust fault si ft atin which mesic Ghote plane called tke tie gest se sip Fah trike slip ft Besser ft a spec fem for 2 psi bom Fl 53. Horss en ra ual civersta 2 lois ded ‘oral filts with mu Topo (fig above), then | Horsts and those displaced 413ee on plane ip in ops retin J The blots are wedge shaped Sp cts tdi rook bos in itn Tete areal movement pre! 0 ‘Boars ence ar cald ois aes ier om Gas int hey exis, ines mene. sie erent test aes © fon pros, SS tee ata om rite acto rock uc My oe oil + filed precited micas they ered sins uy ty solid mag, they ae ald dice + Allow joins can cea singly, bot most fequcr, x slot san! ems eee eee Tet 4 st ystemis2 omer iterocking int ser de tothe nse arcs. i Poti ee iil ‘ uring their cooling oped duct compres mainly inthe core x ats foped duet shearing forces in the vicinity of fof the Folded rocks. sets strike parallel 19 the tothe dip sireion ote int sos strike parale=p fins y= bedding joines dre formed os arent of coopesiet ispothing bt areven Gah ves fo cops in he Bl be shove younger nts | 1 i ig39 A chet fol Poffo plane <2 the tis callod ve lane terminates before it reaches ants firs called Blind thrust a7tion is stopped, 4, PREVI dep iB significance, Hin ld as there is. ry rocks above and be! meen “of bes have been tito on of younger beds « thm younger ones) younger snd ole ntact plane of unconformity 8 al where the st fbove them. They repr om ora period of the unconformity i sll an fabave non-conformity may cnsn agora fer ‘They usually indicate hat : 43. Block diagram of «non confor NN fo sets of beds are parallel an ri scaled paso gap ine iis 1 ne, then the unconto jparaconformity, there i lars bn Between older and younger bei the entire geological columa 6 mis 119is. duet ae 7 rata occurs over you fats, the rocks ae found high angular fragments, Su ct founen of axial plano HE indenting et fi inthe es fate vicinity of «faut, the ens fsa ny 9g Which is caso by the fiat Speen ddue wo fit fare the tension faces fo uo fil i. They commonly develop auc a indicate the dretion of movement slang We nd mineralization rough a ful zeny dept f= eR)reams may shown an nc eas my EON be Fe he prey BE cota. ees ce eee yest other struct : © aed for he fs affected by presence of vaio el sca fe. a5 they affect he sifey fe egg, significance of folds he gly stained zones and cn Wing bug fems during tunneling, excavation wos, fof syncline can crea vin oad, cic. as such folds fave the aity walle: ‘beds dipping in vpsveam diecton ae mie Feith ar leakage posi thn te ne i the base stronelyes ee ea ae a of fault Sis with fais are the mS! unTavorabe fy, sv egicaing sucturs 1+ Fate rece te resisancelcompetence oF ret. tes By water) and can cause colapse o fasta ardheace are unit foundation sts." RIN TR die 16 a, trougt 16 the eee Bie sd be wie sop an damage or * Me site is quite undesira as the m bp se fail cncomplecly desioy eros 573 Engineering. + Sat ae wear oeame® of oats fn RNA ME fat and boing pans mt St Geto trl an bein) i tof the F eee oe PIERCE Of rocks (morc 0 aa tocks (io east and weathering of rocks an! or foundation of dans ashe PAk, 100F collapse, iointed. Problems in tunnel ge Pt in reservois; groundwstc mH Bag sie Spring of ne fie landsies ar slp. pA ert fs a a Be tes te ot br jor sod ck. bor eestor dacs they bse Bots hve 10 move Aileen fhnnene dicen: Fouls reformed bee Bie ots ae ford vies Treaking poi eee ear compare on cme of ils Freee of joins det Boparte blocks move parte blocks may nove pcre bt nt penta ter Falls can couse dey joins ly pose uc tate Derween folding 20 lig, Teun itis simply deformed | — cx is the _ductik tion (bending and ing) of rock masses | wher he oorurence of | cohesion te—— Ss =, Se ded. : pentose © im gradations local Tis forme dar compression Dr the other hand, tou forces, I Forces move Tees the fans Block mous saleys* Faulting usually joncous and roots tpressed and hence oie they stand oat i ni ghange over t0 till Metamenie Popularly expresscd os Gecurin between the tor SF aids which occurs wher vs ar no allo SEAN so folding, ang ee he EMRE a sear ype soi fs ae Be ta wich were oily toes ms Riper lopli ac aliasked to write the ete thelr ld evidences tors ges on recognition o . tention uxceator ye in structure Bs on either side of woconors stcosione aces ore as ey on eta sn eon may be recognized by inca ong them, the ee ofthe faults but ase ce in grade of met Ne Fals but ase nce in grade of metamorphisn Aevelop duet ber series of rocks are likely to b ompressiont ni blr seis ce in environment of deposition forma ander Ree maine bate vein by eset, all may also cause i — te influence of * ms indicates the presence ofa nincering consideration funerals sal esate a resko cot as such, thi presences ifvetskeh 8 pi ern quate agent abt Maes The bchsvou of ks hve rn poesay show 9 vs OS operies and hence aft he sti Trees owen contact, which wil alo" FS behave as bedding lane otssw 40? W—90°—N 50° 1S 50° W or N 50 je strike of an inc A plane i ne eat sketch, tl dete 20cm» MCh ‘of gnelss bedrock is SIT°E. Fad out stke of neat and suitable diagram. 2072 Kart, Buck Esa ,srike =? strike Dip diestonStain Stages of deformation of rks 9 Mdentiication of fault and Wo in the [2072-Kars, Bak xan Identification of faut in fld stratigraphic units and stage “in continuous stratigraphic s= Back Eve ology m topography or gsomertPain irctres intuence iegree of landslide hn ithe surface, tap peinicun tha reste econ al structures ogial saci, 42 ga ealulale apparest ip ant, er 7 [207 Siro ch aa Hip of x bed is kaown, the paras ex be worked ut ihe ha a=tan 0.0088 !apparent dp, 0 is tr dip Perna ange ire dip and apparen pcx. 2 Point out the engineering signs font 12073 Chair, ign ac (206 Caio Greens orev Mise vies cock bods in dite Eommonly form Retire movemcn: pais! w med sre faker place scaled join ; ipopesting | Me Significance of jolt ond ft fo $13 nd igh evel im of rock such st ina plane parallel to the mininum Kis stretched). This joins, iy, and 0 and whi accumulateda of disinteztation of rocks ino fof minerals. by chemical effects of water & followed by transportation of west jferosion ae Wind and running wate, im ce pravity ec. ; ste of weathering rocks ar soft & break dwn quickly Tock like slate & marbie tend 10 be ike granite & basalt are bird & break down very ‘of speed climates favor chemical weathering Jess affected by weathering 36 red by vegetation are to bare surfaces. ‘weather more quickly than basic om. ing is igh im coarse gin rocks (B=) fine grain rocks (bast).i Peekng orn crsioncr |__ pa 3 Blithe; i i ratty — esc ati, a ee ics Fos imas = = Betis exposes Sonn fe Water croion, wind crn a easel rose son ae ain emo Example: Maven vi cs on slanting suri Alu to gravity (gravitation jte channel patie & channet geometry st several ‘river channel Pa describe the shapes of river chan and bow fn shape and direction over tine Sand environmental conditiogs, including the and erodibility of ‘he bed and banks, the fof sediment, the rats of sediment transport hough el and the rate of deposition on the Moogplain, beds etc. gh as channel morphology, fuviemerphology ‘channels on. fy of area is characterized by hizh relief ‘rater is high. So, erosional rte is higher thas rate. ong the river path is higher than side etn, Xe \ Fig.61Sraigh Boerpt and chemical ation of vate oy esay works along joins an easy? Araspored materi temsces deo mang) ion eauses the rock fagmens ws et i gris become en, Wises rock fragments such as pebbles, gravel and Seraichine and grinding the sides nl ess of erosion is called abrasion i Ng Water hammers the uneven fics of joined its channel and removes the jeinad Heke is called hydraulic ston. by the stream is called ts loa, which ‘gravity in either of the following wa gh the river can li thom and cary them long ler particles like clay ans ‘much larger panicles ae ceri this way. ime in they ae card in he Ye load is brought to the seean by pounate ‘is also acquired from soluble rocks which oocur by a river downstream, are deposited st Mowing water i reduced. The soring o te as the large and heavier patces seve Tighter ones continue their joumey further deposits as sediments i aed alloviamealled an OXDOW lake — BI be soe sin Bedinens catalyst eg ‘triangular shaped deposi, i sum eum which is called deita.'* "% Sit apex races edad many deta are 8 Brahmaputra river, dels of Nile ive deat gE common examples of das, iT) J Fig65.Deta carried away by river fom steeper gan iradients giving rise tou brod, cone shaped fan. @ coarse material is dropped near the bse of sions {is caried further out onthe psi. called an alluvial fn. salle debris fan ot gar mer bank, During thfiver overtIOWs its bank and suk areas where ey Ee : Won Of alia alluvial plain formed in his way on cin * iter ae Because the food pin gos uy eroverflows its bank at foot gages” Sp walls | specific type of orue where te ys cu don ‘essentially stratified and horizoual naia height sealed a was bee the stream profile nal Usually found wees sna, the non-esistnt be E while the harder one ven eight, fom hich stems 10 erosion. #0 erode much faster than bad (ne side and gentle sys Of a ridge formed due. es me silt sized sediment. cof a glacier Be ass of fee Which moves verte ce of Bvt. ® snd from he compaction sn crystal of med in places where mre soow accom hat melts =. * fvork of glacier can be stud under te Mpefined as loosening and breaking of rk ms y er ee. While flowing over ajonts ck ar of jointed beock, pall ten 0, BE ooving a pling ae oft pe traion produces sais wl ges DA polished suface resus when sheets Pating of water in the cracks ad jit fre ea Hetoes Tn this manner, ck Suge fal Ss fa buge amount of rook debi by nos Giacicr transport sien 1° jun howeyg placiers c#O0e paraucs U-soupes vaneys, ty bythe tai and Doulton ih os ws of gi I fock formation created by the Past fished by abrasion the dows issoott al (eoacr we eee nt valleys oF cinq Wwidge that is formed bya src Nowing in sheet of glacial ee. . fof sand and gravel deposited dig he patches or in clisters ant chat ad steep slopes on ides, hich are excavated inthe bode by ge back by slcial deposits (gavel an sun) nd acta local aquifer. By alacors an i, Gfeded, sorted sei sof melt water. gravels atthe upp xt P but the downbill ses Fig 618.Formaton oo 1sttion of limestone, the clscly aps sis ocd lagsy by the udereoen snot Karst toposrply 4 the presence of numcous soko, el 8 x slow an [nares every year? iwolves Prccies Jommonlyin.karst, where a steam Moving Teaches suddenly dsappers inthe vere WY bappens when a seam tics + ip ito = hanncl et a partclar pce shy ifs chanel EF 6 cared in oii yl ech ra ig the salinity ow fom the groan Bein cavities of rocks, the rounds doin ‘ Peden ox hed micas. Tse dest ct produced by groundwater dpeston nh sin be spoil obs pd deposit of calcium sons Mn pete eran tom the ipa oF i" ites have pointed rs tna blot ct ape miner pnt of SH ee eh a ee armed onthe sent A ator jus below the vst Jectave runic ae 1s(45 Geta work of ad aetna ga vd Tee igginon ed aemed mow Prncial mode coe. : .. ees nn: tc arson an atom ied and reoval of loose By is proces, Imaierial by wind is ca z find srfceis gradually lowered, (Arion rts ta % hit vel with wi align in coli aun es ah Baier beak down, This process is called ation on the wrted in a Series of peated in a eves 0 ua ietesotianpsis aes,” “eS and 1s & ours, forest svinds and ~ ‘Aeotuan wey athe surface are arrying, capa if checked by see. part oF Bests, grooved & posh by crsine mds are called venta! where there is title Ma ae patel anspot where there as Moen there is steady at not cofsand. | rig vemos wind-eroded ridges commonly found in rocks of alicmate hard & soft character Mother and parallel to the direction of ‘osually undercut on their windward sides fom 5 to 15 metres and can be as Tong, 8ada agpantin, Ny mt of Won, ery tei oe aay? ‘id ing ae formation of Pitan Als calla shoo 8 igh 284 Peder 4. Zeupen ‘Wind abrasion erm a desert surface which fis a layer op resent rocks underlain By alayerof weak rocks into ridges famous + These ridge and now landscapes found in deserts are ss vgs '* Zevgen may be as high as 30 metres in height, 6452 Landorm rab 1. Sand dunes ere + A sand dine is defined as a broadly conical heap of st » characterized with two slopes on either side of a crest, * A mma dvd whe sande win ons aes ‘obstruction, Such a5 4 boulder or a bush. The seta causes some check inthe velocity of wind, whic is enna dp soe od (pres) kn. Sees oo + Sand dines have «gee slope ($10 15° on the windward steeper slope (20° to 30°) on the leeward side. yomey ag Manes whose longs of wind. ore formed i areas where dines with rounded or pin of sand is available dunes tion. are developed by win onsiderble length of ime. ‘They are formed where win blanket over the existins tis unconsolidated, um particles of te size range Fe shaped dunes, the convex 5 “The silt & sand particles caved bY wi Tandfrms ae cl 1 the oe fequy si nore sand i aaiabe a blowing in the ne 1 is nen wire Jrsifcd and pres 8° 0.50 yn in d= 35 bars ast vind Pecads oualy develop in song wind seas, whee sal rein ie othe625 Pan een de ASM Ste fl get unlating sardy "ce, 4. item appoint Heaton Spon en + Thy monly ene a fp src send gram and se oni fo onto mses ick 6:46 Got wer ex ater Seo ‘garded a one ofthe most powertl geological agents operating sr. ath, The geological work of $e War involves erosion, trnspit S and deposition, 64.61 Erosional features of ea water 1. Wavecut oli + Sleep to vetal or overhanging eff formed by the crosne ction of sea waves atthe base of coastal land. * This seavard sloping surfice is formed wien sea wescs cai ‘asin the rocky showe and et its base actively 2. Wave cut bench ' + Narrow area atthe bas ofa se cliff + Formed by wave erpsion as hesea waves undercut actif. 3. Bays r 3 Abuy isa body of water suroanded by land on most of sides. © Alar bay scaled gules 646.2 Deposiona feature of ea 1. Beach Z spacas of sndand gavel thts deposited along sea shes * Bescher oe mde mp of sineal pie lie cece ech fragments ani pecesofshell oreo, © ® 1 water [extending from mintand ou areas where thee i line Such asa hela, " padden cng in te Barly exposed deo sad vite ua bet ween two headlands is Hacked oy skown as «bat ff water bond the bars known a ig ih fbr that connects an iad tthe mainland owner Formed by wave refractions dicen, Mat, sediment covered areas. of se ox No By the accumulation of Ince oor over along pesiod of time ete ex nour oop by ewe fal iam (com Penpabaped coral ces with a stabw cna seb central sland ,: Me top of an atoll is gener fa H (Note : Lagoon — 2 shallow boxy of Wt os exter body) a | Bw |12069. Chairay ueney of occurrence Which occur very fen areal ily occur at cus pate vic erupt fe long itera, ele ss = 51a afin cr’ ca 2 Utig Be very long time in geological history are caled extn rend own pa = a - ek ai etl et wd tes The vent are natuly occurring and connect the surface oF iby several subsidiary channels {0 «mem chenber, which fhe main storage for thc cag by cone and eatr structure aan age forthe ert y fepission of lava takes place quit fom the ines sss iearecte ltd othe eruption of nagm Halder, Woleanie-tectonic depressions ct. on ee one Ne igs are rypicaly (3p) ofthe wits ou tably basalts Fre ul by cucasive erin os. eseited with re nS [2074-Chairs} 168he gases do not «sre frequently build up a in eruption. al the size he pyocass ax fagments of dead avs ae cid formed when large pi of during an exp = of sid tn ae Berd Somewhat rounded she apo ce i alld voles bo Saat ‘ent and often scciesrjamic pes dig flight. BE Scilly oF pun. atrial deposicg articles that range in size between 0254 me il leaie ash. formed during expesve voc erations sho izes in magma expand ad scape vale mosphere. files of size ess than 025 mmarecalel Ost Termin surpended inthe soso: uP ig red suuts ae lina isto nas lavas a vet ous and less mi foand es away. associated with voleanss les and sometimes. ye Allow the dio! ee ah voles oni only fund aso ‘yater which pent 16spiseos ewanations fy gives se to hoy et ot sc, ae called ey tof water cane led Out appearance diferent clus tht specie py lend to Become opsaue fand fresh appearar ed supersene enchnsan dm the formation of none oe at =e op > ae pies and gics acquire aque hasrerha i efi ees eh ai vente foeks est fr be ave poaings a Bzsee end reling wih coer as a Weathered rocks lose the it th frrailway ballast or road metal oe ue to sea waves resin cos Cifbcult problems for civil nzinsen dirocks being weak ae ursinbl vm (formes slopes may tum out to pneering hazard, Qk ‘of thorouzhly in es silting problems in case ofr He eapaciy of esr, note wos ect Bear, westcring poses many ote fc be nse notes on Ventifacts en fete. 2 The poli Mou agents is cased Agent ce gts pond wal © “After on 15fo abrasive action of Theabrasve cape” Peeters" Tayers of the forms nt Tigers ofthe fomaon'y |Sommonly our in group pany coi szsint cach ost salle ation about the changes in cant aut Mad surface we the ou ofthe Fea agents having both consuive as rll te the existing surficial % developed by air fer 64.51 and for hse ater refer 644 ra actors for Fock we ng. 2072-Kar, Back Exon) ‘ihr due to chemical desornposton oc dae ‘The nmin caustve Tocers for mk expands. So, when liquid water Pad freezes, is expansion can case dpe and eventually break pices off rhea heat absorbed from te surousig ir Mo cxpand. This expansion ard te wot cn he ok vel ss nt ute layer to pee of Pa 5 si rom a grounder sup hr Pee ier waves along # rocky cost or Both Searing behind sail teen fas of erystals. The growing sa "© eventual breaks feccurs when pans fren borrowing ane its ee arrow to SHS OS also consi siglogical weatherins well. oon [2070- (shad, Back Ex"GEOLOGY OF NEPAL ange extends about 2400 kn fom ns Rivne Fa te east. t separates tbe Indo-Cangic a from plates din pte plat. Mimalaya can be divided into 5 pysiossie Son re y eg a prodice rym ou south non oe “zones are extencling cast to west ‘and almost parallel 10 plain or Tera 2000 Siwali or iia. Seeley pone (icant, Mostians ="by the collision 4 Indian plaie, of sis the extension of Indo-Gangetic = 2 sc pie BSE Sor cca fhe nd Nepal ors esa oe se of + - te Indian pla Beal cS Minti cy fn Stina HT pte vn avi dst of care lo fran fer seimes ik yeh ures it: 4 Cs -zone (Northern Terai) ‘Phabar zone lies adjacent to the foothills of Southard. UTThis zone, is composcd of. hick sodments, tenets! ©) Gobbler, pebbles, boulder and sind dened msl fom = of Himalayss. The Northrn Tesi acs asa recharge zoe fo eH of Tent. wer palaya & Sivas.the typical Gants lain eect ofthe Churis range jist, $5 ken thick fomeratcs, apie We SiWalik in between SSpmrated by MT wat si faulting and tirsing Hike gran, pops majority of hills 6 into two zones: Malabo=# resent a step cx ientle spe toward Psst Rane crc by Sas pacan ce, pyc ie Hs inti by the major ses ofthe athe water of Nepal origina tthe Nec fRagetsdninedotiote Sout ily and te Midlands, te tpg Rang vnc wih i cing Nok, pd jen and cop southern slopes vrs! to other physiographic wis, hs zone exhiis » Mandscape anc Ws liology is charac) by he sf panic, quartzite, ene, schist pli, Imesne zon ies tothe north of ese Hinalay 208 betmsen MCT and STDs Mra tctamorpic rocks ike ices, males it ee. tn suet ith high-pe index nen He gmc, et. ate found i this 7006 some region rant intsions areas ound many high snow clad mountains vratenely high reli, steep tposraphy, re rn ad ose ‘with il soil cover train. hin zone esto ror iNet wep ck This marcos ta b= Hl ep 9 arse pees Fonslfrous sediment fre fund in tis 708 a ae fo i hk fing lsh asi Frdng with sent als Fees ik ior, ands, lS deposits vs“uoZ skipo] -teaqit (4) “ouoz depen Joys] “oul0z seAvpeuntyy 1998977 “2002 ITeMIS 10 sedejourTy-qng “auoz ee Uyeld onaue)-opuy + are yedan Jo worstatp a1u0yo0,