INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master, UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. ‘The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete ‘manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (¢g, maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps, Each original is also photographed in one exposure and is included in reduced form at the back of the book. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6” x 9” black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appeating in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. UMI ‘A Bell & Howell Information Company ‘300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor MI 48106-1346 USA 313/761-4700 800/521-0600‘THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES THE RITE OF SPRING BY IGOR STRAVINSKY: A COMPARATIVE PERFORMANCE CRITIQUE BASED ON SOUND RECORDINGS FROM 1929-1993 By WILLIAM J. WATERS A Dissertation submitted to the Program in the Humanities in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 19969627218 UMI Microform 9627218 Copyright 1996, by UME Company. All rights reserved. ‘This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Tile 17, United States Code. UMI 300 North Zesb Road ‘Ann Arbor, MI 48103‘The members of the Committee approve the dissertation of William J. Waters defended on February 23, 1996. ain Outside Committee Member a Karen Laugh? Committee MemberFor Dorie, My Little Princess Ee ESACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank Dr. Jack Taylor for his helpful suggestions during the course of this project. Also, Barry Kirsch deserves special recognition for his technical assistance. Individuals and organizations to which I owe a debt of gratitude for tracking down many rare recordings include: Jerry Young, David Devensky, Becky Baltas and WUWF (Public Radio, The University of West Florida), The Stanford Archive of Recorded Sound, Bernard Lutz (Archivist, National Archives of Canada), and James R. Heintze, (Music Librarian, ‘The American University). In addition to all those cited in the References (Correspondence), I would also like to extend @ special thanks to several eminent scholars in the field of music who some how found time to provide unique, and very helpful, insights: Harold Schonberg, José Bowen, Jeffrey Hollander, and Louis Cyr. Last, but certainly not least, I wish to thank my extraordinary wife for her continued support and my dear mother for her everlasting encouragement.TABLE OF CONTENTS LIGTIOPEIGURES| (oe LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES ..- ~~... 1 +s chapter FG INTRODUCTION © ee ee ee ee Problem and Relevant Literature Purpose Methodology ‘The Recordings Measuring Duration Measuring Tempo DURATIONAL TRENDS IN THE RITE OF SPRING . Total Work and Parts Sections: Part I Sections: Part II Recorded Concerts vs Studio Recordings Recorded Concerts: The Data CONTRIBUTING FACTORS TO CHANGES IN DURATION Preliminaries “Introduction,” Pt.I “Spring Rounds” “Introduction,” Pt.II “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls” “Ritual Action of the Ancestors” Page vii xiv 16 344. SLOWING TEMPI IN THE RITE OF SPRING: THE SEARCH FORA RATIONALE»... +--+ eee + 83 Preliminaries Multiple Recordings by the Same Conductor The Influence of Recording Technology Musical Expression 5. NEW QUESTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS ... ~~... ~~. - 105 Music as Written, Music as Performed Conclusions Gee UGURES ee ig APPENDICES A. Discography and Reviews»... 2. eee ee ATL B. ‘Timings (DeltaGraph Spreadsheet) - 1.2.1: 2 182 C. Tempo Mapper: An Overview... 2.22... + + 190 DS Copyright|rormiselon@ ipa eee ee 197 Pix goooooogouGo0d5oG0000 9 tH BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH «2... 1. eee ee ee ee 5 207Figure 2.1. 2.13. 2d. 2.15. 2.16. 2.17. 2.18. 2.19. LIST OF FIGURES Durations, Total Work. 2.2... 2... Durations, PEI. 2... eee eee Durational Paradigns, Pt.I. ... 1... Durations, Pt.II. 2... ee ee ee Durations, “Introduction,” Pt.I. ....- Durational Paradigms, “Introduction,” Pt.I. Durations, “Augurs of Spring.” ... 2... Durations, “Ritual of Abduction.” .... . Durations, “Spring Rounds.” 2... 6. Durational Paradigms, “Spring Rounds.” . . Durations, “Ritual of the Rival Tribes, Durational Paradigms, “Ritual of the Rival Tribes.” 9. 0 eee eee ee ee Durations, “Procession of the Sage.” . . . Durations, “The Sage.” 2... ee ee Durations, “Dance of the Earth.” ..... Durational Paradigms, “Dance of the Earth.” Durations, “Introduction,” Pt.II. .. 2. + Durational Paradigms, “Introduction,” Bene eee eee Durations, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girlevee eee ee ee Page qa 11s us 116 116 7 117 1s 118 119 119 120 120 121 aaa 122 122 123 1232.20. 2.21. 2.22. 2.23. 2.24. 2.25. 2.26. 2.27. 2.28. 2.29. 3.1. 3.2. 3.3, 3.4. 3.5. 3.6. Durations, “Glorification of the Chosen One.” pe ee eee eee Durations, “Evocation of the Ancestors.” Durations, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors.” Durational Paradigns, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors.” ..... ss Durations, “Sacrificial Dance.” . . Durations, Total Work (Recorded Concerts) . Durations, “Ritual of the Rival Tribes” (Recorded Concerts). --...~ Durations, “Introduction,” Pt.IT (Recorded Concerts)... +s Durations, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors” (Recorded Concerts). ..... Durations, “Sacrificial Dance” (Recorded Concerts). .... + ‘Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Stravinsky 1929. ‘Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Stravinsky 1940. ‘Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Stravinsky 1960. ‘Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Beats 1-35, Stravinsky 1929, 2.2... es ‘Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Beats 1-35, Morten $2920 Se suegeeae eee ‘Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Beats 1-35, van Bein...) eee ee eee ‘Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Beats 1-35, Stravinsky 1940. 2.2... ee ‘Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Beats 1-35, Stravinsky 1960. .......- ‘Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Beats 1-35, Bernstein 1958... ....-4+ viii 124 124 125 125 126 126 127 127 128 128 129 129 130 130 131 432 132 132 1333.10. 3.11. 3.12. 3.13. 3.14, 3.15. 3.16. 3.17. 3.18. 3.19. 3.20. 3.21. 3.22. 3.23. 3.24. 3.25. 3.26. Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Beats 1-35, Nahtes1 977 eae ees eee fe ‘Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Maazel 1974. ‘Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Beats 148-178, Stravinsky 1940/60... 2... .- Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Beats 148-178, Monteux 1951, van Beinum. .... « Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Beats 148-178, Solti 1974... 2. ee ee ee ‘Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Beats 148-178, Sernstein 195650 .gsess) ses eee Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Beats 148-178, iMnawel':1974/ 8053 cnectey rete ers Tempo Map, “Sprin Rounds,” Beats 148-178, ST imotei es eect ee Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Monteux 1951. ‘Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Wodiczko. Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Mehta 1977. . “Spring Rounds,” Slatkin. ‘Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Valek. . Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.II. Monteux'1929. 2. ee ee ee Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Stokowski ett ee ‘Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Stravinsky 1940. ......-2- Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Bernstein 1958... ... 2.00% ix “spring Rounds,” Stokowski. “spring Rounds,” Leibowitz. “spring Rounds,” Solti 1974. 133 134 134 135 135 136 136 137 137 138 138 139 139 140 140 141 141 142 142 1433.30. 3.31. 3.32. 3.33. 3.34, 3.35. 3.36. 3.37. 3.38. 3.39. 3.40. 3.41. 3.42. 3.43. 3.44. 3.45. Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.IT, Leibowitz. - +e eee ee ee ‘Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.IT, Bernstein 1972... . +. es ‘Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.IT, Rattle 1987... - + ee eee ‘Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.1T, Beats 1-50, Monteux 1929... - Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Beats 1-50, Stokowski. . .. . ‘Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Beats 1-50, Stravinsky 1940. « Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Beats 1-50, Bernstein 1958/72. ‘Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Beats 1-50, Rattle 1987. .. . Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.II, aAnsermet 1950. .. 2... + Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Schwere’) set ec ‘Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Crsth Sedge cocc ‘Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Beats 187-208, Stokowski Stravinsky 1940, Monteux 1929. Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.IZ, Beats 187-208, Schwarz, Bernstein 1958. ‘Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Stravinsky 1929. .. . ‘Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Stravinsky 1940. .. . Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Monteux 1945... 2. . 143 144 144 145 145 146 146 147 147 148 148 149 149 150 150 1513.46. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Stokowski. 2... ee ee ee ee 181 3.47. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls," Goossens. «see ee ee ee es 152 3.48. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls," Maazel 1974. 6 2. 2 ee ee ee es 182 3.49. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” "Mata 1991. 2 2... ee ee ees 188 3.50. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Craft 1991. 2... 2+ ee ee ee 153 3.51. po Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Frihbeck de Burgos. ........ . 154 3.52. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Dorati 19599. 2... 2.2.22 ---. 154 3.53. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Bernstein 1958... 2... + 155 3.54. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Wodiczko. - see ee eee ee 158 3.55. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Beats 215-245, Stravinsky 1940/60, Stokowski, Ormandy. .. 2. 2 ee ee ee es 156 3.56. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Beats 215-245, Stravinsky 1929, Monteux 1929/45. - eee ee eee ee es 156 3.57. Tempo map, “Mystic Cirales of the Young Girls,” Beats 215-245, Ansermet 1950/57, van Beinum. 2 ee ee ee et ee ee 187 3.58. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls," Svetlanov. 2... eee ee ee ee 157 3.59. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Temirkanov. 2.2... 22+... 158 3.60. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls, Rahbari. we ee ee ee ee + 158 3.61. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls," Iimori. .. ee ee ee eee 1893.62. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls," Beats 215-245, Svetlanov, Temirkanov. eee ee et ee ee 189 3.63. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls, Beats 215-245, Svetlanov, Temirkanov (in seconds). .. +... ++. + 160 3.64. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls, Beats 215-245, Bernstein 1958. . . . . 160 3.65. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls, Beats 215-245, Karajan 1964/77... . 161 3.66. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Beats 215-245, Iinori, Maazel 1974, 2 eee ee ee ee ee ee MEL 3.67. Ratios of Metric Pulse, “Introduction,” Pt.II and “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls.” . . 162 3.68. Tempo Map, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Stokowski. + + 162 3.69. po Map, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Stravinsky 1940... 2 ee ee ee ee ee 163 3.70. Tempo Map, "Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” van Beinum. see ee ee ee ee ee ee 163 3.71. Tempo Map, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Ormandy, oe ee ee eee ee ee 16M 3.72. Tempo Map, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Goossens. 2 ee eee ee ee ee 16M 3.73. Tempo Map, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Rnoer late eye ere erry ee 165 3.74. Tempo Map, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Karajan 1964. 2. ee ee ee ee ee 165 3.75. Tempo Map, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Stravinsky 1929, 2... eee ee ee ee 166 3.76. Tempo Map, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Leibowitz. 6. ee ee ee ee ee ee 166 3.77. Tempo Map, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Bernstein 1972... ..- +--+ +++ eee 1673.78. ‘Tempo Map, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Mata 1979/91. ee ee ee ee ee 167 3.79. Tempo Map, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” ‘Timor: tes 168 3.80. Tempo Map, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Jansons. . eee ee ee ee 168 3.81. Tempo Map, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Valeke ee ee ee ee ee ee ee 169 4.1. Durations, Repeat Recordings (Slower). ... . 169 4.2. Durations, Repeat Recordings (Faster). .- - . 170 C.l. User Interface for Tempo Mapper 1.02. .... . 190 xiiiLIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES Example Page 3.1. Score, “Introduction,” Pt.I, Beginning- Pee de oo adoodmaedoc5q5 <4 3.2. Score, “Spring Rounds,” No.48+(1-5), (Beats 1-38). 0 ee Ad 3.3. Score, “Spring Rounds,” No.49+(1-6), (Bente 6=63) seuss ee 3.4. Score, “Spring Rounds,” Nos.52(+3)-53(+2). . . 46 3.5. Score, “Spring Rounds,” No.53+(3-8), (Beats 148-170). ee ee ee ee 9 3.6. Score, “Spring Rounds,” Nos.53(+9)=54(+2), (Beats 171-189)... eee eee eee ee 50 3.7. Score, “Introduction,” Pt.II, No.79+(1-4), (Beats 1-18). ee ee ee ee ee 56 3.8. Score, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Nos.79(+5)-81, (Beats 19-35)... ee ee ee ee ee 8 3.9. Score, “Introduction,” “Pt.II, Nos.83(+3)- 86(+2), (Beats 69-116)... eee eee ee 5B 3.10. Score, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Nos.86(+3)- 87(42), (Beats 117-151). 2 ee eee ee ee 59 3.11. Score, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Nos.88(+3)— 90(+3), (Beats 165-207). 2... 2... 63 3.12. Score, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Nos.92(+3)-94(+4), (Beats 26-74)... . 2. . 66 3.13. Score, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Nos.94(+5)-97(+3), (Beats 75-117). ..... 68 xiv3.14. 3.15. 3.16. 3.17, 3.18. 3.19. 3.20. Score, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Nos.97(+4)-100, (Beats 118-170)... . Score, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Nos.101(+1)=102(+1), (Beats 200-222). . . Score, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Nos.102(+2)-103(+1), (Beats 223-243). . . Score, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Nos.129=130(+5), (Beats 1-48). ..... Score, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Nos. 130(+6)=132(+3), (Beats 49-80)... . Score, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Nos.135-136(+1), (Beats 118-130). - Score, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Nos.138(+3)-139(+1), (Beats 157-173). . . 69 72 73 78 79 80 81ABSTRACT The recent interest in sound recordings has given rise to the curious notion that, within the canon of western art music, works are generally performed slower today than in the earlier part of the century. However, the principal concern of this dissertation stems from weaknesses in the methods often utilized to arrive at this conclusion. Specifically, most studies are based on selected performances rather than comprehensive evaluations of individual works. The principal goals of this dissertation are: (1) to develop a methodology for establishing trends with regard to temporal change, (2) to determine significant changes in the temporal paradigm for Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring over the course of its recorded history (1929-1993), (3) to identify specific areas in which such change has taken place, (4) to attempt to understand why any transformations have occurred, (5) to determine what new insights and/or questions might spring from an inguiry of this nature. Chapter 2 presents the timings for all sections of The Rite as recorded since 1929. The data indicates that The Rite was, indeed, generally performed faster during the xvifirst half of the century. Focusing on sections exhibiting a marked trend toward slower tempi, Chapter 3 provides graphic illustrations of temporal patterns via a computer program called Tempo Mapper. This program plots the time intervals between successive beats thus providing an excellent means of correlating aspects of the notated score with performance. Chapter 4 focuses on possible reasons for slower tempi (i-e., changes in recording technology and conductorial style) and also examines the extent to which the written literature supports the findings of the previous chapters. Chapter 5 explores several questions regarding music as written vs music as performed, and presents the following conclusions with regard to The Rite of Spring specifically: (1) Longer durations of more recent performances of The Rite can be attributed to a growing number of slower interpretations of the slow sections. (2) The trend in slower interpretations has been accompanied by an increased expressiveness in style (e.g., flexibility of tempo). (3) In some sections there has been a narrowing of interpretative variety over the years with regard to overall tempo.CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Problem and Relevant Literature One of the most interesting areas of msicological research emanates from the following question: How does a musical work change over time? The way in which a work is performed today is, most likely, quite different than the way in which it was performed three-hundred, two-hundred, or even seventy-five years ago. Historical treatises, reviews, criticism, and eyewitness accounts have increased our understanding immensely. However, as we cannot relive history, we will never know exactly how the music of Bach, Beethoven, or any other early composer was performed in their time. “The fact is that whereas the early-instrument players may give an idea of what classic forces sounded like, they convey little idea of how it actually was played." Fortunately, the situation is quite different with regard to musical performance in this century. Since the late 1800s sound recording has provided an effective counter to transiency, enabling the researcher to juxtapose, repeat, llarold Schonberg, Horowitz: His Life and Music (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 347. aland carefully study aspects of performance practice in unprecedented detail. Indeed, as our century is now suitably poised for historical reflection, there’ is evidence scholars have begun to recognize the value of this recorded documentation. One indicator of this growing interest is found in the curious notion (derived largely from sound recordings) that within the canon of western art music, works are generally performed slower today than in the earlier part of the century. While the idea is frequently encountered in the literature, Harold C. Schonberg is probably the most prominent advocate of the theory. A statement from his recent biography of Valadimir Horowitz exemplifies Schonberg’s view: Because of today’s slowdown in tempo, the 1932 Horowitz performance of the Liszt Sonata [B minor] may sound fast. But it wasn’t in its day. Horowitz's timing is 26 minutes, 30 seconds. Timings from the 1950s and 1960s show Rubenstein at 25/28", Alexander Brailowsky at 26702", Clifford Curzon at 25/35", Van Cliburn at 26’50", and Emil Gilels at 25/38". Today the average is around’ 30 minutes and getting longer.? Mr. Schonberg has conveyed similar remarks to the author (pers. com. 1994): Yes, there has indeed has [sic] been a decided slowdown in tempos the last thirty years or so. My own scores, which have 50 years of timings, show things like the Brahms D minor Piano concerto at c.35 minutes in the 1930's, and at 50 and above these days. In the 1950's and 1960's the Tchaikovsky Fifth took from 41 to 43 322.minutes, Last season Maazel and the Pittsburgh Symphony took 50'30", Additional evidence in support of today’s slower tempi can be found in Robert Philip’s illuminating study Early Recordings and Musical Style. The following comments from this work are representative: ‘The degree of acceleration heard in many pre-war recordings would be considered uncontrolled in modern performance. One of the results of this modern caution is that the maximum tempos within movements are usually slower in post-war than in pre-war performances, so that the average tempo of a movement has generally dropped.? Although the idea of slowing tempos might seem at odds with the rapidly changing world in which we live, Sandra Rosenblum has arrived at a similar conclusion: Significant tempo deviations today tend toward the slow side. Apparently we can lay to rest the once-fashionable notion that our faster pace of life, our ‘improved’ instruments, and our superior technique incline us to faster tempos... One must admit this particular idea regarding twentieth century musical performance is intriguing. However, the principal concern of this dissertation stems from what I perceive as weaknesses in the methods utilized to arrive at the conclusion. For example, most of the studies previously cited are based on selected performances rather than sRobert Philip, Early Recordings and Musical Style: Changing Tastes in Instrumental Performance, 1900-1950, (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 35. ‘Sandra P. Rosenblum, Performance Practices in Classic Piano Music: Their Principles and Applications, (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988), 353.4 comprehensive evaluations of individual works. Moreover, the level of detail is often shallow. Simple timings for movements or entire works are useful but can be misleading because they convey little regarding specific points at which any marked change in tempo may be concentrated. This is especially important for any study attempting to discover factors contributing to longer durations above and beyond the obvious fact of a slower tempo in general. Such features might include extended fermatas, longer note values, excessive ritardandi, or any other factor with the potential to affect overall duration. Also, any passage lasting more than a few measures should be closely observed as brief fluctuations in tempo are bound to be present. Purpose, In October of 1964 Igor Stravinsky took it upon himself to write a review of three performances of The Rite of Spring, “partly out of annoyance with the useless generalities of most record reviewing.”5 (Obviously, the usual barrage of adjectives and subjective opinion typical of record reviews was not to the composer's liking.) One might say this dissertation has been undertaken in the same vein, albeit in a more formal guise with the following goals in mind: (1) to develop a methodology for establishing Serica Heisler Buxbaum, “Stravinsky, Tempo, and Le sacre,” Performance Practice Review 1 (Spring 1988): 64.‘trends with regard to temporal change, (2) to determine if there has been any significant change in the interpretative paradigm for Stravinsky’s The Rite of Spring over the course of its recorded history (1929-1993), (3) to identity specific areas in which such change has taken place, (4) to attempt to understand why any transformations have occurred, (5) to determine what new insights and/or questions might spring from an inquiry of this nature. In a more general sense, one additional point should be made with regard to intent. This inquiry is analytical in so far as Stravinsky's composition is broken down into its component parts and observed. However, in most cases music analysis takes the written (fixed) score as a point of departure. A rationale for this tradition has been proposed by José Bowen: For the last three hundred years, composers have increasingly tried to exercise more control over the variability of performances by being more specific in everything from pitch content and instrumentation to dynamics and even the physical experience of playing. With this growing emphasis on the immutable notated text, it was only natural that musicologists study scores and not performances. The nineteenth-century model for a musical work, which musicology inherited, was based upon Beethoven's ‘finished’ scores and the letzter Hand concept: the idea that an artist creates a final fixed and immortal text.¢ ‘José Bowen, “The History of Remembered Innovation: Tradition and Its Role in the Relationship Between Musical Works and Their Performances,” The Journal of Musicology 11 (Spring 1993): 140.Therefore, since this study is devoted primarily to the changing aspects of The Rite of Spring it is, perhaps, more appropriately classified as music criticism. In fact, Jeffrey Hollander has formally proposed the type of investigation presented in the following pages: “...a new model of performance criticism, comparative performance criticism: the comparison of a large number of performances of a single work.”7 It is hoped that by adopting this approach the reader will gain insights into the malleable nature of music in general and, of course, The Rite of Spring in particular. Methodology The Rite of Spring was deemed a suitable test case for this project for several reasons: (1) It is, arguably, the most significant composition of the twentieth century. As such, it has acquired a substantial recorded legacy (spanning the eras of 78s, LPs, and CDs). (2) The work has been recorded under the baton of many legendary conductors (and the composer), several of whom have recorded the work more than once. (3) As the orchestral forces required to perform The Rite of Spring are very large, most musicians (and the public in general) have come to know this work from 7Jeftrey Hollander, “Shaping the Interpretation, Interpreting the Shape: A Comparative Performance Study of Selected Works of Frederic Chopin” (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1993), 7.recordings--in many cases, exclusively. (4) The mechanical nature of much of The Rite quickly sets into relief any deviation (rubato, tempo flexibility, etc.) froma consistent tempo. (5) Probably more than any other composer of the early 20th century, Stravinsky wished to utilize recording technology to establish interpretative precedents to which subsequent conductors should take heed. In a statement made in 1954--as well as on many other occasions, the composer's intentions were crystalline: When I conduct, the music is presented pretty nearly the way I want it. ‘That is why I’ve been conducting recording sessions of most of my music. In the future there will be no doubt as to how it should be played.® However, in reference to Stravinsky's recordings of the 1960s, Glenn Gould pondered the extent to which “these authentic documents [would] inhibit future conductors from indulging that revelatory aspect of interpretation....”9 Since 30 years have now passed, perhaps an answer to this extraordinary performer’s question is now within reach. The Recordings Tracing the recorded history of a musical work can be a daunting task. With regard to this study specifically, more ‘than one obstacle was encountered beginning with the 8vera Stravinsky and Robert Craft, Stravinsky in Pictures and Documents (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1978), 308. SGlenn Gould, “The Prospects of Recording,” High Fidelity Magazine 16 (April 1966): 56-57.different revisions and editions of the score. Fortunately, the different editions of the score for The Rite of Spring contain few alterations of structural significance. David Drew has noted that, in general, “Stravinsky’s revisions only rarely affect the structure...” Indeed, the overall structure and length of The Rite of Spring (i.e., the number of beats) has remained unchanged since its Paris premiere May 29, 1913. One can easily follow Stravinsky’s performance of 1929 with the 1967 edition of the score.1! A more formidable barrier in this study was obtaining a large percentage of the recordings of The Rite of Spring. This was very time-consuming as there have been least 81 commercially available recordings of The Rite since 1929, many of which have become quite rare. The problem was compounded by the fact that, unlike books or journal articles, most Libraries refuse to loan sound recordings. Fortunately, this situation has been recently mitigated to some degree as many record companies are beginning to rerelease older recordings in modern formats. wWpavid Drew, “Stravinsky's Revisions,” The Score 20 (1957) 49-50. in-depth chronologies of the different revisions of the score can be found in the work of Pieter C. van den Toorn (Stravinsky and The Rite of Spring) and Robert Craft (Stravinsky in Pictures and Documents).9 Of course one can never be sure all the recordings of a particular work have been unearthed. In this regard, José Bowen (pers. com. 1994) has provided a word to the wise: I£ you simply must have all recordings, you will not be done for decades, not years, decades!..someone will always find more, you will never be done and confident that you have them all....Aim for a larger percentage, perhaps 90% of all commercial recordings Thus it can be said with a high degree of confidence the 73 recordings surveyed in this dissertation constitute a statistically valid sample (at least 90%) of the range of recorded interpretations The Rite of Spring has traversed over the past 65 years. Recordings known to exist but unavailable for evaluation are marked in the discography (Appendix A). Also, only widely available (at some time) commercial recordings of the orchestral version have been included. Adaptations for film (e.g., Disney’s Fantasia), private recordings (bootlegged and legitimate), versions for piano, and all other arrangements have been excluded. In an effort to eliminate as many variables as possible, recordings of live performances have been relegated to a subset of the main focus of the paper and will receive only a small degree of attention. A detailed justification for this approach will emerge toward the end of Chapter 2. Another problem in a study of this type is establishing the date on which the actual recording session(s) took place. Soon after commencing this project it was found that both copyright and publication dates are frequently poor10 indicators of recording date. To make matters worse, record companies often fail to provide any clues regarding this information, particularly for older recordings. Thus many discographies, record catalogs, and biographies were consulted to obtain specific dates for recordings. when no date was available, an estimate was made based on pertinent information. Recordings with estimated date of recording are so indicated in the discography. Also, it should be noted that references to reviews are included in the discographical citation rather than the bibliography. Measuring Duration ‘Tracking the performance durations of musical works over a period of time is nothing new. In the mid-nineteenth century Sir George Smart timed about 140 orchestral performances between 1819 and 1843. However, the lack of information regarding his procedure (whether repeats were taken, whether timings included the breaks between movements, etc.) limits the usefulness of his work. Moreover, this particular study is impaired for the simple reason Sir George’s watch probably had no second hand. “Most of his timings are given as an integral number of minutes, but about 1 in every 15 as so-many-and-a-half minutes ."12 Nicholas Temperley, “Tempo and Repeats in the Early Nineteenth Century,” Music & Letters 47 (1966): 324.a Modern technology has provided a variety of means to exceed the accuracy of Smart's admirable effort. In this study timings for The Rite of Spring were obtained with a conventional stopwatch with a resolution of 1/100 of a second. First, each section was measured. Subsequently, the durations for each of the two Parts and the work as a whole were derived by simply adding these figures. The traditional structural divisions of The Rite are included here for reference. Part I Part IZ Introduction Introduction ‘The augurs of Spring Mystic Circles of the Young Girls Ritual of abduction Glorification of the Chosen one Spring Rounds Evocation of the Ancestors Ritual of the Rival Tribes Ritual Action of the Ancestors Procession of the sage Sacrificial Dance ‘The sage Dance of the Earth In cases where the beginning of the recording was difficult to synchronize with my own initiation of the stopwatch, the recording was repeated until various cues (e.g-, innocuous scratches or some other identifying features for 78s and LPs, or the digital counter for CDs) were established. Moreover, all the timings were made by myself so that any inaccuracy in the lag time between the12 beginning of a recording and the stopwatch is equally distributed over all the recordings. It should be pointed out that it is virtually impossible to obtain an “exact” timing for any sound recording as there are simply too many unknowns. However, it is believed the most pressing problem, i.e., equalization, was adequately countered to provide a level of accuracy capable of substantiating the conclusions drawn in this study. First, a stroboscopic disk was used to check the accuracy of the turntable used for 78 rpm and 331/3 rpm recordings. However, this procedure was helpful in establishing only a general reference point. It was soon discovered, in early recordings specifically, that 78 rpm is not always 78 rpm. In this regard, the expertise of David Lennick was helpful: ++:not all ‘78s’ play at 78! Prior to electrical recording, speeds from 70 to 90 rpm were in use, and even after 1925, when the industry settled on 78.26 as the standard, there were all sorts of variations to be found. Virtually everything Victor recorded in 1929 has to be played at just above 76 rpm....American Columbias between about 1941 and 1948 are also off-speed for some reason and need to be slowed down.1? Consequently, each recording was also checked with an al (440) tuning fork vis-a-vis the opening al in the bassoon at the second fermata in the “Introduction,” Pt.I. Although it is known that some conductors tune to other frequencies, upavid Lennick, “The Collector: Resurrecting Those Old 78s," Classical Music Magazine 15 (April 1, 1992): 46.13 this guideline was considered a relatively reliable indicator of correct speed as the international standard was fixed at a=440 in 1938 and only three recordings in the study were recorded before that date. If necessary, minor adjustments in speed were made on the turntable. Since many of the older recordings have been rereleased in newer formats, additional verification was often possible by checking the speed across two or more mediums (e.g, 78-LP, 78-CD, LP-CD). Tt should also be mentioned that the same equipment was used throughout the study so that any deviation in playback is spread equally across all the recordings. In Chapter 2 the durations are illustrated via standard scatter charts with a dotted line representing a “theoretical duration/tempo” which would result if the work was performed at exactly the metronomic tempo. (Fermatas were determined by averaging the length of fermatas in three recordings by Stravinsky, i.e., 1929, 1940, 1960.) The reason for including a theoretical duration/tempo will become evident in Chapter 4. Also, a spreadsheet of timings for all the (studio) recordings evaluated in this study appears in Appendix B. Measuring Tempo Tempo was selected as the primary focus of this study for three reasons. First, of the various elements which may4 change with each performance, tempo is probably allowed the greatest latitude and can profoundly influence the shape of a given interpretation. Secondly, tempo is relatively easy to quantify. And third, tempo was known to have been a very important part of Stravinsky’s musical aesthetic. Commenting on the performance problems of his music Stravinsky once stated: “Tempo is the principal item. A piece of mine can survive almost anything but wrong or uncertain tempo..." While duration can be measured relatively accurately by means of a common stopwatch, tempo is a bit more illusive as it is in a constant state of flux. For this reason a computer program called Tempo Mapper was developed specifically for this dissertation.15 Tempo Mapper allows one to graphically illustrate the temporal contour of a musical passage, thus eliminating one of the principal problems encountered when studying the differences between two or more recorded interpretations, i.e., the inability to listen (and evaluate) more than one recording at the same time. This type of analysis was used, in theory, as early as 1964 by Robert King.16 However, the present Migor Stravinsky and Robert Craft, Conversations with Stravinsky (New York: Doubleday & Co., 1959), 135. i5see Appendix C for a description of Tempo Mapper. wRobert Francis King Jr., "A Study of Tempo Deviations in Recorded Performances of Selected Symphonies by Haydn and Mozart" (Ed.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1964).15 study borrows from a more recent method employed by José Bowen .17 Note: all musical examples have been included in the text (Chapter 3). However, due to the substantial number of supporting graphs and charts, these items have been grouped together and placed in Chapter 6 (Figures). Y7José Bowen, “A Computer-Aided Study of Conducting,” Computing in Musicology 9 (1993-94): 93-103.CHAPTER 2 DURATIONAL TRENDS IN THE RITE OF SPRING Total Work and Parts The present chapter will provide the timings for The Rite of Spring, proceeding from the larger units (i.e., total work, Part I, and Part II) to each constituent section. Thus, Figure 2.1 presents the temporal distribution of the work in its entirely as recorded since 1929. The solid line indicates the durational trend of the given data while the dotted line represents a “theoretical duration” which would result if all note values were performed at exactly as written. At this level one will immediately notice there has been a tendency for conductors to perform The Rite more slowly in recent years. Also, there are several recordings which are quite distinct with regard to overall duration. At the top of the range, the interpretations of Eugene Goossens (1959, 37°31") and René Leibowitz (1960, 36°16”) are very slow. With regard to the former, there is sone evidence to suspect this was not the only performance wherein Goossens presented a very slow interpretation. In a letter to Stravinsky (December 20, 1921) regarding a performance by 16a7 Goossens in London on December 12, 1921, Ernest Ansermet conveyed the following: I had the impression that Goossens had not looked at your score. There were simply no tempi at all...it was even worse than Kussevitzky. ‘Twice as fast,’ I said at Diaghilev and Nouvel went to the concert i a Although a good deal faster than Goossens, the interpretation of Leonard Bernstein (1958, 34'27") is also significant as it appears to have been one of the earliest to explore the expansive possibilities of the work. At the bottom of the range, the interpretations of Eugene Ormandy (1955, 29’23”) and Antal Dorati (1959, 29°37") are also unique. The former is particularly interesting because, in addition to being the fastest performance represented in this study, it is one of only two recordings where the entire Rite was squeezed onto one side of an LP. The other such recording was conducted by Stanislaw Skrowaczewski (1977, 32'25"). As both conductors finish the recording with little vinyl to spare, it is possible that Skrowaczewski could afford the luxury of a slower reading due to a more technically mature LP with a finer groove. Whatever the case, it is interesting to consider the economic benefits of a one-sided recording. This is especially so with regard to Ormandy who was, as Wera Stravinsky and Robert Craft, Stravinsky in Pictures and Documents (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1978 224.18 early as 1955, an old hand at recording and regularly criticized for having an outlook primarily economic and utilitarian rather than artistic. The following description is typical: Ormandy liked to record, and knew how to do it quickly and professionally. His years in radio, with its demands for accurate timing, had almost built a clock into his head...he knew how to adjust both his own style and the sound of the orchestra to the medium’s requirements.? Perhaps more relevant, Hope Stoddard has recalled a fascinating incident which occurred in 1956: Several years ago he (Ormandy] confounded the technicians at a recording session by finishing a four- minute, thirty-second side in four minutes and twenty- nine-and-a-half seconds.3 The more recent recording by Robert Craft, Stravinsky's long-time amanuensis and confidant, is also exceptionally fast (1991, 29/53") and, as with most of the performances mentioned thus far, will be discussed more fully in the Pages to come. In the meantime one might attempt to rationalize this very quick interpretation as a direct reaction to slower interpretations. Craft has alluded to this possibility in comments regarding a recent recording by Pierre Boulez (1991, 33/08") (pers. com. 1995): “Boulez is trying to take the shock out of Sacre that I am trying to Herbert Kupferberg, Those Fabulous Philadelphians: The Life and Times of a Great Orchestra (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1969): 139. SHope Stoddard, “Eugene Ormandy: Industry as Well as Inspiration Has Characterized His Spectacular Career,” International Musician 55 (September 1956): 10.19 restore to it....” Other fast, yet relatively current performances (i.e., <32’), include the recordings of Valdimir Vélek (1993, 31/29") and Esa-Pekka Salonen (1989, 31/50"). The durational trend of the work as a whole is also present in each of the two main Parts of the work. In Part T (Figure 2.2) the conductors previously mentioned continue to occupy unique positions in the overall distribution. The most significant addition is the rather slow interpretation of Bohdan Wodiczko (1970, 16'58"). Also noteworthy in Part I is the apparent concentration of durations (15’30-16’ 30") between the years 1983-1993. This is more clearly evident in Figure 2.3. In this illustration the increasing emphasis on slower interpretations can be observed relative to the predominant durations over the recorded history of the work. With regard to the latter, one will notice that since about 1953, the percentage of durations falling within a range of 1 minute (1530"-16'30") has increased from 37.5% to 68%. Thus, it appears that with regard to tempo in Part I, conductors have become increasingly reluctant to venture beyond given extremes. In contrast to Part I, Part II seems to have maintained a slightly broader distribution of durations throughout its recorded history--this is illustrated in Figure 2.4. Note that while Ormandy, Dorati, and Craft continue to demonstrate preferences for much faster interpretations,20 Leonard Bernstein and Gerard Schwarz (in the company of Goossens and Leibowitz) have managed to lengthen this Part of the work significantly. with regard to Bernstein-~one who would later go on to expand the adagissimo of Mahler’s Ninth symphony to seventeen=minutes--it is, perhaps, not surprising that his highly expressive approach to conducting is more evident in this, the nocturnal, and more “romantic,” half of the work. Sections: Part I At this point the investigation will move toward identifying specific sections of the work which have contributed to the slowing trends previously discussed. Figure 2.5 indicates the “Introduction” to Part I has been highly influential in this regard. Like a sporting record which continues to be broken, the ascending line has continued an upward climb via the interpretations of Igor Markevitch (1959, 3/47”), Vladimir Fedoseyev (1981, 3°52"), and the more recent Ginter Newhold (1993, 3/57”). The interpretation of Igor Markevitch is particular interesting. Usually thought of as a “source” conductor with regard to Stravinsky’s music, this longer than average interpretation might seem at odds with the more brisk readings of Stravinsky, Monteux, etc., especially in light of the fact that his duration for2. the work as a whole is only 31/46”.4 Perhaps some degree of clarification is to be found in a 1965 interview wherein the maestro discussed his two recordings of The Rite up to that time: The first recording was in 1949-50. Then I recorded it again six or seven years ago in stereo with the same orchestra. The second time is much more lyrical and expansive. The first time I pointed the aggressive side of the composition.s Another aspect of Part I worth noting is the slight convergence of durations within the 1983-1993 time frame illustrated in Figure 2.6. This chart shows that during the fifty year period between 1943 and 1993, the number of interpretations lasting from 3’20°-3'39" increased from 338 to 76%. Conversely, the onetime predominating range of 3’- 3719” decreased from 75% to 12%. Of course, the shift is more dramatic if measured from 1929. The next section of the work, i.e., “The Augurs of Spring,” is the first section of the work in which no significant change of tempo has taken place. This is readily apparent in Figure 2.7. Although progressively slower readings have continued to appear, they have been offset by several very fast performances. Of the slowest 4Louis Cyr has referred to Markevitch in these terms along with Stravinsky, Monteux, Stokowski, and Ansermet (pers. com. 1994). SP. Brown, “Markevitch Talks,” Music and Musicians 13, no.11 (1965): 22. Unfortunately the recording of 1949-50 was not available for evaluation.22 interpretations, those of Gennadi Rozhdestvensky (1987, 405’) and Eduardo Mata (1991, 3”54”) are the most obvious. With regard to the latter, one might initially suspect this conductor tried to elicit more expressive nuance than this mechanically regular music might tolerate. The following comment from a pertinent review suggests the same: Aided by the warn Dorian sonics, Mata makes of Stravinsky's hair-trigger primitivism a thing of shimmering beauty, which may be appropriate for Sleeping Beauty but is all wrong for Le Sacre.$ While the “Ritual of Abduction” also demonstrates a slight incline toward slower tempi (Figure 2.8), the trend is more clearly evident in “Spring Rounds” (Figure 2.9). Figure 2.9 indicates Bohdan Wodiczko and Eugene Ormandy have defined the temporal boundaries of “Spring Rounds.” Also, Figure 2.10 evinces a shift from the preferred 3'-3/29” during the early years to a more recent 3’30"-3/59". Although the next section, “The Ritual of the Rival Tribes,” has not become significantly slower or faster through the years, it is also characterized by an emerging tradition with regard to tempo. Figures 2.11 and 2.12 illustrate the fact that between 1983 and 1993, 22 of 25 conductors (88%) dared not breach an eight second window of convention (i.e., 1/48"-1"56"). ‘The next two sections, the “Procession of the Sage” and “The Sage” (Figures 2.13 and 2.14 respectively) exhibit ‘american Record Guide 55 (March/April 1992): 149.23 little of note except the surprisingly fast reading by Eugene Goossens in the latter. In fact, “The Sage” (perhaps as a result of its inherent brevity) exhibits one of the most consistent and equally distributed range of temporal interpretations of the whole work. ‘The final section of Part I, the “Dance of the Earth,” is characterized by the very slow reading by Loren Maazel (1980, 1/18") at the top of the chart and the lightening fast interpretation of Antal Dorati (1953, 59”) at the bottom (Figure 2.15). Also, as in previous sections, there has been a move toward a uniform conception of how long a piece of music should last--in this case, somewhere between 1104" and 1/08" (Figure 2.16). However, for the first time it appears the general consensus has returned to, rather than moved away from, early twentieth-century preference. Sections: Part IT Salient features of Figure 2.17 (“Introduction” to Part II) include the lingering performance of Gerard Schwarz (1990, 5’57”) and the slow interpretations of Leonard Bernstein in 1958 (5'11") and 1972 (5/01"). Although Bernstein was previously mentioned with regard to slower readings of the work as a whole, the performances at hand underscore Bernstein's penchant for slower than average tempi. Moreover, there is evidence to suggest Bernstein was aware of the controversy such unusually slow interpretations24 might evoke. The pianist Leon Fleisher has conveyed relevant memories: He [Bernstein] often used the expression ‘the edge of thé abyss.’ An artist’s life is a risk. You're taking chances all the time, and sometimes you don’t succeed. 1 remember a performance of Tchaikovsky’s Pathétique which he stretched out to the last nanosecond, and he said, ‘I xeally went to the edge that time.’ He showed his orchestra how to risk and return safely.? In this example one may also detect a decrease in the number of performances lasting under four minutes. Figure 2.18 clearly illustrates the shift. Not unlike previously cited examples, the “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls” (Figure 2.19) seems to have attracted a line of conductors convinced there is something to be revealed in a slower interpretation. From Bernstein (1958, 3°19”) to Schwarz (1990, 4/00”), this section has continued to grow in length. Although having attained a definitive limit as early as 1959 (Antal Dorati, 2740"), faster readings have been relatively consistent. (Note, it was also in 1959 that Eugene Goossens established the slowest time for this section [4'17"]). Since the first recording in 1929, the temporal median for the “Glorification of the Chosen One” (Figure 2.20) has not moved in any particular direction. It is interesting, however, that the interpretation of Antal Dorati (1959, ‘™eryle Secrest, Leonard Bernstein: A Life (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1994), 124.25 1/22") is exactly the same as the theoretical duration of the section. Similar to the previous section, the linear track of the durations for the “Evocation of the Ancestors” (Figure 2.21) appears relatively horizontal. However, in this case the many performances lasting between 40-50 seconds have been offset by a number of increasingly slower ones, i.e., those of Stravinsky (1929), Karel Ancerl (1963), Zdenek Kosler (1979), Leonard Bernstein (1958, 1972), and Yuri ‘Temirkanov (1988). With regard to Temirkanov, one might assume this section to have contributed to one reviewer's opinion: Yuri Temirkanov’s Sacre isn’t a scandal, but it isn’t particularly interesting, either; it’s a sluggish, decently played run-through with little interpretive tension.® In addition to the definite trend toward slower interpretations, one will immediately notice in Figure 2.22 ("Ritual Action of the Ancestors”) the addition of Herbert von Karajan to the now familiar list of conductors committed to very slow tempi. In this context, perhaps the following comments by Paul Robinson are justified: Never is a Karajan performance characterized by the speed and aggressiveness that so often made Toscanini’s performances seem overwrought.9 *Terry Teachout, Musical America 110 (May 1990): 84. spaul Robinson, Karajan (London: Macdonald and Jane's, 1975): 37.26 More specifically, Stravinsky felt Karajan’s interpretation of 1964 polished and lacking in primitive features, “...in fact, too polished, a pet savage. rather than a real one.”10 The “Ritual Action of the Ancestors” also exemplifies an interesting shift in predominate durations (Figure 2.23). Note that swift interpretations (<3’16”) were recorded less and less up to about 1983. Since that time, however, a small Percentage of more recent conductors have attempted to revive this older tradition while others have tended to converge within a more moderate 316-330". Last but certainly not least, Figure 2.24 illustrates the degree to which the infamous “Sacrificial Dance” has maintained a relatively broad and even distribution of temporal variety over the years. Particularly interesting are the different performances by the composer in 1929 (4'58") and 1940 (4724"). Also, Eduardo Mata’s proclivity for a slower than average Rite has been previously noted in connection with “The Augurs of Spring” (Figure 2.7). Simon Rattle is represented twice in this study. In both cases his durations for the work as a whole are nothing out of the ordinary (1977, 33°59" and 1987, 33,51”). However, his very slow renderings of this particular section (4749" and 4'55" respectively) give credence to an account wWigor Stravinsky, “Three Types of Spring Fever: Stravinsky Reviews The Rite," In Retrospectives and Conclusions (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969): 129.27 by Nicholas Kenyon of a 1981 performance by Rattle and the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra: I never expected The Rite of Spring to sound like Rachmaninov and I don’t think T can survive this culture shock. It was very lush and rich and stripped of all its brutality; he [Rattle] did it from memory and glossed over lots of things. He was trying to make it sound good...and this was a case where it got right in the way of the music.1 On the fast side, the interpretations of Antal Dorati (1959, 3/52"), Seiji Ozawa (1968, 3/56”) and Yoel Levi (359") clearly stand apart from the rest. In general, Levi's interpretation has been suitably compared to that of Dorati’s: “Like Dorati‘s, it is a brutal, primitive, tightly argued, breathlessly exciting performance with virtually no sentimental lingering....”12 Seiji Ozawa (1968, 3/56") is another conductor who, until now, has demonstrated little in the way of temporal distinction. Although he is said to have been highly influenced by Karajan, in the case of the “Sacrificial Dance,” the master’s recording of the same period (1964, 4'36") apparently made little impression on the protégé. Record Studio Record: At this point one is reminded the preceding examples represent recordings made in the studio exclusively. Nicholas Kenyon, Simon Rattle: The Making of a Conductor (London: Faber and Faber, 1987): 12. wamerican Record Guide 56 (January/February 1953): 154.28 However, since eleven recorded concerts were encountered during this study a justification for excluding them from the main focus of the discussion is required. The decision to treat recorded performances as a separate entity was made after considering the myriad issues surrounding differences between a recorded concert and a recording made in the studio (or any location void of an audience). Confronting the problem, one is faced with the following question: What are the differences in the factors that might have influenced a conductor’s interpretation in each situation? Acoustics, performance skill, and environmental conditions are surely common to both. However, in a recorded concert priority is usually given to the listener at hand. Error is fleeting and spontaneity is the order of the day. In contrast, a conductor in the studio has such a high degree of control that the eventual outcome often conveys an interpretation having undergone extensive preparation and premeditation-~an endeavor surely to convey a performance closer to he conductor's conception of an “ideal.” Perhaps it was for this reason early record producers, fascinated with the potential of new recording technology, prophesied a canonical status for the perfection wrought in the studio. Such philosophy is reflected in the following statement by Edward Rothstein: The great producers of this era after the war--Walter Legge, John Culshaw, Goddard Lieberson--were making models of a work, not just records of a performance.29 Recordings were meant to be representative of all the performances of work by an artist, not just a single one [italics mine]....Legge wanted to creaté a recording that was an archetype: it was not subsidiary to a performance, it was its arbiter. In other words, the goal was to come as close as possible to capturing that which has been described by Roger Sessions: The music is not totally present, the idea of the composer is not fully expressed, in any single performance, actual or even conceivable, but rather in the sum of all possible performances [italics mine]. In spite of these proposed differences between recordings made in and out of the studio, contrasting opinion with regard to specific conductors can be easily found. Commenting on the career of Leonard Bernstein, Paul Seyder has noted the followin Bernstein seemed to make no distinction between recorded and concert performances, this even before he started taking his recordings almost exclusively from his concerts.15 However, such opinion is rarely lacking in conflicting evidence. For example, in the case of Bernstein a remark by one of his protégés, John Mauceri, is equally revealing: I think there is something here with Lenny that is rarely discussed and that is that Lenny in a recording studio and Lenny in a concert hall were two very ibEdward Rothstein, “Edward Rothstein on Music: For the Record,” The New Republic 198 (May 9, 1988): 26. uRoger Sessions, The Musical Experience of Composer, Performer, Listener (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1950), 85. ispaul Seyder, “Some Recordings to Renenber (Bernstein),” The Absolute Sound (January-February, 1991): 44.30 different people. Very different in the sense of how to use the room and also the medium. Lenny in the studio tended to be slower, because, like all of us, he wanted to hear everything... .16 When asked to describe his approach to recording over the course of his career, Sir Georg Solti offered the following insights: ++. was always aware I was making something that would last beyond a performance; therefore I was aiming for something particularly good. So I take it with desperate seriousness, it is not ‘just a record.’ I’ve never taken any record lightly.17 Similarly, Eduardo Mata has provided a decided opinion: The one thing that one needs to accept about recordings is that they are not going to be reproductions of concerts. Once you accept that, then you're on the right track to make a better recording. It’s a totally different medium. The denands are different, for the musicians and for the conductor.1¢ In light of this commentary, it is reasonable to argue that a recording manufactured in the studio is something quite different than a recorded concert. To eliminate the ambiguity, some conductors (e.g., Bernstein and Solti) decided late in their careers to record live performances exclusively. It seems conductors (and listeners) are reassessing the value of continuity, spontaneity, and the \eWilliam Westbrook Burton, ed., Conversations About Bernstein (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995): 81. "Dennis Polkow, “Solti Speaks: A Rare and Candid Conversation with the Maestro: Part II,” Journal of the Conductor’s Guild (Spring 1988): 63. wMark Melson, “An Interview With Eduardo Mata,” Fanfare 10, no.5 (1987): 301.31 element of time and place--that which Walter Benjamin called the work's aura.19 Recorded Concerts: Th: It would be hard to estimate the number of recorded concerts of The Rite of Spring. However, at least eleven are known to have been commercially available at one time or another. In general, these recordings tend to mirror the trends previously discussed, albeit often to a lesser or greater degree. With regard to the work as a whole, it may come as some surprise that the live performances are generally slower than those recorded in the studio. Figure 2.25 illustrates the work in its totality. Particularly interesting are the two performances with Stravinsky at the podium (1958, 36716” and 1961, 35/05”). One has only to listen to these recordings, however, to attribute the uncharacteristically slow tempi to inadequate performing conditions. Also worth noting is the very slow performance led by Bernstein (1982, 3641”) which is second only to Goossens in length. The “Ritual of the Rival Tribes” is a good example of the extent to which the live performances often appear to exaggerate the trends present in the studio recordings. wWalter Benjamin, “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction,” chap. in Illuminations (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1968), 219-253.32 Compare Figure 2.26 with the previously discussed Figure 2.11. The “Introduction” to Part II is one of a few sections of the work to conflict with regard to live versus studio recordings. Compare Figure 2.27 with 2.17. The extended interpretation of Leonard Bernstein (1982, 5'27") is especially interesting. With regard to this section, his reading is surpassed in length only by Gerard Schwarz (1990, 5'57”). On the contrary, however, it should be noted that Schwarz has not yet managed to exceed the length of Bernstein’s live recording of the “Ritual Action of the Ancestors” (1982, 4/14"). In fact, no other recorded conductor (in the studio or in concert) has devoted as much time to this section. (See Figure 2.28.) In addition to these examples, the last and most controversial section of the work, the “Sacrificial Dance,” should also be represented if for no other reason than the recent, and very popular, interpretation of Benjamin Zander (1990, 4/03"). Whereas the timings for the studio versions of this section indicate a very slight incline toward the slow side (Figure 2.24), one will notice in Figure 2.29 a move in the opposite direction. When released in 1990, Zander’s very swift conclusion to The Rite, based largely on the tempo of the piano roll, was well received and has probably had some degree of influence on the more recent emergence of faster moving33 interpretations of the work in general. However, it should be pointed out that Zander’s temporal economy was not a “first.” In 1959 Antal Dorati allocated a mere 3/52” for this music (the fastest recording ever), followed in 1968 by Seiji Ozawa who extended Dorati’s duration by a scant 4 seconds (3'56"). (See Figure 2.24.)CHAPTER 3 CONTRIBUTING FACTORS TO CHANGES IN DURATION Preliminaries The previous chapter has indicated that since 1929 the interpretative paradigm for various sections of The Rite of Spring has changed with regard to tempo. Chapter 3 will extend the investigation by determining specific factors which have been influential in this regard. As the more dramatic tendencies have been in the direction of slower tempi, discussion will focus on those sections of the work .e., the exhibiting a marked inclination in that direction, “Introduction” to Part I, “Spring Rounds,” the “Introduction” to Part II, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” and the “Ritual Action of the Ancestors.” “Introduction,” Part I In addition to the general tempo a conductor might adopt, there are many other facets of performance which may effect total duration. For example, an account for the slowing trend of the “Introduction” to Part I (Figure 2.5) might begin with a look at the changing perception of the term rubato. One would assume the indicated tempo rubato 3435 above the first measure of the score was included to provide the conductor a degree of liberty with regard to interpretative shading--an indication seemingly emphasized by the colla parte for the accompanying lines and ad lib. for the solo bassoon. (See Example 3.1.) However, one must first decipher Stravinsky’s conception of rubato. George Balanchine has provided one clue in this regard: “If he [Stravinsky] intends a rubato..., it will be notated precisely, in unequal measures.”1 Similarly, Robert Hudson has stated that “he [Stravinsky] attempted in both the early and late periods to notate a sort of frozen and completely determined rubato.”? It is, perhaps, not surprising then to find that early conductors who recorded this work were, by and large, reluctant to incorporate a great deal of temporal flexibility in their interpretations.? In contrast, more recent conductors have not hesitated to employ a variety of expressive means, e.g., extended note values and fermatas, excessive ritardandi, and vibrato. The first of several iMinna Lederman, ed., Stravinsky in the Theater (New York: Da Capo Press, 1975): 75. ®Richard Hudson, Stolen Time: The History of Tempo Rubato (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994): 400. 3Xconsidering this particular section of the work the reader should be aware of the fact that the first few beats of the solo are often not conducted at all but rather left to the discretion of the bassoon player. Leonard Sharrow has pointed this out in his interesting article, “Of Bassoons and Conductors.” The Instrumentalist (December 1991): 1620.36 ‘The Rite of Spring ‘Le Sacre du Printnipt First Part ADORATION OF THE EARTH Pri Pre :xponaTion i ba TERRE vraenucrion qeneeer o eae db tee ebato Example 3.1. Score, “Introduction,” Pt.I, Beginning- No.3(+4). Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes, Inc., publisher and copyright owner. (This notice applies to ali subsequent musical examples.)37 examples can be found in the fermata over the first note of the work. Like other aspects of Stravinsky’s music, it seems even the humble fermata has not escaped commentary. With regard to the composer’s use of the device, commentary by George Balanchine is, once again, revealing: Since his rhythms are so clear, so exact, to extemporize with them is improper. There is no place for effects. with Stravinsky, a fermata is always counted out in beats.¢ Based on the early recordings, one might concur with this observation. Monteux, Stravinsky (1929, 1940), and Stokowski devote less than two seconds to the initial fermata/c? in the bassoon. Moreover, the dynamic level remains constant with perhaps a trace of very rapid vibrato in the interpretations of the latter two conductors. In contrast, Michael Tilson Thomas found reason to hold tenaciously to this note for almost six seconds in 1972. In 1984 Charles Dutoit followed suit, and in 1986 Daniel Barenboim managed to wrest seven seconds from his bassoon player. Moreover, these examples, as well as many other later performances, are characterized by a slow crescendo and gradually increased vibrato. This is particularly noticeable in the recent recordings of Glinter Neuhold (1993) and Eliahu Inbal (1989). ‘Lederman, 75.38 Within this same measure, the second fermata (bassoon, al) has also become longer and more expressive since 1929 despite readily available documentation regarding the composer's wishes via Robert Craft: The second fermata in the first phrase of the bassoon aubade should be short, or no longer than the written value; it is hardly more than a tenuto.5 However, it appears that after 1950 many conductors began to perceive this initial passage as vocal in nature. Although the initial melody of The Rite of Spring was derived from a Lithuanian folk song, Stravinsky went to great lengths to expunge any notion of conspicuous expression. This is evident in following statement made by the composer shortly after the premiere in 1913: The whole Prelude is based upon a continuous ‘mezzo forte.’ The melody develops in a horizontal line that only masses of instruments (the intense dynamic power of the orchestra and not the melodic line itself) increase or diminish. In consequence, I have not given this melody to the strings, which are too symbolic and representative of the human voice; with the crescendi and diminuendi, I have brought forward the wind instruments which have a drier tone, which are more precise, less endowed with facile expression, and on this account more suitable for my purpose.§ This is especially interesting with regard to Stravinsky himself who, in his 1960 recording of the “Introduction,” sRobert Craft, “The Performance of The Rite of Spring,” in ‘The Rite of Spring’: Sketches, 1911-1913: Facsimile Reproductions from the Autographs, by Igor Stravinsky (New York: Boosey and Hawkes, 1969), 44. ‘Vera Stravinsky and Robert Craft, Stravinsky in Pictures and Documents (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1978), 525.39 delivers the opening note in the expressive style of more recent conductors. Over the past sixty years observable changes in tempo have also taken place at various phrase endings. It has been said that one “needs a searchlight to find ritardandi in Stravinsky's music....”7 Indeed, this is the case with The Rite. There is only one specified ritard to be found in the 1967 edition of the score, i.e., one measure before rehearsal number 54 in “Spring Rounds.” However, the first page of the score, once again, provides an interesting example of how conductors have modified this section with expressive phrasing, specifically in measures 5 and 6. Although none of the early recordings realize the indicated poco accelerando to any great extent, in most cases forward motion is emphasized by an unflagging drive to the concluding fermata. In contrast, by the time of Leonard Bernstein's first recording (1958), this passage had begun to acquire a noticeable loss of momentum. In reviewing Herbert von Karajan‘s recording of 1964, the composer was quick to defend the score: “A ritardando has been substituted for the written accelerando in measures 5-6."8 ‘TLouis Andriessen and Elmer Schénberger, The Apollonian Clockwork: On Stravinsky, trans. Jeff Hamburg (London: Oxford University Press, 1989), 175. ®Igor Stravinsky, “Three Types of Spring Fever: Stravinsky Reviews The Rite,” in Retrospectives and Conclusions (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969), 123.40 Another change in performance which has greatly affected the character of this section is the recent preference for a more sostenuto style in general. An excellent example of this can be heard by comparing various performances of the English Horn solo at rehearsal number 2. In the early recordings, these notes are generally performed at a brisk pace and slighted in value. In the recording by van Beinum specifically, one could say the last notes of each beamed group are reduced to mere trace elements. However, in the recordings of Neuhold and, perhaps to a greater extent, Inbal, this passage is performed much slower with each note noticeably augmented. “Spring Rounds” Not unlike the “Introduction” to Part I, “Spring Rounds” has been subject to a variety interpretative devices over the years which have contributed to longer duration. However, as “Spring Rounds” is characterized by an easily perceptible beat, it is possible to observe these changes directly with the aid of a computer program, i.e., Tempo Mapper. As noted in Chapter 1, this tool allows one to track and graphically illustrate changes in tempo from beat to beat. For instance, Figures 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3 display the temporal interpretations of Stravinsky's recordings of “spring Rounds” in 1929, 1940, and 1960 respectively.41 From this vantage point it is easy to identify the three structural segnents (A=Tranquillo, B=Sostenuto e pesante, C=Vivo) which constitute this section. with regard to A, conductors have always been inclined to incorporate some degree of ritard at the conclusion of the Tranguillo theme. This is not surprising as a slight decrease in tempo, especially in the last measure, seems a natural complement to the descending melodic line and concluding fermata as illustrated in Example 3.2. = Example 3.2. Score, “Spring Rounds,” No.48+(1-5), (Beats 1-35). Beats are always numbered from the beginning of the relevant section, i.e. in this case, “Spring Rounds” and are included to clarify the accompanying Figures in Chapter 6. What is of special interest, however, is the gradual encroachment of reduced tempo over the entire theme. Figures 3.4, 3.5, and 3.6 provide a visual representation of the A theme as heard in most early recordings. In each case the ritardandi are slight and more noticeable toward the end of42 the passage. One could argue Stravinsky’s recordings of 1940 and 1960 ritard more dramatically. However, even in these cases the forward motion does not begin to dissipate until the last measure. See Figures 3.7 and 3.8. In contrast, conductors of more recent vintage have often felt it necessary to begin slowing down at the outset. For instance, Figures 3.9 and 3.10 illustrate this characteristic in recordings by Leonard Bernstein (1958) and Zubin Mehta (1977) respectively. Surprisingly, Bernstein commences at the rate of 89 bpm--slightly faster than Monteux and van Beinum. However, while the latter two conductors conclude at a pace lessened by 12% and 9% respectively, Bernstein slows by roughly 47% in the course of his performance. Similarly, Mehta reduces his tempo by over half the original speed, 54% to be precise. In a more pervasive manifestation, Figure 3.11 illustrates the way in which Lorin Maazel (1974) initiates a continuum of diminishing momentum at the beginning of the section which moves through the entire A and B segments. Before moving to the B portion of “Spring Rounds,” Stravinsky's unusually brisk performance of the A theme in 1929 (Figure 3.4) warrants a brief diversion. The difference between his interpretation and those of his contemporaries is enough to question the composer’s relatively fast pace. James Goodfriend has suggested that “composers have a tendency to play their own music rather more quickly than43 other interpreters.” There is also a potential for technological influence. Perhaps the temporal restrictions of 78 rpm technology affected the performance in sone way. ‘This possibility will be more fully addressed in Chapter 4. In the meantime, however, an alternative rationale will be explored. In spite of the fact that most conductors present this passage slower than specified in the score (108 bpm), it seems this tempo is, itself, a modification of Stravinsky's original conception. The sketches indicate the composer had initially scored this music at a more rapid 144 bpm. Perhaps at the time of his first recording in 1929 the composer was not yet fully committed to the new tempo. Eric Walter White has noted a similar conflict. Having attended the premiere of Stravinsky's Symphony of Psalms in Brussels on December 13, 1930, White related the following: It is true that on this occasion the Symphony of Psalms did not quite make its full effect, as Stravinsky had not yet discovered that it was essential that the pulsation of the coda, ‘Laudate Eum in cymbalis bene sonantibus,’ should be extremely slow (with minim [half note] nearer 36 MM than 48).10 Note in both instances, the original tempi were conceived as 75% faster than what the composer finally came to accept. sJames Goodfriend, “Time and Tempo,” Stereo Review 43 (December 1979): 65. lopric Walter White, “Listening to Stravinsky’s Music in the 1920s,” Tempo no.81 (Summer 1967): 36.44 Moving now to the B portion of “Spring Rounds,” (rehearsal number 49) several features may be singled out as having contributed to slower tempi. As in the “Introduction” ‘to Part I, one obvious change appears to have resulted from increased note values. Howaver, in “Spring Rounds” one must consider the Sostenuto e pesante clearly specified in the score. The initial measures of the B section appear in Example 3.3. Example 3.3. Score, “Spring Rounds,” No.49+(1-6), (Beats 36-63).45 Sostenuto has been defined in the following way: “Sustaining the tone to or beyond nominal value, i.e., slackening the tempo."11 Before 1955, conductors usually took the notes in this passage only “to...nominal value” with a slight degree of emphasis on the first note of each measure. However, since the time of Eugene Goossens’ recording (ca 1959), many conductors have performed this section much slower with increased emphasis, in terms of length and intensity, placed on every note. Representative examples include Herbert von Karajan (1977) Zubin Mehta (1977), Yuri ‘Temirkanov (1988), Alexander Rahbari (1990), and Yoel Levi (1991). Perhaps the similar performance of this section by Herbert von Karajan in 1964 partly induced stravinsky to describe the recording in the following way: The sostenuto style is a principal fault; the note- lengths are virtually the same here as they would be in Wagner or Brahms, which dampens the energy of the music and leaves what rhythmic enunciation there is sounding Other notes which have gained considerable length over the years include the brief, but strategic, triplet appoggiature in the timpani at rehearsal number 53. Although seemingly innocuous, this concise motive has been an obstinate thorn for many conductors and has been performed uwilli Apel, Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2 ed., {Sambridge, NA: Belknap Press of Hervard University Press, Ye 7976 Rigor Stravinsky and Robert Craft, Retrospectives and Conclusions (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969), 129.much slower since the mid-1960s. Example 3.4 provides the figure as scored. z = + ¥ 7 Example 3.4. Score, “Spring Rounds,” Nos.52(+3)-53(+2).47 With reference to this embellishment, Robert Craft has conveyed what he believes to have been the composer’s intent: “At 53 the timpani appoggiature should be heard as ma three distinct notes. In a live performance, and under the right acoustical conditions, those fortunate enough to be seated on the first rows might well detect each note. However, in the recorded history of this work the composer’s wishes have been far from realized. Since 1929, one would suspect the resounding nature of the instrument in conjunction with other factors has proved a formidable challenge to even the most experienced engineers. Very hard mallets, complex microphone techniques, and other tools of the trade have surely been utilized. However, in this case, clarity and detail is significantly enhanced simply by means of a slower tempo. In the early recordings (especially the 78s), the quick tempi and emerging technology reveal little in the way of precise articulation. It is not surprising then to learn that the goal of delivering “three distinct notes” has been most fully realized only in the more recent past. Specific examples include the very slow readings of Yuri Temirkanov (1988), Alexander Rahbari (1990), and Norichika Timori (1992). However, the most conspicuous exploitation of this figure is found in the interpretation of Seiji Ozawa (1968) craft, “The Performance of The Rite of Spring,” 46.48 which, in the composer’s opinion, “he ruins by turning the three timpani appoggiature into straight triplet upbeats, a ludicrously comic effect.” A third aspect of the B section worthy of note is the infamous glissando occurring on three occasions in the trombones, eight measures preceding the Vivo section. Examples 3.5 and 3.6 reveal the specific location of each one (i.e., between beats 152-153, 167-168, and 174-175). Over the years, these strategically placed sforzandi have become indelibly etched in the minds of listeners. At the same time, they have progressively assumed a more emphatic and protracted existence. For example, this passage as interpreted by Stravinsky (1940/1960), van Beinum (1949), Monteux (1951), and Solti (1974) collectively represent the ‘temporal contour typical of all the early recordings as well as some later ones. See Figures 3.12, 3.13, and 3.14. In these examples, the reader will notice there is, most often, only a slight delay between each relevant beat. Sometines the motion actually accelerates (e.g., Stravinsky [1960] 152-153, van Beinum 167-168, and Solti 167-168, 174- 175). In contrast, since Bernstein’s recording of 1958, several conductors have dampened the climactic effect of the concluding poco ritard by stretching the glissandi Migor Stravinsky, Themes and Conclusions (London: Faber and Faber, 1972), 226.Beats Beats Be 152-153, 167-168 Example 3.5. Score, “Spring Rounds,” No.53+(3-8), (Beats 148-170).Beats 174-175 Example 3.6. Score, “Spring Rounds,” Nos.53(+9)-54(+2), (Beats 171-189). 5051 like rubber bands. Relevant instances are provided in Figures 3.15, 3.16, and 3.17. In all three of these examples one might assume the goal of the conductor was to direct attention to the sound of this single effect. With regard to Maazel’s recording of 1980 specifically, it seems at least one reviewer was so inclined: +2,the whole venture is marred by...sensation-seeking effects; among then some excessive and vulgar ritardandos in the Spring Rounds” (resulting in some quite spectacular ‘raspberries’ from the trombones) ....15 Foregoing the task of graphically illustrating all 73 performances, suffice it to say the primary areas associated with slower interpretations of “Spring Rounds” in general have been the A and B segments. However, as the C section has remained relatively consistent over the years, it follows that certain aspects temporal symmetry have been dispiaced. Although this is most likely a consequence rather than a cause of slower tempi, the significance of these altered relationships is worthy of note. In his interesting research on time and tempo, Jonathan Kramer has explored the ways in which Stravinsky often utilized duration as a unifying element over the course of his composing career. It is in this context Kramer has concluded that The Rite of Spring “appears to display Michael Stewart, “The Gramophone Collection: The Rite of Spring: Michael Stewart Considers the Available Recorded Versions of Stravinsky's Ballet,” Gramophone 70 (September 1992): 31.52 no overall pattern of temporal proportions. 16 However, considering Stravinsky’s concern over matters of tempo throughout his composing career, it is not unreasonable to suggest the presence of some type of temporal unification at the local level. For example, it would be hard to accept the ratio in tempo between the two inner segments (B and C) of “Spring Rounds” (i.e., quarter = 80, quarter = 160 respectively) as coincidental. Perhaps the relationship is better explained in the context of the “theory of continuous pulse” as defined by David Epstein: +++in works of different movements, or in single- movement works that contain different tempos...all tempos are intrinsically related to one another. The relationships arise from the creator’s conception of the work as a unified and coherent whole....17 In whatever sense Stravinsky conceived “Spring Rounds,” his recordings of 1929, 1940, and 1960 do reveal a certain fidelity to the 2:1 relationship between B and C segments. It is also interesting that, in spite of a slightly slower tempo in general, Monteux'’s recording of 1951 is characterized by an appreciable observance of the relationship. Figure 3.18 illustrates Monteux’s 1951 effort which, remarkably, mirrors the basic temporal shape of all wkramer, Jonathan D. Kramer, “Discontinuity and Broportion in the Music of Stravinsky,” in Confronting sed. Jann Pasler (Berkeley: University of Galivornis press, 1986), 176° VDavid Epstein, "Tempo Relations: a Cross-Cultural Study," Music Theory Spectrum 7 (1985): 36.53 his recordings. Ansermet and Stokowski, two other conductors associated with the early history of The Rite, also adhere closely to this ratio. As one moves through time, however, this most basic of proportions is gradually distorted, largely as a result of slower tempi in the B section. Figures 3.19, 3.20, and 3.21 are typical of many recordings after 1955. The reader has probably noticed that in all three examples the Vivo (C) segment is performed at the specified pace. However, the relatively slower tempo of the Preceding passage (B) completely obliterates any sense of metrical kinship between the two. Previously discussed, Maazel’s recording of 1974 (Figure 3.11) is another example in this regard. Perusing these illustrations the reader will also notice that in some cases (particularly Wodiczko, Figure 3.19) segment A exhibits signs of diminished contrast with B. It seems, however, this practice is as old as the recorded work itself. Figures 3.22 (Stokowski 1930) and 3.23 (René Leibowitz 1960) are indicative. Stokowski (1930) observes the 2:1 ratio between B and C. However, the A section lacks any meaningful contrast with B. Similarly, Leibowitz provides little, if any, contrast between A and B but at a much slower tempo in general. Although most of the figures presented so far illustrate some deviation from the score, the reader54 should not infer that all recent recordings exhibit such extensive liberties. In the case of “Spring Rounds” specifically, Sir Georg Solti (1974) and Vladimir valek (1993) display a substantial degree of faithfulness as far as tempo is concerned. Figures 3.24 and 3.25 illustrate this point. “Introduction,” Part IT There is evidence to suggest that when Stravinsky began writing the second Part of The Rite of Spring, he was concerned, to some degree, with its durational relationship to the first Part. A letter to Nicolas Roerich (March 19, 1912) relates the composer's thoughts at that time: A week ago I completed the first tableau, orchestration as well as music. It is regrettable that we planned both tableaux to be equal in length. The first will represent almost three-fourths of the whole, and, the tempo being all madly fast, this has meant an'immense amount of writing. This is curious in light of the fact that, invariably, the second Part lasts longer than the first. Beyond this generalization, however, Part II has been recorded at a variety of tempi resulting in durations falling within the following extremes: 15’35” (Eugene Ormandy, 1955) - 20'53” (Bugene Goossens, 1959). Of course, a major contributor to this diversity has been the equally disparate tempi of the t8vera Stravinsky and Robert Craft, Stravinsky in Pictures and Documents (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1978), 84)55 “Introduction” to Part II, i.e., 3/28” (Robert Craft, 1991) - 5/57" (Gerard Schwarz, 1990). Not unlike Part II as a whole, the “Introduction” appears to have slowed down during the sixty-four year period under study. (See Figures 2.4 and 2.17.) What is particularly interesting about the “Introduction,” however, is the temporal shape it has assumed over the years. Figures 3.26 (Monteux, 1929), 3.27 (Stokowski, 1930), and 3.28 (Stravinsky, 1940) illustrate the basic contour found in many pre-1960 recordings. Here one will immediately notice the inclination to accelerate around beat 100 (rehearsal number 86). Although this might seem a mere curiosity, one could argue this to be significant as it exemplifies a nascent tradition independent of the text. In other words, it appears the musical structure has influenced tempo despite the metronomic indication in the score. Rereading the score with the aural realization in mind, it is easy to perceive this section in two distinct segments. Up to about rehearsal number 86, the music moves in a hauntingly fluid style. Examples 3.7 and 3.8 provide the opening bars of the first segment. This music contrasts dramatically with the more metrically explicit character of the subsequent segment beginning at beat 101 (See Example 3.9.). The regularity of the cello ostinato commencing at beat 119 (Example 3.10) further conveys the milieu of metric precision of the second segment.56 Second Part ‘THE SACRIFICE ‘Semae Pere ae Sacre iNTRopUeTION Beats. (Barge does 7-8 cure 5 oe Cont —— | - | Example 3.7. Score “Introduction,” Pt.II, No.79+(1-4), (Beats 1-18).Example 3.8. (Beats 19-35). Score, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Nos.79(+5)-81, 8758 Example 3.9. Score, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Nos.83(+3)- 86(+2), (Beats 69-116).Example 3.10, Score, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Nos.86(+3)- 87(+2), (Beats 117-151). 5960 The degree to which the early recordings influenced those of later conductors directly would be difficult to determine. However, it is interesting to find the same pattern in more recent performances, specifically among those most influential with regard to the slowing trend of the “Introduction” to Part II. Figures 3.29-3.32 illustrate this point. Of course, there are subtle differences between all four Figures. Bernstein, for instance, picks up the tempo later than others, at about beat 140. However, this is not surprising as it coincides with the entrance of the rest of the orchestra (Example 3.10, rehearsal number 87). From the preceding examples, it looks as though the slower nature of some later recordings of the “Introduction” to Part II is simply a result of slower tempi in general. However, a closer examination of specific areas is instructive. Up to about beat 50, the earlier recordings by Monteux, Stokowski, and Stravinsky (Figures 3.26, 3.27, and 3.28) are characterized by a rather narrow range of temporal flexibility. This suggests the same type of non-lingering, move-ahead attitude observed in previously discussed passages conducted by these individuals. For clarification, Figures 3.33, 3.34, and 3.35 provide a closer view of the initial fifty beats of the “Introduction” as conducted by Monteux (1929), Stokowski (1930) and Stravinsky (1940) respectively. However, such temporal inflexibility might seem odd since a degree of phrase delineation is implied in61 the score, especially between beats 7-8, 22-23, and 32-33. (See Examples 3.7 and 3.8.) Robert Craft has acknowledged the appropriateness of phrasing in this passag The hairpin of dynamic flow and ebb in the violin and trumpet parts in the second measure should also be observed by the flutes and the break at the end of the measure [beats 7-8] may be sightly prolonged. Another small pause of punctuation is required before the chord at 80 [beats 22-23]....19 Among early conductors it is obvious that only Stokowski directed any appreciable effort to accentuate these points of repose. In contrast, a close reevaluation of Figures 3.29, 3.31, and 3.32 (Bernstein and Rattle) reveals a series of downturned spikes indicating some delay in forward movement. Figures 3.36 and 3.37 provide an enlarged perspective of these opening phrases and clearly indicate some modern conductors have found it rewarding to emphasize the phrase structure of this passage to a substantial degree. Before moving on, a brief note should be made with regard to the previously mentioned shift in tempo beginning with the ostinato at beat 101 (rehearsal number 86). It appears several conductors have directed a less noticeable transition into the faster tempo. Before 1955, Ernest Ansermet seems to have preferred this approach. Similarly, less dramatic changes are found among more recent recordings weraft, “The Performance of The Rite of Spring,” 47.62 (Schwarz, 1990 and Newhold, 1993). This characteristic is illustrated in Figures 3.38, 3.39, and 3.40. Whether engaged dramatically or with a degree of stealth, it is worthwhile to consider the different ways this seemingly premature acceleration has affected the subsequent pid mosso which begins at beat 174 (rehearsal number 89--Example 3.11). In many cases, this four measure interlude has remained temporally distinct. However, one will notice that in 1958 Leonard Bernstein chose to integrate it with the last four measures of the “Introduction” (Figure 3.29) only to revaluate and present it as part of the preceding material in 1972 (Figure 3.31). This is significant as the pid mosso not only serves as a brief contrast to preceding and subsequent material but, more importantly, as a temporal and thematic harbinger of the subsequent “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls.” Similar to the pid mosso, the closing measures of the “Introduction” beginning at beat 187 (rehearsal number 90, Example 3.11) have, by and large, maintained temporal independence over the years. However, the degree to which this last section has functioned as a temporal recapitulation (Tempo I) has fluctuated considerably. With the first section temporally divided, perhaps there has been a problem in simply deciding which tempo to recapitulate.Example 3.11. Score, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Nos.88(+3)- 90(+3), (Beats 165-207). 6364 Although various interpretations can be found in the preceding examples, two distinct approaches to phrasing again seem to distinguish early and later recordings of this segment. On the one hand, the interpretations etched on the former.exhibit little in the way of emphatic phrasing. on the other hand, two later interpretations (representative of many others) incorporate very distinct pauses between each measure (beats 191-192, 197-198, and 202-203). Figures 3.41 and 3.42 provide enlarged views of the contrast. Note in sone locations (between beats 202-203 for instance) the earlier conductors accelerate. This is quite different from the readings of Schwarz and Bernstein who, at times, begin slowing several beats before the end of the phrase. ‘Mystic Circles of the Young Girls” The “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls” is the second section of Part II and has also shown evidence of an increasing number of slower interpretations since 1929 (see Figure 2.19). The “Mystic Circles” is based closely on thematic material presented in the “Introduction” and is temporally divided into four segments (A, B, C, D) as illustrated in Figures 3.43-3.46. Of course the most obvious characteristic of each example is the overall fast tempo relative to the text. Less conspicuous are several encapsulated features which have become increasingly influential with regard to slower tempi.65 ‘The first thing one will notice is the slight decrease in tempo of the B segment as it approaches the subsequent material (C). Stravinsky’s recording of 1929 (Figure 3.43) illustrates the characteristic most clearly. In later recordings, however, the effect is often less subtle. A more dramatic slowdown is a salient feature in the recordings by Gerard Schwarz (1990) and Ginter Neuhold (1993). Figures 3.47-3.50 provide similar interpretations of the passage as conducted by Eugene Goossens (1959), Lorin Maazel (1974), Eduardo Mata (1991) and Robert Craft. Seeking a motive for this type of nuance is difficult. However, in this particular instance the solo flute which enters at beat 41 evokes suspicion. Example 3.12 provides the relevant measures of the score. Note the flute beginning at beat 41 is to be performed cantabile and thus set into relief against the previous four measures. Specifically, flute players have been advised of this contrast by Mary Karen Clardy: The solo alto flute at measure [sic] 93 [beat 41] needs a warm, vibrating cantabile sound to contrast the light, inexpressive texture in the first violin accompaniment. However, after listening to many recordings of this passage, it is obvious that when the flute enters he or she is often slow in relation to the tempo of the preceding four measures. Consequently, the adjustments made seem to result 2omary Karen Clardy, “Guide to Performing Stravinsky's Rite of Spring,” Flute Talk 11 (January 1992): 11.Beat 41 BP wow de Example 3.12. Score, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Nos.92(+3)-94(+4), (Beats 26-74). 6667 in a gradual shift toward a slower tempo. The prominent spike at the beginning of the B segment in Monteux’s recording of 1945 (Figure 3.45) is a lucid illustration of the problem. Following the B segment, the C segment calls for a return to the 60 bpm of A. The reader may have noticed, however, that in Stravinsky's recording of 1940 (Figure 3.44) the C portion changes tempo around beat 140. This is not surprising as the C segment (beginning at rehearsal number 97) is comprised of two groups of contrasting material. Like the beginning of the B segment, C commences with a relatively rigid metrical pulse and then moves to a more lyrical section at beat 141 (rehearsal number 99). Examples 3.13 and 3.14 display the pertinent sections of the score. ‘The sudden change of tempo exemplified in Stravinsky's recording of 1940 is also found in later recordings to varying degrees. For example, a noticeable shift in tempo is present in Mata’s recording of 1991 (Figure 3.49). The sudden change is a dominant feature in the very swift interpretation of Rafael Friihbeck de Burgos (1989). In the fastest recording of the “Mystic Circles” evaluated, Antal Dorati (1959) also distinguishes each musical area of the C segment, albeit with a gradual acceleration-~a manner also characteristic of Robert Craft (Figure 3.50) and Mariss Jansons. Figures 3.51 and 3.52 illustrate the differentExample 3.13. Score, “Mystic Circles Nos .94 (+5) ~ 7(43), (Beats 75-117). of the Young Girls,” 68Example 3.14. Score, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Nos.97(+4)-100, (Beats 118-170). 6970 styles. In these two figures the reader will also notice the ongoing conflict of tempo in the first few measures of the B segment. Evaluating seventy-three recordings of this section, one would expect to encounter the occasional dissenter. Indeed, several conductors have indicated a preference for slower tempi in the second portion of the C segment. Figures 3.53 and 3.54 illustrate this approach as found in recordings by Leonard Bernstein and Bohdan Wodiczko. Although a vestige of this much rarer design can be perceived in the early recording of Leopold Stokowski (Figure 3.46), this style is, for the most part, exclusive to slow interpretations of the “Mystic Circles” in general. Common to both styles, however, is the increased flexibility of tempo always present in the second (and more melodic) section of the C segment. The last segnent of the “Mystic Circles” (D) consists of the final measure of 11/4 exclusively and is one of the most significant points in The Rite of Spring. The rhythmic force of these eleven beats is pivotal in the transition from an environment of nocturnal serenity to the culminating milieu of violence so often associated with the work. Although most conductors would probably agree with this perception, the approach to, and execution of this passage has been interpreted in a variety of ways. At beat 215 (rehearsal number 102) the score dictates poco a pocon crescendo ed accelerando. (See Examples 3.15 and 3.16.) With regard to the crescendo, Robert Craft stated the followin The orchestral crescendo thereafter must be so slowly mounted and so evenly graduated that its climax will appear to have been reached by stealth.21 As for the accelerando, the score simply prescribes a move from 60 bpm to 120 bpm within the ensuing eighteen beats. From an analytical point of view there are at least three factors to consider: (1) the distribution of the acceleration (2) the delay before the eleven beats (although the score prescribes none) (3) the established tempo of the eleven beats. Of course, one would assume each of these factors to be, to some extent, dependent on the relative tempo of the preceding material. In many cases, however, this passage appears to have acquired a high degree of autonomy. It appears some early conductors chose to forgo any delay before the D segment (between beats 232-233). This approach is evident in the examples of Stravinsky (1940) and Stokowski. It was later adopted by Eugene Ormandy (1955) and employed once again by the composer in 1960. The style is illustrated from a close perspective in Figure 3.55. In contrast however, other early recordings convey a definite sonic void prior to the 11/4 coup de grace. Stravinsky included a pause in his first recording (1929) as did craft, “The Performance of The Rite of Spring,” 47.12 Beat 21s 3m é aU pes « poco cecento of ED seco a poco crescendo ef Example 3.15. Score, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Nos.101(+1)-102(+1), (Beats 200-222).Example 3.16. Score, “Mystic Circles Nos. 102(+2)-103(+1), (Beats 223-243). Beats of the Young Girls,” 314 Monteux in his recordings of 1929 and 1945, Ernest Ansermet (1950 and 1957) and Eduard van Beinum (1949) also employed this strategic silence. Figures 3.56 and 3.57 provide a close look at the early use of this brief cessation of the musical flow. It is obvious many early conductors considered it appropriate to insert a brief pause before commencing the measure of 11/4, However, as pronounced as this silent interlude may appear in these Figures, they are quite undramatic when compared with those found in many later recordings. Evidence of this is present in the previously discussed recordings of Maazel and Bernstein (Figures 3.48 and 3.53). However, Figures 3.58-3.61 illustrate the extrene to which this nuance has been taken since 1960. Figures 3.62 and 3.63 offer a glimpse of the longest delays from a closer perspective. With regard to the final eleven beats exclusively, one observation is noteworthy. In earlier recordings the final measure is presented at, or close to, the tempo of the culminating accelerando or faster (Stokowski excepted). Even Ansermet, after a relatively long hiatus, manages to bestow upon the final eleven beats a sense of temporal climax. Again, however, the recordings of Lorin Maazel (Figure 3.48) and Leonard Bernstein (Figure 3.53) are instructive. Note that in both cases, the last measure is performed slower than the culminating point of the accelerando. This implied8 autonomy of the final measure--most often encountered among interpretations which lean toward the slower side in general--is also featured in Figures 3.58-3.61 (Svetlanov, ‘Temirkanov, Rahbari, Timori). Figures 3.64, 3.65, and 3.66 provide a closer view of several relevant interpretations. The previous observations have called attention to some of the ways the last few measures of the “Mystic Circles” have varied in temporal design. However, the ramifications of this fact cannot be fully appreciated unless viewed in relation to the preceding and subsequent sections of The Rite, i.e., the “Introduction” and the “Glorification of the Ancestors” respectively. The fact there is no prescribed break going into, or coming out of the “Mystic Circles” tends to reinforce the relationships. Stravinsky's overriding concern for tempo and temporal relationships has been noted, specifically with regard to “spring Rounds.” Of course whether this was a conscious search for some unifying element or simply a reflection of musical instinct, is impossible to say. In any case, there is reason to believe the same forces were at work in the creation of the “Introduction,” Pt.II and the “Mystic Circles.” Figure 3.67 illustrates the metrical ratios between the sections. From this diagran it is easy to see why one might speculate on Stravinsky and temporal design. As the ratios becone simpler from section to section (and possibly more16 perceptible), the music gradually accelerates. Of course, there are few recordings which adhere to this scheme to the letter. However, based on this conception it would not be unreasonable to expect conductors to engage a continuum of acceleration from the beginning of the “Introduction” to Part II (whether literal or relative) to the ultimate goal, the “Glorification of the Ancestors.” Perhaps this is what provoked one reviewer to comment on the 1980 recording of Lorin Maazel (an interpretation very much like the 1974 recording illustrated in Figure 3.48) with specific reference to the maestro’s torpid 11/4: Maazel takes these poundings at about half the marked tempo, and, though they sound impressive, one of the few--and most effective--rhythmic transitions in this crystalline music is thereby vitiated.2 The “Ritual Action of the Ancestors” In contrast to the various sections of The Rite of Spring discussed so far, the “Ritual Action of the Ancestors" features no isolated motives, fermatas, or articulations which have contributed to the slowing tendency suggested in Figure 2.22. By and large, conductors who have recorded this section at a slower pace have simply slowed down across the board. However, there is one aspect this section which is curiously familiar. zpavid Ranada, Stereo Review 46 (January 1981): 86.7 It has been observed that structural changes in The Rite have sometimes led to unspecified shifts in tempo. This was noted specifically with regard to the “Introduction” to Part II and the “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls.” Although the “Ritual Action of the Ancestors” is characterized by a single prescribed tempo, its inherent sectional nature is also exposed by subtle changes in tempo. To clarify subsequent discussion, Examples 3.17-3.20 provide specific pages of the score. The A segment is characterized by a strong emphasis on the continuous and very regular pulse which permeates the section as a whole. The B segment begins at beat 57 (rehearsal number 131). Segment C begins at beat 118 (ehearsal number 135) and, although rhythmically contrasting, maintains the same fundamental metrical pulse. The last segment (D) commences at beat 167 (rehearsal number 139) recapitulating the general atmosphere of A. There is some evidence to suggest these structural divisions exerted some degree of influence on tempo in most early recordings. Figures 3.68-3.71 depict this in the four fastest interpretations recorded before 1960. Note however, that in general the transition to and from each segment is hardly noticeable. This subtlety provides an interesting contrast to the temporal profiles exhibited by conductors from the early 1960s who recorded much slower interpretations. Figures 3.72, 3.73, and 3.74 illustrateRITUAL ACTION OF THE ANCESTORS Example 3.17. Score, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Nos.129-130(+5), (Beats 1-48). 879 Example 3.18. Score, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Nos. 130(+6)-132(+3),' (Beats 49-80).80 Example 3.19. Score, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Nos.135-136(+1), (Beats 118-130).o Example 3.20. Score, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Nos. 138(+3)-139(+1), (Beats 157-173). 8182 this point. In each case the changes in tempo seem a bit more assertive, as if consciously induced. Curiously, in Stravinsky's recording of 1929, a much slower reading than 1940, the four divisions are also accompanied by more clearly delineated changes in tempo (Figure 3.75). Although most of the tempo maps for the “Ritual Action” exhibit some degree of temporal flexibility, a third variety of interpretation which seems to have appeared around 1960 should be noted. Figures 3.76, 3.77, and 3.78 illustrate the exceptional metronomic regularity which characterized this type of performance. Note that all three figures project a relatively consistent tempo from beginning to end. This is especially interesting in light of the fact that, by and large, these conductors have been previously discussed in connection with a more expressive style and concomitant flexibility of tempo. Even Leonard Bernstein's performance of 1958 imparts a relatively uniform tempo. The style is also present within a number of interpretations since that time but seems to be especially prevalent among very recent and moderately paced performances. Figures 3.79, 3.80, and 3.81 illustrate the trait in three recent recordings.CHAPTER 4 SLOWING TEMPI IN THE RITE OF SPRING: ‘THE SEARCH FOR A RATIONALE Preliminaries The preceding survey of recorded performances of The Rite of Spring has revealed a growing number of slower and more expressive interpretations. Specific factors contributing to longer duration have also been identified. However, as the more complex question of why this interpretative shift has taken place remains unanswered, several areas from which potential reasons may be unearthed will now be explored. Topics discussed focus primarily on conductors and the changing art of conducting, as well as various technological factors. At the same time, the study will determine the extent to which the literature substantiates the findings presented in the preceding pages. Multiple Recordings by the Same Conductor It was mentioned at the beginning of this study that several conductors have recorded The Rite of Spring more than one time. The fact that many of them slowed down in subsequent recordings constitutes one obvious contributor to 8384 the overall trends discussed in Chapter 2. Figure 4.1 illustrates this effect with regard to the total work. Note, the data presented in Figures 4.1 and 4.2 represent studio recordings only. Although the temporal interpretations of Antal Dorati, Zubin Mehta, and Pierre Boulez fluctuated over the years, their recordings are included in Figure 4.1 because they never returned to the faster performances of their earlier efforts. The reader will notice the most radical contrast in Dorati’s recordings between 1959 (29/37) and 1981 (33'14”). The most significant difference in the recordings of Zubin Mehta occurred between 1970 (3226”) and 1977 (34/04"). With xeference to Boulez, the largest difference in duration is found in the recordings of 1963 (32'17") and 1969 (33'56”). Although Boulez returned to a faster tempo in his last recording (1991, 33/08") the fact that he did not manage to restore the swiftness of his first endeavor did not escape the attention of some reviewers. The following remark is indicative: <+,Rot only is most of the Rite too slow in tempo but the recording is really poor here: much too distant and with too little presence.? Leonard Bernstein’s 1958 recording (34/27") is faster than that of 1972 (35/10"). Although not illustrated here, it is also interesting to note his live performance ten lanerican Record Guide 56 (May/June, 1993): 142.85 years later gained considerable time (36/41"). Sir Georg Solti and Igor Markevitch recorded The Rite at a slower pace on subsequent occasions. In 1974 Solti’s performance lasted only 31°52". Eighteen years later he recorded the work at a live performance lasting 33/23”. Similarly, Igor Markevitch’s initial effort in 1959 was performed in 31/46” while a recorded concert of 1982 lasts 32'44”. It is important to realize that not all the conductors who recorded The Rite more than once slowed down in later performances. Figure 4.2 illustrates the durational pattern for those conductors inclined to take The Rite at successively faster tempi as they became older. Any description of Monteux’s recordings would have to include two adjectives, i.e., frequent and consistent. In addition to conducting the work’s premiere May 29, 1913, Monteux recorded the work six times (including one concert performance). However, excluding the performance of 1956, it is most surprising to learn that a variance of only 23 seconds exists among his four other recordings. Even his live recording of 1957 holds tenaciously to this temporal blueprint varying only by a few seconds. Of the four remaining conductors in this figure, Lorin Maazel and Stravinsky (1929, 1940) appear to have altered their choice of tempi the most dramatically. As previously noted, the specific reasons why these conductors became slower (or faster) is difficult to86 determine. Perhaps there is no consistent rationale to be found as one would never expect a conductor to perform any musical work at the same tempo over the course of his or her career. However, the fact that many do slow down over time has received some attention. David Fallows has suggested that increasing familiarity with a musical work leads to slower tempi. Specifically, he has noted the following: Evidence suggests that increasing familiarity with a work leads audiences and musicians to prefer slower performances....the three recordings Boulez has made of his own Le marteau sans maitre over a mere 15 years show a remarkable slowing down as the work became more widely known and accepted as a classic.? While such reasoning is interesting (and debatable), the factor of aging--itself, a topic worthy of extended vesearch-~should surely be considered. With regard to Leonard Bernstein, comments by the maestro’s protégé, Justin Brown, are certainly relevant: By the end he [Bernstein] was quite phenomenally slow and I don’t know whether that was to do with the speed of his mind or what. Sometimes you got the feeling that he wanted to milk every single note because he loved it so much, and that could become difficult to take....But often with older conductors this slowing process does seem to happen and it was certainly the case with Lenny.? Similarly, Shreey Sylar, an oboist in the New York Philharmonic has conveyed related thoughts with regard to *stanley Sadie, ed. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (London: Macmillan, 1980), s.v. “Tempo and Expression Marks,” by David Fallows. 2William Westbrook Burton, ed. Conversations About Bernstein (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 102.87 Bernstein: “I think he became more reflective with age. A lot of the tempos were very slow, but he could carry them off."4 Remarks made by Sir Georg Solti in 1988 regarding his long and illustrious career hint at a possible reason his second recording of The Rite of Spring made in 1992 is about a minute and a half longer than his first recording of 1974: “Some of my tempos have become faster, some slower, but by and large, my tempos have generally slowed down.”"5 The Influence of Recording Technology In addition to the consequences of aging, there is another area to which this study initially sought an explanation for slower tempi, i.e., the expanding storage capacity of the recording medium. The possibility that time restrictions of 78 rpm technology dictated quicker tempi in pre-1948 recordings has been alluded to by numerous authors. For example, in his 1964 study of recorded symphonies of Haydn and Mozart, Robert King included the following statement among his preliminary remarks: The Long Playing versions [33xpm] of these works were used in order that changes of tempo necessitated by the amount of record space could be kept at a minimum. In ‘Paul Seyder, “Some Recordings to Remember (Bernstein),” The Absolute Sound (January-February, 1991): 54. SDennis Polkow, “Solti Speaks: A Rare and Candid Conversation with the Maestro: Part II,” Journal of the Conductor’s Guild (Spring 1988): 65.88 the older versions, some tempos were conditioned by the amount of record space available for a given movement.6 More recently, Bob Auger, a prominent recording engineer, shared the following insights (pers. com. 1995): I would suggest that the average 41 minute duration of a 12 inch 78RPM disc had a lot of influence on the performance of earlier recordings. I am convinced that some of Elgar’s and Stokowski’s performances were prejudiced by technical influences of the day. However, there are only two recordings of The Rite of Spring wherein this rationale might be justified. The first instance was mentioned in reference to Eugene Ormandy’s recording of 1955 in the discussion of Figure 2.1. A second area evoking suspicion is found in the 1929 recording by Stravinsky. Figures 2.8 and 2.9 reveal that the “Ritual of Abduction” and “Spring Rounds” are very fast in relation to other recordings. In fact, the former is the fastest ever recorded while the latter is second only to Ormandy’s performance. It is also curious that in this recording Stravinsky managed to fit both sections onto one four-minute side (side three). The “Ritual of Abduction,” lasting a brief 1°09", is quite a bit faster than in his subsequent recordings. “Spring Rounds" is also performed at a very brisk tempo (2'45"). This is especially interesting when coupled with the fact side three concludes with no room to ‘Robert Francis King Jr., "A Study of Tempo Deviations in Recorded Performances of Selected Symphonies by Haydn and Mozart" (Ed.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1964), 5.89 spare. Other than these isolated instances it is evident the influence of storage capacity has been minimal in the recordings of The Rite of Spring. Another aspect of recording technology which should be considered is the constant refinement of high fidelity. In 1936 Walter Benjamin commented on the ramifications of mechanical reproduction in general.7 A year later, Béla Bartok offered the following insight on sound recordings specifically: Records offer us the further great advantage of listening to and studying them when the machine is set at half speed, at a very slow tempo, just as if we were to examine objects through a magnifying glass It is tempting to interpret Bartok’s thoughts of 1937 as early symptoms of an age fascinated with musical detail. However, more concrete evidence is to be found in the sophisticated recording techniques developed during the second half of this century. There is no question these technological advances have contributed immensely to our analytical mode of listening and performing. The high degree of clarity made possible by modern recording and playback equipment has become an important factor in music production. In fact, the economic success of a CD (or 7walter Benjamin, “The Work of Art in the age of Mechanical Reproduction,” in Illuminations (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1968), 219. ®Béla Bartok, “Mechanical Music,” in Béla Bartok Essays, ed. Benjamin Suchoff (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1976.), 294.90 audiophile LP) may depend more on the quality of sonic events than on the performance of the work as a whole. The phenomenon is not endemic to music exclusively. In general, the following remarks by Jonathan Kramer are as applicable to Virginia Woolf as they are to Karlheinz Stockhausen: [art] has moved from a logic that reflects the goal- oriented linearity of external life to an irrationality that reflects our shadowy, jumbled, totally personal interior lives.9 In discussing the differences between conductors of the first half of the century and those of the present generation, Gerard Schwarz (1990, 36’) has, in essence, transposed the phenomenon to the context of musical performance specifically: +++[older conductors (e.g., Stokowski)] liked to play from start to finish. They rarely stopped; they felt that the musicians were more comfortable playing straight through. Nowadays conductors tend to stop more and, as a result, performances don’t hold together as they should--musicians go from moment to moment...so we don’t give the musicians a chance to feel comfortable with the piece as a whole. 10 In other words, performers and listeners have become--as a consequence of the former’s methods and the latter’s expectations--intrigued by the sound rather than the message. Robert Philip has provided one plausible reason: Detailed clarity and control have become the priority in modern performance, in the concert-hall as well as the SJonathan D. Kramer, “New Temporalities in Music,” critical Inquiry 7 (Spring’ 1981): 544. JHerbert Kupferberg, “The Bi-Coastal Baton of Gerard Schwarz,” Ovation (July 1986): 17.91 studio. No doubt this is partly because musicians have become accustomed to playing in this way, but it is also because audiences, themselves trained by ‘recordings, have cone to expect it. Clarity and accuracy are required in modern recordings, because any inaccuracies will be repeated every time the record is played....The price is that many modern performances place accuracy and clarity above all other considerations. Fascinating in its own right, this idea is significant for this study as it often provides relevant consequences for musical tempo. For example, David Breckbill, a contemporary expert in the history of phonography, has conveyed the following thought (pers. com. 1994): Music-making today is certainly more concerned with certain aspects of accuracy and cosmetic perfection than it was earlier in the century, and this does influence tempo in a downward direction in fast music. In this context specifically, the ideas of Robert Philip are, again, instructive: Every modern music student is familiar with the principle that a tempo must be chosen so that the Shortest note-values can be played accurately and clearly. The very fast maximum tempos of many pre-war xecordings were possible because the modern degree of clarity and precision was not part of the general performance practice of the time. The predominantly slower maximum tempos of modern performances are an inevitable result of the emphasis on rhythmic clarity. 12 Stravinsky was known to have altered his tempi for a clearer articulation of individual sonorities. Richard Robert Philip, Early Recordings and Musical styl. Changing Tastes in Instrumental Performance, 1900-1950 (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 231. wIbid., 234.92 Hudson has commented on this with regard to a passage in Scénes de ballet (1944): In his recording of 1963 Stravinsky slows down noticeably so that the solo instrument can enunciate the rhythm with great clarity.13 Moreover, Gerard Schwarz, previously noted in regard to his very slow performance of The Rite (1990, 36’), has confessed to having utilized a similar approach (pers. com. 1995): The only thing I can say about my recording is that in the beginning I tried to make it very clear so that as much as possible all the voices were heard. Many authors have suggested that increased focus on detail is often detrimental to larger scale musical perception. With regard to the recent recording of Pierre Boulez (1991)--previously described as “too slow” (see page 2)--one discerning reviewer conveyed the following observatior [Boulez] illuminate[s] the orchestral tapestry and rhythmic complexity of the music in the most brilliant, clear aural light. You can literally hear things you never heard before. On the other hand, harsh frontal light also produces deep shadows. We perceive the fine details incredibly well, but the big lines are often lost to view.4 Similarly, Leonard Slatkin’s relatively “sluggish” recording of 1990 (34°46") has been further described as “an aimless succession of unrelated pieces.”15 aRichard Hudson, Stolen Time: The History of Tempo Rubato (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), 395. MStereo Review 58 (April 1993): 100. iWanerican Record Guide 56 (May/June 1993): 142.93 Increased fascination with musical detail is probably nowhere better exemplified than in the career of Leonard Bernstein. Some critics have attributed this to Bernstein’s interest in education. Specifically, Harold Schonberg has suggested Bernstein “would underline things, make then clear, make them over-clear so that even the most stupid Person could grasp what he was doing.”16 Lukas Foss has also provided valuable insights in this regard: In a sense that came from Lenny’s desire to really pump the most out of the music, to milk it, to get everything out of it that was in it. sometimes he would do that by driving home the point, by being totally emphatic about every detail. I think that is how the tempi became slower, I don’t think it had to do with failing health or anything like that. If you want to make sure that people hear the detail in @ piece then you slow things down.17 Specific examples of Bernstein’s exaggerated emphasis on certain details in The Rite of Spring (e.g., the infamous glissandi in “Spring Rounds") were noted in Chapter 3. However, in general the very slow recordings of Vladimir Fedoseyev (1981, 35°22) and Eliahu Inbal (1989, 34/55”) convey a remarkable degree of detail. With regard to the latter, the grace notes in the “Introduction” to Part I are performed so slowly they seem to no longer function in that capacity, acquiring instead a life of their own within a melody described in the following way: \spurton, Conversations About Bernstein, 35. WIbid., 8-9.94 +++it’s all so careful and over-rehearsed--sanitized, if you will...carefully and accurately played (except for ‘one flat high D) but not beginning to suggest the wailing of some primordial creature, such as can be heard on the old 78s of Stravinsky and Monteux, where there was obviously some stress involved in even getting the notes out. 18 one will also recall Stravinsky referring to Ozawa’s very slow realization of the timpani appoggiature at the tutti section of “Spring Rounds” as a “comic effect.” Although the present discussion has focused on the potential detriment of analytical performance, one should not infer that clarity and detail are to be perceived in a negative light. In fact, recordings which reveal subtle aspects of rhythm, instrumentation, and voicing are, more often than not, enlightening. However, as technology is further refined, conductors and performers might do well to improvise on several lines from Wordsworth: Sweet is the lore which Nature brings; Our meddling intellect Mis-shapes the beauteous forms of things We murder to dissect William Wordsworth, The Tables Turned al Expres: on In the initial stages of this study Harold Schonberg was contacted and asked why he thought so many musical works are performed slower today than in the earlier part of the century. His reply conveyed the following thought (pers. seamerican Record Guide (May/June, 1991): 113-114.95 com. 1994): “Every age makes music its own way, and our age seems to dictate that Slow is Profound. It’s all wrong, but there you are.” Initially, this terse pronouncement appeared something less than epiphanous. However, after listening to the many recordings of The Rite it occurred there might be an incipient explication embedded in the presumption that “Slow is Profound.” Specifically, the term “profound,” evoking at once synonyms like “introspective,” “emotional,” and even “romantic,” has much in common with terminology used to describe various interpretations of The Rite after 1960. For example, in addition to the numerous interpretations noted in Chapter 3, Leonard Slatkin’s relatively slow performance (1990, 34746") has been described by one reviewer as an “introspective approach."19 Similarly, a review of Naazel’s recording of 1980 emphasized the presence of overly expressive tendencies: ++.it is a tremendous improvement over Maazels’ earlier, lugubrious effort for London. The conductor still makes numerous attempts to turn Stravinsky's mechanistic and fragmented music into a kind of Debussy-with-a-beat by introducing all sorts of dynamic and agogic nuances. These tend to give the music an espressivo, free-flowing feeling alien to much of the ritualistically violent score.20 In contrast, it has been duly noted that most pre-1960 recordings projected generally faster and more objective interpretations. In fact, early performances deviating from wWanerican Record Guide 56 (May/June 1993): 142. 2opavid Ranada, Stereo Review 46 (January 1981): 86.96 this paradigm were often deemed exceptional--an opinion manifest in Martin Bookspan’s critique of Ansermet‘s mellifluous (and relatively slow) recording of 1950: Ansermet’s is a thoroughly unorthodox reading, stressing the lyrical elements in the music and making of Le Sacre virtually a new experience.21 Perhaps earlier conductors preferred a more objective approach to The Rite as a result of direct contact with the composer. In particular, Pierre Monteux, whose close relationship with Stravinsky is well known, has left the following clue: The night of the premiére, I kept my eyes on the score, playing the exact tempo Igor had given me and which, I must say, I have never forgotten.” Stravinsky’s own preference for Apollonian detachment can be traced to his early musical training. when Stravinsky was about twelve years old, his piano instructor, Mlle. Kashperova, insisted that the young musician avoid the xomantic ramblings of Chopin and Wagner. This admonition was enforced by the equally influential fact that “she forbad him all use of the pedals, and he had to sustain entirely by the fingers.”23 That Stravinsky endured these precepts is 2Martin Bookspan, “Martin Bookspan Rates the Basic Repertoire: Stravinsky's Le Sacre du Printemps,” HiFi/Stereo Review 4 (March 1960): 30. 2poris G. Monteux, It's All in the Music (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1965), 76. 2Eric Walter White, Stravinsky: The Composer and His Works (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), 24.97 evident in the literature describing Stravinsky at the piano. In particular, Robert Craft has provided a brief account: His keyboard style in any music was marked by a staccato-sforzando touch, a secco tone, an avoidance of the pedal--all in the interest of that clarity of articulation which is reflected in his own compositions for the instrument.2 Stravinsky’s pianistic background harbors important ramifications for The Rite of Spring (or any other of his works) as it is a well known fact he always composed at the piano. Consequently, one potential influence on aspects of tempo is the extent to which any given conductor approaches The Rite by way of its keyboard origin. In this regard, Louis Cyr has suggested the following (pers. com. 1994): I sometimes think if conductors were all pianists and were initiated to the Rite via the 4-hand version...how different their attitude to the work would be, even in the recording studio. Perhaps if conductors embraced The Rite as conceived by Stravinsky, more performances would reflect the rapid and secco style the composer has often promoted. Moreover, if it were possible for Stravinsky to have heard specific recordings since his death (1971), one can easily visualize his reaction as being not unlike the episode recounted by Dame Marie Rambert (November 22, 1912) wherein Stravinsky supervised a piano rehearsal with the dancers: Vera Stravinsky and Robert Craft, Stravinsky in Pictures and Documents (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1978), 215.98 When Stravinsky first came to one of our rehearsals and heard the way his music was being played, he blazed up, pushed aside the fat German pianist, nicknamed ‘Kolossal’ by Diaghilev, and proceeded to play twice as fast as we had been doing it, and twice as fast as we could possibly dance. The effects of the piano in this regard are also implied in Robert Craft's description of a performance of the four-hand version by Michael Tilson Thomas and a friend: The Sacre performance is rousing, though the timbre is monotonous, the main lines are frequently swamped, and the tempi, pianos being unable to sustain, are generally too fast.% While these ideas may shed some light on why Stravinsky (as well as early conductors closely associated with him) recorded The Rite at a quicker tempo, the question of why some later conductors adopted more expressive performing styles remains unanswered. In general, Sir Georg Solti has suggested there has been an “upsurge in Romantic music because life in our time is so unromantic.”27 Perhaps a bit more specific, Gerard Schwarz has proposed the following rationale (pers. com. 1995): Certainly in our century music is played in a slower fashion because people have found ways to be more expressive and possibly find more depth in the music over a period of time. That is not to say that all slow Marie Rambert, Quicksilver: The Autobiography of Marie Rambert (London: Macmillan, 1972), 58-59. 2Robert Craft, Stravinsky: Chronicle of a Friendship, 2d ed. (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 1994), 466. Livingstone, 78.99 performances are necessarily deep, but that can be the argument. Similarly, it could be argued that the exaggerated physical gestures of conductors often associated with slower tempi have had some effect. In Stravinsky's mind, the conductor's obligations to The Rite did not extend to over emphasized sentiment. Remarks by the composer in this regard could not be more lucid: Le Sacre is arduous but not difficult, and the chef d’orchestre is hardly more than a mechanical agent, a time-beater who fires a pistol at the beginning of each section but lets the music run by itself.2 At the same time, Stravinsky was acutely aware of the probability that his work would elicit a number of wide ranging interpretations over time. Of the copious diatribes expressing his view of conductors in general, none is, perhaps, more revealing than the following: It was romantic music that unduly inflated the personality of the Kapellmeister even to the point of conferring upon him--along with the prestige that he today enjoys on his podium, which in itself concentrates attention upon him--the discretionary power that he exerts over the music committed to his care. Perched on his sibylline tripod, he imposes his own tempi, his own particular nuances on the compositions he conducts, and Igor Stravinsky and Robert Craft, Exposition and Developments (New York: Doubleday & Co., 1962), 165-66. It is interesting to find this opinion shared (albeit in a more general context) by Antal Dorati, previously noted for his very fast reading of The Rite: “It is best to imagine the ideal conducting as being completely dispensable at the performance. There exists an ideal number of rehearsals, which would make it possible for the orchestra to function “conductorless’ at a concert.” Antal Dorati, “An Anatomy of Conducting,” Music & Musicians 12 (December '1963): 18.100 he even reaches the point of talking with a naive impudence of his specialties, of his Fifth, of his Seventh, the way a chef boasts of a dish of his own concoction....What shall we say of the ill-breeding of those grimacers who too often take it upon themselves to deliver the ‘inner meaning’ of music by disfiguring it with their affected airs? Extending this thought, one may argue the “greatness” of a given work is often personified in physical terms which, demanding time in themselves, may temporally augment the music at hand. This suggestion has been alluded to by Lukas Foss in comments about Leonard Bernstein: I remember when he did Elgar’s Enigma Variations in England, he decided to show the English that it was “much greater than they thought!’ So he did it slower to rive home the point! It is interesting that in commenting on the neo- xomantic movement prevalent in the last half of this century, John Rockwell suggested the following: “Now, in a climate of ‘new Romanticism,’ Bernstein begins to look like a prophet.”3! This is due to the fact that Bernstein recognized early on the significance of the visible gesture. Having worked closely with Bernstein as a producer at Columbia Records, Paul Meyers has provided some reason to believe this was indeed a factor in the recording studio: 2Igor Stravinsky, Poetics of Music: In the Form of Six Lessons, trans. Arthur Knodel and Ingolf Dahl (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1942), 126-28. ‘Burton, ed., Conversations About Bernstein, 9. 3iMeryle Secrest, Leonard Bernstein: A Life (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1994), 404.101 +++[a8] you watched Bernstein conduct you were convinced you were listening to one of the great performances of all time. But if you looked away, or shut your eyes, you realized that all sorts of things were being stretched, that all hell was breaking loose, that nothing was together. I had to edit his tapes, so I know about the inaccuracies. 22 Not surprisingly, Stravinsky was aware of the problem by the 1960s as the following remarks more than imply: The cult of the ‘great’ conductor also tends to substitute looking for listening, so that to conductor and audience alike (and to reviewers who habitually fall into the trap of describing a conductor's appearance rather than the way he makes music sound, and of mistaking the conductor’s gestures for the music’s meanings), the important part of the performance becomes the gesture....if you are incapable of listening, the conductor will show you what to feel....If you are unable to listen to the music, you watch the corybantics, and if you are able, you had better not go to the concert.33 one will recall The relevancy of thoughts by Antal Dorati this conductor’s notably fast readings of The Rite--are also significant and should be noted: ‘The conductor of an orchestra has to be doubly careful of his podium behaviour--first, because he is not making the music, and thus no contortion of his can be excused as being necessary to produce a certain sound; second, because he is being watched. The greater part of his audience watches the wrong way--for direct, therefore nonmusical, effect and impression. If he behaves as quietly as ‘he can, he will help not only the direct effect of the music, but also an eventual proper evaluation of his own position as leader, but not executant, of the performance in progress.» Burton, ed., Conversations About Bernstein, 70-71. Igor Stravinsky and Robert Craft, Themes and Episodes (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1966), 146-47). ‘Antal Dorati, “An Anatomy of Conducting,” Music & Musicians 12 (December 1963): 18.102 ‘That the potential dangers inherent in exaggerated gestures have been largely directed to Leonard Bernstein does not imply he is the sole practitioner. However, it is safe to assume that his interpretations were highly influential. This is significant as his recording of 1958 was, in several cases, one of the earliest to initiate a move toward slower tempi in the sections discussed. Another conductor very active in promoting the visual aspect of performance was Herbert von Karajan. Coincidentally, Stravinsky questioned the ability of this conductor to approach The Rite from the appropriate perspective. The following remark from Stravinsky's review of Karajan’s recording of 1964 is indicative: +++T doubt whether The Rite can be performed satisfactorily in terms of Herr von Karajan’s traditions. I do not mean to imply that he is out of his depths, however, but rather that he is in my shallows-- er simple concretions and reifications. There are simply no regions for soul-searching in The Rite of Spring.% Perhaps it should be noted there is some justification in exploiting the more emotional parameters of The Rite as it has not always been perceived as the objective construction Stravinsky would have us believe. One cannot dismiss the choreographic impetus. Moreover, the opinion of Cecil Gray (writing in 1929) describes how some listeners may have perceived the work early on in its existenc SIgor Stravinsky, “Three Types of Spring Fever: Stravinsky Reviews The Rite,” in Retrospectives and Conclusions (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969), 130.103 The ‘Sacre,'...represents the ne plus ultra of pure sensationalism in art : the final stage, beyond which it is impossible to progress any further, in the same direction as that of works such as ‘Tristan,’ ‘Saloné,’ and ‘Elektra.’ In other words, it is no new departure, as its admirers fondly imagine, but the very opposite— the culmination of a century of romanticism, and the terminal point of a tendency, the beginnings of which are to be sought in the art of Weber and Berlioz. The distinction certain critics seek to make between what they allege to be the purely objective and physical effect of the music of the ‘Sacre,’ and the subjective emotional effect of, say, ‘Salomé’ or ‘Elektra,’ is as specious and untenable from the point of view of psychological theory as it is non-existent in practice. The essential appeal is, at bottom, recognizably the same in each case, the only important difference between them being the difference between Slav and Teuton, between a primitive artist and a hypercivilized one.% At the opposite extreme of conductorial ostentation we return to Pierre Monteux. Supplementing previous discussion of this conductor, Malcolm Rayment’s account is instructive: He is not the least bit interested in showmanship. All he is concerned with is the music--the composer's music. He is intent on realising what is in the score and the meaning behind the printed notes, and not in superimposing a personal interpretations on them. Stravinsky’s description of Monteux is curiously similar: Stravinsky has said that of all the conductors he has ever known, Monteux was ‘the least interested in calisthenic exhibitions for the entertainment of the audience and the most concerned to give clear signals to the orchestra. ‘38 xcecil Gray, “The Sacre Re-heard,” The Nation and the Athenzum 44 (February 1929): 616. 3/Malcolm Rayment, “Pierre Monteux,” Audio and Record Review 2, no.5 (1963): 21. 3eHarold C. Schonberg, The Great Conductors (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1967), 329.104 It is significant that other conductors who have recorded The Rite at faster tempi often elicit similar commentary. Eduard van Beinum‘s “creed was always to let the music speak for itself."39 Richard Carter has noted the economical use of physical gesture as a characteristic of “Even under normal circumstances Dorati’s Antal Dorat: physical movements are restrained.” Carter’s observation is supported by Dorati himself: The motions of the conductor are, so to speak, a “necessary evil.” (‘Necessary’ because they are relied upon; ‘evil’ because they are intermediary)....The conductor’s signals, directed of course only towards the orchestra, should be clear and kept to a minimum... Increasing economy of means, employed to better effect, is a sign of increasing maturity in every form of art.4 Of course it should also be noted that faster tempi are often associated with conductors promoting the virtues of “authentic” performance. Thus with regard to musical performance it seems Stravinsky's methods were, once again, prescient. 3John L. Holmes, Conductors on Record (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982), 54. “Richard Carter, “Interview with Antal Dorati,” The Instrumentalist (December 1980): 19. “Antal Dorati, “An Anatomy of Conducting,” Music & Musicians 12 (December 1963): 18.CHAPTER 5 NEW QUESTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS Music as Written, Music as Performed The primary intent of this dissertation was to explore the potential for a new mode of criticism, i.e., comparative performance criticism. As the methodology is relatively new, it was also stated at the outset that a subsidiary goal was “to determine what new insights and/or questions might spring from an inquiry of this nature.” Before summarizing the conclusions of the study, the discussion will shift briefly to an area of concern set into relief as a direct result of the methodology, i.e., the relationship between the music as written and the music as performed. The increasingly slower performances of certain sections of The Rite of Spring leads inevitably to the following question: How slow can this music be performed and maintain its identity? By the 1930s the Polish philosopher Roman Ingarden expressed a deep concern over how to preserve the integrity of a musical work over time. Similarly, yet in more radical terms, Nelson Goodman has amusingly conveyed the dangers of increased liberties with regard to the score: If we allow the least deviation, all assurance of work- preservation and score-preservation is lost; for by a 105106 series of one-note errors of omission, addition, and modification, we can go all the way from Beethoven's Fifth Symphony to Three Blind Mice.1 Moreover, the recent salvo by Rudolf Kolisch in the ongoing fray over Beethoven’s tempi is an excellent example of how real (and relevant) the issue can become: It seems that German Romanticism, and the traditional performances inspired by it, believed that one could only do justice to the ‘profundity’ of the Beethoven Adagio by means of an extremely slow tempo. This interpretation sometimes leads, however, to a complete distortion of the musical idea such that it is no longer recognizable.? Of course the possibility of transforming Stravinsky's chef d’oeuvre into a state of anonymity is unlikely as long as the score remains the principal point of departure. However, recordings have a tendency to lessen the authoritative status of the score by initiating, and Perpetuating, traditions based on a variety of external factors. Specifically, Derek Scott has noted two influences: There is, for example, a tendency for professional performers to take heed of records which have been praised by critics or which have achieved high sales figures, and as a result there is not the variety of interpretation that existed even thirty years ago.? iWelson Goodman, Languages of Art: An Approach to a Theory of Symbols, (New York: Bobbs-Merrill Co., Inc. 1968), 120 n. 2Rudolf Kolisch, “Tempo and Character in Beethoven's Music,” The Musical Quarterly 77 (Spring 1993): 90-131. aderek B. Scott, “Music and Sociology for the 1990s: A Changing Critical Perspective,” Musical Quarterly 74, no.3 (1990): 404.107 Although Stravinsky's views on recording changed as he became older (essentially, from positive to negative) he too never doubted the potential for sound recordings to achieve canonical status. In reaction to a letter written to Stravinsky from Leopold Stokowski regarding the latter's wishes to record the Sacre, Stravinsky conveyed the following concern to his publisher, Gavril Paichadze, in guly 1927: Unless this recording has already been made, I am very eager to stop him, not being at all confident of his tempi. You understand that unlike a concert performance, a recording is definitive....¢ Forty years later, the composer once again voiced his concern: I have changed my mind...about the advantages of embalming a performance in tape. The disadvantages, which are that one performance represents only one set of circumstances, and mistakes and misunderstandings are cemented into traditions as quickly and canonically as truths, now seem to me too great a price to pay.”6 While it would be difficult to establish the extent to which any specific conductor was influenced by previously released sound recordings of The Rite, it is very unlikely the increasing frequency of slower tempi in the aforementioned sections has been coincidental. In all likelihood, interpretations have been propagated, to some ‘vera Stravinsky and Robert Craft, Stravinsky in Pictures and Documents (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1978), 204. Serica Heisler Buxbaum, "Stravinsky, Tempo, and Le sacre,” Performance Practice Review 1 (Spring 1988): 62-63.108 degree, in a manner similar to that as described by the legendary producer Walter Legge in reference to visits paid to him by Herbert Von Karajan: He [Karajan] is like a magpie...when he comes to the house to’stay. He goes through all the piles of new records, takes them up in his room and plays bits through. ‘Listen, what do you think of this? Have you heard Minchs’ tempo for that bit of La Mer? Quite extraordinary. We must try that out some time’.é In light of the preceding paragraphs it should be noted that variance from the score in performance is not unexpected with regard to any single interpretation. among any group of performances one might also expect to encounter a range of performances moving faster or slower than the score indicates. Such patterns are illustrated in many of the examples in Chapter 2. It is significant, however, when the vast majority of performances deviate from the score in a similar way--not as a trend, but rather as an overall displacement of average tempo in relation to the score. For instance, Part I (Figure 2.2) is generally performed slower than the score dictates. Conversely, a faster than prescribed tempo is manifest in Part II (Figure 2.4). Similar examples can be found throughout the chapter with the most extreme instance occurring in Figure 2.8 (“Ritual of Abduction”). How is the discrepancy between the score and the overwhelming preference for a different temporal median ‘Evan Eisenberg, The Recording Angel: Explorations in Phonography (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1987), 118.109 to be reconciled? In cases like these it appears the temporal schema has been wrought from some shaping force inherent in the music itself rather than the score--perhaps the same tessitura would have emerged if there had been no metronomic indication at all. Or perhaps the answer is to be found in a more tangible explanation provided by James Goodfriend: The composer, according to theory at least, knows the tempo he [or she] wants. But there may be generations of listeners and performers who will openly protest that the music sounds better when played different ly--that is, slower [or faster]--than what the composer wants. This is one way performance traditions develop that seen to run counter to the score.? Whatever the reason, the provocative implication is that The Rite of Spring, in at least one respect (tempo), has been coauthored. At this point the reader might also consider the implications of the score versus performance with regard to any music analysis dealing with tempo. It has been mentioned that traditionally, music analysis has been based on the written text. However, if the score is an inaccurate as has indicator of the music as it is generally performed-. been demonstrated in this study--how is the theorist to justify his or her findings? ‘The problems just described are as intriguing as they are controversial. However, the dilemma is further ‘Wames Goodfriend, “Time and Tempo,” Stereo Review 43 (December 1979): 65.110 complicated when considered in the context of the composer’s intentions. Robert Craft has conveyed the extent to which Stravinsky often relied on his own recordings when dealing with matters of intent: In two or three questions of tempo, when recorded tempo contradicts the printed instructions of the music, Stravinsky regards the recording as a correction.® Like many composers of the twentieth century, Stravinsky regarded his recordings as means to clarify his intentions. Of course there is the problem of inconsistencies within Stravinsky's recorded oeuvre. Erica Heisler Buxbaum has noted the fact the composer’s tempi often changed fron one recording to the next. However, this is not the most critical issue. The real difficulty in arriving at the composer’s intentions becomes apparent when recorded passages remain consistent from recording to recording yet depart from the score. For example, Stravinsky's 1960 recording of the “Mystic Circles” exhibits the same preference for a much faster B section found in his recordings of 1929 and 1940 (Figures 3.43 and 3.44). So, does this mean the tempo presented in three separate recordings, on three different dates, separated by a period eleven and twenty years respectively, should override the authority of the metronomic indication in the score? ®Robert Craft, “The Composer and the Phonograph,” High Fidelity 7 (June 1957): 99.an ‘The question of intent, as well as the other speculative issues presented in this chapter, are outside the realm of this study. However, these areas offer a rich field of inquiry for further research. Conclusions. Stravinsky once stated that “the one true comment on a piece of music is another piece of music.”9 Hopefully, the previous pages have demonstrated this instructive adage to be equally valid with regard to different performances of the same work. More specifically, the study has provided evidence to support the following conclusions: (1) Comparative performance criticism is an effective means of exposing characteristics of musical performance in relative terms and identifying general trends in performance styles. (2) The longer durations of more recent performances of The Rite of Spring can be attributed to a growing number of slower interpretations of the slow sections (i.e., “Introduction” to Part I, “Spring Rounds," “Introduction” to Part II, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” and the “Ritual Action of the Ancestors”). (3) The fact this slowing trend can be attributed to specific sections rather than across the board is significant as it alters the temporal relationships among all sections of the work. The phenonenon spaniel Albright, Stravinsky: The Music Box and the Nightingale (New York: Gordon and Breach, 1989), 63.112 has also occurred within certain sections, similarly disrupting temporal relationships. (4) The trend in slower interpretations has been accompanied by an increased expressiveness of style. Specific nuances include a more vocal/melodic approach, longer fermatas, longer note values, and emphatic phrasing. (5) In some sections there has been a narrowing of interpretative variety with regard to overall tempo. This is especially evident in the following sections: the “Introduction” to Part I, “Spring Rounds,” and the “Ritual of the Rival Tribes.” (6) The score is not the final arbiter in questions of how The Rite of Spring should be performed. The existing incongruence between performance tradition and the written text gives rise to a host of philosophical questions ranging from authority/intention to the ontological status of the musical “work.” It should be noted that the information presented in this study provides but one perspective with regard to the performance history of The Rite of Spring. This dissertation would be nicely complemented by a study of concert reviews since the work’s premiere, specifically in the style of ‘Truman Bullard’s seminal work.10 Moreover, an in-depth study of the reception history and program notes would surely yield much useful information. ierruman Campbell Bullard, "The First Performance of Igor Stravinsky's Sacre du Printemps," 3 vols. (Ph.D. diss., Bastman School of Music, University of Rochester 1971).113 With regard to future studies of this nature, the researcher might also take heed of a few suggestions: (1) Select a work which can be tolerated over the course of several hundred, very attentive hearings--if that is possible. In this respect, The Rite of Spring was most challenging. (2) Select a work for which there is a substantial number of early recordings. (3) Be prepared to make a monetary commitment. While there are libraries and archives with substantial record collections, few will allow them to circulate. If travelling, one possible solution would be to acquire a notebook computer which could be taken into the library or archive. A computer is necessary for acquiring data for the tempo maps. Beyond these conclusions and bits of advice, one closing thought should be conveyed. The initial impetus for this dissertation was a general interest in how musical works change over time. However, the most notable effect of the many hours of listening is now the seemingly infinite variety of interpretations which seem to resound simultaneously. Time has been compressed and, for this writer, a more flexible conception of The Rite of Spring has emerged. Perhaps it is this broadened awareness which best reflects the true worth of comparative performance criticism.CHAPTER 6 FIGURES wma 28200-pp 7 yy 1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 DATE. Figure 2.1. Durations, Total Work. 11411s 18:00 17200 16:00: 15:00. wz 1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 DATE Figure 2.2. Durations, Pt.I. ae le 29434353 53-63 G73. 7383-83-93 pare Figure 2.3. Durational Paradigms, Pt.I.om 172004 16:00-4 15:00-4 1925 Figure 2.4. mH 2330 1925 Figure 2.5. 116 ernstein 7 a cate a 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 DATE Durations, Pt.II. 1935 1945 1955 1965 19751985 1995 DATE Durations, “Introduction,” Pt.1.mozHowooms uy ae 2008 908. 08 708 608 soe 408 308. 208. 108. 08: 29-43 4353 536363737383 83-93. pare Figure 2.6. Durational Paradigms, “Introduction,” Pt.I. 22454 ‘Setocen £80 1925 1935 19451955 19651975 1985 1995 DATE Figure 2.7. Durations, “Augurs of Spring.”1g wena” 1925 1935 1945 19551965 1975 1985 1995 DATE Figure 2.8. Durations, “Ritual of Abduction.” wm 3200 2330 2200 1925 1935 1945 1958S 196519751985 1995 DATE. Figure 2.9. Durations, “Spring Rounds.”119 Bo 622% Bows Bo 1008. 308. 08. 708. 608. 508. 408. 208. 208 208 oF 29-43-4353 83563-63073. 73583 83493 Dare Figure 2.10. Durational Paradigns, “Spring Rounds.” wee rag asa0q 1:334—_— +> + 7 >> 1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 parE. Figure 2.11. Durations, “Ritual of the Rival Tribes.”120 156" 1008 08. 208. 708 cos. 508 aor 308 eaxnomoane 208 208 on, 434359 SUED 6337-89 3-93 DATE Figure 2.12. Durational Paradigms, “Ritual of the Rival Tribes.” eH 1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 19851995, DATE Figure 2.13. Durations, “Procession of the Sage.”121 0:305 we 0810} 1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 19851995 DATE Figure 2.14. Durations, “The Sage.” 1:204 ass4 apes, 0855 pp 1925 1935 1945 1955 19651975 19851995 DATE Figure 2.15. Durations, “Dance of the Earth.”122 Bae Growre Bre 2008. soe: aot 29-63 «43653 S363 637373483 83-93 bare Figure 2.16, Durational Paradigms, “Dance of the Earth.” ame 1925 1935 1945 1955 19651975 19851995, DATE Figure 2.17. Durations, “Introduction,” Pt.II.123 mee BD | 1008. 908. 0s: 708: 08. soe. 40 208. maznonoons 208 108 on. 29-43 4365353636373. 7383 3-83 DAE Figure 2.18. Durational Paradigms, “Introduction,” Pt. II. 1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 DATE Figure 2.19. Durations, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls.”124 1:55 1504 ass arao4 1:354 mm Ho 1:304 1:284 as204 asis4 } 1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995, DATE Figure 2.20. Durations, “Glorification of the Chosen one.” 1s10 0:30: 1925 1935 1945 1955 19651975 1985 1995 DATE. Figure 2.21. Durations, “Evocation of the Ancestors.”125 43304 ans4 4:004 32484 31304 wens 3:84 32004 2454 2330 pq qo a 1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 DATE Figure 2.22. Durations, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors.” Bow Boe Bouse Bove 008: soe. 3 208. 2 708 c 0 608 sot T 408. x 208. 5 aoe. toe. oF 29-43 4353 5263-61-73. 73-83 83493 Dare Figure 2.23. Durational Paradigms, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors.”126 4:004 tert, ore “ Doras a 3340} 4] 7 > 1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 DATE Figure 2.24. Durations, “Sacrificial Dance.” 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 DATE Figure 2.25. Durations, Total Work (Recorded Concerts).127 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985, 1995 DATE Figure 2.26. Durations, “Ritual of the Rival Tribes” (Recorded Concerts). we 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 DATE Figure 2.27. Durations, “Introduction,” Pt.II (Recorded Concerts) .43309 4:15] 42004 3245 we 3:14 32004 2454 45 Figure 2.28. 5:205 52004 4:204 4:004 32404 1945, Figure 2.29. seravinaky 2 1955 1965 1975 1985 DATE 128 aoe meee a a 1995 Durations, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors” (Recorded Concerts). steevinaiy. a stewvinaiy 1955 1965 1975 1985 DATE Durations, “Sacrificial Dance” (Recorded Concerts). 4:40: == 19952005 1904 1604 404 1204 1004 80; cod onus 404 129 Seore — stravinsky/23 a ce a 20 so uo aso. 200280300 BEAT Figure 3.1. Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Stravinsky 1929. 2005 s804 160: s4oq 120. 1004 ovnnn eo 604 ofa 204 Figure 3.2. a= 100 ear er 200 80 25087 300) BEAT ‘Tenpo Map, “Spring Rounds, Stravinsky 1940.130 Score — stravinsky/60 ° (ot 9 0) 0 200 ee 250) 300) BEAT Figure 3.3. Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds," Stravinsky 1960. score — Stravinsky/29 Figure 3.4. Tempo Map. “Spring Rounds,” Beats 1-35, Stravinsky 1929.131 Figure 3.5. Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Beats 1-35, Monteux 1929. 200 100 260. 40. 320 100: 80; 60; 40. 20; ovrma 0 5 SSS, Bear Figure 3.6. Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Beats 1-35, van Beinum.132 20 aw 6 140 220 Figure 3.7. Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Beats 1-35, Stravinsky 1940. 200. 1804 160) 140) 120) 100) ownwe Figure 3.8. Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Beats 1-35, Stravinsky 1960.200. 280. 60. ado. 120. 300) #0 60. 40) 20) ovens Figure 133 3 10 SOS ‘BEAT 3.9. Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Beats 1-35, Bernstein 1958. 200. 200. 360. ao. 20. 100: 80. 60: 40) 20. > wb Om Beat Figure 3.10. Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Beats 1-35, Mehta 1977.134 200. 380. 160: uo. 20: 100: oman 60 40. 20: ° so 100 150~«<200”~=«80~S«300, Beat Figure 3.11, Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Maazel 1974. oven ue 153se 6368178 Figure 3.12. Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Beats 148-178, Stravinsky 1940/60.ouxma ue 153 Figure 3.13. 135 fisa ied isn irae 7a) Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Beats 148-178, Monteux 1951, van Beinum. 190. 90. 770. ue 183 Figure 3.14. fied 173 ire Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Beats 148-178, Solti 1974.136 Bernstein/s@ Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” w++ Score — Maaze1/20 — Meazet/74 Beats 148-178, Bernstein 1958. Figure 3.15. 1005 163168 alae BEAD 158 Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Beats 148-178, Maazel 1974/80. Figure 3.16.137 113 168 163 BEAT 158 153 48 ‘Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Beats 148-178, Iimori. Figure 3.17. 200 190 Score "300 "250 200 "150 ‘100 30 ‘Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Figure 3.18. Monteux 1951.138 0 30 go 150 ago 280.300, BEAT Figure 3.19. Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Wodiczko. ‘score — Mohtas77 ° so 00 «as0.~~«200"~”~S=«250.«800 BEAT Figure 3.20. Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Mehta 1977.139 owsne 3 30 00 «0200280300 BEAT Figure 3.21. Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Slatkin. owns ° (S010 ee 150) 200 east oyna 00) Bear Figure 3.22. Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Stokowski.140 | ° so 100”~~«1s0. 200280300 Figure 3.23. Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Leibowitz. 2004 score 1004 — soiti/7 1604 404 1204 3004 eo ood oven aod 201 el ° so 00 S020 2800 BEAT Figure 3.24. Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Solti 1974.0 Soe 100) se eeca0 ers 230) Figure 3.25. Tempo Map, “Spring Rounds,” Valek. ° 30 100 150 ‘200 BEAT Figure 3.26. Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.IT, Monteux 1929. ‘300 250 141.142 ovems ° 30 ado 350 200 230 Figure 3.27. po Map, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Stokowski. Score — Stravinsky/40 ° 50 100 350 260 250 Bear Figure 3.28. Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.IT, Stravinsky 1940.143 200. score 30) — Bernstein/se 80 ovnms 30 100 ao 200 250 BEAT Figure 3.29. Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Bernstein 1958. 00 so ood nd ood sod ouvnun wd aod 24 10 ° 30 100 150 200 250 BEAT Figure 3.30. Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Leibowitz.144 24 2 eo “ P50 © «od 204 24 fe 30 30 350 200 250 BEAT Figure 3.31. Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Bernstein 1972. fa 100 150 200 250 ° so Bear Figure 3.32. Tempo Nap, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Rattle 1987.145 Figure 3.33. Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Beats 1-50, Monteux 1929. Figure 3.34. 7 Pt.II, Beats 1+! Map, “Introduction,” 1 Stokowski.146 | — score I — stravinsky/40 Figure 3.35. Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Beats 1-50, Stravinsky 1940. Figure 3.36. Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Beats 1-50, Bernstein 1958/72.147 ouvews Figure 3.37. Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Beats 1-50, Rattle 1987. 1003 54 — anseret/30 aod nq ood so4 a4 204 a 100 0 30 200 150 200 230 Figure 3.38. Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Ansermet 1950.148 100. oveas ° so 160 150 200 250 Figure 3.39. Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Schwarz. ° 30 100 150 200 280 Bear Figure 3.40. Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Neuhold.149 187 134 201 208 Figure 3.41. Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Beats 187-208, Stokowski, Stravinsky 1940, Monteux 1929. Figure 3.42. Tempo Map, “Introduction,” Pt.II, Beats 187-208, Schwarz, Bernstein 1958.150 40. Score 130. — Stravinsky/29 220 uo 100 90. 80 1 60 50 80 ° 30 180 350 260 280 BEAT ownne Figure 3.43. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Stravinsky 1929. Figure 3.44. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Stravinsky 1940.151 ° 30 100 150 260 230 Figure 3.45. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Monteux 1945. 0 30 100 150 "260 230 Figure 3.46. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Stokowski.140 1204 no ovnnn 1004 152 250 BEAT Figure 3.47. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Goossens. 340 a304 120. no. ? 100. z P a0 ° 30 300 10 280 20 BEAT Figure 3.48. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Maazel 1974.e 30 100 350 ‘200 250 BEAT Figure 3.49. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Mata 1991. n+ Seore — crate/s1 3 30 100 150 200 230 BEAT Figure 3.50. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Craft 1991. 153154 40. 130. 120 uo. 100. ° 30 100 350 200 250 BEAT Figure 3.51. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Frihbeck de Burgos. 140. 130. 120. — dorati/59 uo. Score ouvxun ° 30 180 350 200 20 BeAr Figure 3.52. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Dorati 1959.155 — Bernstein/se ° 30 100 180 200 230 Figure 3.53. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Bernstein 1958. 8 30 180 150 200 230 BEAT Figure 3.54. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Wodiczko.Figure 3.55. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Beats 215-245, Stravinsky 1940/60, Stokowski, Ormandy. 160 u40 120) 100 *0 ee strav/29 60 — Honteux/29 J — Montoux/as 20 25 a0 coset coe aa Figure 3.56. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Beats 215-245, Stravinsky 1929, Monteux 1929/45. 156157 zs 20 mas 2802S 22S Figure 3.57. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Beats 215-245, Ansermet 1950/57, van Beinun. 140: 130. 120. 10: 00 0: 20. 10. ovean 50: 40. Pigure 3.58. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Svetlanov.158 BEA Figure 3.59. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Temirkanov. 140 130 120 uo. 100 90 80 0 cy 50 0 0 30 100 350 200 250 Bear Figure 3.60. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Rahbari.140 130 220. no. 100 ovnnn 159 Figure 3.61. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Timori. 180. 260. 140. 120) 100. ouvnus Figure 3.62. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Beats 215-245, Svetlanov, Temirkanov.Figure of the Svetlanov, Temirkanov (in 20 28230 BEAT 235 3.63. Young Girls," Beats 215-245, seconds). 160 245 ‘Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles — Bernatein/s8 Figure "230 235.240 BeAr 225 3.64. of the Young Girls,” Beats 215-245, Bernstein 1958. 7245 Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles161 zis 220225230235 240245 BEAT Figure 3.65. ‘Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Beats 215-245, Karajan 1964/77. 180. 160g 140. T a0. e 4 100 as es aa 0Netet 225 tes 20 et cas et cao aas| BEAT Figure 3.66. Tempo Map, “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls,” Beats 215-245, Timori, Maazel 1974,162 Intro, Pe. IT Mystic circle: ay meno 48 60 48 60 80 60 120 patio 42 5 5 3:4: 3 2:1 Figure 3.67. Ratios of Metric Pulse, “Introduction,” Pt.II and “Mystic Circles of the Young Girls.” ounan oa 50 78 100 325 150. 175 200 225 BEAT Figure 3.68. Tempo Map, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Stokowski.90: 0. 70; 60: 40 30 Figure 3.69. 163 cess Score — stravinsky/40 3075 300 125. 150. 175 200. 225 ‘Tempo Map, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Stravinsky 1940. 90 ovens ao 20 os Figure 3.70. Score — ven peinm 3075 100. 128. 180. 175 200. 225 BEAT ‘Tempo Map, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” van Beinum.30 20. nd 60 so. 40. 20 24 Figure 3.71. 164 3075100. 125. 180. 175.200. 225 BEAT Tempo Map, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Ormandy. oe Figure 3.72. 30 75~100 «ads 1s0. 17S 200.225. BEAT Tempo Map, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Goossens.165 90 80 7» 60 « ps0 ° 40 ‘score » — ancer 20 pe TTT, oa 80 75 400. 18 150 175 200” 225 BEAT Figure 3.73. Tempo Map, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Ancerl. score — karajen/64 80 78 100 425 150. 178 200 225 BEAT Figure 3.74. Tempo Map, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Karajan 1964.166 — stravinsky/29 O50 75 100. 125 150” 175 200” 225 BEAT Figure 3.75. Tempo Map, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Stravinsky 1929. owmas Figure 3.76. Tempo Map, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Leibowitz.167 30 80 1. . z * Pe ° n+ Sore 20. — Bernstein/72 20 pe TT, Das 80 75 100125 150 17820025 BEAT Figure 3.77. ‘Tempo Map, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Bernstein 1972. 90) 80) ovens oa 8078 100 428-150. 178 200.225 Figure 3.78. Tempo Map, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Mata 1979/91.168 ozs so 75 100195 180 275 200 225 BEAT Figure 3.79. Tempo Map, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” limori. 90 80 70 60; 0. ounms 40. 20) 20 025075 100-225 180 175 200 225 ‘BEAT Figure 3.80. Tempo Map, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Jansons.169 owxms Qa 50 75 100 425. 150. 175 200. 225 BEAT Figure 3.81. Tempo Map, “Ritual Action of the Ancestors,” Valek. 37:00 nea” 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 DATE 1935 1945 Figure 4.1. Durations, Repeat Recordings (Slower).170 37:00 36:00. 35200 34200) 33:00 32200 oma 30200 29:00 28:00 1925 1935 19451955 196519751985, DATE Figure 4.2. Durations, Repeat Recordings (Faster).APPENDIX A DISCOGRAPHY The discography is arranged alphabetically by conductor and then chronologically (if recorded more than one time by the same conductor). The information is presented in three levels: 1. Recording used in this study. 2. Alternate publication/release numbers. 3. Reviews. The format (78, LP, €D), date of recording, and two indicators (* = estimated date of recording, + = recording unavailable for this study) are also included. Abbado, Claudio. London Symphony Orchestra. Deutsche Grammophon 2530 635 (LP). Recorded February 1975. Ancerl, Karel. Czech Philharmonic Orchestra. Parliament 604 (LP). Recorded 1963. Supraphon 111948 (cD) High Fidelity 39 (June 1989): 76. Ansermet, Ernest. L‘Orchestre de la Suisse Romande. London LL 303 (LP). Recorded 1950. Decca LxT 2563 Richmond 19008 « L’Orchestre de la Suisse Romande. London LL 1730 (EP). Recorded 1957. Decca SXL 2042 (Original recording) S CS 6031 (US) cM 9207 (US) EXT 5388 (Great Britain) Bookspan, Martin. “Martin Bookspan Rates the Basic Repertoire: Stravinsky's Le Sacre du Printemps.” HiFi/stereo Review 4 (March 1960): 24. Barenboim, Daniel. Orchestre de Paris. ERO 45437 (CD). Recorded October 1986. am172 Beinum, A. van. Amsterdam Concertgebouw. English Decca set EDA 59 (78). Recorded 1949.* Decca K1727/80 (78) Bernstein, Leonard. New York Philharmonic. Columbia Masterworks ML-5277 (LP). Recorded January 20, 1958. Columbia Masterworks MS 6010 (LP) Columbia LMB-24 Sony (CD), SMK 47629 CBS'S 61104 (LP) European release. Yarustovsky, B. The World of Music 13, no.2 (1971): 58-68 Bookspan, Martin. “Martin Bookspan Rates the Basic Repertoire: Stravinsky’s Le Sacre du Printemps."HiFi/Stereo Review 4 (March 1960): 24. London Symphony Orchestra. Columbia Masterworks 31520 (LP). Recorded 1972. MK~44709 (CD) . Israel Philharmonic. Deutsche Grammophon 431045-2 {€D). Recorded live April 1982. DGG (CD) 429493-2 [DDD] Deg (12CD) 431197-2 (Complete Bernstein) Hamilton, David. Stereo Review 49 (June 1984): 92. Blomstedt, Herbert. Stockholm Philharmonic. Expo Norr 1.+ Boulez, Pierre. L‘Orchestre National de la Radiodiffusion ‘Télévision Frangaise. Nonesuch H-71093 LP. Recorded 1963. Nonesuch #-1093 (LP Mono) Botsford, Ward. American Record Guide 32 (February 1966): 500-503. Salzman, Eric. High Fidelity/Musical america 16 (February 1966): 68. Stravinsky, Igor. “Spring Fever." In Themes and Conclusions, 234-241. London: Faber and Faber, 1972 . L’Orchestre National de la Radiodiffusion "Télévision Francaise. Disques Montaignes TCE 8800 (LP). Recorded live June 18, 1963.+ Concert Hall (Record Club) M 2324; SM 2324 Goodwin, No&l. Music and Musicians 12 (April 1964): 43.173 Cleveland Orchestra. CBS MY 37764 (LP). Recorded 1969 in Severance Hall, Cleveland, Ohio. MS 7293; HM 47293; MS 7293 CBS § 72807; MK 42395 (CD) Sony 64109 Stravinsky, Igor. “Three Types of Spring Fever: Stravinsky Reviews The Rite.” In Retrospectives and Conclusions. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969): 123-130. Yarustovsky, B. The World of Music 13, no.2 (1971): 58-68 Cleveland Orchestra. Deutsche Grammophon 4357692 (CD). Recorded March 3, 1991 in the Masonic Auditorium, Cleveland Ohio. Landis. American Record Guide 56 (May/June, 1993): 142. Stereo Review 58 (April 1993): 100. Bour, Ernest. Sinfonieorchester des Siidwestfunks. Astrée E- 7803 (CD). Recorded December 1969. Chailly, Riccardo. Cleveland Orchestra. London 4173252 (CD). Recorded November 1985 in the Masonic Auditorium, Cleveland Ohio. London 430709-2 (cD) Hamilton, David. Stereo Review 52 (August 1987): 91. Craft, Robert. USSR State Symphony Orchestra. Melodiya SM 02467-70 (LP). Recorded live September 26/28, 1962. Melodiya D 010933-6 (USSR 1962) Le Chant du Monde LDX78718-9 (France 1983) Stravinsky, Igor. “Three Types of Spring Fever: Stravinsky Reviews The Rite.” In Retrospectives and Conclusions. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969): 123-130. . Orchestra of St. Luke's. Music Masters 67078 (6b). Recorded 1991. Bruns, Stephen M. “Stravinsky/Craft: The New Recordings.” Journal of the American Liszt Society 34 (July-December 1993): 61-89. Chakwin, Stephen D. American Record Guide 55 (July/August 1992): 231-232.174 Taruskin, Richard. “Stravinsky Lite (Even The Rite)." New York Times, 22 December 1991, sec.2, p.29. Davis, Sir Colon. London Symphony Orchestra. Philips 6580013. Recorded live 1963.+ + Concertgebouw Orchestra. Philips 6725 017 (EB). Recorded 1977.* Philips 9500323 Dorati, Antal. Minneapolis Symphony Orchestra. Mercury NG 50030 (LP). Recorded 1953.* Wing S 18027 (LP) Wing 14027 (LP) . Minneapolis Symphony Orchestra. Mercury Living Presence 434 331-2 (CD). Recorded November 15, 1959. SR 90253 (LP) + Detroit Symphony Orchestra. London LDR 71048 TEP). Recorded May 1981. Dutoit, Charles. Orchestre symphonique de Montréal. London 414202-2 (CD). Recorded May 1984. London (10 CD set) 430239-2 Stereo Review 50 (November 1985): 128-129. Hemming, Roy. Stereo Review 51 (May 1986): 73-75. Ehrling, Sixten. Swedish Radio Symphony Orchestra. BIS 400 (CD). Recorded January 1988. Fedoseev, Vladimir. Moscow Radio Symphony Orchestra. Melodiya C10-16221 LP. Recorded 1981. Vox Cum Laude, D-VCL 9054 Fricsay, Ferenc. Rias Symphony Orchestra of Berlin. Decca DL-9781 (LP). Recorded 1953. Frithbeck de Burgos, Rafael. New Philharmonia Orchestra. Angel 36427 (LP). Recorded 1967.+ American Record Guide 34 (September 1967): 59. + London Symphony Orchestra. Collins 3033 (CD). Recorded February 1989. Gmiir, Hans Peter. Munich Symphony. Critic’s Choice 933 (CD). Recorded live 1991.* Masters Classic 3842171 (CD)175 Goossens, Eugene. London Symphony Orchestra. Everest SDBR 3047 (LP). Recorded 1959.* BCL CD=514 (CD) Everest LPBR-6047 Haitink, Bernard. London Philharmonic Orchestra. Philips 6880 028 (LP). Recorded February 1973. Philips 434 147-2 (cD) Philips 420 491-2 (cD) Horenstein, Jascha. Orchestra of the Southwest German Radio. Vox STPL 513200 (LP). Recorded 1958.* Vox PL-10430 Horvat. Austrian Broadcast Symphony. CB-11019.+ Iimori, Norichika. Moscow Radio Symphony Orchestra. Emergo 3969-2 (CD). Recorded November 2-4, 1992. Inbal, Eliahu. Philharmonie Orchestra. Teldec 91449 (CD). Recorded Novenber 1989. Teldec 44938-2 (CD) Freed, Richard. Stereo Review 56 (June 1991): 97. American Record Guide (May/June, 1991): 113-114. Jansons, Mariss. Oslow Philharmonic Orchestra EMI 754899 2 (CD). Recorded November 1992. EMI (CDC 7 54899 2) Angel 54899 Karajan, Herbert von. Berliner Philharmoniker. Deutsche Grammophon SLPM 138 920 (LP). Recorded 1964.* DGG LPM-18920 Stravinsky, Igor. “Three Types of Spring Fever: Stravinsky Reviews The Rite.” In Retrospectives and Conclusions. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969): 123-130. » Berliner Philharmoniker. Deutsche Grammophon 2530 84 LP. Recorded 1977.* Kosler, Zdenek. Czech Philharmonic Orchestra. Supraphon 1110 2814 2A (LP). Recorded June 27-28, 1979. Leibowitz, René. London Festival Orchestra. Chesky CD-42 (CD). Recorded 1960. Readers’ Digest K80¥-4619/0 Freed, Richard. Stereo Review 56 (June 1991): 97.176 Leinsdorf, Erich. London Philharmonic Orchestra. London 21114 (LP). Recorded 1975.++ Levi, Yoel. Atlanta Symphony Orchestra. TLR 80266 (CD). Recorded December 7, 1991. Fox, Gerald. American Record Guide 56 (January/February 1993): 154 Levine, James. MET Orchestra. Deutsche Grammophon 437531 (CD). Recorded May 1992. List. Berlin Symphony Orchestra. Royale 1465.+ Lombard, Alain. Strasbourg Philharmonic. Musical Heritage Society MHS-4650 (LP). Recorded live May 1979. Maazel, Lorin. Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra. London CS 6954 (LP). Recorded March 1974. + Cleveland Orchestra. Telarc 82001 (CD). Recorded Way 14, 1980. DG 10054 LP John Eargle. Audio 67 (November 1983): 88. Ranada, David. Stereo Review 46 (January 1981): 86. Mackerras, Sir Charles. London Philharmonic Orchestra. EMI CDM-7620352 (CD). Recorded August 30/September 1, 1987. Maderna. Milan Radio Orchestra. Stradivarius STR 13601. Recorded February 11, 1966.+ Markevitch, Igor. Philharmonia Orchestra. Grammophon Co., CLP 1003 (LP). Recorded 1951.+ RCA Victor LHMV-1 HMV FALP-189 Disques classiques, danses, chansons, jazz. 6 (January 31, 1953): 27-28. . Philharmonia Orchestra. Angel $35549 (LP). Recorded 1959. + Orchestre de 1a Suisse Romande. Cascavelle 2004 (GD). Recorded live June 30, 1982. Fox, Gerald. american Record Guide $5 (March/April 1992): 149.a7 Mata, Eduardo. Dallas Symphony Orchestra. Dorian 90156 (cD). Recorded February 1991. American Record Guide 55 (March/April 1992): 149. London Symphony Orchestra. RCA Red Seal ARL 1-3060 (EB). Recorded 1979. Mehta, Zubin. Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra. London CS 6664 (LP). Recorded 1970.* London/Decca CS 6664 Stravinsky, Igor. “Spring Fever.” In Themes and Conclusions, 234-241. London: Faber and Faber, 1972. . New York Philharmonic. Columbia Masterworks 34557 (LP). Recorded 1977. Columbia MBK 42616 (CD) + New York Philharmonic. Teldec 2292-46420 (cD). Recorded September 1990. Monteux, Pierre. Grand Orchestre Symphonique. GEMM 9329 (CD). Recorded 1929. RCA Victor H.M.V. W 1016-1019 (78) Musique 2 (September 15, 1929): 11-12. Gramophone 7 (March 1930): 445-446. Walsh, Stephen. “First Rites for Stravinsky.” The Musical Times 130 (September 1989): 538-539. + San Francisco Symphony Orchestra (“World Wide ‘Symphony Orchestra”). RCA Camden (USA) CAL 110 (LP). Recorded 1945. RCA Victor HMV DB 6804-6807; HMV DB 9409-9412 (78) RCA Victor (USA) 11-9164-9167, set DM 1052 (78) + Boston Symphony Orchestra. RCA Papillon Collection (BMG Music) 6529-2-RG (CD). Recorded January 1951. Bookspan, Martin. “Martin Bookspan Rates the Basic Repertoire: Stravinsky’s Le Sacre du Printemps.” HiFi/Stereo Review 4 (March 1960): 24. + Paris Conservatoire Orchestra. RCA Victor, Red Seal, IM-2085 (LP). Recorded 1956. RCA Victor (England) RB 16007 (LP) RCA Victor (England) SB 2005 (LP) RCA Victor (England) SF 5015 (LP)178 RCA Victor (England) VIC 1017 (LP) RCA Victor (USA) SP 3313 (iP) . Boston Symphony Orchestra. RCA Victor (USA) LM T149 (LP). Recorded 1957. HMV FALP 294 (up) RCA Victor (Italy) A 12 R0080 (LP) RCA Victor (USA) set WDM 1548 (45) RCA (CDM) 6529-2-RG [ADD]; (CSM)6529-4-RG Boston Symphony Orchestra. Discocorp RR-312 (EP). Recorded live April 13, 1957. Muti, Riccardo. Philadelphia Orchestra. Angel S2-37646 LP. Recorded October 25 & 30, 1978. Angel C~47408 (CD) Angel 64516 (LP) Nagano, Kent. London Philharmonic Orchestra. Virgin Classics VCK 7915112 (CD). Recorded Decenber 1992. VGC M-59077-B (CD) American Record Guide $5 (July/August 1992): 232. Salzman, Eric. Stereo Review 57 (August 1992): 64- 65 Neuhold, Ginter. Badische Staatskapelle. Bayer 100110 (CD). Recorded April 18-19, 1993. Ormandy, Eugene. Philadelphia Orchchestra. Columbia Masterworks ML-5030 (LP). Recorded 1955. Ozawa, Seiji. Chicago Symphony Orchestra. RCA 09026-61557-2 (LP). Recorded 1968. RCA Red Seal VCS-7099 (LP) VER 60541-2 (CD) RCA 61557 RCA LSC-3026 Yarustovsky, B. The World of Music 13, no.2 (1971): 58-68. Rahbari, Alexander. BRT Philharmonic Orchestra, Brussels. Naxos 8.550472 (CD). Recorded December 1990. Rattle, Simon. National Youth Orchestra of Great Britain. ASV 6031 (CD). Recorded 1977. . City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra. EMI 7496362 (CD). Recorded December 1987. ANG C-49636 (CD)179 Teachout, Terry. Musical america 110 (May 1990): 83-84. Stereo Review 55 (February 1990): 158. . National Youth Orchestra of Great Britain ‘OSV 6031. Recorded 1988.+ Rozhdestvensky, Gennady. London Symphony Orchestra. Nimbus 5087 (CD). Recorded February 1987. Johnson, Lawrence B. “Ovation Record Review.” Ovation 9 (July 1988): 37. Salonen, Esa-Pekka. Philharmonia Orchestra. SOC 45796 (CD). Recorded 1989. SMK 53473 Schuller, Gunther. New England Conservatory Orchestra. NEC 108'(LP). Recorded October 20, 1971. GM 2033 (CD) Schwarz, Gerard. Seattle Symphony Orchestra. Delos DE-3100 (CD). Recorded September 25, 1990. American Record Guide 56 (May/June, 1993): 142. Skrowaczewski, Stanislaw. Minnesota Orchestra. Candide CE 31108 (LP). Recorded October 1977. VOX 3VXB 3016 or VxXB (3CD) Slatkin, Leonard. St. Louis Symphony Orchestra. RCA 09026- 60993 (CD). Recorded October 7, 1992. Godell, Thomas. American Record Guide 56 (May/June 1993): 141-142. Solti, Sir Georg. Chicago Symphony Orchestra. London 417704- 2 (CD). Recorded May 1974. London 6885 (LP) + Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra. London 436469 (CD). Recorded live 1992.* Steinberg, William. Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra. Capitol P-8254 (LP). Recorded 1954. Stokowski, Leopold. The Philadelphia Orchestra. Dell’Arte DA 9005 (LP). Recorded between September 24, 1929 and March 12, 1930. RCA’ Victor 227-30 (DM 74) (78) HMV D 1919-22 (78)180 RCA (Gold Seal) 09026-61394-2 Bauman, Carl. American Record Guide 46 (December 1982): 77-78. Stereo Review 48 (April 1983): 105. Stravinsky, Igor. Orchestre des Concerts Straram (“Orchestre Symphonique”). GEM 9334 (CD). Recorded May 7-10, 1929. Columbia: France D 15213-17 U.K., LX 119-23 U.S-A., 67703-07D (Set M129) Teachout, Terry. “Past Masters.” Musical america 110’ (January 1990): 79. Walsh, Stephen. “First Rites for Stravinsky." The Musical Times 130 (September 1989): 538-539. . Philharmonic Symphony Orchestra of New York. fekwick GLRS 107 (CD). Recorded April 4, 1940. Columbia 11367-70D (set M417); 33Cx1083 Columbia Masterworks ML 4092, 4047, 4882; M 417 Philips GBL5612; A01307L; GO35901, + North German Radio Symphony Orchestra. Arkadia GDGI 2-766 (CD). Recorded live Sept 19, 1958 Venice. ; Columbia Symphony Orchestra. MS 7234 (set D5S775) (LP). Recorded January 5-6,1960. Columbia ML 5719/MS 6319 (set N3L305/M3S705) original set (LP); MK 42433 (CD); DL 5503/DS 6183 (set D3L300/D3S614) (LP); M 31203 (set MG31202); M 31830 (LP); MP 38765 (LP); Philips A01469L/835 S562AY (LP); ABL3335/SABL174 (LP) Kolodin, Irving. Saturday Review (April 29, 1961 a7. - Saturday Review (May 12, 1962): 58-59. ational Review (December 9, 1988): 62-63. Stravinsky, Igor. “Spring Fever.” In Themes and Conclusions, 234-241. London: Faber and Faber, 1972. . Swedish Radio Symphony Orchestra. Discocorp RR-224 (EP). Recorded live September 1961, Stockholm. Svetlanov, Evgeny. USSR Symphony Orchestra. Melodyia 018017-18 (LP). Recorded 1966. Melodyia/Angel S-40063181 Yarustovsky, B. The World of Music 13, no.2 (1971): 58-68 Temirkanov, Yuri. Royal Philharmonic Orchestra. RCA 7985 (CD). Recorded November 29 - December 2, 1988. Teachout, Terry. Musical America 110 (May 1990): 83-84. Stereo Review 55 (February 1990): 158. Thomas, Michael Tilson. Boston Symphony Orchestra. Deutsche Grammophon 435073-2 (CD). Recorded January 1972. DG 2530252 LP Godell, Thomas. American Record Guide 56 (May/June 1993): 141-142. Valek, Vladimir. Prague Radio Symphony Orchestra. Praga 250049 (CD). Recorded May 1993. Walker, Thomas. The New York Concert Orchestra. Great International Corp. PC-23 (LP). Recorded 1974.*+ Wodiczko, Bohdan. Polish Radio Symphony Orchestra. Muza Polskie Nagrania SX 0520 LP. Recorded 1970.* ‘Stolat 0106 Zander, Benjamin. Boston Philharmonic. IMP Masters MCD 25 (CD). Recorded live May 5, 1990. The Economist 319 (April 6, 1991): 89.APPENDIX B ‘TIMINGS (TeoyBotouoay) *I area ‘PL6T-626T s6UTUTE “T*a eTaeL 182183 (Teotbotouozy9) “1 34ed ‘€661-SL6T tsbuTUTL *z-a eTqeL184 (TeoTbotouozys) -IT azed ‘pL6T-6z6T tshuTwT, vera oTqen185 (Teotbotouoryp) “11 3zea ‘€66T-SLET :s6uTUTE, cya oTaen186 (teoyaeqeudty) 1 32ea ‘serzexoeH-opeqay :s6uTuTE “sa eTaeL187 apa (teopseqeudry) -1 ava ‘oxzotpou-yostaexaeH :s6uqUTE “9° eTaeLiss [sso So (veoraeqeudty) +11 azva ‘sezzeyoen-opeqay ts6uTwTy -1-a oTaes189 (teoraeqeudty) -rr azva ‘oxzoppom-yortaoyzen rebuTUTE “+e OTAeLAPPENDIX C TEMPO MAPPER Tempo Mapper was programmed by Barry Kirsch at the author’s request in the summer of 1994 specifically for this dissertation. Version 1.02 was used throughout the study running on a Macintosh IIsi with 17 Mb of RAM. However, Mr. Kirsch has recently released version 1.1 which runs on’the newer Macintosh computers utilizing the PowerPC CPU. ‘Tempo Mapper © 1994 Barry Kirsch k All Rights Reserved -Worldwide Concept by Bill Waters First tap on any key starts clock running. Click OK or press ‘return? to qut. Press to start over. File tame is "Tempo Map". If you want to keep old versions, ou must rename that fl Delta Time: 045 Tempo List ony noe Names in List Tempo: 92.74 @delta Time/Tempo _[] Include Total Time (tone } About... Version 1.02 Figure C.1. User Interface for Tempo Mapper Version 1.02. ‘Tempo Mapper works in the following way: As the user taps any key on the computer keyboard along with the music, the time between each tap is recorded and a tempo is calculated by the program. Tempo is defined as the number of Beats Per Minute (BPM), where At is the time between beats (or key clicks). 60 (sec/min) BPM = “Re (sec) 190ig91 The data is saved to a text file (automatically named “Tempo Map”) which consists of two columns. The first column represents the time between each tap made on the keyboard. (Note: Tempo Mapper uses MIDI drivers [MIDI Pascal 3.0] to obtain a higher resolution [1 millisecond] of tempo in place of the Mac's built-in tick counter [1/60 second resolution].) The second column contains the calculated tempos. The file can be easily placed into most spreadsheet programs. Delta Tempo 0.6330 95 0.6280 96 0.6520 © 92 0.6470 93 0.6290 95 0.6630 © 90 0.6320 95 0.6700 90 0.6350 94 0.6530 © 92 0.6470 © 93 The most significant known limitation to the program is that file size is limited to 32K. In other words, there is a time limit on how long the music for each measurement may last. Fortunately, this limit was not encountered in any of measurements taken of The Rite. At the present time, Tempo Mapper is a shareware file. For more information please contact the author or Dr. Jack Taylor. For specific information regarding programming intricacies, contact Barry Kirsch at the following address:

You might also like

• The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  

  From Everand

  The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  Mark Manson

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (5810)
• The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are

  

  From Everand

  The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are

  Brené Brown

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1092)
• Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It

  

  From Everand

  Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It

  Chris Voss

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (844)
• • Magazines
  • Podcasts
  • Sheet music
• Principles: Life and Work

  

  From Everand

  Principles: Life and Work

  Ray Dalio

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (608)
• The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  

  From Everand

  The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  Jeannette Walls

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (1716)
• Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  

  From Everand

  Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  Angela Duckworth

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (590)
• Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  Jesmyn Ward

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1104)
• Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  

  From Everand

  Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  Margot Lee Shetterly

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (897)
• Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  

  From Everand

  Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  Phil Knight

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (540)
• The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  

  From Everand

  The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  Stephen Chbosky

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (2104)
• The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  

  From Everand

  The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  Ben Horowitz

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (348)
• Bad Feminist: Essays

  

  From Everand

  Bad Feminist: Essays

  Roxane Gay

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1018)
• Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  

  From Everand

  Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  Ashlee Vance

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (474)
• Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  

  From Everand

  Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  Carmen Maria Machado

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (822)
• The Outsider: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Outsider: A Novel

  Stephen King

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1850)
• The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  

  From Everand

  The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  Siddhartha Mukherjee

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (271)
• The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  

  From Everand

  The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  Viet Thanh Nguyen

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (122)
• Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  

  From Everand

  Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  Frank McCourt

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (441)
• Brooklyn: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Brooklyn: A Novel

  Colm Tóibín

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (1947)
• The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  

  From Everand

  The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  Meik Wiking

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (401)
• A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  Fredrik Backman

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (4610)
• The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  

  From Everand

  The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  Thomas L. Friedman

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (2259)
• The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  Garth Stein

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (4203)
• A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  

  From Everand

  A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  Betty Smith

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (1929)
• Steve Jobs

  

  From Everand

  Steve Jobs

  Walter Isaacson

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (807)
• The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  

  From Everand

  The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  Sarah M. Broom

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (98)
• Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  

  From Everand

  Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  Gilbert King

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (266)
• Yes Please

  

  From Everand

  Yes Please

  Amy Poehler

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1898)
• A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  

  From Everand

  A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  Dave Eggers

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (231)
• Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  

  From Everand

  Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  Doris Kearns Goodwin

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (234)
• The Woman in Cabin 10

  

  From Everand

  The Woman in Cabin 10

  Ruth Ware

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (2521)
• Fear: Trump in the White House

  

  From Everand

  Fear: Trump in the White House

  Bob Woodward

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (738)
• Wolf Hall: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Wolf Hall: A Novel

  Hilary Mantel

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (3811)
• John Adams

  

  From Everand

  John Adams

  David McCullough

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (2409)
• On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  

  From Everand

  On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  Naomi Klein

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (74)
• The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  M.L. Stedman

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (789)
• The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  

  From Everand

  The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  George Packer

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (45)
• Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  Jennifer Egan

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (792)
• The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  John le Carré

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (104)
• Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore

  

  From Everand

  Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore

  Jay Sekulow

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (137)
• Little Women

  

  From Everand

  Little Women

  Louisa May Alcott

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (104)
• Peer Gynt - Tuba

  

  Document2 pages

  Peer Gynt - Tuba

  Héctor J. Hurtado

  No ratings yet
• Egmont - Arreglo Héctor J. Hurtado (Clarinete 1)

  

  Document9 pages

  Egmont - Arreglo Héctor J. Hurtado (Clarinete 1)

  Héctor J. Hurtado

  No ratings yet
• Egmont - Arreglo Héctor J. Hurtado (FLauta I)

  

  Document6 pages

  Egmont - Arreglo Héctor J. Hurtado (FLauta I)

  Héctor J. Hurtado

  No ratings yet
• Análisis - Stravinsky - La Consagración de La Primavera (Buxbaum)

  

  Document10 pages

  Análisis - Stravinsky - La Consagración de La Primavera (Buxbaum)

  Héctor J. Hurtado

  No ratings yet
• Análisis - Stravinsky - La Consagración de La Primavera - Una Perspectiva Rítmica

  

  Document320 pages

  Análisis - Stravinsky - La Consagración de La Primavera - Una Perspectiva Rítmica

  Héctor J. Hurtado

  No ratings yet
• Análisis - Stravinsky - La Consagración de La Primavera - Forjando Una Interpretación Del Estilo Modernista (1999 Fink)

  

  Document65 pages

  Análisis - Stravinsky - La Consagración de La Primavera - Forjando Una Interpretación Del Estilo Modernista (1999 Fink)

  Héctor J. Hurtado

  No ratings yet
• Rosa M Castells - Sempere Ha Dibujado... (E. Sempere y O. Esplá. MACA)

  

  Document28 pages

  Rosa M Castells - Sempere Ha Dibujado... (E. Sempere y O. Esplá. MACA)

  Héctor J. Hurtado

  No ratings yet
• El Imparcial. 26-11-1927 - Estreno de Antaño

  

  Document1 page

  El Imparcial. 26-11-1927 - Estreno de Antaño

  Héctor J. Hurtado

  No ratings yet
• Luís Español Bouché - Oscar Esplá, La Música en El Exilio PDF

  

  Document8 pages

  Luís Español Bouché - Oscar Esplá, La Música en El Exilio PDF

  Héctor J. Hurtado

  No ratings yet
• La Voz. 30-03-1927 - Estreno de Don Quijote Velando Las Armas

  

  Document1 page

  La Voz. 30-03-1927 - Estreno de Don Quijote Velando Las Armas

  Héctor J. Hurtado

  No ratings yet