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Chapter2 PDF
Chapter2 PDF
of Manchester) 5
2.1 Examples
Here are some plots of functions of two variables:
z(x, y) = cos x sin y
1
z(x, y) = xy
0
100
50 -1
0
-50 4
-100 10 2
5 y 0
0 y -2
-10 -5 -5
x0 5 -4 2 4
10 -10 -4 -2 0x
• For a function of two variables there are three second partial derivatives, defined as
∂2z ∂ ∂z
= = zxx
∂x2 ∂x ∂x
∂2z ∂ ∂z
= = zyy
∂y 2 ∂y ∂y
and the mixed derivative
∂2z ∂ ∂z
= = zxy
∂x∂y ∂x ∂y
where we usually1 have
∂2z ∂2z
=
∂x∂y ∂y∂x
i.e.
∂ ∂z ∂ ∂z
=
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Higher derivatives: .
• This condition provides two equations for the two unknowns x0 and y0 . These
equations can have
– No solution, in which case the function z(x, y) has no stationary points.
– A unique solution, in which case the function z(x, y) has a single stationary
point.
– Multiple solutions, in which case the function z(x, y) has multiple stationary
points.
2M1 – Q-stream (Matthias Heil, School of Mathematics, Univ. of Manchester) 8
1. Determine the three second partial derivatives and evaluate them at the station-
ary point:
∂ 2 z ∂ 2 z ∂ 2 z
A= , B= , and C = .
∂x2 (x0 ,y0 ) ∂y 2 (x0 ,y0 ) ∂x∂y (x0 ,y0 )
D = AB − C 2 .
z(x0 + , y0 + δ) = z(x0 , y0 ) +
∂z ∂z
+ + δ +
∂x (x0 ,y0 ) ∂y (x0 ,y0 )
" #
1 ∂ 2 z 2 ∂ 2 z ∂ 2 z
+ + 2 δ + δ2 +···
2! ∂x2 (x0 ,y0 ) ∂x∂y (x0 ,y0 ) ∂y 2 (x0 ,y0 )
for “small” values of and δ.
As in the 1D case, this may also be written as
z(x, y) = z(x0 , y0 ) +
∂z ∂z
+ (x − x0 ) + (y − y0 ) +
∂x (x0 ,y0 ) ∂y (x0 ,y0 )
" #
1 ∂ 2 z 2 ∂ 2 z ∂ 2 z
+ (x − x0 ) + 2 (x − x0 ) (y − y0 ) + (y − y0 )2 +
2! ∂x2 (x0 ,y0 ) ∂x∂y (x0 ,y0 ) ∂y 2 (x0 ,y0 )
+ ···
The general expression for the Taylor series in two variables may be written as
∞
( n )
X 1 X n ∂ n f
f (x − x0 , y − y0 ) = (x − x0 )n−k (y − y0 )k ,
n! k ∂xn−k ∂y k (x0 ,y0 )
n=0 k=0
where
n n!
=
k (n − k)! k!
n n n
are the binomial coefficients. Recall that the n binomial coefficients , , ...,
0 1 n
may be obtained from the n-th row of Pascal’s triangle:
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
2M1 – Q-stream (Matthias Heil, School of Mathematics, Univ. of Manchester) 10
3 Example
We shall illustrate the various techniques by considering the function
z(x, y) = x3 + 3y − y 3 − 3x.
X
Y
z
-2 -2
-4
-1 -2
-1
Y 0
0
1 X
1
2 2
Partial derivatives: .
∂z
= 3 − 3y 2 .
∂y
∂2z
= 6x.
∂x2
∂2z
= −6y.
∂y 2
∂2z
= 0.
∂x∂y
2M1 – Q-stream (Matthias Heil, School of Mathematics, Univ. of Manchester) 11
Stationary points: .
• The coordinates (x0 , y0 ) of any stationary points are given by the solution of the two
equations:
∂z
= 3x20 − 3 = 0
∂x (x0 ,y0 )
∂z
= 3 − 3y02 = 0.
∂y (x0 ,y0 )
[In the present example, these can be solved directly for x0 = ±1 and y0 = ±1,
as the first equation only contains x0 and the second one only y0 . In general, both
equations will contain both unknowns and then have to be solved simultaneously.]
We therefore have four critical points:
• To classify the stationary points we evaluate the second derivatives in the following
table:
Point A = 6x0 B = −6y0 C = 0 D = AB − C 2 Classification
P1 = (1, 1) 6 -6 0 -36 Saddle
P2 = (1, −1) 6 6 0 36 Local minimum
P3 = (−1, 1) -6 -6 0 36 Local maximum
P4 = (−1, −1) -6 6 0 -36 Saddle
You should confirm these results by inspecting the plot shown at the beginning of
the examples.
Taylor Expansion: .
• Finally, we determine the Taylor expansion of z(x, y) about the point (x, y) = (2, 1),
where z(2, 1) = 4. We start by evaluating the derivatives:
∂z
=9
∂x (2,1)
∂z
=0
∂y (2,1)
∂ 2 z
= 12
∂x2 (2,1)
∂ 2 z
= −6
∂y 2 (2,1)
∂ 2 z
= 0.
∂x∂y (2,1)
2M1 – Q-stream (Matthias Heil, School of Mathematics, Univ. of Manchester) 12
• In the vicinity of the point (x, y) = (2, 1), i.e. for small values of and δ, the function
z(x, y) can therefore be approximated as
z(x = 2 + , y = 1 + δ) = |{z}
4 + |{z} 9 + |{z}0 δ +
∂x |(2,1) ∂y |(2,1)
z(2,1) ∂z ∂z
1
+ 12 2 + 2 × |{z} 0 δ + (−6) δ 2 + ...
2! 2 ˛ |{z}
2
˛ | {z }
∂ z˛ ∂ z ˛
˛
∂2 z ˛
∂x2 ∂x∂y ˛
˛
(2,1) (2,1) ∂y 2 (2,1)
˛
So
y(x = 2 + , y = 1 + δ) = 4 + 9 + 62 − 3δ 2 + ...
or
y(x, y) = 4 + 9(x − 2) + 6(x − 2)2 − 3(y − 1)2 + ...