®

6. CC>ÙUÉRGEOCE Coùt>lT\OÙS foR L\L}EAR DIFFÉREÙTiAL EQUAT`OÙS lt3E£)J

"EOKEn 4. Let the \`-r\€ar DE

y" + a±|n y`b-'}+ .--. + au(lL)y = Ql1),

t30)

't€ tj-N€n, W`h€fe aiLt), a,zil),v.., an(1); Q|*) can be GTrpand€d `n T@}\or sef`.€s L£,bout |=Oj

Comff£;ng to th€5e functi`ons .pr \||4a. Th€n, for arbr+tat/ ;r\ìh-£\ uondih`Ons at J[=Oj

each So\utl`on of E¥. i3o) i`j aw {€pft€cntàbl€ bj ,b ra}tor S€ncs Pr ilì<a,

L€t *ie sjs+em q l{near t)Ej

c±= ia,jl"j +®,-" ,

A
c-- t31)
d* j=1

be g``uenj wh€m Um a`j|i} ér\d Q,-t*) tan b€ €*fanò€d ``n .Taybr Scri`e,S é>bcwt *=0,

C°tN€r3in9 to i*ies€ functtc>ns for lx.|€a. Then, F)r €stb}ttaty i`ni`b`al Valws pt |=o,

eat\\ sciwh`on q q. G.i) is rJf thi', form

YL = fi(t); yz = [z tl) j . -` -J yù = fH (*)j

Wh€f€, €aih ¢f U`e funch`oris ì5 ¢f*s€ntablg b i`b Taj.lor 5€ri-€S for \*\<a.

l€+us consi¢t€r tiu3 quabhon

so(1)j" + 13±(1))' + @z(1); = &` 1*),

1`32)

ànd d`uìde rt } Jo(x) -.

y" + a#zÌ,, , + 3#Ì), =Ql1) _ _= _ + C33)

a.tl)

M Must now ®nsù* thg €i\]anstons o{ ajL|)`doii), azlz)`eolJL), èr\ò &lx)/a#.) `n pc>uJers Of { If

aolo)= Oj no such sGri-es m be obtainea 3nd +héi tigcmg.m i-s iiiapph.cab.l€. If @o(Oì ±0 Émd au ajia £nà QL|)

Bf8 €*panòa6.le m r@ylor S€r`-es about x=oj then it tan be shcum th± @jt*ì/soi*) ,.... m dìso b€ fttf@ndfd

i'n àuch Sefi`es .Pr \1\<a and Froppf choiLg o+ a. h Patti`cular, ¢\cse. c>£pavisic>ris 2m Fossib`C i`€ thcL

£j|*) and ¢il) are Po\7noMìis\S anò @oLO)ÌO, \n thi-S ià5e, +in£ numL# a Lm b€ chosp~n a5

Ìu+Pi|= |tiz+P2)"Z, o\m ti+,Bt i`s the root |rEa\ or £oMplef) of aom n€àf€st b ft cm-3.`n ¢ ti£ ®Mpk'^

p\àne'
 ®
Ex2MF`€. FOT " €iuah-O®

lxz+.Zict2ìj" + |i+z)yl + ¥ = i~*2,

w`€ have ttfta+ @otl)= X2+Zi+2, Wl`rth has rooft

4 -4 tl)(Z)
= -1± iJi = -1±uTI = -1±i

sQ Ùtat a= |1H)"Z= rz , for +±w s€rÈs at#ut ". ro eipanà abc>ut ][=~i, Ùtje bke a r`e¢ cwè3Ìn

On the *-a*\-S st ±=-| 9nd `n+roduc€ a neu) ì^d€f€^dgnt uariabk3 t=JC+1. ThJS u>aj the abctv€ DE

beLOW\€,5

|2Lt|+2 = |t-i)`Z+2it-i)+i = c2~2t+|+zt-2+2= t2U

*+2= t.-1+2=t+1

|-i2 = i_(t_`)Z= j~ ( €t_2t+iì = i_t2+2t_i= -t2rzt

#+£,J"t lttl,y, + y = -É+2tJ

¢hm} nou) ao|b)=ttrl has fchJts t=±rl=±L ft€nc€, a=| 4oh`-ch

J
tù5 prg.i-s€,V i:+^¢ distanc€

+r®M tl^£ nm ori`5`.n *=-1 to {h€ olò TOC>ts i=-1ti , C.e,) D= -1±?-~ L±i-ì =-1.

Wh€n @oto)=0, Elq.153) i5 m€anì^gl€sS cit *=0. We, t+'\cn saj "at Ég.L5z) hà5 a S`-n9ulàr

P°`-nt at X=O, Sìmi\ar\j, i`f aot|c`)=O, +h{L €4r@b`on hcì> a si`n5ubr poW @t *. Under c€,rbi~n

Cov`dìb`Ot`S LU& Lan obhin pcwgr sert`cs sc\ÙL¢oru Zcni*~io)n, em thouqh ft is a S;^3Ulàr F°l`nt.

Wth€n @o(*ìfo, tJe Càn dìvia¢ b/ aoti) ar`d £ppi/ Thea@\4. We, "€n €ay tw io ìs an ord``nàty

po{nt o€ % DE \3.2-ì.

pROBLEims

-1
4A. L€t #L& DE j'= [t|-7C)li|)] be ,5ìV&n, " j„ tJr *=0.

ta) Fi`r\d Èh€ So\uh-on e>cFlfc\`Uy anà shou3 that Ì+ isdéf`;^ea on\7 .¢r

\q:\ < i -é`'2 = i -wTé = o.3q

tb) ri`nò hc, SC,ri`e5 So\uL`onj ob[aìnìftg t?rMS thr¢¥h 3L4.

{C) F``y\d R4 for Ji=0`35.

 ©
48. For Ue ic>\\owìrq 5eLorià~Oràgr eiuat`-Óns obhin +]p& s€n-es so\ution wiLèù` 9m ini-h3l uàtucgs,

r|hib,-tii/ìg t€rMS th"gh *4, m uLti`th "€ m ai Thfom 3 fw how Msv t¢fms é" sJ#i-c.i`eiit

to obb`-n an grror o€ \€SS #>n 0.1 fil ìllÉO.1,

La` ]" ~_ * + xi2 } ¥~. o> ]i=o Pt X--C}.

lb) y"= o,o|||¥`+y3_i), )=|,¥f=3 Sr i=o.

4C. For each o+ +Aw jollo.Jit`9 \``ncar Ciu`atl`ons 5b+g c*hethf~r or r\o± 4ne 5m {nì-tiQl uà\u€ xo cì{ i

{S È S``n3u\ar poìtit , rf *o fs riot a s;njulaf fui`nt, fi-nà, on th€ basis c!f Th€Òrim4, dn ì`nLfrJal

i¢ which #e s€n`€,s sc;luhons m pou)ers ot 1-* ar€ cflwgr3ent.

\s` xt)" + t+-À)ì' + ] -_ ex ., XQ=o.

|b) t| +|2)}" + }Z/l + i3L4_i), = 3L3 ., *„

tc) ||Z-zi-3)j"+y' +i7 = 1-X -i *=2

{C\) |qL2-|*~3ì}w +*z}W +) =e±; Z~=-i.

i€) ti2+4i+S)¥"~ i£+i)}` +y = Sinx ; *.=0.

¥. SER\ES SDLUTìòtùs FÒR LNEft`{ ì±-`Ùf\T\Òtjs AT A SÌNGUL^ìZ F®W.T-

We n% U)AS;dw a homogmcous ii`n€y equation cÌ{ 5f%d ortkr À

àotx)y" + a3Lx>)' L 3ztx)j =o.

t34)

£È " É€ 9ssi"C'd # tk ùo€fffc\`€nts aoLLb aitiL " aft analjttc m an ìntfwal l|-kl <a Jrd
ti'`>b aoll)±O fof |i-]o|<a Fòr s"" *o uè`|\ big t3kéin b be Zero. Thu} iL is -~Mti tiar

cP
@o,x,= i¢nxn .
/ aiLxri- Eoftxn `i à2tx)= £ {n*®,
n=C'
f\=O

ftr l*Ì¢a. Ti`naìi,, i+ i`s assvm€d th.|+ "* i`.C., "* c4=O, Accordi~n3lù )t=o i.t3 a Si`rgubr
Poiw 0f tLe equah.orL !r\s+eaa ¢+ SceL;nj soLut``ons £oLu`c,lì sah`5f7 condL`Lmm dr z=o, ti¥ SéBk

sGluh`ons Ttpr€s¢,vìt-ea b7 scrtt`€S tc>r

o<iJ£l<b, tvia+rs, £oluh`Ons ò€fi+ne£\ ^ear 0 ht riot at O,

OCc@si`Ón2n7, ti Soìot+`o% +urn cut

to be vai``a éL\5o òt 3C=O. i+ W be sgen ùiEìt md* c€rbi-n cmd``tims

Soluh`ons (afl bg iòund h@v;ng ih€ jbrm

lm£4ln, o<,ll<b_ t3b)

n=-O
 ®
rr m--1, ti »" ¢ntinJ&s to k u2\``d fw i=o, B,t y m=-3, fbr g*àn^p\€-, tiQ %Wn
``S Waninjless cì+ *=0.

- €qular Slnqubr PoMtrL>.

An quah`on 5Uil` as

(3-+)
xj" + ,x1-x,' = o }

bs a Sìnju|ar pinE at X=O. How€wi tic sìfljuL>r poi`nt can ti9. rcmoui9J } diJ`-d;ng by r

12j8)
y" + ,1-j)J = o.

Eqoàtjon 131) i`5 quiual# h tk DE 13st aù thc ab€bt@L`c t€\àh`on i=o. Sw}\ a SìngL)lN P3i`nb l`S

tà|t€a rmov@ble. ln ti subsquent d\`sLUSS``Cm onl/ sìn8Jbf poin+s w`h\`cl` av€ riot r€nmuable " k

c¢nsfd€r€dv

Eiu@h-on (34) fs s@.`d b hau€ d r€3ular s`-n8ÙIN poi-nt àt m i+, aftcr canceuah-m q ti£ h`3hest

fm" oi i w" i`s a C¢mmon fac,tor c!{ % 4oéfto`ents, th€ qv?t`on tikes on€ o£ ti ù'o Fm

h]¥M12+-~)H (fo+j6j"'-)j'mwLI+-~)j=O, Ld|ÌO), m

«212WX3+-' -)y" +P}i+P2X'+'~)jHfo"z+-~ )y" l&L+°ì. 13ft)

An giu`atm of tti ftm (3qJ} oT 13qD h* cìt Ìe3st " so\uh`on àf\d FoSs``W tri line*L/ Ì.hd€pmùw

so\uL`or\s q #ne Prm gtvcn bj |36).

fonò.`dcr tic DE : xZ)"+i)/ + ix3_i)y„

HC¢ aa=12j £j=X, * 82,= |ì-|. So Eii.1" 3ppk m « m @ TqLi\3y jLngiJ\ar

Po``^t at 1=0. W& sct

`= :f t to + £.ì* + . ` . + t.nx^+ ...,,

ana tfy b choo# m cìb 4Q c,'> " tLfpt ti DE ``5 sDtìsfi€J L.`Lth y f\ot ìd€ntt`d\/ 2.e®. Hcncje.,

m substitùh`ng ``J` ti€ DE and LOLl€ih-rg tnms, ttxL ma -ti€ Ùah`on

-,- _ `

y'= "" (W + Ciw ---+ Cn±nL`-ì + Xm|Cri `2.(zi + ---+ ncnxn-}+,. )

=mzm (*-£Co + (i t * + (-3j£2+r~+ Cn)Cn-+.,) + ((`i + 2# t 3C's£2+'~.+ nLn*") W

 ®
}= Coim+ Ci|m+t+ C£|m+2+ (3imr9+ . ,. + cnrn+m t .,.,.

J' = m Col" + (m+1) C] Xm + (m +2)c2x" + [m r3)C3±M#2+ . . ~ + m+mì4`*m'£L ----

j" = m im-i) co xru + m |rnr|) Cj*Tn-`+ |mr2)(m+1) Czxm + mr3)(m*)C3r" + ~-. + (nmMm~3)cnjLnmi ..,,

izi" + x]' + Lx3-+)]=o S

-E-
m(TLil)~G)lm+ml_m+|)CjXm"+(m+2)(Mmc2imr2+{m+3)mr2.)c3xm+3+.
•.+ (r`tmì(n+m~£)Cnr

+~. + mL£*m+ im+|c,im+4+ iM+z)£±mr2+ (m+3)c3£m+3 + .., + m4W+ v ,.,. + Co~¥+ / .

---
n+m
+--'.

--`, ____-
+t±`P+-~---GLim_C£rfm-czrr2~c3x"3~.,,_cn±n".~-,,=0
------ _-----

EE
im [m(m-£) co + mG -Co] + Xm [m(mìcì* + mrlìcir -Cjl] +

+im[m)(m+ò412"Mtiì4iz~c2x2j+r[Hn+zwmtoc3|5"+3`)f3|3"|3~c3*3]L~.

• .. # [{n+m)(/mi-|)Cnln+ m+ri)Cnln + {n.3in . Cn|n] +~-~ = 0

wheqg

m(fn-!)Co+m4~CE Cb(m2-m+m-i)= (m2-i)6

m£m+J) Cj + lmH)Cg -(3 = Cì | m2+m + m H ~ì) = h2 +Zmì £i

C2lmrz)(m+1)+(mrz)q~Cz=Lz|m2+mmU"+2+)=|m2+4mt3)Cz

Mmc3+ mc3+£~(3 = CP+ (3imzm+Zm+6+m"-n= cLum+nc5

{ntih%+"L+(u~(n=4~3+L[(Wm)(ntMti+m~1]=

=(`m+cn(n2+nm.,r/"m"2./+/+¢~£)=
\
t
t
t = (nt +(. | n2+ 2m +m2~|) = 4\~3 + (n [ lwmì`-1]
t
\
1-,-----_
•,Lm
{ (mz_i)co + (m2wm) Cjr + |m2+4m +3ìqr2 + [G + W" +g)C5|iB+ ---+
. + [G`~3+ Cnwmìz_tìFF.j=o
 ®
F9r 1+0, Lùe Lan ignofe th€ factòr im. Éijating ti Ùocf#ci`fntof each Fci4t>Or Qf 1 to 2fro, ùt>C

obhin ft {tlations

co (mt-1, = o'

Ci ( m2+ 2mì = 0,

Cz ( m2+ 4m +3.) = 0,

C.o + C3(W\2+6M +8) = C),

Cn.3"[(mm)Z~i|Ù, ior n=4,S,6,..+.,

Thc fi`r£t t€\àtion gi# co=o or mt-1=O. We tàn @lùjar assumG Wat C,fo. If G±Ò, tin

m2-|=o ± m2=i or M=~i or M=+1. Fw Tvi=-i ùu have

c]tLiì2-2]D* C4{I-Z)=O# -Ci=Oj

c2[Lj,2_4+3]=o , orc2=o,

Co + C3 LL-\)2 -C +8`] =0 * Cò+ 3C5 =0,

h.3Hn[hl)2~i]=OS Cni" \n{-2n")=o± [ni+ Cn{nz-zn)=O

#r n=4t5,G ,.., Hence uj`€ h2ve 1±qg mwr5``on jofmuìa

c3= -àco

Cn-5
cn= -É =- _________ )
fqr r\=4,S,6,~ --.,
nz-2n n ln-2-)

L`hìch can Lo\i?f¥ into one retàL`on of th4 fttm

Cn= -1 f~ n=3,4,5 ,.-..

n l'\-2,ì

hith Ci=O, C4=O, C+=O ,,,-,.

r£ n ì5 .¢ rnu\ti-pl& of 3 ti€n,

c3=-Ci = lco
31.3
 ®
c£ = - * -------.-,-
Co -J
Cc3
-1

4'3.4,£ 1.3 4.6

ccÉ
c= -` -5
_-----,,-.---_-_-,----- 1co
q1.q
1.3.4.6.}.q 1`3 4.G
J,q

c,1 = - .i = +
Co _.1. -r 1 co
_t-j

40 .12- 1.3`4.G.1.q.io.\i 1'3 4.6 7.q !o.12.

ti-5 _ =+ -+ =+ . =L . =L . ` . -
_1-1 -Co
.=fi

C=-
rl
ntr\-2)
r\ta-2ì U 4'6 t.C1 40# ti`-3)(fl~s)

I+,on ti¢oW`# hà+ n i`S # ft jófm 3S+2, " s=£,.£,,~., tk^ W* n=6,8,11ji4 ,...

W'nc€
-1
C2
CS= ~ -= TTr L1
3.S

c8= -i= i= lr ic2

3.S 6.8
6.8 3.5'6.8

ql=-
i=- _ ¢ iL . J- C2_
_1-4

3.S 6.S q-41

q+11 3+6.6.®.q.11

C14= - ._--_ =
C„ Cz, - =s. = . -=1, =4C2
12.14 3.S+6.8.q. }1.1Z.14

--1 C,z.
cn = ~ ni,\~2,)
±=± _ =L . .~L.L
`3.5 6.S
,1, ~Ll
q'n `"ft
.< ,.
ln3ìln-s) n(n-2Ì

T\\gtt+or* the Loef€iL(`€n+s Co aA LL are arb\`tfaf/ hh U€ jDluh`ons fcjr\d [m be mm *

3S
4saL

J = 1-1 1 co 11 +
i`-1, -
=i' ' 11.3)|4.6)|}.q) .-.. |3S-2)15S) )3Sr2.
+

1
+ cz \*t + ££L1)S
13.5) (6.S) |q,i£) --`. {3S)|55

Thi`s Solubion t`S ctèarb of tbt¢ Sm )= Coy}tzì + ('zYztr) 3^d we Lan u€m|7 thàt 7tt]t) ana Y£ti) ar€

line3rtj .`ndcper`dentj so thàt y Ìs the S€n¢,3| soluh`on. .m@ sfy``c5 conv€qc,s Sr &11 J£j SO that tfte

5olJh`ons drE va`li`d fot .iìl x g*[,€pt 0 titóu`sLp oF +±r¢ {ac-,tor X-'+ LtoLJ€ufr, * not€ tiì2ìr
 ®
# 1
3S

¥2LX) = X + ]C £ |-5)
S=i 13.5)(6.8)|q.i£) o--. ` L3S)(3stz)

Wh-ch `-S uaì`.d Sr aw jL, i`nc\uC\i+ng +hg 2£fo. rf ta"et than -| uùc~ c.hoose +À" other root, m=|, 4Je

Obhtn a SO\Utèon i£cninj tùh\`ch i-5 tound to be 2 cor`Sti>nt tumes ¥2lzì.

8` WDIcmL EQUAT|oÙ. EQuftT\oÙs w\TH A Two-TERn REcuRs`otì FORnuLA

Tt`\e me.U`oa c+ % %amf>.W q Scch-on + c,an bc apFl``ea to a,n 3rbìtiaf/ qutc`h-on 134ì w`.th a

rqu\@r sìnsu``ar fmt at i=O. 11ne Substitutìon

Ì= Z.4`|n+M = ]cm Z+cn]Ln

r\=o n =S

\eads to tt,\ah`ons b€tw`€€n +hc C'5, ¢ wlr`\-cV` ti`€ fi+5r h2s t:he jófm

C¢ f (m) = 0,

W`he¢ f(m) ìS .3 po\7nomial of S€ccmù degiff `n m, Tho equahon f(mì=O is bued the tnditztal cwtatiari,

£t mi " Wlz .p¢ "e n>ot5 q thE €iuahcm, thfrì b choosì^g mn cv m=Tn2 m obtài.n +wc S€ts C`f

ConstÈ>n+S Cn @nd h€nc8 tLL`O S€n`€s 50\Uh`on5 7ìLi), ]Li|)p The iatn constan+S àr€ det#mcné'a {.rowl thc

€phi`€r oy`€S b} a r€curs,`on fomuìa, wÙ``-ch ma} i^voW€ tio or moft, q tie C`S.

Lf Mz=m„ Ue m€thoò prouidGs cy\\} one s.e\utJ-on |up b Lp con3bnt {ac.tor)< r£ M2fwi„ buL

m2-Wtì is J Fcis`'tèv€ intej€r, ti€n m€ Lonsti3nts 4 tha+ Lotf€5Fcmò to M=m£ mà) {ail to bz {\cftn£*\, mus

tomptic@h`ons iafl ari6e i-n app\7,`^j thc fnLfthocì. 1± M3j .<ilsó haFpfn ehat mojwtz ar€ coMFIC*) 4b& thcn

obh``vi c¢mp\e^ So\uh`ons from Uhi`c,h ft3Ì so\ut+`Dns cm bz cbbinp.c}.

•me d``ffi-£uwi-es mcvitl`on€d ò\l arJS€ Pr DEs toìth pol}nonA-a\ #ft4-Ci`ents .ìnt\ oi`th a tft;`cJ~tpim

recJrsi`On jbrrv\u\a. Hince hjé shà\\ Cov`uv\tti]+e, 3ttenh-on on th€5c DEsj for éùvtrc-h m tàr\ t5"u'L3t€

Frtc^-sé r€sutts.

THEORErl 5, L€t J be tt¢ differenùTz}l c>p€{ator

2
aoi*) t> + @4 L*) D + 8211),

aJhef€ aot*), a]l|), émd pztl) àng Fx3\ynomi`3ls Lu`i`"ou-r Lommon jactot Lft tti& H

£] =0 haue @ r€5utàr s,ir\5JW PoW 3t 1=0. bt

#|Ln)= fin);£rwh+ €in)Ì"h+k , k„ 140ì

 ®
W`hcf€ +Lnì±O. mg^ ho cm -i, f(nì is a po\7nofnial in n of set¢^a dgrQij iìnd 8m) [s a po\7nomùù

in n o{ d€grc€ at-most 2+ Th£ subsLtwhor` of

]= xm ®z_ cnxn L4[\

rl=O

`n jh€ C}É l€ÒòS to an inòi`cial etLJah`on fimì=o and to a h`Ò-t€fm recurs:cm fòr"`a fgr ha Cn.

rf mi anò Mz aff #& noots cf th£ iy\dicj@l eiuah`on " (mrMzì/k `-s not @n ìfit€£gf Or Zq

Won twqJ \``neat\j indefgndent Soluh`ons Jjll) 2^a yz.tr) a¢ 5;vpn b/

(42)
`iLXì --¢L±iw\i` , liLXì= ¢LxiML`)

wh€f€
£ lm + ls-4) k) (43)
EE
E lm, 9 m +k) -.,..
"mì=*mll+ È ,-1i Xks ftm+skì
s=1 tlM .tù) f lm r2.L) ' . . -

rf %m `5 of dG3m 0 ot 1, ti so\Jh`ms are va\ù`d tof au * €*4&pt p€rhaFs i=O. 1£ gLn` ``S Of

àegr€€ 2, "Gn th€ so\uLior`s a¢ va\i`cì {or O<\i\<aj 4+`hefe

a= \ :o\" j {(r\ì= bn2+ ' - , 8£n)= gon2+ .,,,

* PROor.

Smce x~ i5 ù T€9U\ar S`nju`l>( poi`nt.] €tthn i3qìì) or (sqb) hoids, [t tie {ormfr ho\dsj c¢e

hav€

|d[rwti2+--`.ìy"+ (Po+f>,1+P2*2t.-~.))' + |#o"A*Wzl2+ ---- ))= 0 j c{£±Oj

:.`_o ttùat

£ir)=nmoiti++stz|2+.---)*^-2+n\Potpt*+P2X~£+,,..)*n-4+

+1{o+f£X+Y2ì£'2+....ìjLn

EFI

*1+) = nLr+l)(d£xn-£+ W2in+.-`) + n|pdxn++p]*n+ .,,- ) + *o,in+ ----.

= |n2-n.)dLÌ" +nfol" L |nz-nì&z]Ln +npjr^+ ro# ---.

= x" [ n2stt + n (Po"])] + Xn [ i*zn2 + n |Pt-dzì + {o .j + '. ..'

Sìrw C*i±O, tk fi`Tst biiùc,lct i-s fm),. a Fb\7now`ial of sc®nd d€3f€€,. Bj J£J-iwiph`On mly Ctne othcr

poL¢er # * app€ars. Thù must be 3cn+hrk= xru+L, m„ L>o, m ih¢ Lom€5pondLòng +m is

 ®
1n~£+k [ dL+Ln? + {Pk-&v+ììn + fL_`| = 8ln)JLn++[

Thus BLn) has th€ fcirm de5tribed @na h=-1, Hcn[et

+|nì= &Ln2+ (,So~*jìn>

-+ { (r) = +mì in-` + 3Ln) ìn-`+k

8LI`Ì = dL+Ln2 r (fL~sttr,)n r *Ù_`.

'
'/If , on thG othgr h>ti, 15qb) holcls, ib ìS €a5; to Sh°W` i.n .ting sam£ L®ay that h% @nLò

+in) = tizn2 + (;|j -cxZ)n + ¥0,

y8lnì = qkp2n2 L (PkH ~CLkdì n + ¥k `

Ì y is 9iv€n } t41), thGn

*Ay = £ , nÈo4±„m) = i-x"m)= icn | r-xm-h ",-nì xm+--ì =

n=O n=O

= r+h[ Èo"mmF+ Éocngmnìxn+k]=

= }m+h i mh cì+[ft`+i)* + c2fw2ìl2+ + Cu.,+{mù~iìl"

ca
r\+k
+ Ck+(M+l) + £ Cn%|mtnìl
n=O

= xm+h \ ")+ 4jmu h+m)*2+..-+ cL#mrL*+

+ £ Lcn Hmtnì „_k tL„„kìFì

n=k

h€U ftMì=O is ttu indici-al eiu.`-ÈÌon a/\d tiere i-s a tu;`o-term f€cursion S9fMU\a @hfù rtbt-€S Cn ana

Cr+k. Fw)m +hc fo" of tì`£Z r€CiJrs``on formula ìb app€ar5 "at L)E wi|\ ob.bt`n Cnc\gp€ndent >oìub-ons

Conb:n;^j on\/ {k pdùers jLm+Sk, s=o,!,2) ..,. it Ts thcrgioff S;mpl€r to tàle } n a Éorrc5Fof`di`q

fbfm txJ stì}fr cÙ\ith

sk
j -- xm É c5 X (44)
S=O
 @

W€ f``nd as bc-for€

tJ = # ( CsX5k+m) = sÉoCs %Sk+m) = 5iocs |fhtixri.+h"r#mm+h]=

= rM+h £ q Lf tfwùs) iu5 + 6Lm+bs)iLstk | =

S=O

+ \ m + i Cs+mis)+ >Éocsgmis)iù"|=D
5=1+
`ts+L = L[siiì + Ws

&4w3£yG:A'r+h[tm5É4ì„"„_„\m+?LS.5±;ìsr*ks}=C

Ùou3 tie f€curs``on ftrmJ\a ìs

8 lm + 'k LS -£))
Cs+(Mrt5)+ Cs+glm+k[S-1))=0 * Cs= - C* , s=i,2j... f4S)
+lm+ksì

Fyom ti wrid\`tÀ+¢n G=1j ux' 1* tw

È l ryl ) 8[m)
CJ= ---.--.. Co=# Ci=-
f(m+k) ftm+k)

CL=- g\mtl) ,. glm)gLm+k)

Cj=

ftM+2kì . ±.m+hì flmtlkì

g(m+Zk). _ gimìg(m+O 8(m+zl)

Cs=-

£lM +3l) £im+kì ftmt 2L) f(Mt3t)

s 8(m) 8LM+Lì gLm+2tì-`-' g|m+ kls~1ìì

Cs= (-J) } S=L,`L,~3>-.. '46)
+Cm+tì f(M rzk) flM+5k) ,.-~ +(m+ks)

rf tie C5 €W s`o cho5en, ti`¢n y b€,c¢m€s ft¢ {u.nch-on ¢L*im) d€i`i`n€d 9 E¥.|43.ì, and

q = :Lm+hf(Tn) , J_4-+)

Aod i£' w" Ù¢hcu ruw# hm y bmm yì=¢Lzmj):

 @

Lmi)%lm!+k)8tmi+2L±}Li:_+._-_T_g+T±ìi+t±±=LàÈ~
yì,t,=±mj1"£(-„s*LsE
S=l"'
<_` '' +lmLWÌ
i( +ltvlkì f|m}+à.k)~-. !lMj+Us)

Equattm m s.how5 U £Ji= 0. SiMt\ar\F `.f m" ti¢n } b~m y2tlì= ¢tijM2ì .`^d #y,=o.
'Nc .hì2ve bciuy @Ssumea thait ti c¢nstants C * uJ€\\ dcF-nL€ò S Eq.146ì u;hm m=m3 or rw=Mz,i

D`f+icu\+7 m ari`S€ on\y ¢ hm i5 a ffim in the deft¢fyùnaroT, tha+ig, `ì fim+Sakì=C>. Pr sow chri%

W S ab M" W M" gst tlmL+sÒ% cano+m€an that m}+Sk=mz.>m th± lmrm4)/L=Sj

gn intgw s. Thti is ru\d c.ut + assumptìon . S;;m`-\arl" flmz+Stì=o `s é.\so fv\ea cwt. ,# 5bti3ò

n Th€oTem 5 , ti Scn`# SÓ\utùm Lónu€qG W thàt JjL]L) èd 7ziL) m so|ut[ms in th£ {f`tfruà`S

9N€m "& hj`O So\uE¢Cms àffi liy\ear\y ir\dcf7gnd€'nt, Pr oW*wcst " h`®|d be a ®nstst tim# th®

cùq ®h``ch is i.MFos5ible sino m}+mz Hefw Cì]}tx)+czyzLn ftovi`acs thc 5éno{al solJb`on in

% \.nterJ3l Sbted.

CO,`Sìd„ tk DE ,. riyH+ |*2_^Xìy'+j=Ó.

Th€r€ i`9 a rc<3ular sìnqul>r poìnt at *:0. Thcs 8iuph`On i`5 Qf thc form (34b) ¢r 4Ùii,`c-Ji q¢

Cn`j .nonvànìs-lun5 ®€{i€Ljgr\t3 éy€. ¢2=2, P,=-i, P2=|, a^d Y¢=|, ""fore, h* a^Cì

*1» = X" |Zn2-3n +i) + nin+1

HGrlc&,

+inì = 2n2-3r" = |Zn+)|n-iì ; %tnì m , k=1,

uh;\e
c®
8 {mì 8 Lm+i) 8tTY\+2.) . ` . - 8{ m + S -1)
¢LX)mì) `_ xm 1 + £ L1)S *s
S=1 f(m+1) ftMt.2) ftmr3).-. +(m+s)

snò
+1m)=O rs the J7\òi-ci2l quah`on. H€n¢, +im)= {Zm-Lì(flL-Jì#a fvlì= ± ' mz=1,1her\,

mS= i`z ar\d JVÌ2.= 1 a-r€ the mcjts c3f the i.ncl``Ct`3l €iuah`on. St-n¢ tì`€i-r cl;ff€rcnc£ rs not an i`nt€5er

r\uMb€r, t-.e., an rnt€5Jpl multiF`k of k, cùe have 'th`o so\Jh-crìs, name`;

-TO i . _,£ _ s . . ~ . (3Ìi)

2 2 Z `2.
3,tJL) = ¢LX)W^i) --¢ txi ±z) -- X 1 + Z_ l-1)S JIS
S=1
(2.±).(4-£H6'3).~.tz5ì|Z¥`)

Ss
+ £11) i
S=1 Z -4 . 6 -S . ` - '. t2Sì
 1\2 J
-_- Jl ____

1 + Z |.i)S)LS
SJ=1
2S s``

jl,*)= £

•3r\ò

t .2 .3 -4 ,-.. S
52LX) = ¢tx,irw2) = S LX}1) =
6 .1) | 5 , 2 ') (+-3 ) . -- [Zsti)s

cO

} „ £ ,-i,s *s
s=1 3 . 5, + ..-. 12s +1)

Sm gmì =n ìs q d£5reg lj ft 5€nti conu€t5€ #f " * anà thfl 9Én"pl goiuh`on iTs

]tl) = (-i J±L1) + `2 y2[%)

ft' au * 8*qt L=O. `U& n®t€ tihà+ ¥}L]i) ;s also Ùaw a5 c} so\ub`on at 1=Oj .iftd that jgll) ls

`.m3g;n@tj 5òf X<O, bc"# q thc sqm ®ot. A "r€spondìr\g rcè\ so\itL`m +ot *¢0 IS a C0nstant

mu\t-,p\e Of ,1,*,,

1 + Z_ L£)
W"-x)"ZìHiH)S2*Ì=Hx"Z\ S=1
S=1

• ;I,,Zl1+ il ÉÌ

REmRK1, If £(|n) muo\ues mot€ "an two pow# of *, thon ìh& ft2,4urs`'on fomub w`-il\ fùbte mcm

"an two o+ "e C`S` H6riLe ak as5umptù`on o+ @ two~+m fefdfs`~on fòTmu`a f®rc€S

£tin) b have tiv± +om 5.hown, Th`.S in turn `.mp\`-es Wìàt WW Locff`-ct`fnb clotxb agtl), à2tzJ

aff of Spé{i-'al tom rt Cm h@Fpfn tinat £Lin) i-"dw# cm\y one pÓLùft of 1. \n th``S

C3Se, th& DE can bc uJt\ti€n as

txzxt3" + ftìx] + So] = oj

A;h8f€ st2, P}, cìv\d {o are t4n5bnts . This ìs a Càuch} ecr3h.on.

 ®
REllARK 2. r£ "C DE h* an ordin2ry ?o;nt at i~ @nd #i*n) -`fwowe,s m\y tùuo Pw`Pfs °t *+

thm {m r8Su|ts ot .thfcw3m 5 3rE Sh`\\ app\ìùabl€. SìnLC€ aotoìi:o, wg fi-nd tiat-#f\) ì5

qonln~1) so +tiat thc mdtc+a[ quahon has rgots D h 1,

PROBLEils

òA. For €ac-h cf +[he fol\oLùi-n3 DE5 det€fmìne a\\ s`nLgu\ar Points .~brd dc't7j'rmi`ne w`hett`er each ts

¢mou@.bìg , r€ju`\>r, cir itr€qulàr .,

a, *2J" + J , + *2, = o `

lsh X`y`. + £jl + Lx4 _.x;Z)y -_ o,

(cì l+1,Ji, + ,*f,,y,+y=O,

2
lù` Lx2-2i-3i}"+ LX-3.}j' +]=O.

88, Let tàne fo\\oLoiflg DE k£ 9ìucr`

}2,w + i* +iz}y` + 7= 0.

ie) ShotD M3t th€r€ is a f€quìar S``nqu\àr Poi`nt @t X=O @nà Mat tMc roots o[ i+u `.nòTcial €qu-ah`on

3r€ ±J+

U;) Obtàir` ComF\C* S®\uttor\£ Va\i`C! f3{ \1.\?0.

tc) Wr\`t€ out M£ 5cfL-es 5of m=i Cf Part tb)j è!S {.ar as +he +crm in *3. rhcn rà.ke feal égnd imà3i`riary

Pàfts to obb`n ìin6ar\/ ìnde,pendgnt ree\ so\uh.or\s .fof |1\>0,

8C, W tk €iùrah-On É|}) = ldo.+ti}3H-'.)}"+ (jo+j}]W'~-)j'+ |¥o+¥ì]Lt-~-ìy =0 be given. L€r

tihn) = +in)*nw + £inurwk+h, |m sh"} %2t rJjr2, Pj`„ avd *j affi 0 for ]+h, j+'k+h.

SD. Fof @n €iu@h-on #1/)=0 w`i-th a qiS\>f Sif\P\àr Fomt at ìnf..ni-9, u}c Lm obtò;n s€ri-€s sc>tùtt-ons

* SetEing t= 1|i anà ebtìcnmq sgfi-es in tmvu ii{ t. V\ÀÉL cc`n @lsó prowGd cli`f#ti/ £s {ol\cws. Let

k(xn) = f m) inh~.k + gtn) ìnth , k„

th& fac+ tùvat th€, s``nguti pgi.nt .3+ iAfrni`t7 `i-s fqu\àr Prc# 8tr`) to k ct s€cma ac5n3e+ a^d {m

éftuah`m gtm}=O hzcomÉJ5 €h€ }^di`ù-p` ecpah`on, m roots Mj W We th€n ¥.c,k s®Luh`ons

}u)= rm i| + zrnscs|-"5] ,
5=1

rf lmz-mj)/L is not gin ifl+€gw w 0, show that tm l\-near\7 ,+ndepc^c!pnt #\uh`c" Pr \Xti
 ®
are 9`'vgn b/

¥[= S(x)ml), Jz=@tltmz),

w`h €¢
t(m) .J... t [m-ls-!)kl
®,z,m) = É L-LÌ x:us .
3=1 glm-k)....%lm-sk)

q. WD.ic,\AL EQUAT\Otù Wm EQUAL ROc).Ts

m!=ML , the fotMu|as o!' n\€oftM B pr"`ò€ on`7 0ri€

Wh€n U¢ ind`-Ùd éiuatron \`as €iual ro®ts

SC\Uh-on yL= ¢|x,M£ì. Th\.s so\Ut\`on \-S W€`\\ JcfineJ, Sin% f(Mì+ks) is nevy 0 ior Sì=i,2 ,.,, We now s€p,k

3 S€cóy`d so\uttoti.

•niEORE.rì 6. l®t aiì +hi V\jpomes€s q Theorcwì 5 hold, c*ccFt that Mz is equ3l to mì. lìm tù% \``nearl/

`.rdgp£^dent solubofts c+ i±;`& DE #}=0 àfe 3;U¢V\ 9

|,= S\X,"n,`, Y2--¢LLX)W`5\, t48)

uJìh8®

¢Lt--- ®# -- tL" L-+

+ 's-J) k]
8[m).-,.8lm -.+ . .+ 9' [M+ ls-1)kl
g'tm)
-mi,-lìs 8iMì B tm + (s~i)11
S=i
fLwk) ' ' . f (m tsk)

iEì - ` , . - f'[w\+stì 14q)

•ftm+hì f `m t sk)

1be so\Jhcf\S .3f€ ua\(a ow tlne sLm ,`nt„d as in ."¢Of€m 5.

PROOF. FTom +h€ d,g#nib.On Of ¢Lljm) éi^d 4hc± proof ot Theorcm 5 [S€C, Eq.i41)] uk knw that

£ L¢li/m)| = *Mh{{m), lso)

so Mat #yj = imJ+hfm * Sim iy`j `-s a clQbb ffit C`f +mL f'(mi)=c}. Ùow

x\%)= %"¢]- 'tl)

•mìs ``S equiu@\e^t to .a5sertit\q thèit b¢ ocdpr ¥ dìt{€fi=ntiat;on w`ith ffsr€[t to * aM rn can ±

Ì`ntckhàngecì, ù;`hi-Lh \-S pccm``ftcd iF au dGrtuphJ€S Loncemed afe L®nh-nuous. Si`nce ¢ ay`d \ls à€ri-vab`U{```>
 €8J
are C\€fined by inti`ni+e Secl-e5, 4o& must u€r,`f7 uni`form LOMcr5ichcG of ti`e5e seri.esD Thi-S can hc L3wÙ`eJ

o\+ b ric n-te>t. fy`om Eq£. (So) and Lsiì u`e n~ ùoncwde that

* 1¢il = # |:*) = fl d L¢] = 9&m [ im+h+im)] = r lm *mì + P t'm .

©m

MOwj ìf M=mij thcn jiM!)=O, f'tmj)~ , so Wat E¢]|D -and ¢[ix,m,) i-s a cJ#lJbon-Th& tdJo

SOIUL`Ons ¢£X,m})= yji|) a^d 7£i*)=¢ì(|,M]) }¢ c|earl7 lìne3rl7 i`ndepefló€ntj SO that

yLX) --C±ì3L3L) + CLYLLJL) ,

PT°V\`ò€S m^e 9€n€ral soluh`on ou€,r the int€Nà\s Ùorisi`c`erecl` 1k dìFt€mttati`on Ìn Eq. i4qì ì5 C2r`ia a't

tL`ìth tb\C @id c{ flnc fo\\ouj;ng ruLe q talLulus

ul.....un

ÙA----jn

Ccmsicl€r ft€ DE: |?}W + (Z|?-i)}'+ (|+X')}=Ó,

`'``V& ùalculpt€ #11"), by se*inq 7==tn :

# |x.n) = -iz |n|n+)L£n+] + |z|?~|)n¥" + ||+ÌL?)xn= nin_i)]Ln+ zn±nr2_ nLn+ xntxrw2=

= [n|ni) -rm]|n+ (i")in+2= [nm~i)_(n+)]]Ln+ izm)rn+2=

= h)2*n + 12n")I"

Tb€r€[ot€, +Lnì= [")2, 9[nF Zn+1, h=oj k=2. H€nffi, ftit`ì= (M1)2=O # m]=Mz=|,

Acc®rd;ti to .meor€m 5,

= , `S ks gtm) 3tM+k) --` 8|m+ |S~j)'k]

¢Li,m)= x + £ Ll)-JL
S=1
flm+L) +lm+2k) -. +tmtsk)

= xmt" £,-1jJ,ZS (ZM+1)|Zm+5)|.Zm+ q) ,-.. t lm t-4s -3)

j=L {mH)2|m+3)2|m*)2.-,,(MHs~iìz

ànd to lh¢®r€m G
 ®
gim) ---. 8 |m + LS ~9) k | g`(m)
---- t ,'.'
®LLm = ¥:- P\i,m`Lw + Lm ÈL-iiits
Òrn 8'm)
S=i +[m+Lì .'-. +tMt-S-kì

g'[m+(S-4ìL| +'{mt.k) t'(m+sk) tb

•-.+

+lM +5`k)
q[m+ts-i)L| f(m+lì

2
@iL*jm) = ¢|*,mìLnx + |m£i_i)S|"
\2m+iì (-zm+ 6) (2m+q) ---. (Zm +4S -3)
+ + t. -r---
S=1 m+i).Z(m+3)``iws)2.-~tm+zs~i).2 2Mtl imt-5 2.m+q

2
•.-+---------- L_2 2__ _.__ _ J

|Zm+4s~5) m+1 mr5 M+5 (m +2,S-J) Ì

H€nce,

C® 3 ,T . „ ---. (4S-1)
Y5Lxj`= SLXLiL) = X 1.+ £(.£)S£zs
S=1 zZ . È . bz .--. L25f

c®
3.7-11 ---- ` {4s~1ì
É + = +-r, + =-. - = -_= -i -.-.-
JZ`*)= J|Ln Ln* + r £ (.|)S]LZS É+ É+
J1 i t.-,4s-i
+ i -£-j
2 4 -É
6
S=1 22 ` 4z . b` . - - rT£f

3`7.1|---.14s+)
=,1,-1-iL1,SI„
zL.TZ.{2.,,.rT3}
S=1 |5~"?-É+fi-É+'+4=±-£s)

&" 8Ln) t% dfgr% 1, `ftt 5o\ub`ons ar€ Vai``J jN .W i e7Cu+ 0. for x<o, Lni sh®ld be rcfià#a

bJ Ln\X~\. W€ (an U€nTy Lonv€fg€n¢ c+ tk ft-rst s€rt€s |thpt pf yj) b, ti¢ {ah`o +€5t. F* th€ Sctau Scffgs

ìfl tie €Xprt~sS``on fof yz ù£e m use a t~ombi+nahbn of tyu compari-5on a^J raho teLst`; In mc fzmwsi`s

h€ \`aue dri\àt

É+É+Ér.--+4fi-:-f-È----2i=Z(-i.:-t-f+Ì-a----Ì)

=+ % ``V`Cftas€ W t£rMS i-n ab>oo|uk va|uG w r€plat;€ +he U>lug in W€ @he Fpf€nth€Sl-S L7

b5=2(i+5+f+J+i+---+i)

Then amw" Of' tk t3h`o +pst "# cì3 fw tft 5€,t`es for y„ si" bs+® cu S"O, So th*
 '2
@
-- _r- =
2
b.", b5+` 4SH)2 S
L,.fn -= É=* - = L\.M - = Lìm Llm -=b
s+® b> cp b> s+®-;a s-®
S~CO S2+Zst|

+ LL.m Lìiil= =1 ` bJl-1-

b>
s.® bs i+S+É

io. wD.lcIAI EOUATIohb Wm ROOT5 DÌFFERWG By nuLTlpLE oF k,

# mz=W\i+Ùk j tL`h€ft Ù i.S apos,`tiu6 `'nte8€r, -trhm +afte ser``# Éor ¢Cljmiì tgias a 2c'fo i`n t.hG

d€rioMmator @nd %W SOIutton JLllì = ¢Li/m,ì [aìls to be ch2fm€cL !Joù}euef, tiÀ{ Seri€s Pr ¥ztx)=¢{XJmzì

tÀ3,.\\ th£fi be Lù¥\\ d€+`n€d, anà C" abb``n @t icast lk so\ut;on jz(|ì.

The d;f{icu|} ùoi`th rtgara to ¢tx;m£) fway dìsposG G'f i-t5€\f'. Th`-s wih be +1¢ tase i`+' gLr`ì has ia rDot

Of tie jòfm mi++Jk , wh€ic J i`S 0 or c` pos,-t\`ve i`nt-€9€r !.id O€JÉù-1, f" +hen

glmi)-+. èlmj+JJkì ~--g[Mi+ ls-j)k|

¢LX)m3) -- X" 1+ £ Li)S ]LLS
S=1
J lm!+Lì -~ -. + (m] + dkì ..-. £ |Mì + Sk)

1hm a Z€ro ai>pnu in +hc nùm€tator at S=D+l to Land ihe <zm ifl thc dcJrLomini`tc* a+ S=h-nor€

Fr€(C5€\/j 8tn) has a tactor n-|m}+Jk), so that tim+L}k) h2s a {actor fn~mi. Srmi\àrbj f`nì

has a hc+Or n-|Ma+h}k) 5o t¢tàt f{m+Ùh) haÉ a {`@ctof-m-m£. In tk seri" .fbr ¢L*,m); tLe

+aLti m~M} JPP€m {n boS'` th€ ^um€{ator @nò dcnom:^at" in a`\ tcfMs +of Ù)h;Ch S>Ù. Wd Canc€l

+hg* 5aitors 3rd #m s€t m=m+. Thc re>u\tinj Scrics is siMFl/ tine \i`Mi-t q ¢L]tru) i]5 mif^i`

Sm £ 1¢lx,m)] = +lm) im+h, „ m Ì€L m+mL on both sìdes b ùgv'ic\jde flól as m+fvli j ¢"*

@rd yt ``s à so\uh`cm.

ExamFle CòQsìdm ft DE: xZ}`'+ |*5~3i)}'. z|2y=o,

fts tB5`Of€ Loe [a|hj|ate #tin) ,

*L*n) = ±L ni„)xn-2+ i,L3_3z)nLn-`_ zi2*n= niMiìin+ n±n+: 3nìn~ 2]:nrz=

= [n|iì-iì -3n]-*n+ ln-iìxfln = |n2_4n)in+ irL2.ìxn+Z

Hcnt£, +m)=n(n-4ì, %mì=n-2.j ònd +(m)=mtm-4ì=O-+ mi=O,mz=4, k=2,h=o.

fi€rejoct}, Mz~M}= 4= 2h So twàt a zf~ app€ars \-n +h¢ d€nomwc+ HouJ€ufr, 8(nì=n-2 sa

#\at g[f`) h@S a roót. 2=|1. Tbs . ÀJ=1.mò Ù=2, Woùu

 ©
1+ giL1)1
f .`S_2s __=--e-------_--
(m~2) lm) lm +Z) -. ~ . lm + 1s -4
P(xìm\ = ±
S=1 àmt.ZìiìvLi). im +4)m. (mr6ìLim). ' -.-|mtts)(mt2s~4)

Sm tk {m m t.n th€ d€nommator w`eiJLò iài)Se tvDJbìg ior m=O" , # Lànc€l thi`+^ £aitor

Jnd o"er t-omn`on fac€Ofs biJpffi SC¢ttng m=O. 'tcflLce,

¢,"-1mFÈ£,-!31Z5i
tm+ZìrCm+£t).--.(m+ZS)

so u\>t
SZS

!1t*,= ¢,*,o,= „ 1l-1ìi2 .4 . 6 . -- 1S

É70

1 + Z_ ",s I-£S
]LLX} -- ¢ L±,4` = 6. S .10 .... lz; +4)
S=i

Hefe j--¥]1|)C] + y&LÙ cz ``s the génefpl SÓ\utton fof @1\ X-

m tti *r m" c\oé>s not @ppm i-n th& numcfàtor # ùst thc sc\u`L-on :S t*®V€b, Ù Ès "#7 b
modify W €]Lptess`.on ¢f ¢Ltjmì. lfl t#his tase, M introà" ti factof m-m| a++ìft-cja\\/ anà tmsi`clm th&

fJnct\`on
tii]m)= m-Mìì¢i]jm). ls2)

Sìn® eft f@£tor n~mì appcars in the a€nom;nator ct th{ S€rce> gcx-¢Lijm), a Lanc&tlah`on tan È€ Mad&

in al\ tprms fgr ti;`hi`ch S2H. Ftom ts2ì,

m+h
£ltL*,m)| = {m-Mi)*[¢t*iM)|= [m-mtìi +tm). ls3)

Hent£, £|t|xjmS)] =0 SC th@t t(i)m!ì i-S a SOIutton. HouJ`e.V€r, t(JtjMi) ``S simpìy £i £onstànt t[`mcs

Y2= ¢l},Mz). Thus m Ù\av€ not }et f~iu+ tl® a€£i¢J #W SC>\Utl`C>n- rc cibtaìn i`t, h3éT, "5t€ thàt sìnc€,

±m l\as & root q , |m-Miìflwù h* d cìajbì€ rost mr Thcf€£o~ riw ian appv th€ sa% Wonrrj l th£

reL€d;n3 sec,hon to tflnclJdé "àr tL|m u è so\jh`on, WG tr4(*,m)= 8P/Dm. Si-nce +""
wW Lor`h{n a tpfm i.n Lnx , ¥±i*) = tmwù " yzLX)= ¢L*/Mz). fy\ust tt9, ii`^eat``/ ind"i'\dpft+ anà

Provrae he 5€npral so`jh`on ov€r thc int€rua| fot ujhi`ch èhe sc'rc€s conwr£je5-
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Example Cons``à# th€ DE. |i+]L3)y" t |£2-3)y't2/=o,

\av€ ¢ìr3t .ftnò £|rLn) :

#ir) = ||+*})nhi)*n-2+ ii2_3) n¥n-`+ ]Lin= nm-iìrì+ nin+)i"'+ n*n+'_3nin-'+ *n+'=

= [nlm)-5n|xn-` + Lnuw)m+1)inr'= (n2_4n)xn~l+ in2H)xnr'*

S dLxn)= n(n_4)in~'+ (nzu)|"

±Ln)"|i\~4) ; gin)=nz+i; h=-i, k=2..

Jm)=m{m-4)=O > m] =0 , M.2=4, whf\8 gin) h>s f`o rt.iL .root-S, anò thf{€fof€ ti\¢hÉ is r\Ó

{anc€,\l?hon. l+mq3, m2-M}=4= Zk, w& thcn hÀve

8m + 11) .----- [ m+ is~'i}.Z+i|

?-=1mLÈLttisIZS
(Mt2)lm~2)|wW4)|mì\m+6){mr2)--~.-\mtLsì|m+ZS~4)

Thus, ¢t*}O) t`s und€fi-ned, bi't

L1'3+Ù65...,.[\z+2s)`ZH]

St*j4E x4|u ÈtHìsi"

6 . 2 ' 8 . 4 ' 10 . 6 ..-. (Zs+4ìU5)

!n ord~ tx] oùh``n ti~ 5£(#\d sc}lJbL`cn, De, sct.

miM2+|)(m2+4fvwS)imz+am+i+),...[(mUS~Z)2
+ Li]m\ -_ m ¢ Lxjm) ~_ X m+£,-1,S1"
S=1 tmr2,)(M-Zì(m i4) m (M +Gì m+Zì -. " [m r?S) |m+ZS~4)

A Cantel\2horì of the factor m Cat` m[+} h' M@dg. HOL)"Cr, U€ +iubr m 3Ppfaf:S h i±i'`e dfr\oMt7iiator #jL/

#r s?`Z. Hcnug,

2 m tm2+1) 2 4 tmz+|ì|m2 r4Mrs)

+lx,m) = ± Tn + Liì £ t- 1-1) .x
tm+zìm-z_) (mt-z,)(M~z)(m+4)

{nt?+iì(m2+4m+S.)---.[
+ É L1)>1£S
5=3 tfw2)[m-2,) |m+4) ---` (w\+ts-)(fy\+2S -4ì

Ìi ¢Ùe set m=O, 4# fi~nó

S2S 1`5.1.1.3+.--.[t2s.~i).Z+£]
41.5
+1*'0)= } + £ t-1)_ ±
(2) . l-Z) -q 5=-5 2 . LZ) ,4 . 6 . Ze 8 . 4 --. t2s) |Zs-`|)
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C¢

1t. 3+. . 11.31....[|Zs~z,)2ti|

*.-.
=.}4 E _ 3: i(_ì)S *.2S-4. ± 1 t £ ,-1)' 12SI
16ló 6.2.8.4...|Zs){zs_4) 16 S=3 6-2-8.4. --tzs){ZS-4ì
5=3

Nou}, makin3 "e Chan;)e ZS+ 2S-4 ìhe. ab~ sc^-c€ `-S s;mF\/

+t*,O) = -F6 ,Z l„

Fufth€fmofe, +Ùm |4q) iL t`o\\ou* that

tilxJm) = m¢m = ;±m = 8# [M¢Lxjm)1 = ¢Lm + m 9É = ¢i*jm)+ m¢ti;mìLnr +

Òm

glm) g'm+2,) . -- 8tmr2£-Z) £'(m+zs-z)

+mjmstLr,f: #, + gL±z) + - - . +
S=1 f{mrz) FLmt4).., f(mrzs) \ g,m) gm+£) È [M +ZS -Zì

- tii=) - 1J±, - .
£tmfz,ì tmt4)

imz+i) im2+ 4M +S) `m2+ Btn +| t) .... t {m +ZS

a +,m = +ti)m)hl + im{H sȣLi)Sizs
lm+2.ìtfy\~1)m r4) m {m+6ì lmt2.) -. |m+2s)(m+1S~4)

mfimltiìmz+4mÉ)Cmz"m~±_1.|):.:.E__Lm~_+_1_:_.-__±±t±_± É1 + - + -ZLfl + . , .
+*m®iJrLj±TS m2+| m2+4mrs M?+8m+11
S=1 t"2ìlm-2,)lm+4)¢.|m+6)tm+Z)-+.lmr2S)(m+Zs~4ì

•,,+
Zm+4S ~4 m-2 mr2 _ .- _ H m+1s-4

mmti) nm+4) lm+z5)(m+1s~4)

[{m+Z5-£)2+1| Lffìt2,)m~2) mtz)(m~2ì

rwtz£

[mtz>){M+2s~A,)

@ s % LM2+iì|m'Z+4m +5)Linz"m tftì -_i''L.j__±P~+_1~±=2it_1J

S t]U(tm) = q'|i>mì h* + aL Z_ ,-J) jL
StT1"' ~ i'mf2ìm~2)w4Ì wm%),(mz)-w |m+2>)(m+LS~4ì

+im£Li)Sr25|±+L|L±n_.±±Ì.±i±mLÈ=
± + ---+ .ffl +-..
M2+i m2+4mts M2+3mm
* (mBì(M~Zì (mr4ìm lm+6)tma).`''. lM r25)tmrls~À)

1
zm t-4s -4 t i 1 i -L= ==
•-.+
m+ZS
tLMrLs~?)Zri| mr2 ry\~2 " m
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{m2+iì(w\2+4m+Sì(ffiz+8m.+1+).'-- [(m+2s-2}2+i]
-D 4-= +-hx + *mì 1+ 5È|LJ,Slis
[mtz)(m~z)(m+4)(m+6)Mt2)-'.(M+ZS)(n+i3-4)

2m t.4S -4 -1 -1 -J-_ -i .-_,,-+ -

+ 1 + 2Lfi + Zm+8
+.-. +
m2+| mz+4m+5 ml+ 6m t ll [(m+2s~2jz+i| m fniz mt4 m m

1 mlm+L)
ìS +£tijmì = +{i,m)irw + }m
l=+#1-m=2-,"i-Zl+
(mz)tm~2Ì-Ì

4 Wtlì,m?+4m+S) J::L + .------. L - 1 - + +

mz+| M2+4m+S m+2 m-2 M.t4
m+2.ì(m-2)iM+4) 1 Ù2Jn +4

tp `m?+1ìlm2 +4m+5)|m2+8m+\1)
llm +i5,2)2+1| _1+
+©LL-i)Sxis nl2tl
-,, |m+Zs)(m+2s-4)
E! F=I (w\tzì[M~1)tm+4)lm+Gìtmrz)

2m+4s-4 -1 _1 -i -,-J.` ..--- 1

+ É + Zfi ,--. + m rz,5

FmrsT :2+8mm [mi2s~z)Zt4] m " m

•-i:iiìì

rf m 3Pt mn #¢ ffieffùw oi Lnr Ìs s`mp\7 +ti,o)= ~ È#. The Lo€+fi-cient af j£Z\nsi`k tk

bfi" has .3 tefm wrw m ì^ m fwm€i?tw aJ dénom[n@toL ùjhiLh jhoL*ò *. ianislcò *¢# Sgftèng m=CL

Vvà thus .{mcì

¥ìi»"t"=+i„h„„±2_à*4\à.£+±~i)+
4
43+-gr.-+É--++f-i-
---4

1. 5.11. --` [tzs~Z)``+i] 2S

+ i Li)S LZs
t\zsiL)Z+1]
S=3 £ . l~2ì .14) . [6) ` |Z) . .. (.Z3) lzs~4)
-,+4)

LS-A1. -- + JL + - ~ + 4L- -
* » = ~ ÉJ£mnl + i+ f -# r £Li)SHL" 4.6.8---.|t5)t~ZJ.-4ì
L+ [i'z s~z)7+1|
S=3

•---
4 ~ ,-.--_44
- __ _
-Z;S -rs,-4
4

8`" gin) has d€8¢ 2, +he Seft`es Cavwfti3€ for 11\< =1' sl-£=3Ù=1.