Suicide by Teenagers in Middle School:

A Postvention Team Approach

Mary Finn Maples, Jill Packman, Paul Abney,
Richard F. Daugherty, John A. Casey, and Linde Pirtle

Volumes have been written (American Association of Suicidology, 1998) and programs have been developed
(Befrienders International, 2000) to deal with the prevention of and intervention for teen suicides in middle school.
Less prominent is attention to postvention efforts in the aftermath of these acts. The authors describe a child’s suicide
through the eyes of the school counselor, identify issues unique to teenagers, present symptoms common to presuicidal
youth, and suggest a postvention CAPT (counselors, administrators, parents, and teachers)Team Approach.

This article was prompted by a recent suicide by a middle
school child. The school counselor who was involved (the
sixth author) related the following experience.
One Child’s Suicide
As a helping professional working in public education for 5
years, I have dreaded confronting a few types of situations.
One early fear I had was discovering and reporting child
abuse. However, there was nothing I dreaded more than the
possibility of dealing with a child’s suicide. Unfortunately, I
was tested by this challenge during my 2nd month as a middle
school counselor.
The 1st Day
One Monday in the fall, while attending a parent meeting at the
middle school where I worked, I heard my name paged over the
school intercom. I was asked to report to the office immedi-
ately. Upon my arrival, I saw the stricken expression of the
school vice principal. I learned she was on the phone with the
local police department. While still on the phone, she commu-
nicated to all the counselors present that a student had died. As
soon as she hung up, she informed us that one of our eighth-
grade students (who was on my caseload, but whom I had not
yet met) had died from a gunshot wound, and it was suspected
that he had committed suicide. Before we could start notifying
the teachers at the school, our priority was to determine whether
the death was a suicide or an accident. After conferring with the
police, we were informed that the death was indeed a suicide.
As trained professionals, we were taught to be prepared; how-
ever, we were still enveloped by a numbing shock. Our mettle
tested, we were aware that many would be relying on us to be
the cornerstone of strength. We prepared to face the formi-
dable challenge of helping others to cope.
Our first responsibility was to notify the teachers so they
would not come to school and be blindsided by news of the
tragedy. We felt it was important that the teachers and staff
have an opportunity to prepare themselves for what would
inevitably be a chaotic day full of grief, mourning, and ques-
tions. One of the counselors took responsibility for calling
the teachers individually. The other counselor and I were
delegated the task of calling the homes of the dead child’s
close friends to notify their parents. The parents were ad-
vised to talk to their children, explain what had happened,
and process the tragedy as a family. The goal was to provide
those we assessed as being the most affected by the news
with an opportunity to grieve with family and to prepare all
the students for the day ahead.
I was assigned the unenviable task of contacting the
victim’s best friend. The child’s mother was horrified and
burst into tears upon hearing the news. Still personally
shaken, I felt ill-equipped to offer any kind of comfort. For
my own solace, I called my mother, a school principal, and
sought support and information. She offered kind words and
faxed me information about dealing with suicide at school.
Although the information was helpful, as the news of the
tragedy spread, there was little or no comfort to be found in
the face of suicide.
The 2nd Day
Addressing the reality of the student’s suicide and the needs
of the students at the school presented a unique problem
the following day, because we were in the 2nd day of state-
mandated standardized achievement testing for eighth grad-
ers. As the testing coordinator at the school, I was respon-
sible for maintaining secure, standardized conditions for
testing. Because of the circumstances, I knew this was going

Mary Finn Maples, Jill Packman, Paul Abney, Department of Counseling and Educational Psychology, University of Nevada-
Reno; Richard F. Daugherty, Department of Educational Leadership, University of Nevada–Reno; John A. Casey, Department
of Counselor Education, California State University, Bakersfield; Linde Pirtle, Washoe County School District, Reno, Nevada.
Paul Abney is now at the Division of Education, University of the Virgin Islands. Correspondence concerning this article should
be addressed to Mary Finn Maples, Department of Counseling and Educational Psychology/MS 281, University of Nevada–
Reno, Reno, NV 89557 (e-mail: maples@unr.edu).

© 2005 by the American Counseling Association. All rights reserved. pp. 397–405

Journal of Counseling & Development ■ Fall 2005 ■ Volume 83 397


to be a challenge given that most, if not all, of the eighth
graders were affected by the news of the suicide. The sev-
enth graders were on a delayed school day start so the eighth
graders could be tested without interruption. This staggered
approach to beginning the school day provided us with the
opportunity to assist our students. We requested and received
approval from the district testing coordinator to provide a
makeup test opportunity to the eighth graders. This allowed
students a reprieve from testing to mourn the loss of their
friend and classmate. The community provided support and
guidance during this difficult time. Counselors from across
the school district came to our site to help students process
the tragedy. I called one of the professors from my counsel-
ing program at our local university, and he came to assist us.
A volunteer from a crisis call center hotline also came to
provide information and expertise. We set up empty class-
rooms to allow for group processing and individual coun-
seling. These community members were extremely helpful
to us during this time of crisis and were instrumental in
identifying students who seemed to be having a particularly
difficult time coping with the news of the suicide. On the
basis of their observations and input, we were able to iden-
tify students in need of additional counseling and provide
them with the resources they needed.
Trained counseling professionals were not the only adults
who played key roles during this tough day. Other adults at
our school provided comfort and support to the students. Ev-
eryone—from the clinical aide who worked in the nurse’s of-
fice, to the secretaries, to classroom teachers and administra-
tors—helped the students process their grief and confusion.
When the testing period was over and the seventh graders
arrived at school, we resumed the normal school schedule.
During the first class period, teachers received a paper with a
statement prepared by school administrators and counselors
explaining how to inform students about the tragedy and how
to control rumors. I went into the first-period class of the boy
who had committed suicide to support the teacher and the
class. The teacher described her feelings of confusion and
sadness. The students were quiet and somber and didn’t have
many questions at that time. I let the students know that coun-
seling services were available, then I left them with the teacher
so they could grieve their common loss.
Along with the appropriate expressions of grief displayed
by the students, we found ourselves confronted with some
that were not appropriate in a public school. Because we
were concerned about “copycat” suicides, we wanted the
students to be allowed to grieve but did not want to glorify
the suicide. For example, posters bearing the deceased
student’s picture stating that the student would be missed
were removed from the halls and memorial paraphernalia
were removed from the locker of the student who committed
suicide. The students were angry and resented this decision.
They believed it was respectful to remember the student in
this way. However, with the support from the counseling
398 Journal of Counseling & Development
Maples et al.
staff, the administrators maintained their position, and me-
morializing at school was kept to a minimum.
Several other areas of unpredicted tension emerged. The
circle of friends who felt closest to the student resented other
“fringe” students who were emotionally expressive. The circle
made statements such as, “Why are you crying? You didn’t
even know him!” The volunteer counselors from the com-
munity were particularly helpful with these “fringe” stu-
dents, reporting that many of them felt emotionally fragile
about unresolved, often violent, issues in their own lives.
The student’s suicide served as a catalyst to release their own
grief. A few teachers were reluctant to let these “fringe” stu-
dents see a counselor, concerned that they were manipulat-
ing the situation to avoid class. Teachers even went so far as
to call them “professional mourners.” The principal and the
counselors sent the message to the staff that, in order to
safeguard against copycat attempts, it would be better to err
on the side of caution and allow the students to self-refer for
counseling when needed. This was not universally popular
with the teachers, who wanted to resume a “business as usual”
schedule immediately.
The Ensuing Weeks
I attended the funeral and was not surprised by the large
number of friends who came in support of the family. When-
ever a young person dies, it is tragic, but a death such as this
brought out grief in many members of the community. Sev-
eral faculty members, students, and their families were present
at the service, which, although terribly sad, was brightened
by stories of fond memories told by the student’s family,
who obviously loved him very much.
Our responsibilities in the wake of this tragedy did not
end with this boy’s burial, however. More and more students
began coming forward to talk to their friends, teachers, and
counselors about suicidal ideation. We were in constant con-
tact with the parents of students who expressed thoughts of
suicide and made several referrals to hospitals that provided
inpatient counseling and help with depression. Some of the
students who were feeling depressed said that the suicide had
brought to the surface feelings of sadness and grief they had
experienced in the past when other family members or friends
had died. Some students who had friends who had committed
suicide in previous years were feeling scared, confused, and
personally responsible for the most recent suicide.
I facilitated two grief and loss support groups, one for the
best friends of the student who committed suicide and one
for students who were experiencing grief as the result of the
deaths of parents, cousins, and friends as well as the recent
suicide. We focused on the stages of grief, coping skills, and
the students’ personal feelings and experiences in relation-
ship to the deaths in their lives.
All eighth-grade students enroll in a 9-week class that
focuses on developmental tasks of decision making, goal
setting, drug and alcohol education, and personal aware-
■ Fall 2005 ■ Volume 83
Middle School Teen Suicide
ness. Part of the curriculum addresses suicide prevention.
Unfortunately, in the wake of the suicide, this year’s stu-
dents had personal experience to tie to their learning. To
support their learning, someone from the crisis call center
spoke to the classes about suicide prevention, answered
questions the students had about suicide, and distributed
cards with the call center’s crisis hotline number. In addi-
tion, the administration scheduled a suicide prevention as-
sembly that was coordinated and performed by university
students. At the end of the assembly, the principal read a
letter written by the father of the student who had commit-
ted suicide. In the letter, the father expressed his sadness and
disappointment that his child chose a permanent solution to
his temporary problems and encouraged the other students in
the school to seek help and friendship from the adults in their
lives before they chose to turn to such a drastic measure.
And Onward
The lives of the students and staff at our middle school will
never be the same since one of the eighth graders took his
own life. The student was a friend, a teammate, and a member
of the middle school graduating class of 2003. I believe
strongly in our prevention efforts at this school and pray
that no school is ever again confronted with such a tragedy.
However, I have lost my naïveté and know that crises like the
one we faced in the fall occur more often than we would like
to imagine.
Coping With Youth Suicide
The foregoing experience of a new counselor, simultaneously
poignant and accountable, suggests that there is a high price
to pay for gaining this valuable experience. Counselors, in
conjunction with other school staff, can discuss possible
ways of handling a crisis situation at school more efficiently,
but all the plans possible can never answer the question,
“How do children reach such desperation as to make the
choice to die?” How can children who have only been alive
for 12 to 14 years want to end their lives? The experience of
survivor’s pain following the loss of a child through illness,
disease, or accident is dreadful and powerful. Psychological
pain due to the death of a child who has chosen to die is
indescribable. From the counselor’s narrative, it appeared
that future programs for prevention and intervention were
planned at her school. However, as with many cases of sui-
cide, no programs or services had been discussed or planned
that could be used in the immediate aftermath of a suicide.
Hence, the purpose of this article.
Youth Suicide Is Different
The factors indicative of youth who are at risk of suicide
differ dramatically from those of adult suicide. Adolescence
is the most volatile period of transition in the human growth
cycle. It is that quixotic, often unstable, and challenging
Journal of Counseling & Development ■ Fall 2005 ■ Volume 83
time between childhood and adulthood. Major, sometimes
traumatic, physical, emotional, and hormonal changes occur
at this stage of life. Teenagers seek novelty and stimulation,
frequently complaining of boredom and ennui. Yet, almost
paradoxically, they resist change, often strenuously, if sug-
gested by adults. The greatest fears of parents are often real-
ized: Teens would rather follow their friends who are seeking
excitement rather than follow the suggestions of an adult.
The years spent in middle school represent a remarkable
time of change for children: They face new schools, new
teachers, often new friends (and enemies), new academic
challenges, and emotional turmoil brought on by puberty.
Because of such rapid changes, middle schoolers often have
difficulty understanding their own unpredictable feelings.
This lack of understanding and subsequent confusion and
frustration may have tragic conclusions if proper identifica-
tion of potential suicide-risk students and steps to assist these
students in their adjustment phases are not implemented.
The influence of friends and involvement with peers
become paramount for many middle schoolers because a
major developmental task of adolescence is developing a
social persona. The waxing and waning of friendships and
other relationships can undermine the already fragile sense
of stability and emotional comfort of these children. For
some, suicide appears to be a fascinating and novel idea
(McKee, Jones, & Barbe, 1993). It might also seem to be a
solution to the struggles characteristic of adolescence.
Those familiar with middle school children acknowledge
that egocentrism is another hallmark of this age group. Ego-
centrism is marked by the perception that others are equally
as obsessed with a person’s behavior and appearance as is
the person him- or herself. Adolescents perseverate on an
interaction or a look from a peer. Without ongoing feedback
to construct a realistic appraisal of audience reactions, a
benign interaction can be interpreted as a wildly unrealistic
scenario with devastating results. The adolescent may per-
ceive suicide as one strategy to deal with the dilemma.
Family influences on children who commit suicide. Men-
tion of family problems appears in the notes of many middle
schoolers who have attempted suicide. According to Wenz
(1989), half of these youths reported that their mothers were
unusually depressed. Another 50% reported considerable
family tension and conflict. These two variables, mother’s
depression and family conflict, often overlap. A frequent
third variable in Wenz’s study was that there appeared to be
evidence of considerable tension between the mother and
the father (Wenz, 1989).
Wagner (1997) conducted a comprehensive review of pre-
vious studies of children and adolescents who commit sui-
cide and the associated family risk factors. His findings sug-
gest that the question to be asked is “How do children and
adolescents decide to die?” instead of “Why do children
and adolescents commit suicide?” Rather than supporting a
linear cause-and-effect relationship model linking problems
399

in family functioning and the origins of suicidal behavior in
children and adolescents, evidence indicates that certain
family deficits may lead to suicidal behavior under certain
conditions or in certain combinations. Wagner determined
that there are three prototypical profiles of suicidal youths
for whom family factors play different roles. Furthermore,
five suppositions, outlined as follows, provide the founda-
tion of these three prototypes.
First, suicidal behavior is frequently viewed as a way of
coping with a state of high, negative emotional arousal.
Second, typically, a stressful event such as a perceived rejec-
tion, major failure, or an argument is the proximal trigger of
this arousal. Third, some youth may have a predisposition to
youthful experience of this state of arousal.
In particular, three conditions may set the stage for the vulner-
ability to the emotional arousal that precedes suicidal behav-
ior, including (a) severe psychopathology, which often has a
biological basis (e.g., major depression and bipolar disorder);
(b) a history of severe maltreatment, including physical or
sexual abuse or a traumatic attachment history (unstable or
neglectful care); or (c) living in chronically stressful circum-
stances, including chronic communication impasses in the
family. (Wagner, 1997, p. 272)
Fourth, suicidal symptoms can serve two coping functions:
(a) as an escape from extreme psychological pain and (b) an
interpersonal function of punishing a family member for caus-
ing pain or to elicit care or sympathy from a family member.
The last supposition is that the parents or other caregivers of
suicidal youths vary in their level of parental functioning.
Supportive parents are relatively competent and have the ca-
pacity for good communication and problem-solving skills.
The aforementioned prototypical profiles of suicidal
youths include a child-driven profile, a reciprocal profile,
and the parent-driven profile (Wagner, 1997). In the child-
driven profile, the suicidal behavior is more likely the child’s
attempt to escape pain rather than to send an interpersonal
message to family members. The child suffers from severe
psychopathology or has been seriously maltreated (not by a
current caregiver) even though the current mother, father, or
other caregiver is relatively competent and supportive. How-
ever, due to the intrapsychic nature of the child’s psychiatric
symptoms, the caregiver or other family members may pro-
vide only limited help for the child to cope better with ad-
versity by exerting a protective influence. Family members
may become frustrated with the suicidal child when nothing
they do seems to help. These children may be more likely to
complete or attempt suicide in a secluded place and may be
less likely to “drop hints” regarding their suicidal inten-
tions, compared with other suicidal youths, because the sui-
cidal behavior is not interpersonally motivated. Also, fam-
ily conflict is no more likely than any other potential stres-
sor to trigger suicidal behavior in these youths.
400 Journal of Counseling & Development
Maples et al.
The second prototypical profile is a reciprocal profile.
The suicidal behavior is likely to result from the combina-
tion of both the child and the parent having preexisting
vulnerabilities that include having undergone psycho-
therapy and a history of multiple family stresses. These
stresses may include separation and loss, abusive experi-
ences, insecure attachments, poor relational skills, and par-
ents who lack the skills and the resources to be supportive
of the child. Families are characterized by reciprocated
hostility and avoidance. The interaction of individual child
vulnerabilities and a dysfunctional family environment
results in the child’s suicidal behavior. Suicidal behaviors
are often triggered by family conflict (e.g., self-destructive
threats and behaviors that are used to control one another
within the family) and may serve as both an interpersonal
communication mechanism and an escape from pain. In
developing a postvention team, it is crucial for team mem-
bers to have some understanding of family influences and
prototypical profiles of suicidal children.
Warning signs of suicide among middle schoolers. Ac-
cording to McKee et al. (1993), there are signs predicting
the potential suicide of students in middle school. The au-
thors cautioned that these signs should be present in combi-
nation, not in isolate, and have occurred over a period of
time. The following list of warning signs that occur over a
period of time are indicative of severe emotional distress
sufficient to lead to a suicide attempt. The warning signs
include, but may not be limited to,
• Feelings of low self-esteem, poor self-concept
• Feelings of helplessness or hopelessness
• Feelings of shame, humiliation, embarrassment
• Feelings of listlessness, tension, irritability
• Expression of self-destructive thoughts
• Overt sadness or depression
• Acting-out behaviors that may mask depression
• Sudden personality changes
• Neglect of personal appearance
• Isolation and social withdrawal
• Reversal in valuation of prized objects
• Difficulty in concentrating, persistent boredom
• Uncharacteristic decline in academic performance
Most adolescents experience some of these problems at some
point. It is, however, crucial that school counselors, admin-
istrators, parents, and other significant adults recognize
changes in behavior, moods, choice of friends, and grades.
Also of critical importance is the duration of the child’s
struggles with these warning signs. Although an impending
suicide attempt may be indicated if an adolescent experi-
ences these struggles for an extended period of time, a car-
ing adult can still offer support and guidance in a child’s life
during a crisis whether or not it is believed that a suicide
attempt is a possible outcome. An important question, then,
■ Fall 2005 ■ Volume 83
Middle School Teen Suicide
is whether liability exists for employees within the school
system and under what circumstances.
What Is the Liability of School
Employees?
The answer to this question depends largely on specific
state liability and immunity statutes as well as the given
circumstances surrounding a suicide. According to Simpson
(1999), courts in at least five states have not held school
employees legally liable for student suicides when they failed
to act to intervene or failed to notify parents of a known
potential for suicide.
In a decision that, on appeal, eventually exonerated
school officials and counselors, a court noted the “total
and irreversible” result when school personnel fail to in-
tervene appropriately when a student threatens suicide.
The court concluded, “School counselors have a duty to
use reasonable means to attempt to prevent a suicide when
they are on notice of a child or adolescent student’s sui-
cidal intent” (Bjorklun, 1996, p. 26). Despite uncontested
testimony, including school district failure to provide coun-
seling and suicide awareness and prevention programs,
courts have ruled in favor of schools and their employees.
School personnel are often granted blanket shielding from
culpability based on state immunity protections. Even in
the absence of such protections, possible misconduct by
employees may not fit the definition of a given court’s
interpretation of liability, for example, the requirement that
the plaintiff prove that an employee’s “deliberate indiffer-
ence” (Bjorklun, 1996, p. 27) actually caused the suicide.
Landmark cases, such as Kelson v. The City of Spring-
field (1965), have helped to define the responsibilities of
schools and their employees when confronted with a sui-
cidal student. School districts have been found liable for
not offering suicide prevention programs, for failing to pro-
vide adequate supervision of a suicidal student, and for fail-
ing to notify parents when their children were suicidal (Wyke
v. Polk County School Board, 1997). The liability issues are
foreseeability and negligence; that is, if a child writes or
talks about suicide, adults (particularly trained adults such
as school psychologists or counselors) should be able to
foresee a potential suicide. It is negligent on the part of
school personnel not to notify parents/guardians when stu-
dents are known to be suicidal and to fail to supervise the
student closely (Poland & McCormick, 1999). Even when a
student denies suicidal intent, if the collaborative team sus-
pects the child to be suicidal, they have an obligation to
notify parents (Eisel v. Board of Education of Montgomery
Count, 1991). Although school district personnel should
intervene whenever a child threatens suicide or manifests
signs of the intent to commit suicide, most courts have rec-
ognized that schools are not equipped to conduct the neces-
sary in-depth counseling and treatment of children. Rather,
Journal of Counseling & Development ■ Fall 2005 ■ Volume 83
the courts hold that school personnel are in a position to
make referrals and have a duty to secure assistance from
others, with parent involvement, when a child is at risk
(Davis & Sandoval, 1991). Regardless of inconsistent de-
cisions from the legal system, it is obvious that school
officials, counselors, and teachers must work together to
more effectively and proactively identify students at risk
of suicide, provide interventions, and, in the worst cases, to
deal more appropriately with the aftermath of teen suicide.
A Brief Glance at Suicide Prevention and
Intervention
Before suggesting strategies or procedures for the aftermath, or
postvention, phase of teen suicides, a brief look at counselors’
and administrators’ resources and roles in suicide prevention
and intervention follows. According to Befrienders International
(2000), there are “over 1,700 suicide and emotional help lines
worldwide and on the net [Internet] to deal with the warning
signs of suicide” (p. 1). Some school districts have become
actively involved in the prevention of teen suicide (West, 1998).
Yet, according to Coder, Nelson, and Aylevard (1991), in a
survey of 543 high school and 205 middle school counselors
in the state of Kansas, “80% of high schools and 75% of middle
schools had no guidelines for a teacher to follow when a
student exhibited suicidal behavior” (p. 360).
There are several models for the prevention of and inter-
vention for teen suicide. Most prevention models emphasize
knowledge of risk factors for suicide; educating teachers to
recognize the warning signs of suicide; and collaboration
among school, community, and family in educating adoles-
cents regarding the risks of suicide (Speaker & Petersen, 2000).
Generally speaking, the literature on prevention encourages
an inclusive approach to educating and identifying those
adolescents who are at risk for suicide (King, 2000; Mazza,
1997; Speaker & Petersen, 2000). Herring (1990) suggested
a viable preventive approach involving counselors and peer
groups for prevention of suicide of middle school chil-
dren. As far back as 1981, Morgan suggested suicide inter-
vention strategies for the school counselor. In 1991, Davis
and Sandoval (as cited in Brock & Sandoval, 1996) sug-
gested a suicide intervention model for school counselors.
Approaches Favored by School
Administrators
Although precise data were not found regarding prevention
strategies used by school districts across the United States,
literature indicates that community-based team approaches
offer higher probabilities for success. Books that have been
widely circulated by professional education organizations
have emphasized the importance of understanding suicide
primarily as a community problem, while stressing the sig-
nificant student contact that teachers enjoy and their result-
401

ing responsibility to be proactive (Vidal, 1989). According
to Simpson (1999), in a summary of successful programs,
the following suicide prevention strategies have worked in a
variety of educational settings:
• School gatekeeper training—in-service training for
school staff on identifying students at risk for sui-
cide and where to refer them for help
• Community gatekeeper training—training similar to
school gatekeeper training but designed for parents,
recreation staff, and other community members
• General suicide education—school-based program
for students geared to help them identify the warn-
ing signs of suicide and to build self-esteem and cop-
ing skills
• Screening programs—programs to identify high-risk
youth for targeted assistance
• Peer support programs—programs to foster peer rela-
tionships, competency development, and social skills
among high-risk youth
• Crisis centers and hotlines—emergency counseling
for those who may be suicidal
• Means restriction—activities designed to restrict stu-
dent access to firearms, drugs, and other common
means of committing suicide. (Simpson, 1999, p. 28)
Aftermath of a Teen Suicide: The Need
for Postvention Considerations
A Brief Review of Relevant Literature
According to statistics from the Children’s Defense Fund
(2002), five children under the age of 20 commit suicide ev-
ery day. These alarming statistics suggest that “as school coun-
selors [and administrators and parents] each of us will most
likely experience the tragedy of a student suicide at some
point in our careers” (Parsons, 1996, p. 77). In writing of the
counselor’s role in the postvention phase of a student suicide,
Parsons (1996, p. 77) has suggested several considerations:
• Consider that there may be one suicide, but there are
many victims
• Deal with guilt and destructive self-doubts
• Assist in the student’s acknowledgment of feelings
• Implement postvention, not denial
• Focus on the student’s response to life
• Clarify that there are both endings and beginnings
Each of these issues is a reason in itself to attend seri-
ously to the aftermath of suicide. For example, consider the
public attention given to the phenomenon of “copycat” sui-
cides (Gould & Shaffer, 1986). According to Dunne-Maxim
and Underwood (1991), there are many debilitating effects
that may result from a student’s suicide. Although Parsons
(1996) recommended that counselors, teachers, and admin-
402 Journal of Counseling & Development
Maples et al.
istrators “move in a decisive, directed and thoughtful way
when confronted by the reality of a student suicide” (p. 77),
we strongly suggest that parents be involved in a postvention
team. Poland (1989) offered specific guidelines that may be
used to develop and train a team to deal with the postvention
phase of a teen suicide. His plan is one suggested by the
American Association of Suicidology (1998, p. 128):
1. Plan in advance of any crisis.
2. Select and train a crisis team.
3. Verify report of suicide from collaboration with the
medical examiner, police, and family of the deceased.
4. Do not dismiss school or encourage funeral atten-
dance during school hours.
5. Do not dedicate a memorial (e.g., yearbook, tree,
bench).
6. Do contribute to a suicide prevention effort on be-
half of the schools or the community.
7. Do contact the family, apprise them of the schools in-
tervention efforts, and assist with funeral arrangements.
8. Do not release information in a large assembly or
over intercom systems. Disseminate information in
informal meetings with individual groups of faculty,
students, and parents. Always be truthful.
9. Follow the suicide victim’s classes throughout the day
to provide opportunity for discussion and counseling.
10. Arrange for counseling rooms in the school building
and provide individual and group counseling.
11. Collaborate with media, law enforcement, and com-
munity agencies.
12. Points to emphasize with media and parents: prevention,
no one thing or person is to blame, help is available.
13. Provide counseling or discussion opportunities for
the faculty.
Carol Watkins (2000) has suggested a comprehensive ap-
proach to prevention, intervention, and postvention related
to youth suicide. Although she recommended involving the
school community (i.e., counselors, teachers, administrators,
and students) in the postvention phase, we believe that a
major resource has been omitted, that of parents—particu-
larly those who are survivors of a child who took his or her
life or, perhaps, a close relative of one. This is the premise that
was the basis for our recommendation of the CAPT (counse-
lors, administrators, parents, and teachers) Team Approach.
The CAPT Team Approach and the
Four-Stage Model
Roberts, Lepkowski, and Davidson (1998) recommended
the development of a team, establishment of procedures,
arrangement of supports, and monitoring of progress when
dealing with the aftermath of teen suicide. Roberts et al.
have recommended that the team be organized to represent
a cross section of the community. However, in our approach
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Middle School Teen Suicide
we specify that the members of a cross-sectional team be
limited to counselors, administrators, parents, and teachers
who have been directly involved with a teen suicide and,
perhaps, accepting friends and fellow students as participants
when appropriate. Roberts et al. called their model the T.E.A.M.
Program, outlined as follows:
T: Developing a Team
1. Who will make up the members of the team?
2. Who will be the team leader?
3. How will individuals’ differing strengths be chan-
neled into their respective assignments?
4. Are all the tasks assigned and covered (e.g., phone
operator, family and media liaison, group leader)?
5. Is the postvention plan written and approved?
6. When will the in-service meetings be provided, and
what will they cover?
E: Establishing Procedures
1. How will we notify all staff members in the event of a
suicide?
2. How and when will we announce the death to the
students?
3. Which team member will deal with the news media?
4. What information do we want to release?
5. What does the family want?
6. What does the school district allow?
7. How will the memorial activities be organized and
communicated?
A: Arranging Supports
1. How will support groups be run? (e.g., Who will lead?
How long will the group meetings last? Who will
participate?)
2. When will debriefing meetings be held, and who will
lead them?
3. What team member will be the liaison with the family?
M: Monitoring Progress
1. How will we monitor those who are at risk of suicide?
2. What long-term community support for those at risk
should be provided?
3. How will the school remain prepared for a student
suicide?
It should be noted that the T.E.A.M. Program developed by
Roberts et al. (1998) and modified by us as the CAPT Team
Approach could be adapted to include the prevention and inter-
vention phases of dealing with teen suicides. We recommend
that these issues be resolved for each school before the school is
faced with a crisis. Attempting to assemble a CAPT team in the
chaotic aftermath of a suicide is neither prudent nor realistic.
Training the CAPT Team With a Four-Stage Model
of Postvention
The success of the CAPT team members is dependent, in
part, on their knowledge of and skills related to the
Journal of Counseling & Development ■ Fall 2005 ■ Volume 83
postvention process. Teaching the four-stage model, de-
veloped in part from the work of Brammer, Abrego, and
Shostrom (1993), may enhance their expertise in this area.
Although the stages are not necessarily sequential, knowl-
edge of each stage may help remind the CAPT team mem-
bers that different responses may be appropriate for differ-
ent students who are at various stages of the postvention
process. It is also vital to remember that stages are not time
limited (i.e., the duration of each stage varies).
Stage 1: Shock and disorganization. There is often an ini-
tial numbness and denial when an individual first hears the
news of a suicide. Reactions such as “There must be some
mistake!” or “No, it’s not possible, he/she of all people would
never do such a thing!” are common. An effective way for the
CAPT team members to approach this first stage, regardless of
theoretical orientation, is to draw on the core conditions
(Rogers, 1961) by being supportive, nonjudgmental, and car-
ing and to actively listen to concerns. The shock to a student
is often accompanied by a feeling of disorganization, which
can interfere with normal daily functions (e.g., eating and
sleeping). In this situation, both medical and behavioral
strategies are helpful. In the case described at the beginning
of the article, several students were referred to the nurse or
their family doctor, who then prescribed sleeping aids. More-
over, the counselor taught the students relaxation strategies,
using visual imagery and progressive muscular relaxation,
to behaviorally help anxious students focus on relaxing at
scheduled bedtimes and at mealtimes.
Stage 2: Expressions of anguish and remorse. The deep
pain over the loss of a student through suicide, which may
include guilt and regret, is common: “Oh, why didn’t I see
the signs? Why didn’t I pick up on his or her feelings?” This
stage is sometimes called the “stage of increased vulnerabil-
ity” because feelings are close to the surface and easily trig-
gered by numerous stimuli. When working with a person
training in the CAPT Team Approach, the trainer must rec-
ognize that the trainee, who may have had a close personal
relationship to the deceased, may still be carrying unresolved
feelings of guilt or self-blame. Reflecting on interactions
with the deceased prior to the suicide dredges up feelings of
“if only I had reacted differently.” CAPT team members may
be taught, at this stage, to help students develop cognitive-
behavioral strategies for coping. One example of a cogni-
tive-behavioral strategy is “thought stoppage,” where the
guilt-ridden person commands himself or herself to “stop
reliving the past.” A substitute thought can be developed
and practiced, such as a “mental videotape” of a more posi-
tive interaction between the individual and the deceased.
In the case study for this article, some of the students who
passed by the deceased student’s locker experienced an
outburst of emotion in the early stages of the aftermath;
developing a mental videotape to minimize the sudden
flood of emotion could assist the students in resuming a
more normal daily routine.
403

Stage 3: Exploring the meaning of the loss. This stage
usually does not set in until after the initial heightened level
of activity surrounding the suicide has subsided. Thus, on
the 1st day after the funeral, a large number of students might
return to daily routines, but internally, they may have recur-
ring moments of reflection on the loss and its meaning for
their lives. This stage is characterized by a questioning pro-
cess: “Why am I in school?” “What is the meaning of life,
anyway?” “Who gives a damn about math and language arts
when ____ is dead?” It is common for well-intentioned per-
sons to want to “cheer up” the mourning person by taking
his or her mind off the loss saying, “Hey, let’s go see a movie!”
CAPT team members can be educated about the value of
assisting the student, at this stage, with his or her existential
search. Setting up ongoing, scheduled counseling groups
where serious, heart-to-heart talks can occur is one such inter-
vention described in the earlier case study. (These counsel-
ing groups can also provide realistic feedback opportunities
to teens who construct unrealistic and imaginary audiences,
as described earlier in this article.) Bibliotherapy (in con-
junction with the school librarian) and journal writing (shared
with trusted members within the counseling group) can be
useful at this stage. Moreover, the CAPT team may wish to
include or refer to religious and/or spiritual guidance, where
appropriate. During this intense period of introspection, it is
important to educate both the CAPT team members and the
students about the differences in seriousness, sadness, som-
berness, and depression; it is possible to dwell so deeply on
the existential search that one moves into a depressive epi-
sode that becomes counterproductive.
Stage 4: Emergence toward new goals. A successful reso-
lution of the existential search described in Stage 3 can
yield increased motivation and enthusiasm to pursue newly
established goals. For example, fellow athletes may have
decided to dedicate the remainder of the season to the
memory of the deceased. Some friends, having come through
the first three stages together, may vow to stay lifelong
friends and always share their troubles instead of keeping
them inside. More long-term goals, such as family, school,
or career achievement, are also commonly expressed during
this stage. CAPT team members can be trained to help stu-
dents embrace these goals, identify realistic strategies to
help achieve them, and develop timelines and periodic check-
points to reassess these goals over time. The success of the
CAPT team can be enhanced by providing members with
the knowledge and skills they will need to understand and
deal with the four stages of postvention just described: (a)
shock and disorganization, (b) expressions of anguish and
remorse, (c) exploring the meaning of the loss, and (d) emer-
gence toward new goals.
Implications for Counselors
Although no counselor wants to be faced with the suicide of
a student, planning for such an event can alleviate some of
404 Journal of Counseling & Development
Maples et al.
the stress that results if and when a suicide occurs. Preven-
tion of suicide is ideal, but when one occurs, having a plan
of action for notifying faculty and staff, the students, and
community support personnel is essential. With the CAPT
Team Approach in place, the counselor is not lost and over-
whelmed about what to do: The decisions have already been
made. Postvention support is in place and all those involved
know their role. The CAPT Team Approach allows counse-
lors and administrators to rely on decisions made while the
full body of resources is known and there is time to explore
the best options for a worst-case scenario.
Summary
This article began with a sobering and poignant first-person
account written by a 1st-year middle school counselor de-
scribing her attempts to cope in the aftermath of a suicide by
a student in her school. Next, we presented a brief review of
the literature dealing with possible contributing factors to
suicide that are unique to teens, with particular emphasis on
family influences. Some common symptoms of presuicidal
youth were presented. A discussion of legal issues ensued,
with an examination of landmark legal cases to help clarify
the extent of liability for school employees related to their
work with suicidal adolescents. A brief glance at suicide
prevention and intervention issues preceded a more exten-
sive discussion on postvention procedures that can be
adapted by school teams. We proposed specific guidelines
for postvention opportunities and programs, with an em-
phasis on the CAPT team. Finally, we suggested a training
process to familiarize the CAPT team with a four-stage model
of postvention process, from the initial shock and disorga-
nization phase to the final emergence toward new goals stage.
(Also, see the Appendix for additional resource information
on suicide.)
We were prompted to write this article because, in some
way, each of us was affected by this loss of a child’s life to
suicide. We were left with the helplessness (and, to some, hope-
lessness) of having only one response left, that of
postvention—what do we do now? It is our collective hope
that with the implementation of an effective postvention team
effort, lives will not only be preserved but also maximized.
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APPENDIX
Resources for Information on Suicide
Internet Sources
American Association of Suicidology: http://www.suicidology.org
or publisher newsletters: “Surviving Suicide” and SPAN (Sui-
cide Prevention Advocacy Network)
American Foundation for Suicide Prevention: http://www.afsp.org/
Survivors of Loved Ones’ Suicides (SOLOS), perhaps the most
effective resource for planning programs directed at
postvention: http://www.1000deaths.com/lists.html
Books (for counselors, TEAM members, and those
contemplating suicide)
Choosing to Live: How to Defeat Suicide Through Cognitive Therapy,
Thomas E. Ellis, PsyD, and Corey F. Newman, PhD (New Har-
binger Publications, 1996, $12.95, ISBN 1-5722-056-3)
Out of the Nightmare: Recovery from Depression and Suicidal Pain,
David L. Conroy, PhD (New Liberty Press, 1991, $12.95, ISBN
1-879204-00-2)
Suicide: The Forever Decision, Paul G. Quinett, PhD (Contenium,
1989, $8.95, ISBN 0-8264-0391-3)
AAS (American Association of Suicidology) School Suicide
Postvention Guidelines (1999), suggestions for dealing with
the aftermath of suicide in the schools.
Healing After Suicide Conference (Senator Harry Reid—sponsor
of Resolution 84—to recognize suicide as a national health
problem). Contact Senator Harry Reid: http://reid.senate.gov/
405