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Quaatiy Reduction on larger quantities Orders can be placed with our representatives of with The Islamic Review, The Shah Jehan Mosque, Wokin The Islamic. Review, Azeee Mavail, Brandreth Road, The Living Thoughts of the PROPHET MUHAMMAD Presented by MUHAMMAD ALI, MA, LL Obtainble fram ‘The Woking Muslim Mission and Literary Trust Shah Jehan Mosque Woking, Surrey England Crown five. U2 pages Not pice 5 the holy qur'an MINIATURE ond MEDALLION Siero or frase ‘The picture on the cover is an illustration of the Turkish ‘luminated wetings, known as Mabys, hung beoween the ewo minares of the Mosque of Sultan Ahmed a Istanbul ‘An arile describing a Maya appears elsewhere ia this issue of The Inlemic Review. The Contributors W. B, BashyrPckard, B.A.(Cantab,), an English Muslim, is President of the Muslim Society in Great Britain, London. He is also the auor of a phansasy, Adventures of Alcesim (London, 1936. De. H, Marois, PhD., a German Muslim, and. foemerly President of the German Muslim Society, is at present living in Switzerland. He fed his countey asa result of Nazi persecutions Muhammad Hamovds Bensi, an Algerian Muslim, is an educations. hore, Pakisan. delivered by EXDORT-MANUFACTURING-IMPORT Asst Holman, Bobingendoelfurenberg Between Ourselves ‘The Cover Muhammad ‘Abdul Bagi, M.A, is 4 lecturer ia. amie Scudies ar Madrasahe‘aliya a¢ Daces, Pakisan, Al-Hajj “Abdel Karim Herbert is an English Muslim, P. H. Rofé, an English Muslim, has travelled widely in the ‘Middle Ease and Noceh Afcca, He is at present living in Indonesia, ALHLjj Necati Doganbey, a Turkish, Muslim, is a meschane a Istanbul, Turkey Profesor Muhammad ‘Abdul Rahman Khan, ARSC, BSc, President, Hyderabad Academy, was sometime Principal and Professor of Physics at ‘Osmania University College, Hyderabad Deccan, Tod H. BH. Mabmocd, an’ Egyptian Muslim, holds the Pos Graduate Academie Diploma in the History of Art, the University of London, Ansbaduzzaman, B.A., a young Pakistani, is a Diplomé de Ecole des havtes Erades politiques, the Universiy of Paris Madame Mary Fayed, aa Englishwomaa, is living in Eeypt Dr. S.A. Khu, Universey of London, PhD, is a lecuter in Arbie in the OCTOBER 1956DAWAKANA KARACHI PAKISTAN THE ISLAMIC REVIEW OCTOBER 1950 CONTENTS Between Ourselves 7 Editorial 3 The Causes of War and Religion 3 By the Light of the Qur'an and the Hadith 4 by W. B. Bashyr-Pickard, B.A(Cantab,) Two Friends, one Muslim, the other Christian, discuss Problems facing their World 5 by Dr. Hamid Marcus, PhD. Islam : A Pact between God and His Creatures - 8 by Muhammad Hamouda Bensai Theories of State and Problems of Sociology as Expounded by an Indian ‘Muslim Divine of the Eighteenth Century 9 ‘by Muhammad “Abdul Baqi, M.A. Pilgrimage to Mecea 4 by Al-Hajj ‘Abdel Karim Herbert Indonesia Merdeka 8 by P. H, Rofé Mahya 2 by Necati Doganbey “ Rouse Thyself from Sleep, from Deep, Deep Steep ” 2B by Muhammad ‘Abdul Rahman Khan, Zamir ‘The Great Mosque of Quyrawan Tunisia 4 by H.E. H. Mahmoud ‘The Challeage to the Mustim Worid 28 by Arshaduzzaman ‘The Evolution of Libraries in Egypt 29 by Mary Fayed ‘The Authenticity of Nahj Al-Balagha . 31 by S.A. Khulusi, Ph.D. ‘The Problems of Pakistan 36 by Mr. Zahid Husain A Glance at the World of Istam 39 Egypt 39 England : 40 Iraq 2 Pakistan a 42 Turkey 2 Book Reviews ‘The Story of Zarak Khan, by A. J. Bevan Modern ‘Arabic Poetry. by Arthur J. Arberry Islamic Society and the West, by H.A.R. Gibb B The Coinage of the Umayyads of Spain, by George C. Miles 45 What Our Readers Say 46 Dr. ‘Isa A. Samad-—England 46 Bashir Ahmad Paniagua—U.S.A. 46 Mahmoud N. Anwar—Engiand 46 Z. A. Lucretius —India 41 Dr. M. P. Drahaman—Ceylon 41 G. Beltikhine—France 48 Cover IV A List of Our Agents ‘All correspondence regarding advertirements 10 be addressed 10S. A. Haidar, Esq, Hind Advertising Service, 107, Tollington Way, London, NJ (Tel. Archway 2411) THE ISLAMIC REVIEWTHE ISLAMIC REVIEW ‘THE SIAM JENAN MOSQUE WOKING ~ SURREY ENGLAND “Phone: WORING 679 Telegrams & Cables “MOSQUE, WOKING the Apostle of God and the Last of the Prophets “There will be no Prophet after me.” =THE HOLY QUAN 33:40 =TUB PROPHET. MULLAMMAD VOL. XXXVI 1, No. 10 OCTOBER 1950 CE. ZU ‘L-HIJA 1369 AH. MUHARRAM 1370 AH. RELIGION AND THE CAUSES OF WAR Can Religion ‘The localised Korean conic bas once again focussed the anion of the mond on the engrossing problem of war and the causes that lead to ite The magnitude of the problem hay ascumed sch propotions that i i Being borne in upon us that we should explore all possibilities to solve it ‘Can religion help os im thi direction ? ‘As a rule the sip of seigion has not been sought, mainly because religion inthe world of to-day fo discredited ic has come Co be regarded Ss synonymous with doctines of act virtues, paaly, excusivenes find intolerance towards others. With this conception of ‘cision about swe could noe expect our leaders, statesmen and paliicians fo think much Of ie'in showiag us the tight road. Things of course did) not become Say. the aster when during and before the Petiod preceding the last, world wars we came 20 glorify a Kind of civilization that applied isl! ‘Esiduously and wholly co iodustey and miteialisic organization of te fconomic, politcal and social life In this environment or mien, the Individual eased to have a spiritual catty of value. This he i now Appreciated and judged by hie contnbution fo the pleasuzes and comforts of this life, This macecialiie exaltation of the individual has ‘spiced las which are the guiding force of the construction of materials faltaze and. which have. resolted. ig a perverted egoism whose maa function ie to exploit she poor inthe faeces of the neh. This maregalie- Ue exaltation of he indivigeal, demaded of his spctual Background, has fer all religious life mone side, and even tho who profess %0 be religions have come to the conclusion th religion can not be wsefal OF serve 2" a aouree of inspiration im oar worldly airs Materialistic exaltation of the individual has become intolerable. Thur the unbearable sce of affairs alter the fast war hat made us wonder if we should. fot try to bring about a. cansformaton in out Incividual, naonal and focertational culook. ‘The neal for this change fs pressing, especially asa rule of rapid discoveries of science and, what is Inore, bya humanity thar more’ and more being dominate ‘by ie everinceasing dees and inordinate demands. Faris it nota Tact that shove ous ar are eta Badward fave Been nod Evraed and cultured ae every day becoming prey 10 the fof maceral cokure, are ‘becoming. more and more inhumane, aad Involersa.and ate taking pride in the non recognition of their duties to other? “The present chios, civil ate the ‘sions sod she exploration af one sation by another ha not by the Backward races, but by the socalled elvilized a every individual, through his intense desire to be secure and to be safe, Sige created a society, an author, a sore of religion, = nationaham ‘which be cakes refuge and taker Gornore. Ie iy dowsing opon us, tht Selishacss, ‘feat, hatred, class disincion, che ‘fision of an, sgsinet ‘maa, ate due to the withdrawal of those spiical fores Upon which the dignicy of man and the dignity of is soul are based. Tet Becoming ‘more and more cvident thatthe message of fraternity inherent ia religion Should be restated and reathrmed wich a vigour and fervour greater and tore inmense than ever before. Iris evident that only such a call can tele hep oman and cancer anya ie Spirtual ascension and cam. aceclerate a progressive speitualistuon of the materialistic iillsaion ‘These views are necesay to thiow nto the Timbo the sophism of racism and cass distinction Wealism has proved incapable of controlling the egoism of man. Tessbauld ot be forgotten thae mere teal, humanism and other philosophies which ro. some people seemed 10 he sueieat some ‘ime ago to withstand the feverish race for the enjorment of material com: for" ace revealing themselves more and more everr day incapable of reacting against the tempations born of forces se Tce by the eonsuctt of nature by man and the powerful ambitions which result sherelvom fe i becoming more and more evident that an iesliom not having for Jts Source of inspitstion the transcendenes of God. ix nothing bet 20 Inmpovershed ideal whose force languishes and, dimenishes in proportion ro the increase of temptations and over‘exited desires Of man Experience as show that all ideal excepting. the idea of @ sranscentient God have fled to keep mankind on the right path, The fing wach tan make uy tre above ourselves and maker ws charitable [5.2 baliel ia the transcendental God. All iclistie subarores have fled 10 engender the fecling of chanity for one anocher ‘Thus the problem of the world now ies ia ic release from the ‘mental, moral sad spiritual leprosy that has scruck it This is a con lasion to which almost all aialeen chinkers have also come, It is bere tne religion ean come dato Kowa, A brief survey of the causes of war and the role of Islam in of simplification we can say chai war sakes thee forms ‘one individual and another, because their minds refase fo extend the horizon of thir outleck to" sve up. ha and ideas ‘which donot apprece the Timitaions and seniments Of ater fellow Beings (2) War bermcen social asses which shut themsctves up against cach other and tehuse to understand each other and also refuse each ther mutual eoneesions: and, (3), Wars berween ations that revolt apuinst cach other and do not understand. the, value, Of ecprocty. and the advantage ‘of sn nellgent cooperation mith each other ‘As to number one, Islam isthe only celigion which makes it com. pulsry foo" is followets to Bcliete in al the prophets of God of all Flgions and all acy Aczordingly Muslims accepe Jesus, Krsna, te, fs the propets of God This widens the sympathice of « Masia and tkes fin charitable to all npacMsims. Im’ real aim in this ft tablish fcedam of conscience Its ene od politic i guided. by a Str ofthe Holy, Quran mhich reals" Let there be no compulsion it imuvers feligious™ (2.298) The Ourlin even. goer furtser than that I wants Masims t0 scree their lives not only 9 sve their mosses from soliton at the hands of the enemy but alo the religious Paces of warship, eg, churches, sysapogues,_ of other peoples as well (if. 22:40), This Islam is a religion that can help "ieemendously %0 releae the highese and noblest in-man to withrand unrighteousness 490 ‘With regard «© oumbee evo, Islam adopss methods shat attempt to exablish harmonious relations between the tich and the poor and Soo a fa calico of enh aon th memes of the Moslim community. ‘This is done cough the agency of the obligato insezution of Zaker atx on aap mer With regard to. number shres, slam has found that the «wo aceaest obstacles in the way of undertanding the value Of relproiy Ste eo be found in theories that egal the race or thy cass Islam has 4 Symem of rts own to deal with both theae which eing-as natural at ther intinets of man, should be conto, if wars ate Yo be avoidedBy the Light of the Qur'an and the Hadith By W.°B. BASHYR-PICKARD, B.A(Cantab,) TRUTH Mam a aoe fee le ‘Then remember the Quranic verses a SB ang 35:55 Zhe epi: Mame ws defi a oe fe sin ay ai Nl Scar hoa Spies, tear malt ake meee, See Man The det of» type tion and practice. Thus We coe es GB at " And they were not enjoined anything excepe that they should serve God, being sincere © Him in obedience, upright, and chat they should Keep up prayer sad pay the poor-rate ; and that is che right religion ” (98:5) ; and, “Surely We have revealed to thee (Muhammad) the Book with the truth, Therefore, serve God, being sincere 10 Him in obedience. Now, surely, sineere obedience is due #0 God alone (39:2 and 3); and, se He wi “Surely the hypocrites try r0 deceive God ; but He wil requite their deceit to them. And when they stand up for prayer, hey stand up sluggishly, They do ie only to be seen Of men, “They remember God bue lite” (4 142), 1 find noe sly dealing, trimming one's sails co every wind that blows or sharp practice eo be any part whatsoever of crue Islam. Wieness the hadith, chus "He is a hypocrite who, when he speaketh, speaketh tuncruth ; who, making ® promise, breaketh it; and who, when trust is reposed in him, failedh in his erst” (Saying cof Mohammad) ; and, "The Faithfal (jc, Muslims) are those who peeform their trust, fail noe in their word, and keep cheit pledge” (Saying of Muharamad). "The reader is requested t0 note the prominence given co truth and sincerity both in word and in action in the following hadith relative to. paradise Guard yourselves from six things, and 1 am your security for Paradise When you speak, speak the ‘rth; perform when you promise; discharge your trust; be chaste in thought and action ; and withhold your hand from striking and from taking that which is unlawful and bad” (Saying of Muhammad), ‘A Muslim must guard against the danger of fanaticism, Now, if we have Truth, and if we have Sincerity, there is sgl «dager fore sand that dangers Fauci — a langer that, if ar unawares we let it overcome us, opens at once the gate 0 overthrow all our benefits, Blessings, pity and good works by the admission. of ‘violence, intlerance, rebellion, oppositions and assassinations, Shall the blessed path co God be dlyed with the blood of persecutions and made riotous with the bbawtings of hatred? God forbid! (Consider rather the words of the Prophet Muhammad : “Deal gently with the people and be not harsh ; cheer them and condemn not. And Yet shall meet many people of the Book who will ask you" what is the key co Neaven Reply co them, "'T9 texfy to the teuth of Gotl and to do goad work” (Saying of Muhammad) ‘And now in conclusion, if we follow the Prophet's injune- tions, we shall not limit our search for wisdom and knowledge ‘We shall search out Truth diligently in all directions and see upoe He wi oy wherever fond.” Hence we may well take pleasure in the following verse from the Apocrypha " Srive for the truth unto death, and the Lord shall fighe for thee” (Eceesasticus, 4 28), Here, let it be noted, we are not enjoined 10 " ded! death” on behalf of Truth, but rather to strive for Truth until our own death, ie, to strive for Truth as long as we shal live, or strive for Truth, though we thereby face death or martyrdom, THE ISLAMIC REVIEWTWO FRIENDS, ONE MUSLIM, THE OTHER CHRISTIAN, DISCUSS THE PROBLEMS FACING THEIR WORLD By Dr. HAMID MARCUS, PhD. | “Islam is indeed the religion of the thinking human being and, therefore, the religion which humanity especially needs in its present difficulties. It hates blind thoughtlessness. It presupposes a refined use of common sense ‘and a deeper insight info things. On the other hand, by the study of Islam our thoughts gain an extraordinary independence and power, for the Prophet docs not lay down a rule with only one interpretation, as for example. ‘Marriages are inseparable’ or ‘ You shall never take up arms’, but he shows us the law with its subtle individual differences according to which we must regulate our daily life as each individual case demands and according (0 which we can also decide what is right and what is wrong. Islam does not desire serfs, but free men, men of science, aristocrats, who are able to decide for themselves” Fossilization and Islam, The Gueit: "Tam glad you wete able to come today, Lae time we discisied she problems of ‘our world, especialy that Of power, whichis assuming serious proportions in our times Ta facr, one could sally say hac Iris the problem ofthe day. ‘Anyway, 1 was much intrested o learn the viewpoint of sam muse confess cat the idel of the religious policlan in con: teat tothe pary politician seems to be the only way which can Assure us he right ise of power. ‘We will have tO prune our ideas inthe ‘mater of selection of our rules if we want peace in the wodld. The institution of party-poiiian wil have (0 be replaced by the religious politician, which Muhammad ia, is petson ithe first place abd his four Calis embody in thet Detsons. Bue as far'as I can sce there are other centres of crisis {i Europe over and above those mentioned; they exist with gar saber of pec gin of are There for instance, the completly antiquated positon of marriage. in Europe, there is alto mich that 1s quite out of date in. public opinion, ia racial prcfies, in croinal fw snd in education, ‘These, however, ate all spheres which were, to.a great extent under the influence of the Church and which a aot yet com pletely fre from that influence. i therefore, ak smell: Is i ot ina way'a tagedy ofall religions that their great teachers proclaim “laws which ar fine use the woikls progress tmmensely; bue disiag the centuries following their dex the conditions ‘change’ so. completly. that the sume laws, which formerly helped humanity fo advance, sow hinder and cripple progtes ? "Toes laws then lead to the fossliing of culture Sich fossiloed laws wil nuence Europe cos reat extent; they hinder ies progress by the ballast of » millenatum and do so it faual contrast 10 the rapid development of lifes condsion. "You OCTOBER 1950 will see by my confessiosi tha we Europeans do nor as yet lack the courage of self-criticism. Ts ie not quite reasonable that sch 4 severe crisis should make us critical of ourselves? I, however, ask myself now: “Does Islam stand more solidly in this respect ??” ‘The place of Freedom of Opinion in Islam, ‘The Muslim: “I can assure you, my friend, Islam, the youngest and last of the great world religions, will never become fone, for the Prophet Muhammad ad aleady choughe of such 2 change and had taken’a very decided step to prevent it, ‘which will surprise you. One of his most beauciful sayings shows hhow he proceeded with regard to this question by observing. thae: “The wrangle of opinions is the grace of God, for is it not this difference of opinion which prevents any fosilization, any formation of unchangeable dogmas, and opens out a way for progress? We lean to use our common sease in these diflerences of opinion, and so new aspects of the eruth come 0 light. Differences of opinions make cleat whac is right and unassailable among our spiricual possessions, and what is assailable and fragile, ‘This is che sedson why progress lives by the differences of opinions. In the former seligions, however, fone opinion only is rolerated, which hardens into. dogmatic fossilizaion, and diflerences of opinion are absolutely forbidden, Hercin lies’ che fundamental diflerence between the Prophet of the scientific age, Muhammad, and the former religious systems T have characterized with pleasure the Prophet as the knight ‘among the messengers of God. This view is confirmed again by the above, The Prophet Muhammad is also a knight of the spicie, he does nor fear the spiritual fight, and he does not need to tremble for its teushs ; for they can only establish themselves more securely by chis wrestling,“You can see, incidentally, from the words of the Prophet quoted already, what is equal to a revolution ia religious lif. How many results, fraught wieh blessings, can radiate from a single quotation ?”"Does nor the sentence about differences of apnions ap scion freedom of opinion, and isnot freedom ‘ef opinion the same thing as tolerance ? It's dhe same tolerance which speaks to us in the following words of the Quin: "In teligion lee there be ao compulsion Does aot tolerance, on the fther hand, mean peace aod friendship, so that one can dwell ‘comfortably and at ease in the cent of Tslam?- And is noc the face thae everyone may freely express the opinion of the heat, a-democratc feature of Islam — again a modern characteristic ? Islam, the religion of eternal self-renewal. But let us get t0 the main thing. The Prophet proclaims emphatically that each century will produce a reformer, who will hharmonize the eternal truths of the Divine Revelation with the conditions existing in his time. He will lead mankind back 0 pure morality, if they have deparced from i, and he will show frow the new questions and problems, which arise a al times, can be solved according to the eternal word of God for itis for the etemal truth which is oustripped in time by the think: ing human, bun aly tht ‘cad of terpretne and rejudice, which gradually accumulates in every seligion, “To Femove these the Prophet proclaims an indefinite series of fucure feformets. Praise and glory be to Muhammad, who Tooked 30 fir shead. For if we speak of world-eligion’ we think, a5 rule, only of its spatial expanse across the whole length and breadth of the globe, not of the changing times and their needs, Islam, a dhe eligion of etcinal selfrenewal, is noe only valid for all space bur for all cine * Discussing progress in Islam we must not forget that Islam already carries within itself the conception of development which Europe only discovered fully a thousand years later, and which is almose identical with che idea of progress. Development is fn inner progress, che thoughe of development is, however, con tained in the words of the Qur'én, thar the human being already prepares by its own deeds its paradise and hell in this life. For whatever the lauman being does, arises out of that which it pproduces from its instince and the gifts with which narure has provided ir and the manner in which hese are developed. This again is an example of how Islam leads us on the ‘right way’, the middle course which is equally distince from the extremes ‘An extreme is exemplified in the unbridled state of sensuality and spiritual drift which we find among the so-called civilized nations, and also among che decadent populace of the cities of Europe, which cannot deny itself any pleasure, Christianity also demands an excceme, which, on the contrary secks ro exterminate Inuman nature and” its sensual passions. Islam stands in the ‘middle. Ir does nor permit the natural passions co grow rankly, ‘nor does it allow them «o wither away. Islam bids us to develop ‘oar passions and gifts and, at the same time, to curb them and keep them in check, so chat they may be beneficial co ourselves and to others. In. the curbed selfexpansion of our nature and in the blessings which result therefrom for us personally lies the true selfcomplacency, of which Islam approves. This self complacency, however, does not stand in contrast to, but is in hharmony with, charity, for our completely developed and. yet controlled gifts are also of use to others. But the solution which Islam offers by demanding chat we must think of ourselves and at the same time of others, and thar we must develop oar ppussions and at the same time curb chem, is not so simple as the thesis “one must think only of oneself", and the counter thesis ‘one muse think only of other peogle’.” How neatly, how. ever, does ic with chis highly ineelleccual conéemplation approach to the demands of real life? For have we not co consider our 6 ‘own interests, and the interests of others, in all conditions of life, and are not strong and yer curbed passions necessary every- where? Think of the connection between human beings which ‘occuss to us most readily, the mattiage-tie. The foundation of every good marriage is chis, char both parties show the greatest love 10 each other and yer keep a constune self-restraine towards each other. This is the only way in which a harmonious aad, for the husband as well as the wife, equally happy companion: ship in life is possible The Guess: “In this way we arrive automatically at the ‘most important problems which form a part of the European ctisis. OF these the problem of marriage is the most pressing, You know that Christianiey really does mot even recognize marriage, but demands of the human being complete abstemious- ress and monastic renunciation.” The Muslim : * Surely, surely. Buc demands which are t00 high often cause the contrary of what is intended, for they dis- courage the human being, who then, in his despondency, allows himself to drift. Remember, in chis connection, ehae the ascetics especially are open to the greacese temptations, and many of them sin secretly. That, however, is not the desire of the Prophet, for complete asceticism is to him an ideal which lies far away and secluded from the world. He on his part considers that the fhuman being needs love, and nor too little of it, as otherwise its soul withers away or suerenders secretly t0 vices; but also ‘not roo much of it, for the soul becomes doll and at the same time sensual through an excess of love. For this teason the Prophet Muhammad admits at the outset that mactiage is the true cenere between the too little and too much, which he is secking everywhere, bectuse it is the best for humanity on this earth, ‘The Christian : " Macriage has in the end also found recog- nition from Christianity, but with an uaelentingly stern, nay, an ‘extreme feacute, which takes the form of a lifelong indissoluble tying-down from which there is no excape. By this ideal stemn- ‘ness it becomes again, like asceticism, the source of immorality, for even if the feeling of love is quite extinct, it yet compels the husband and wife co continue a union which has become ‘unnatural, and che Christian, that is to say, the European human being, is ied astray and looks elsewhere for compensation for all the love that has been refused to him in married life, Here you hhave again a centre of a criss, which we call in Europe a marriage oor sexual crisis” Muhammad and the marriage question. ‘The Muslim : “ The Prophet Muhammad also seers a middle course on the marriage question, a course which leads close 10 life instead of being, as it were, suspended above humanity like a brazen sign — a relentless warning. The Prophet shows the ‘way in which all possible eventualities of the daily life are taken into consideration, Human beings should really be able 10 act according 10 his teachings, and need not talk in one way while they act in another. For this reason che Propher tries first 10 cure an unhappy marriage. How? As a mature person — a legislator should nor be an enthusiastic youth — he knows that even a marriage can be heavily burdened by the imperfections of those by whom it is contracted. More than that, he pictures to himself chat the human being inclines to see among his possessions only thar which is not as he would like it to be. ‘Therefore, husband and wife oftea only discover each other's faults, and che resule is an interminable dispute, or the dis appointed husband or wife drops the objects of his or hee former love altogether and looks for another person, more likely 10 come up co his or her expectations. He or she will, however, never find such a person, seeing thar such a persoa does not THE ISLAMIC REVIEWexist. All beings have shie good and bad points ; and we blindly tae the good one, which enrich our life as a-matter of eos, tnd only see the Flt, The Prophet opens our eyes to the revere view of the world with the following words: Tf you do fot lke a certain characteristic of your wife, then look Instead fn another charactertie you lke”. Forge what is wanting by Tookiag to the excelene point. By thi single iatuction, 1 think,‘ great many vabappy marriages cin be cured, Europe Soul, derefore, give heed to these words also with sepicd to iain, ci For imo alos this dvi, com Sh look at its bright side and thereby forget the dark side. It is worth our while to follow the words ofthe Prope, for thereby wre grin paradise oq earth" Divorce and Polygamy. ‘The Christian: * But what will happen if the marriage is so unhappy chat there is no remedy ? “The Maslin: "The Propet Muhammad, ia such a cas, orders at first a short separation, and if this step does not bring hhosband and wife back to each other, he docs ot forbid & divorce. What does the Prophet, however, say about the divorce? Verily, of all permiced things divorce’ i the most detestable one” Where can one find such a beautifully balanced sentence in any of the osher religions ? Christianity decrees either "yes" or "no" and with regard to divorce "no Christianity ‘vouch Safes no limited permission, nor does it rake exceptions ito con Sideration, Muhammad is the first prophet who. docs. cake exceptions into consileration, and thereby comes into close con tact with life. One can really live, #f one acts according fo these ‘words of the Qurén, for, to be sure, husband and wife should Tive together as long’as Is possible” Matrimony is holy «o the Muslim also, and he avoids a divorce as far as possible, Yet, at the same time, if it mast come 10 a divorce, thea it is one of the exereme eases in which permission is granted. Is_this regulation noe well hough out wise and valid for all times? {The Ghrsin; “What abou polygamy, whichis permied co Maslims 7" ‘The Muslim : "I had expected that question, for there is nothing about which Eusope has a more erroneous idea than polygamy. One considers thar polygamy is the rule, bue i face teis only an exception. ‘The rule is the single marriage, that i, {0 say, co have only one wife. Do you know at all how Islam cme to countenance polygamy ? Te was caused by an exceptional State of war. The watriors killed in the wats lete widows, who, ‘wich thei children, would have been aloae and withoue means Of existence, if the Propher had not recommended t0 the sur viving Muslims thac they should marry those widows 50 as «0 provide for them and their hungry lide ones. T do noe suppose you have thoughe, that ic was the older women with a number Of children, and nor enticing young females, who found their bread-winner by this illfamed polygamy. Islam and the Sword, Besides polygamy there is a second poine in which Islam has been complesely misjudged. I shall mention it before you ask about it. Ic is said thac Islam is the religion of the sword, and that the Propher has requested his followers ro spread Islam with the sword. Just imagine, how could he do such a thing, considering thae Islam means peace ? ‘The Christign: "Was there never a ruler among, the ‘Maslim princes who tried co spread Islam by the sword ?” OCTOBER 1950 ‘The Muslim : “Whoever did such a thing violated the holy teachings of Islam, and was most harmful instead of helpful co the Faith. Ir is true chat che Muslims have erred occasionally. They were noe acting as Islam ordains, but as was customary ia theic brutal era. Christian kings have in former times also spread their creed by the sword, although Christianity is the religion of love.” Militarism and Pacifism. ‘The Christian :" Whae is really the position of the Prophet with regard 0 ' milicacism of pacifism’, co express it inthe European form, for that is the principle which is at stake just now ? You know that in every pare of Europe milicarism and pacifim are fighting bitterly against each other, and thae is a further cause of che European crisis, The Muslim "Ie is the same over and over again, friend, You Europeans seem co know oaly the simple, il-considesed a catchword you sell your soul. The Prophet, an the other hand, Solves this questi also in a much bewer way. He makes a dis tinction between an offensive and defensive wat, and he teaches us that we should never be the assailants, bue we may well defend ourselves if we are being atacked, If chere i, therefore, no attack, defensive war is aucomacically ruled oue. We may, therefore, say "IF the world follows the advice of the Prophet, there will be no more war in spite of the fact that a defensive war is permited, and rightly” peemited, for, if an. attacked person were not allowed tO defead himself, he would be an easy prey to a hostile attack, and there would be no end to such deeacks. Only a war against them who attack us, who diseuib our peace, may be called a holy war. Only this is a justiable wear in the way of God, a war of which the Prophet approves If European mlitarists say But war is the father of all things and an offensive war is sometimes good, then our. Prophet answers : You confuse war and fighting. Fighting is the father ‘ofall things, oz, the honourable contest, for instance, the fight ‘caused by the divergence of opinions, which is a blessing ; noe, however, the unchivalrous and brutal’ war of destruction, which is usually meane by the word ‘war’. You see thae the Prophet (peace be wich him !) is a eeuly wise man, aoe a poplar speaker He does noe know aay eatcherord, no thundering yes", n0 un relearing ‘no", But only 2 deep syinpachy with each special case, like the above-mentioned arsack tad defence, contest of opinion and war of destruction, and he forbids the’ aeacks and allows the defence, he disapproves of the war of desemction and loves the healthy contest. Islam is a Democracy of spiritual aristocrats. After selling you all this, you will admic hae I am sight in saying thar Islam is indeed che religion of the ehinkiag human being and, therefore, the religion which humanity especially needs in its presene dificulcies. It hates blind thoughtlessnes, {Ic presupposes a refined use of common sense and a deeper insight into things On the other hand, by the study of Islam our thoughts gain an extraordinary independence and power, for the Prophee doss nor lay down a rule with only one interpretation, as for example, ° Marriages are inseparable "or " You shall never ‘ake up arms’, but he shows us che law wich its subtle individual differences according ro which we muse regulate our daily life as each individual case demands and according to which we can also decide whac is right and whac is wrong. Islam does not desire serfs, but free men, men of science, aristocrats, who ace able to decide for themselves. Spiritual ‘aristocracy, however paradoxicel and mystical, is nevertheless the hypothesis for every true democracy ; for democracy means that everbody may help wich his advice and co-operation when the. fate 7of the whole community is at stake, and that itis only possible and holds oue a promise of blessing, if all stand spisitually on hhigh enough level to judge for themselves, and if they have practical Knowiedge of the mater. Democracy, therefore, cakes for granted thar all members of the community are spiritual aristocrats, and Islam intends co be a" democracy of aristocrats 1s ie nor really sho great task, which is put 10 each human being as a member of humanity, that we should be educated up to & democracy of aristocrats? * Goethe's “ Muhammad's Song”. ‘The Guest: " You do, indecd, show me the highest ideal which any religion bas ever allowed me to look at, and Tam moze than astonished because it seems to me that che European spiric has wrangled continually about che same principles which Islam has already proclaimed in the ceases fashion and linked together inco a complete religious system, It seems to me that Europe, nits greaest times and through its greaest men, has ot 0 lose Iam a almost fo shake hands wih but only Again and again co gee further away from it There was pethaps fn the Buropein spiriaal development 0 greater epoch than the end of the 18th conaury, the crt of Kant and Goethe, I should like to verify my thesis by this era. Ae chat time it was recognized and spoken of in Europe already that Jesus. was admittedly one, of the mose noble Iuman beings and teachers, ihr that he could on no accoune have been the son of God. This opinion, however, was forgotten again later on. In Germany, the 18th century created a so-called universal literature, th is £0 all works ofall he people and vies were colted and translaced, in the same way'as the univecsal Islam had made all holy scripeutes of all people and times its own 1,300 years before. Ie was che 18:H centary which for the fist time cleasly enunciated the thought chat religion muse be considered in the lighe of common sense chat isto sy, 2 practical common sense. Te-demanded thac we should hold out sensuous desires in check, and that in all our deeds we oughe co keep in view the happiness of the whole of humanity. The 18d century, generally speaking, looked on humanity as 2 big brotherhood, just as Islam did, At that time che term democracy began 10 take shape in Europe, which Islam had already materialized a Tong time before. ‘The German philosopher Fichte sees the goal of life of human beings in the fact chey they learned how #0 form "2 community of people with a free will’. Is this, however, nor the same as the democracy of aristocrats’, which Islam demands of us? With ‘these democratic ideas, the ideals of tolerance and spiitual free- dom were very closely connected, Both ideals were supported most zealously by the English philosophers, Lock, Hume and Shaftesbury, also by the great’ Frenchman Voltaire, and. in Germany by Lessing and “Mendelssohn. Lessing looks upon Jodaism, Christianity and islam as theee rings, ech of which con: iains the euth — how Muslimlike! None of them, however, was a better Muslim than the greatest man of those days, the German Goethe. Goethe already weote, when a boy, an’ epic called * Muhammad and later one of his most famous songs was called ‘ Muhammad's Song’. When asked about his religion, he answered: “Do noe ask by which gate you have entered the city of God. The nacure of God has shown itself to me likewise in Parseeism, Jodaism, in Christianity and in Islam’. Docs that ‘aot sound very familias, my Muslim friend ? Does ie not sound Tike the words of a real Muslim? In. conclusion, Goethe remarks, on another occasion : "If Islam means resignation t0 the Will of God, in Islam we all live and die’ Bemard Shaw on the future of Istam. "The best-known writer of Europe is at present surely che Englishman Beraasd Shaw. He says, in his Getting Married, that if any religion has the chance of ruling over England, nay Europe, within the next hundred years, it can only be Islam. Is this assertion a joke of dhe great saris Shaw?” In his satire, there is always some uth. ‘The joke is che mask of his truth, and at che same time the thorn, the painful scratch of which makes it. impressionable. What is ic now that fascinates Shaw in Islam? He shares with Islam faith in the intellect a5, the light on the road into che future of humanity ; he shares ‘with it the ardene desire for progress, he hates the career of lip Service, which can only form beautiful words. His endeavour is co show practical deeds and he is the advocate of a democratic auistocracy.. Shaw is, therefore, in deep earnest in his conviction thar all dhe elements are existing in Islam, which qualify i¢ co be the religion of the furure for the whole of humanity. With these remarks, my friend, lee us finish. I shall now return into the stillness of the aight, and co my home, bur I eake with mea orn deal 0 thik about, and I shall ways be graefl 0 you for this never-to-be-forgoteen evening.” ISLAM: A PACT BETWEEN GOD AND HIS CREATURES Islam is not only a mission; it is likewise an honour By MUHAMMAD HAMOUDA BEN. SAI “ [slam is not the religion of some devotees who have turned their backs on the ‘ Pact’ To believe in God is impossible without fecling obligation towards Him, "Who has a better religion than he who resigns his face to God, and docs good, and follows the faith of Abraham asa 'Honif'?! — for God took Abraham as a friend” (The Qur'én, 4: 124). Islam, the religion of God upon earth, is based upon a pact, the pact between God and His creatures, by virtue of which every son of Adam owes Him obedience and fidelity. Moreover, every breach of this pact is tantamount to a denial of the faith iesell. Thar is what the doctors of Islam teach when they cell us of the “solidarity of the pact”. The term itself expresses at once and the same time the pact with God and the Faith in God. From the moral poine of view, t0 believe in God is 8 impossible without feeling an obligation towards God ; in other ‘words, 20 owe a debt of loyalty t0 God. Fundamentally this is what Muslim theology preaches when ie speaks of the ehree principal degrees of religion according to the famous hadith in the Collection of Bokhari: al-Iman — the faith, the belief; al-tilam — the acquiescence of the members after thar of the heart; al-Ibian — the striving after good, the ‘will co perfection. Thus itis clear hac faith in God is essentially an alliance with God. ‘This the Qur'én is continually repeating. ‘when it speaks of the pace aliMizhag, concluded the fist time berween Adam, the father of humanity, and his Creator, and solemaly renewed the second time between Abraham, the Imam (leader) of humanity — he who guides and leads in the This Arabic word means “The upright one. THE ISLAMIC REVIEWright dieection — and his sovereign Master. Ie is precisely because of this “sacred alliance” —— the most precious legacy of Abraham to his descendants, of which the ‘Arabs dhrough Ishmach are the heredieary guardians — that Abraham earacd the illustrious vile of "the friend of God” — Khalid Allab. The example of Abraham. Here it is suitable to refer once more co the above- ‘mentioned verset and t0 meditate upon it. The verset teaches us that the best religion is pue oneself openly a the disposal of God, t0 serve Him, to do good, co follow the doctrine of Abraham in all rectitude, according to the good narutal direction. This verset concludes by reqninding us thar Abraham is the model forall the faithful singe God cose him, fos & friend. ‘Thus the sign of our being chosen by God is in this very fidelity to Abraliam, God, the most High, co show us how highly He prizes chs alliance”, made Abraham suffer’ the most’ terrible crals ‘Abraham Was not found wanring, he did noc betray the pact. Faithful co the alliance, he accepted withoue hesitation and with superhuman courage all the sacrifices thar the alliance” demanded. He did not hesiate co break with his protector, Azac, ‘who wished him to bow down before idols ; nor did he hesitate {0 sacrifice his son Ishmael with his own hands #5 an offering to God ‘God, having sure proof of the strength of his faith and his Ioyaley co the, pct eed hin providentally — ay pron of ciendship and & sign of recompense — a ram eo substicute it for his son and which he killed insted. The God of Abraham is noc a barbarous God greedy for human blood. Ia the crucial hours of our distress He is unfailingly the God of hope, of piey and salvation. cis in commemoration of this greae ordeal and ofthis scat sacrifice whereby Abraham proved to God thae he was ‘worthy of His lliance and friendship — and also in commemora- tion of the uleimate and providential manifestation of the divine help from God Who never abandons His peop, those who are faichful to Him — that each year Muslims throughout the whole ‘world sacrifice in their cumn 2 ram ac the beginning of ‘id al-kabir — the Festival of Sacrifices Islam essentially the religion of loyalty, of devotion ard of sacrifice. From these lessons and examples offered co us by the Quran i is abundantly clear that Islam, che religion founded by Abraham, is essentially the religion of loyalty, of devorion, of suctifice, and also — ler us not forget — of thae saving virtue ‘ar excellence, of indestnictible and invincible hope. ‘We belong to God, the Creator, the Provider, the Sovereign Master ; £0 God therefore we must dedicate in heroic, resolute and coral service our life and our death. Such is the essence of the ceaching of the Holy Qur'én : " My prayers and my devotions, iny life and my death belong to God, the Lord of the worlds” (6: 163). He who does noc sacrifice himself to God is unworthy (of God and has lose the right to che beaucful tide to call himself Muslim. Islam is the service of God it does not accepe hhonorary members, Islam is an alliance with God. ‘This alliance necessarily demands ordeals, sacrifices, devotion, abnegation and in a word, heroism, All this has bur one aim: ro win by meric “the friendship of God” — the best and highest recompense for the soul of « believer — as did Abraham, the patron of our faith and the common father of all the faithful. As the Holy Quen tells us: "God has chosen Abraham for a friend.” “The religion is founded on a “ pact” by virtue of which wwe are engaged in che service of God. This service demands fordeals and needs heroism. Without heroism here can be n0 fidelity, no salvation. Such is che fundamental reaching of Islam when an Occidental, Frederich Nietzsche, has well understood “Islam is a religion of mea founded on noble inseincts,” writes this admirable thinker, “Abraham is the illustration of this pur excellence. That is why he is the common ancestor ofall the faithful. His example is a light, guidance and an exhortation ; he shows us the way and explains che aim of "the alliance with God” as a principle and "the friendship with God” as an end — such is in short his lesson, ‘The text of the Queda says it in clear indisputable Islam is not the religion of some devorees who confined within the bounds of an uncertain quietism have turned ¢heit Backs on the” pact”. Islam is essentially a mission, Bein alis of God”, our duty isto make His name love, to defend His law and support His reign This duty, the accomplishment of which by us signifies the ighese mor 'good, is teclled by the Chaper 3:10 in hese You are che best community that humanity has so far known: you order to good, you repress evil and you believe in God.” ‘The service of God admits no division. One cannot serve two masters, God and Mammon, says the Gospel. ‘The Queda does noe say otherwise, Thac is why Islam is aoe only 2 mission, ie is likewise an honour, THEORIES OF STATE _ ‘AND PROBLEMS AS EXPOUNDED BY OF SOCIOLOGY AN INDIAN MUSLIM DIVINE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY By MUHAMMAD ‘ABDUL BAQI, M.A. Sa Walaa (id 1988 CE), forerunner of many soco- poltical theories of to-day. in thu emay I mie 2a areop co pretest senders the cciooltal fought ofa Musi sts of he Tah enn Mf hs tds Sy be ented muny specs i fost moder cores ln the subject ess ene ih wonder foe « loi, sus ihe dak abou the pli feos OF apy ll’ fve deat wat te abe mine ad Sen OCTOBER 1950 ‘The propoundes of these cheories, Shah Waliullah, was born, in Delhi, Indi, in the year 1104 AH. (1692 CE) ia a family of celebrated scholars, and died at che age of 68 in 1172 AH, (1758 CE). A born genuis, having succeeded ro the professorial chair of his father at the eatly age of seventeen, he dedicated his whole life 0 the cultivation and propagation’ of he different branches of learning which were then in vogue among. the ‘Muslims, ‘The number of his works exceeds thirty, most of which exhibie his profound scholarship, Ie is his Originality and 9thoroughness that mark, him out of all che Indian literary Kinane coins co the detente of Knowledge are of « permanene value. The following few pages are a summary of the third discourse of one of his most Highly esteemed books writen in Artbi, the Hajj "-Labs a bligha Tha Khaldun and Shah Waliullah. The book deals with the moral and politial philosophy of Islam, and is completed in ewo volumes. The frse volume consists of several discourses. Each of these discourses is devoced to the critical study" of a certain aspect of human life, on which are founded such univers laws as control and guide human destiny, and as form the basis of the general principles of the welfare of hhuman sociey. In the second volume ofthe ook, like al-Ghazal (died L111 CE), the author gives a realistic interprestion of rhumerous religious rituals in otder to bring out cleay their zeal worth and uelity and their bearing upon the development of the ‘atous faculties of human beings The book as a whole may be called an objective study of ‘man as a social and religious being. Te isin this book that Shah ‘Woaliullah bas fully displayed his encyclopaedic knowledge, his thorough grasp of the Subjece matte, his acute critical power, and above all his ozigialey. Shah Waliullahs name may jsty be added those of Machiavelli, Vico and others. who were, according co the late Professor R. A. Nicholsoa, the * incllectual descendants” of Iba Khaldua (died 1406 CE, the greaese Arab historian and sociologist. In the prolegomena to his celebrated history, Kitab al‘Iba, bn Khaldua has also devoted some chaprers of the first book 10 the brief discussion of the main. problems of sociology. Ibn Khaldan based all his argimenss on the principle Of the sociability of human nature’ —alnien madaniyyun bi "eas (ie, Man is a social being by aatuze). He held that the vatious social and political developments of human society were the fruit of whac was implanted in man’s nature. Bur he did not explain how this development gradually took place. Shab Waliullah, on the other hand, has both given the reason and. illusrated the ways how human civilization gradually grows. “The need for food, shelter and sexual intercourse,” says Shah Walia,” are cominon 10 all men in general. A knowledge of the various methods for the fulfilment of these minimom nacural demands is inbora with every human being "The tendency co fulfil chese primary demands," he ¢on- cludes, "is the chief motive, and the instinctive knowledge for the sae, which is further expanded by experience, is the maine spring of human progress. Had a man grow up ata lonely place far from man's babiecon and had he foc learnt any convention whatsoever from anybody, even then ‘he would certainly have Found fe himself che tendency #0 satisfy his hunger, thisse and sex appetite. He would have, the, sucely coveted a female by whom hildea would have been born’ Thus, they would have mleiplied and gradually ll the various stages of human society would have In this way the author has accounted for the various stages ‘of human society — from a family ro a Stave. He has farther explained how, from the idea of adorning life in its various branches, human wants ate gradually muleiplied and new devices ae discovered in order to meet them. Human civilization and progress, according to the learned author, is, therefore, the sum toa of man's achievements in the different directions which men are unanimously prompted to have tecourse 0, ether in order t0 remove a natural want, oF t0 adorn life in ie various branches, ‘The unanimity of the people in accepcing the general principles from which are deduced. the’ various methods of livelihood, rematks the learned author, is de to some deep-rooted causes and is noe the result of a mere accident.” What would be a greser 10 folly,” says Sbah Waliullah, "chan co ehink chat this unanimicy is a matter of mere accident ? Sound judgment points out cleacly thae people, in spice of being scarcered and of differences in religion and disposition, are agreed on the acceptance of these principles simply because they follow harmoniously from the nature of the species to which they belong.” ‘Throughout his treacmene of these problems, Shah Waliullah shows thorough grasp of the subject with its details. While bn Khaldun has given the causes of che development of society jn a nutshell, devoting more space to che symbol of its perfec tion and dissolution, Shah Waliullah discusses the origin, develop- ment, perfection, dissolution and all other accompaniments of human socieey thoroughly and methodically. Shah Waliullah rejects the theory of Divine origin of the State, ‘A careful study of the third discourse of his book shows shat Shah Waliullah noc only had a clear conception of all the various theories regarding che genesis of the State which are generally supposed to have originated in Europe ar « much leer period, bur also a chorough knowledge of their due importance and proper application, ‘The Historical or Evolutionary theory, the Force theory and the Social Contract theory — all these have been discussed by him and co each of them he has assigned its due place. Here he appears indeed as a most modera socologist far in advance of his age. Discussing the origin of the Stare, though he lays much stress on the Historical or Evolutionary theory, he admits at the same time that there is also some eeuth in both the theories of Force and Social Contract in helping the development of the Stare under particular eiscumstances. At the stage of pety chieftancy, for example, he contends hae the theory of Social Contrace plays the main part. But a che stage of sovercigary, he thinks, i¢ is sometimes the theory of Social ‘Contract and at others the theory of Force that has been at work, Though a theologian, the theory of Divine origin did not find any favour with him. He neglected this theory in such a way that we do not find any mention of it ia ¢his.connection, hus connor be ascribed co is ignorance ofthis theory, a had been found in so many books of the early and mediaeval Muslim ‘writers. The theory of the Divine origin of the State was an established theory of the ancient races of Persia, ‘The Persians retained their faith in this theory even after their conversion t0 Islam. Their adherence to the Alids was due ¢o theie fiem faith jn the hereditary and divine aature of the poncif of Khilafat This theory gained great popularity during the Middle Ages and was diffused among the Muslims chrough the writings of the Batinites — believers in esoteric meaning of the Qur‘én. ‘Shah Waliullab, therefore, cannot be supposed t0 have been ignorant of this cheory. He did nor pay any heed to it because he found it quice unreasonable, based on mete superstigion. This brings him, undoubtedly, nearer co us in his free thinking. As a faithful researcher for cruth he made an objective study of every thing and deduced his unbiassed conclusions impartially and fearlessly. Shah Waliullah’s views on the functions of the State. His discussions of the various functions of the State, of the qualifications of the chief, and of the ministers and other Stace officials, and of their political imporcance, are highly creditable. He was aware of che complexity of the State machinery and was also equally aware of the importance of diplomacy, which is indispensable for smooth running of a State. “A careful analysis of the arguments put forward by him in dealing with the Sate ‘machinery reveals unmistakably that he believed in the organic theory of che State. Very anxiously, indeed, he prescribes, every THE ISLAMIC REVIEWsow and chen, dretions 10 keep up the balance and the normal Asposition ofthe State" Asa staghunter fst stoies thoroughly che nate of his prey and chen changing guise ater guise caches star las, silat he says," flee should sry fst the nature tbc a then der rng teh gr a jngation, he should advance, etext, top temp, and change his Buse a5 occasion may demand". In all these he advises a ruler {0 follow the principle that "the bond of love is stonger than that of teon” He had also an iden of the force of public opinion”. He reminds the State ofits day eo impute Hberal and ‘echnical education t0 the people, and to see that, owing to the itizen’s indination to induney, agticulture docs not sulle, Referring to the maintenance Gf ood relations between the cmployer end the employee, between the maser and the slave, trator rng fo gor notice ta, wt each panty eis He dependence on the other, no real and permaneat good relations between them can be established, and’ witht these thete Can be no peace in society He is not a mere idealist in his outlook. ‘There are frequent references to the political condition of his time. He has boldly discussed the causes of the degeneracion of the Government aad fof the poverty of the masses ; and has not failed co suggest remedies for them. "The abuse of public treasury by the s0- called privileged classes, who receive large annuities ar the hands of the rulers without rendering any service to the State, and the assessment of heavy caxes and duties upon the cultivacors, artisans and tradesmen, under which they groan and their industries safer,” remarks the sympathetic author, “are the evo main ‘causes of the ruinous condition of the State in our times, A State ‘can prosper only when the taxes are light and the number of the officials (i, che burden of administrative expenses) is nor more than necessary.” How modetn are these ideas! More tan evo centuries have passe since his book, the Harjata ‘Lah aalighy fst saw the Fight. Bue most of his thoughts on che varioos politica! theosies gen the main des of ainraon hol god rea t-y. Tein great pity thatthe thoughts of such a great and orginal thinker have not yet been made known 1 the modern, world I, therefore, ake this opportunity of presenting in English for the Bie time his min ideas on Sociology contained in the third discourse of his montmental work, the Haji Lab al aligha How the various devices of human ci and how they are gradually developed. ‘The need for food, shelter and sexual intercourse is common to all men in general. A knowledge of how to meet these various needs is revealed co every human being by his very instinct. So, unless one is born defective, one possesses an inborn knowledge of such methods, as follow harmoniously from the very narure ff the species one belongs co and after which one is created (ie, one's surat nau'iy72). An instinctive knowledge of how © ‘meet these natural demands is possessed, likewise, even by the insects, birds and other lower animals. The building of a hive by a swarm of bees, their working under one common chief, their sucking the flowers and gathering honey — all these are the fruits of their instinctive knowledge in these methods. The small birds know similarly by theic very instinct what ro live upon, how to build nests, how to defend themselves and to multiply. In short, for every species there are certain laws that regulate its life and conteol ics destiny, of which an instinctive knowledge is breached into its individvals by their own nature On submission ro those laws depends the continuity of their ization are discovered ‘Man also, like other animals, is favoured with an instinctive knowledge of the methods of the fulfilment of his primary needs OCTOBER 1950 Bac a the same time he i also endowed with some other motives for his avons, which diferensate him from the lower animal While natural pressure is the only motive for aa action in the case of the latte, the former, a6 a rational creature, his aso Shree other motives for his actions (1) Sound reasoning: The conclusion arrived at and found useful ftom any poine of view other than the grosly tmaterialiste. "Fo elucidate yt may be std chat. ta the Case ofthe lowe animals, ee dirt realation of some taterial end, sich a the soition of hunger and thist, fe, i the only motive for dhs action. ‘But in the {2s¢ of man the realization of these low material ends $S'noe all in all. In many cases the consideration. of some higher and nobler end is his chief motive, For sample, the esablishmene of good order in the Sate the ataiament of perfection ia character and clare, Salvation inthe next word, end the scquisiion of name and fame ~ these considerations very often. prompe 8 man to sctony thowgh they do aot satisfy any of his fatal demands in the sent aleeady mentioned (2) Refinemene: The bare flllment of a need isthe only smocive with she lower animals. But man is not always contented with bare fulfilment of his natural wants, He wishes to do. thing in s polished and refined. manner, so tha ie may be more pleasant and deligheel For example, he seeks palatable dishes for his fod; pala buildings for hit cesidence, whereas herbs snd Eaves can serve the main end (3) Perception of uly : Homan wants are endless and the methods of mecting them in che best posible way ste fox town every india, ei ely che, mow inceligene among them who, after coosaous exper mene for cencaries, discover these methods; and as soon ts they are discovered. they are adopted, without ieseation, by all the vatious people. Most of the implements of man civilization discovered in different ages by" the diferent people’ ave. been sdopred by all humanity inthis spite Centuries must have passed before people could have aradually discovered the advanced methods of cultivation, cookery tnd dressing, etc A general knowlede of the fulfilment of the necessities of human fife is breathed, no. do, iaro every individual by bis tery stint, bur detail snd progressive method are dicorered by in sae nse a ade. Thay sie ive knowledge supplemented by che empiri Knowledge of the Senso and gett thinker ofthe difeen ages form the coe of human kngwiedge which is followed unhesiatingly by the people Bees on this cole depend thei ie and prosperity This instinctive knowledge, however, is the mainspring of all progeess. Without it empirical knowledge is impossible. And since ic is an essential factor, ic exis in one form of another in every individual, and is subjece to further development by experience. As breathing is an essential condition for life, so is the existence of his instinctive Knowledge indispensable for Inuman progress. Te indicates the life of civilizacion a8 the beating of the pulse indiceres the life of an animal. ‘The two stages of civilization, Bur the aforesaid motives are noe found in an equal degree in all the individual human beings because of their difference in character and intellect, The devices of human civilization, there: fore, are nor the same everywhere. ‘They vary in type as well as, in degree in the various stages of human sociery, in the different usages of civilization. ‘These sages of civilization manifest them Selves nthe various devices which der sometimes in clas as Sell Rougiy speaking there ace two eal stages of evization (1) Primary: This stage of civilization is atained even by the, most. Primitive societies, such a6 those of the Beduin, the mountaineers sod people living at a dis: fence fiom avant connie This what we cl the primary sage, in which the wants and requitements of the people are few and simple (2) The Secondary This stage i atained by she people of the owns, populated vilages sod advanced codec, where inceligene men of high moral character are Bonn suc places there live various groups of people wit cannon teas ae an ens, "hte deeds are naturally varied and lage. Among them ste valved elaborate codes customs and conventions £0 Sohich they old fas inthe varios aspects ofthe life ‘This stage, in its most developed form, the second- diy sage proper “The perfect development of this secondary sage lads ecesary 10.2 titd one, ‘The ovetfow of wealth as 2 result Gf mmccrd progress beds Jelousy and contempt among the ficvens "The greedy and vilene among them create disorder in the soecey, asa result of which the common toerest falls int reat danger” Bot no individual cam pc these things Fgh, 0 fey are cllecivey compelled co haves chit #0 rule over them toh justice, punish the culprits, contol the strong, collect from them reve and spend ie for te common good This isthe thie stage of cision which may be called she sage of peey chictesingy ‘This stage leads 0 a further one. When individual chiefs become the sole masters of heir subjects, heir wealth abounds and their forces become numerous ; they begin to quarrel with fone another to gain supremacy. Their mutual quarrels and wars Tead, in the long run, (0 the establishmenc of an empire, because to secure the establishment of order all the pecty chiefs are forced to submit 10 one of them (a) either by common consent, or (b). because one overcomes the rest by’ his superior, strength Such a powerful monarch is the virtual possessor of the zeal sovereignty (Kbilafar kubra). ‘The contrivances of civilization in the primary stage of the civilized society. There are certain devices which ace ro be sepitded as necesary parts of civilization even in is primary stage. They Imay be enumerated, roughly, a8 follows () Language: A vehicle co express what is within the human tmind. Originally, language is a sound. which fesembles or results. from -cetsin actions, mental Phenomena, or extemal bodies This sound is repre- Sented by words. This is how language originated. And radvally by means of infexion and conjogation it has fen mate capable of conveying diferene thodghts and ideas. Its further developed it the course of time, by the inventions of metaphors and other forms of speech (@) Gakivation, planation, water supply, ete (3) Pottery and. the manufacture of other importane ntensis such a5 warercanrying ves, ec (4) Taming animals and breeding cae in order co desive benefie from them (©) Building of houses and huts a protection againse heat and cold (6) Making dceses out of the skin of animals or leaves of dhe trees of of cotton yarn, et R (7) Having @ female companion as wife. Getting her reserved by way of martiage, so that she may be exclusively devoted 0 him, may preserve the sanctity of his home, and may render-him every possible help inthe management of domestic affairs and in bringing up children, etc (8) Inventions of the implemencs on which depend the arts of agriculture, plantation, itrigation, ete (9) The system of exchange and barter. (10) A commie of fem and strong persons t0 preserve order. ‘A code unanimously followed by the’ people in deciding their quails, punting culprits, repressing rebels and defending the community against intruders Iris also necessary for every nation to haye some such persons a6 should scheme for the fulflment of their fecesstis, and that there be among, them some wise, tloguent, brave and philantheopic persons as well in tach civilized society. ay (12) ‘The contrivances of civilization in the secondary stage. ‘The devices of human civilization in che secondary higher sage te mre ores he sea shar of he primary tage. But Sle in the potmary sage, the devices are crue and wapalished, in the secanday stage they ate more refined and polished. ‘By theins of dividing them into differen clases such as Domestic, Social and Poll, ete, and testing them in the light of sound fxperince, bigh mosliy and the: common welfare, dey ave fendered loco such forms as make shem beer, more beneficial find less harmfol, ‘This the chief diference between the devices ofthe two stages is one of degre rather than of kind. (The following is brief discussion of the aides of civation in isaac stage, Toy tae dd under seer Bede i a systematic way. Truly speaking, each topic is sich a prominent branch of sociclogy that fe may be treated as a subject by itself. Bac here we shall give aly the oolines ofthe few chapters) Essential devices for livelihood. Te this chapter are discussed the various articles fo, 28 well as the means of meeting the necesiies that human beings have to face in the secondary stage of civilization, in the different branches of life. Here the main and basic principle that the various contrivances of the primary stage are to be judged by che Nandard of (a) valid experience, (B) high moraliy, and (©) common welfare, Now the forms thas appear to be comparatively fee From doing aay hatte, capable of rendeting greater good, and nearer ro the liking of persons of sound judgment, are 10 be fccepted and the rest are to be rejected. ‘The main problems of this chapter that are universally accepted by people of all nationalities, in some form or other, tay be roughly eaumerated as follows; the devices and manners of eating, drinking, walking, iting, sleping, travelling, enjoy: ing conjugal ler dressing” housing, observing the rules of leaaliness, the sjle of adomment, of conversation, of medical treatment, of foresight, of festivities, of fellow-fecling and of removing the dead “The above-mentioned items are observed in some form or cther by all civilized people. All great thinkers have tried 10 find oat che best possible form of ‘observing those conventions from their respective angles of vision, “the naturalist, for example, has given more importance to the natural side of these conventions. ‘The astrologer has, puc much stress on the effects Of the stars, while the divines have applied the. principles of good and evil to decide which is the best form. ‘This ® why there are so many ways fllowed by different people. THE ISLAMIC REVIEW‘The management of domestic affairs. By this is meant the ways and meaas of preserving good relations amongst the diferent members of the family (setey) i the secondary stage of civilization. ‘The main problems of this chapter come under the following four heads (1) Matrimony. Primarily the need for satisfying sexual appetite leads the union between a male and a female. ‘The nacural affection for the children, later on, compels both to render their mucval help and assistance for the maintenance of the child, Woman is aarurally beter fitted than man to bring up children. Moreover in comparison with man she is more delat, more modest, more careful and painstaking for petty matters, more submissive and more interested in outdoor activities. Man, on the other hand, i superior to her in intellect, more hardy, stronger than her ia prowess, and more conscious of the sense of self-respect and res- pponsibiliy. So the life of che one cannoe be completed without the help of the othe. How the system of marriage with all its conventions came fo be adopted. ‘The system of marriage with all its various conventions came into existence as 4 result of opie realizing that the natural gendency of the male ro mix with the female wich an absolute freedom will lead co disastrous consequences if i i a0 restricted by conventions of "reservation," " prohibited relation, the system of dowry.” and the "consent of the guardians of the womaa," ete The keen sense of the males for the respect of their females made these conventions ‘more powerful. ‘These conventions ate, however, all reasonable and 4 thorough study Of them will reveal to the student how wisely they are adopted Marriage with the nearer relations (bound with the kin- ship of blood), for example, is prohibited for two reasons (@ Thete is naturally no genuine inclination for sexual union between a male and a female who are the branches of the same root of from the same braach. Had such relations been permitted, then, coasiderin that che guardian's will preva he female could noe have always exercised her right for the free choice of hhee husband, An accomplished and wealthy girl could have, then, scarcely married after her owa choice an outsides, because the greedy guardian would have petsonaliy been tempied co cover her for her wealth and accomplishment and his opinion would have certainly prevailed ‘The bridegroom is co pay a certain amount as dowey to the bride, because it isthe bridegroom who generally seeks the hand of the later. In. order co. popularize legalized marrage, and for the pur- pose of circulating the news and adding to the grandeur of the eremony, it has been cegarded a convention to hold a walima fe feast after mucriage where the invited guests are encrtained with varieties of enterainment. For these reasons and some a they are too well known, the wa others which are omites Before, divore suit is executed it has been made obligatory on che pact of the husband to exert all his nerves to come (0 an understand Sng wih hn wie! fing cathe eat wk fs, he ak of reconciliation fo 8 committe of arbitrators consisting of the guardians ff both the paris faling that he is ext asked to pronounce the firs divoreeas'a warning end then the second and thea the thid tes pectvely afer one month, if the wife i reconciled before the third Sivorce is ‘pronounced. she can, be taken back by the “husband Ch. The Que‘, Chapters? and 5) OCTOBER 1950 universally accepted form of marriage has been thus: hat it should be a contract for union between a male and a female, of ‘non-prohibited class, executed in the presence of a gathering, with a bridal dowry, with the consent of che guardian of che bride ; and that the husband, henceforth, should be responsible for her maintenance ; and that she should obey che former, look after his domestic affairs end serve him sincerely in all possible ‘ways. This form of masriage is quite in keeping with the nature afer which God has creted mankind ands i suits dhe people of all councries, If the marred couple do not pull cogether well, the con- tiawity ‘of dhe tlation ‘becomes htmful to bath, Divorces therefore legalized in’ such cases, though itis. the. worst of all legalized dhings. Bur in order 0 avoid she evil effect of hasty divorce, the abservance of certain conditions has bec made obligatory." “The observance of an ‘iddar — che petiod of waiting ia which a divorced woman cannoe mary — after dlvorce is made Sbliguory. In case of the death of the husband the wife 1 required to observe another Iddat period during which she is 101 allowed fo remarry as a mark of respect forthe sani of tmariage, tthe revered memory of her companion ia life and dso to escape confusion with regard co the paternal lineage of the dnd (2) Guardiensbip of the cbildren The guardianship of the children goes, naturally, 0 the father ashe is better fitted (0 look after their well-being, Obedience of the children to their parents has been regarded as obligatory by all people of different nationalities. In liew of the hhatd labonr thac the latter had co take in bringing them up and training them. (3) Lordship and servitude. Since all people are not equally igtelligent, nor are they equally compecene co direct and control, they may be divided into two classes (Those who lead and control ; and, Gi) Those thar obey and carry ous instructions By the mutual help of both the classes worldly alfairs aze cartied on. Each of them, however, should realize that the life of the one depends upon the help of the other. Without such a permanent good understanding between: chem no mutual help ‘an be forthcoming, (4) Fraternity Often ic happens chat a man is visiced by an emergency or calamity which he cannot meet or overcome without the help of others. And since all men are equally subjected to such emergencies, they have co start certain fraternal and mutual benefit societies to meet chem. To help che poor and the dis tressed is regarded as a duty by every civilized people and there from has sprung up the idea of the establishment of fraternal and -mutual-benefi societies. ‘The needs of an individual are generally of wo classes (i) Those which cannot be fulfilled until someone un. selfishly undergoes cercain positive and heavy sacrifices in order co help him ; and, (i) Those which do not require such posisive and heavy sacrifices. For the fulfilment of che needs of the former class the systems of inhericance, gifts, endowments by the nearer kins- men have been introduced. "For the removal of the laser che ‘mutual-benefit societies, etc, have been started. BMutual dealings. “Te necessities of life are ever increasing. The project of fulfilling dhese necessities in dhe bese possible way leads people to be divided ino dfferent_groups — cach one engaged in the supply of a need of one kind only. This, however, necesiated the various systems of exchange, sale, hse, lending and other forms of mutual help. Many professions aso are the outcome of the above idea, Taken all together, they are to be called ‘nat aadat oe rval dealing’. When one group of citizens produced any kind of goods in excess of their need, they exchanged them with those produced by orhers, in order to fulfil their ther requirements. ‘This (ie, the exchange of goods for goods, or baste), was the only form of sile a che cary stage of cvilizsion when money had not come fico use. Money was introduced at 2 later stage in order 10 emove the inconveniences of barter. Gold and silver were universally recognized as standard metals on account of their (a) porabiliey, (b) cogoizabiliy, and (e) uriliry The main sources of earning are as follows: (1). Agricalere (2) Cale dreeding (3) To acquire useful things from the land, the sea, mines, trees and animals. (4) Industries, such as (@) carpentry, (b)_blacksmithery, (@) weaving and such other ants as give anything form of uti ‘Trade 6) PILGRIMAGE TO M (6) Seate service. (1) Supply of all sores of human wants (ordersupply) Specialization of industries With the progress of civilization and refinement, speciliza tion began, Everyone directed his whole-hearted energy t0 che production of an article for which he had the best efciency Considerations of place also played a great part in the specializa- tion of industries. "The management of che Sate cannot attain perfection uneil all its citizens ace bound together with the tie of sympathy and fellow-feeling, which demanded that the ncedy should be given opportunities to ful6l cheir needs gratis. ‘Thus originated the systems of giving gifts (ibe) and loans (ari). There is, how- ever, in every Stace a group of citizens who are extremely poor. In order to help such people the system of salaga or public charity came into existence. ‘The mutual dealings of the citizens in che cransaction of worl afses gave re to the introduction ‘of she various systems of tenancy, partnership, lease, company and agency.- The deeds for the execution of debs, deposi, ete, gave tse to the systems of witness, documents, mortgage, and’ suzery, ete. ‘These various branches of mutual dealings, in some form cf other, are to be found among the citizens of every civilized Sue “This second stage leads to a third one in which poliies becomes the most absorbing topic: but dis we shall des with in anrber ari. ECCA By AL-HAJJ ‘ABDEL KARIM HERBERT © Ag L remained seated in the Plain of ‘Arafat for a few moments’ reflection after the Mid-day Prayers had been recited, I wondered if there was anything in the world to compare with polyglot gathering of people from all comers of the earth, all assembled in a common purpose ” Here we come, © Lord ! Here we come ! ‘Alhough Tet took a. nerest in he eligion of lam while among he Indian population of South Africa in 1942, it was really by living among the Arabs chat finally made me decide to embrace Islam. Iam very happy that 1 made this decision, and also that T have been permitted «0 perform the Pilgrimage to Mecca Tn. 1947, I was forcunate in securing employment with one of the largese firms of Arab merchants in Saudi Arabia, situated St the seapore of Jeddah As T was a Muslim and able 0 speak Some Arabic, I was soon accepted as "one of the family” by my employers, who reposed a great deal of eruse in me and treated me like one of cheie owa sons. While in Arabia I always wore the Arab national dress consisting of a white robe, a red hhead-dress with the black camet-hair rope, and a black cloak embroidered with old. 1 found this dress much more com forrable than European clothes inthe hot, humid climate of Jeddah ‘AS 4 Mim, I joined in most of dhe local activities of the town and received much Kindness and hospitality from che people, When the time for the Pilgrimage drew near, T applied fo the Viceroy of the Hejaz for permission to make the Pilgrim age, as most European converss to Islam ate required 10 wait fo years before going to Mecca, so thar they will have time Co decome well acquainted with the necessary formalities and 4 ‘On. the eve of the Pilgrimage, my employer brought me the good news char His Royal Highness, the Viceroy, had granted ‘my request oa my employer's recommendacion, and thar I should make myself ready to proceed to: Mecca eatly on the following ‘morning, which was the seventh day of che Muslim month of zu ‘LHijja — the month in which the Pilgrimage is performed My excitement at this news can be readily imagined Next morning, therefore, in accordance with the custom thar has been observed since the days of the Prophet Muhammad, 1 bached and dressed in the pilgrim costume known as Lbram, consisting of two pieces of seamless white material, which ddenoces the equality before God of all people on earth, whether kings or peasants, sich or poor. I then made the Niyyat al-Lbram the intention of dressing in pilgrim garb for the purpose of performing the Holy Pilgrimage. About ejghe odlock in the Toming, after packing a case with a change of clothes, 1 met the parcy consisting of my employers and other friends, who had with them chree or four cars, and, reciting the prayer for che iacention of performing Pilgrimage, we set out on our way 10 Mecca. ‘To-day. everyone was dressed alike, in pilgrim costume, and I fele a strong spirit of brotherhood prevailing. On our way ‘we repeated che words: Labbaik Allabumma labbaik! ta shark aka, labbaik ! —" Here we come, O Lord ! here we come! Thou hast'no partners, here we come!” ‘These words are repeated by all pilgrims 09 their way to Mecca for Pilgrimage. THE ISLAMIC REVIEWThe writer of this deseriptive article, an English Muslim, al-Hajj ‘Abdel Karim Herbert 1 remember the sill of aceually exavlling beyond che mountains which, up to that moment, had always een a skyline on the eter hin of Jesh bis tow, with every mite tre were geting nearer 9 Mecca. One by one, we passed through the rosdside villages of Un aeSllem, Bahra, Hadda and Shumaasy. To-day, neal ll the walfic was going towards Mecca the only afc Coming the other way wat rturoing to Jeddah to pick up the remaising pilgrims and rush them fo Maca in Sime for the Pilgimsge ceremonie, and then on 10 join the prea astembly on the Plin of Arafat The atmosphere of holiness in the precincts of the Kaba. Eventually, as we rounded a corner, che main gates of Mecca ame into view. My excitement was intense, ‘The town of Nec ite Rome, ui om seven il and pees & vr pleasant spectacle 0 che pilgrim on his frse vis Excitement mong the pilgrims mins high. At last chey ace reaching the goal for which they have waited, prayed and saved for years Soon, after going through ‘the narrow streets of the cit, we reached the Grete Mosque, known ss the Haram ash-barif. “Through one of the open door, I caught a glimpse of the Kaba entered the Mosque by one of fits many doors, situated in the serect called Mas As I entered I ele the atmosphere of holiness and sincery in the precincts of the Kaba —~ the small, square, ‘berike building, covered with a black clot, decorated with inscriptions fromthe Holy Quen. ‘This, then, was the place OCTOBER 1950 towards which Muslims the world over tumed when they prayer. (The gesture of "facing cowards Mecca” denotes the Universality aad unity of purpose of the eligion of Islam.) The reason and meaning behind kissing the Black Stone. The first of my duties was co make Hae, which consists of seven circuits around the Kaba and sepeting certain prayers tinder the lection ‘of 3 mataouif —'a person, qualied to instucepilgims in the. many ceremonies nccsity for the proper performance of the Pilgrimage. During this Ceremony, tei the custom, although ne obligatory, eo touch or kiss 8-8 tark-of Tove, the Black Srone, which 1 set 1 one corner of the Kiba, Tacidenally, his Black Stone is probably the only pare of the building which the Prophet Abraham used in re Eccting the diapidced building of Meces This why the Mists kiss this stone, The seven cireits performed, we stood in fron of the door of the Kab, which & ser ata height of about sie feet, and placing our hands on the bottom ledge of the door, we prayed for tur relations and fiends aod shed ceresin blexingt of God. ‘We then recited cwo prayers at the tncient Magam Ibrahim — or the Standing Pace of Abraham, i which place, taditon has, Abrabam stood eo direc the Building operstions of the Howse of God at Mecca, ‘While in ‘we drank some water fom the famous Zem-Zem rculous spring reviled by God to Hagar when she was wandering ig the descr dying of chet with her son Ishmacl, the futher of che Arabs, This water, in common with mineral springs dhroughoue the world, has cuacive properties and is ato considered to be specially blesed by God After giving some alm we lef the Mosque for the ceremony of ij, oF running between two small hills called Sats Sind Marwa, Tals is done seven times, mostly at a walling pace, aqickening to ran beowcen wo pots racked by green stones ser in the wall of the sucet alMa'oa It is imeresting here to doce the mystic significance which dhe momber seven has in all religions and cules ‘The running beeween: Sofa and Marwa is perfocmed as a memorial so Hagar’ patience in adversity. ‘The Ceremonies both inside the Crete ‘Mosque for tana), and Outside the Mosque for iy, cin be performed comfortably wiih an hour and hal. ‘The Plain of “Arafat during the Pilgrimage season. Afver resting a lide and, caking some light refreshmen for these ceremonies are rather Citing in the summer het, we preputed co mske ovr way from Mec tothe Plin of ‘Arafat — {hove fee llomeiss dan, fo join the gre asembly of pilecims from almost every county in the world. In. normal Year, the umber of jpigrime who congregare on the Phin OF Arafat onthe Day of the Standing, may be neat balla milion. "At we. appioached the Plain, the sting sight of thousands of puly-caloured tenes met our eyes, stretching, over the whole length and readdh of the Pain, The inside walls of tose Eastern tents ae decorated with colourful designs, with the’ colouts zed, blue. and yellow, and. green, the Prophets favorite colour, predominating. In honour of the Prophet, the tational fag'of Sod! Arabia’ is dak green wich the words Le la ila'-Lab, Muhammad 'r Ravale Lab —- "There ts n0 god but’ God, Muhammad is the messenger of God” — Embcoidered on i ‘The polyglot assembly at Mecca is unique, We eventually found our tents, which hed already been erected by the advance party who came the previous day Despice the thousands of small pacts, friends, families and small nacional groups, the whole scene was one of orderliness 1nd cleanliness,” When I made the Pilgrimage for the first time 6in 1947, there were with me in one tent a Hejazi, a Turk, an old Indian Maulavi fom Bombay, a military officer from Morocco, a boy from Aden, and a_ seaport official from Alexandria in Egypt. Throughout the day many people came in to visit us and to drink the ceremonial cup of coffee-or Arab tea, These visitors came from such far-flung places as Karachi, Bombay, Madras and Calcuca ; Istanbul, Caito aad Alexandria ; the Sodan, Morocco, Durban and Johannesburg; Mombasy Zannibas, and so on. We passed the day in appropriate conversation and. recitation of the Holy Que'éo, and also joined in the special prayers for forgiveness at Jebel al-Rabma, or the Mountain of ‘Mercy, which is a small hill situated in the centre of the Plain of ‘Arafat. Throughout this time, all are dressed in the pilgrim ‘garb, no head covering being’ allowed for the men, although fone is permiteed to use an umbrella for shade from the strong, sun, ‘The mote zealous of the pilgrims go barefooted, as T myself did jin 1948, when 1 performed che Pilgrimage for the second time ‘As nuon approached, everyone made preparations for the Midday Prayers When the people in each eat have made the neces ablations, the sah, or Call to Prayer, is made by a Scltappointed Muzin, and’ one man, usually one eld” in respett for his learning” of by reason of his Being an imporane {guest is pushed forward t0 be Imam, or Prayer Leader. Now, tll over de Plain, hundeeds of litle groups were Beginning the Noon Prayer with the words Allabu akbar — "God is the greatest" The sight of all these people praying, with thet fices turned cowards Mecca, is indeot siting’ one. AS I femned seated for afew moments selection ater the Prajes fad beea recited, I wondered if there was anything else inthe word o compare with this polyglot gathering of people from Bl comers of the cart, all assembled i comnon purpose By this time, one's thoughts took a more material aspect, snd were directed <0 lunch, as a cloth was being lid inthe ten and dishes of food were brought in. At last, with a cry of Birmilla) ("In the name of God"), the host, inviced ail present to be seated and ro eat dheir fill! The food, of course, waties according (0 the cistom of the country from which the Pilggirns come. In our tent, we indulged in legge dishes of tice, ced with slmoads and. sultanas; dishes of various cooked vegetables with their appropriate sauces; mutton and chickens : Wholesome loaves of Arab bread, followed by sweet dishes and Fruit. No passerby is ever refused hospitality and ao one is allowed t0 0 hungry s0 long ss there is food remaining. Als, throughoue the day, one gives all one can in the way of alms to assist the poorer pilgrims who have, in all probabilcy, made fhe whole joumey to Mecca fom their own covncry on £008 Some of the West African pilgcims have been as much a ten years on the journey, taking employment for a while ae th: Yatious towns they poss on their way. Following the Arab custom, when my appetite was satisfied, I lefe my place with an exclamation of l-Hamdu li T-Lib — “Thanks be ro God” — and washed my hands and mouth, chen reclined on cushions while strong Arab coffee or tea was served ‘At this time of the day chete is no blame if one falls asleep in the drowsy heat of the early afcernoon as the conversation drones ‘on and on, and one by one che heads nod and the eyes close After an hour or so I was awakened by the call of the Mueczzin for the Afternoon Prayer. When the Prayer was over, refreshing mine tea was served Now thar the hottest part of the day was past, ie was pleasant to stroll among he ents and exchange greetings here and there in che words used by Muslims the world over: arSalaemu ‘Aleykum ! — "Peace be upon you! 16 An English Muslin and bis wife both clad in tram regulatvon tlotber. A male pilgrim covers himself in two unsewn sheets of ‘loth and the female pilgrim in ber normal clothes, but ber face must be uncovered Uram emphasises visually the fundamental spiritual and moral ‘equality between man and man ‘The return journey to Mina. As sunset diew net, preparations were made for the eek from “Arafat to Mina, where the final ceremonies of the Pil irimage ove held. Tens were being struck and packed with the Exception of the cookhouse” whch was left tnt the ls, at fe irusual to take © light anal after the Sons Prayer, before leaving the Plan "The Mitday and. Afternoon, Prayers ate cecied silent, bug the Sansct Prayer is seed aloud, and 1 experienced 2 fesing of world-wide unity and brotherhood a 1 litened co the PrayerLenders of che. various Tie. groupe veining. the fntiar words of the opening chaprcc ofthe oly Qur sn aed atFatiha” followed by tie lusy’Aameen"” of th “wor shippers Dircty after the Sonset Prayer we ate our evening meal, afer which we dank the usual cofee oF fem, and arranged Sleventh hour details for the last past of che Pgrimage THE ISLAMIC REVIEWA map showing she trek of the pilgrims at Meccu. The distance between Mecca and "Arafat is abous 15 kilometres _— THE Kase Already che whole Plain presented a scene of confusion as each Perey took the road, either in private cas, asiy buses, lores fn camelback of dnkey-bck, or even on foot. As there f very Ite twilight ia ein part ofthe world, was quite dak by ty time, bue the eounelss lights from the vehicle headlamps sad from lanrerns made up for the lack of natural light, ‘Dest the lack of athe control as judged by Wester standards I coald foc help admising the eficient way in which the Ars police All of whom were barely disdaguthable trom the rest Of the igrims, conelled the tovemene of the half amillion people From the lin af “Arsfat to the stall Aub iluge of ‘Whos Here in che West we would have mide special tafe routes with white armlerted rac police every few yards, motorcyle police, wireless cas, and soon but here the ciy wis" Reco Moving! "asthe unofficial convoy moved forward go the journey to Mina. 1 considered this deploymenc a mirale of trate Conte 25, ia most pert the cond fs 0 move than a sandy tack sad Every now and then one pissed vehicles stuck in the and se the Side of he ro OCTOBER 1950 aay 3 , Sap wAMRAT cael raneers) ae J sian nana miSave The symbolic ceremony of Stoning the Satan at Target. Following the age-old wadiions, we made a short hale at 2 veering’ place on the road called Musdalifa, where ts the Custom to gather seven small ones about the'size of a pea. At long last, we reached Mina, which iis “one-way teatie’ rues throug ts two narrow srcets being among fh lucky oe, was lodged ina house with out pasty, aldhosgh most of the rope were busy pitching thee setts which had sheltered them during the day on the Plain of “Arsfac”-AS soon as possible, we made out say dhrough she crowded sticts te 4 store bel se the end of the vilage knowa is al Shaan Kab, oe the Big Devil We threw our seven stones at this bel with = of Bima, Allabu akbar —~ "Inthe name of God, God isthe cates.” This ceremony signifies ovr hatred of evi (symbolised By the stone obelisk, and our resoluuon to lead beret lives henceforward. ‘Oa the ewo sbeceding days Of the say i, Mona itis necesary «0 throw seven stones a wo more cba alSbaitan a watent or the Midule Bev) and al hn saphir (or the Small Devil) By che sime ne evenly tached A picture of the bintorie ‘mountain that encloses. the Plain of ‘Arafat. i is from this mountain that "rhe Prophet Mubummad delivered the epoch-making Farewell Pilgrimage Address — the Magna Carta of the Muslim World — that des troyed all unconscionable barriers of race and colour from amongst the Muslims 1”one's domicile, whether stone-buile house or tent, ie was long, past ‘idighe andthe strain gf the constant movement throughout the day made sleep doubly weleome. On the nexe day, in order to complete the customary essentials of the Pilgtimage, it is eee 0 remove’ a minim of ere bis from the ead, when the stae of Iram (Pilgeimage) may be assumed co have _ - = ~~, this ritual. One may now deess in normal everyday clothes, as this day is the Fease of the Sacriice, known as Id al-Adha, when sheep, cow, or camel (according to one's means) is killed in ‘memory of the time when Abraham was told by God in a vision to sactifce his’ son, but, when oa the poine of making this sacrifice, he was told co hold his hand and to killa sheep instead, a5 a token of his good faith. Ie is the custom to give the meat of the sacrificed animals t0 the poor. ‘Mina had overnight been transformed from sn ordinary ligde Arab village into 2 verizable town, with its streets and houses full of pilgrims enjoying the Festival in an atmosphere of gaieey and bonhomie, while the mountain slopes surrounding the village were thickly doted wich thousands of colourful tents ‘which yesterday were pitched on the Plain of ‘Arafat. The varied dress of the many nationalities made the scene very colourful, ‘while, ae nighe, the town was ablaze with Ighe and he hillsides were staey. with the lights from the Taaeras in the cents. I exchanged visits with fiends old and new and wished them ‘Id mubarah ! — a Happy Pease! ‘On the fise day OF the Feast 1 went wich my friends to visie His Majesty King “Abdel ‘Aziz iba Sa'ud, who holds "open house” a his temporary palace at Mina, and, with s wasm hand shake, receives dhe greetings ofall. who wish to visie him. Arab Coffs oF iend lemonade was served to each guest, who, when he leaves the King’s presence, cakes with him a feeling of well being and brotheshood, radiated by Iba Studs strong per. sonalcy While I was at Mina during my Sse Pilgeimage in 1947, 1 wwas ina friends tent listening to a battery radio set, whea T heard a lecate given by a Muslim religious lide from Regent's Park, London, to whom I bad fst made my profession of ny bullet in Ili, ‘The lectte, which wat oa the subject of ‘Abraham's willingness co sacrce even his own son, came over ‘ery dearly, and the radio see completed he link berwcea Loadon Ind Abia and gave one the feeling thatthe word was indeed 4 small place “The Feast celebrations conned for thre days, during which opportunities were caken forthe discussion of iateraadonal prob- tems, both politcal and social, in an_acmosphere of friendliness aid sincerity, without the overhanging suspicion of fatigue ‘which unfortunatly prevsils st so many Of the presenta incemational conferentes ‘However, many of the pilgrims Ie Mina at the ead of the second. day and returned #0, Mecca tn route for Medina, whete they went (0 visi the tomb of the Proplce Mubammad "AC the end ofthe chird day, the "phatom cown” of Mina ‘once more undergoes & chinge, unl othe nextday it sees down to the everyday Greamy life of an ordinary file “Arab Vilage, aad she Pilgitmage ‘is over for another yet. T'may mention thar as tanspore facies improve and nore ada is provided ncensingnobers fpline te expected A special Post Olfice i set up at Mina, where telegrams of congratulations on the Feast may Be sent any part of the word, and a modera publicadatesssyscem has been tnsalled, both at the Great Mosque at Mecta, and on the Plain of ‘Arafat, 20 that che vist congtegation my hear the sexmons Sehich are preached on whis ocason "The pilgrim recurs home, happy in his hear, chat he as been able to accomplish this important and bles pillar of Kiam, and expresses his thanks an appreciation that under the presen rule of King Ibo Ss he hs been. permicrsd 0 catty uc his obligations without feat of being killed or plundered oa the desere fonds, a6 was very prevalent before the accession of this great Arab ruler who 1s Toved and respected by all who kaow him, INDONESIA MERDEKA The Fifth Anniversary of Indonesian Independence (August 17th, 1945 — August 17th, 1950) By P. H. ROFE “For five years now, the Indonesian people have been working hard to make: themselves worthy of theit newly-acquired freedom, destroying the old order, rebuilding ‘and reforming. Ever on their ‘the word Merdeka. It is used as a greeting on entering 2 house, it figures at the commencement of speeches and letters, and has been given as a name to children, hotels and town squares. The meaning of this word is ‘Freedom’. Indonesia is, in truth, a glorious example and encouragement to all those countries, Islamic and others, who are still fighting for theie right to freedom and independence, desirous also of throwing off the yoke ‘of foreign domination and repression, so that they may likewise acquire international recognition of those rights which belong to all free peoples” Freedom at last. I is now five years since the red and white fag of Indonesian independence firse futtered freely in the breeze. Five years since President Sukarno made his brave bid, under the shadow of Dai Nippon, for Indonesia henceforth to occupy her righeful place among the free nations of the world No date is more well known, more cherished among the inhabitants of all those islands formerly termed the Dutch East Indies, than Angust 17, 1945, when they became members of a free and independent nation, no longer to be subject to foreign ‘exploitation and dominacion, At thar time, their independence 18 was laggely cheoretical. Before it could become a fact, the people had co wat se forthe departure of the Japanese amy of ‘occupation, Then they had to give their life-blood ro resist Dutch arrempts with armed force ¢o Fe-occupy the islands and proclaim them oace more a pare of the Netherlands’ Empire. Four years of struggle and suffering lay ahead of the Indonesian people in 1945. It was noc until December, 1949, that they obeained intemational recognition of thae independence which they had been proclaiming as a fact to the outside world for four long years. At lase che sovereignty was transferred from the Hague to the national leaders, and on December 27, 1949, the frst Cabinee of the Republic of United Indonesia was formed, THE ISLAMIC REVIEW‘The Federated States to have one central government. Indonesia coasists of a number of islands of the Malay archipelago, stretching from wesc to east over an area nearly 3% broad as Europe. In this area there are hundreds of languages spoken by numerous races. Ia common they have the factor of their Malay origin, their occupation by the Dutch for 350 yeats, and many identical traditional observances. The majority of che inhabitants of the more westerly islands are Muslin, The more prosperous and populated islind of the group is Jova ane was from mid-Java thatthe revolutionary mevemne Fire gained its stengeh To mid-Java i the chief centre of ancient Javanese culture, Djogjkart,a-rown wheze Western inflaence aever gained the ascendancy, and where today the population of about 200,000 coneinue to observe their ancient casoms, i an trea which has koown Hind, Buddhise and Musim euleie. Ia Djogakazta was formed the fst independent Indonesia govern ment Late, whe 2 ote modern an ges town was feed a. capa for dhe whole archipelago, Dskarca locmery named Batavia), in North Wes Java, was chosen 7 The Minister of Religion, Mubammad Fakih ‘Usman, in the outgoing Hasta Government OCTOBER 1950 In Djakarta used co sit che federal government, named the Republik Indonesia Serikat, or “Republic of United States of Indonesia” Goverment (RULS, as distince from RL. in Djogjakarea). Most of the leaders of the RLS. government were formerly in Djogjakarta in the early days of the revolution, and later moved 0 Djakarta, che cosmopolitan centre where ate all the foreign diplomats and representatives In July 1950, 2 conference was held in Djakarta with repre- sentatives from all the various local governments of Indonesia, with @ view co forming one central government to administer alone the entire Indonesia territory, by the fusion and unison of the vatious present governments. At first, there were some minor disagreements, both Djogjakasta and Djakazta seeking to become the capital of the new Stace, Finally, Djakarta was chosen, as being the most expedient centre. It was decided ¢o form the new government in August or September this year. Accordingly the ew government proclaimed by Presidene Sukarno on August 17, 1950, isto be known as the Republik Indonesia goverament. The new Stare will from now on be known as the Republic of Indonesia, ‘When Indonesia was first proclaimed aa independenc Stace fon August 17, 1945, it was knowa as the Republic of Indonesia ‘Through four years of struggle for freedom, it retained that ame until the Round Table Conference in’ the Hague in November, 1949, agreed to the establishment of the Republic of the United States of Indonesia on December 27, 1949, However, because the structure of a federal government with sixteen separace governments for each of the States, fifteen of Which were organized by che Dutch during the military and political actions against the Republic of Indonesia, was unsuited Tor the needs of eficient and. progressive government in hae ‘country, the people of the fifteen States vored through their State legislatures 10 disband theie separate governments. On August 15, 1950, the Indonesian House of Representatives and Senate voted overwhelmingly to amend the RUSI. constitution and ‘wo days later the Republic of Indonesia was proclaimed, Some personalities of Djogjakarta, (1) The most popular figure in Indonesia to-day, apare frm President Sukarno, is undoubtedly HH. Hamenko Buwono IX, Sultan of Djogjakarta, and Minister of Defence of the RLS government. Thirgy-eight years of age, he was educated. in Fiolland. His extremely democratic views ace well kaown, and from the first he co-operated wholeheartedly with che Nationalist movement. The Sultan is to-day considered the symbol of Indonesian unity. (2) The Minister of Religion in the Ri. government was ‘Muhammad Fakib ‘Usman, bom in 1904 in Ease Java. He actached himself early to the Muhammadiya Parry, later to the Masjumi (che principal, amie ‘politcal pare, in Tndonesia today). An Arabic scholar, he has translated Arabic works into Indonesian Malay. His other interests include commerce and journalism, and he takes a keen incerest in all that is happening in other parts of the Islamic world 3) The former Minister of Education, Sarmidi Manguasas- koro, is an ardent nationalist, and was long associated with the Nationalist movement led ‘by President Sukarno. He was strongly opposed to any form of compromise with the Nether: lands government. He is very keen for the youth of to-day to retain their interest in their own eraditional culrure, and yet t0 discard those forms of regional observances which stand in the way of a broader conception of Indonesian unity. 19Ista is With the exception of she islind of Bali, of which the inhabitants ate followers” of Hinduism (with Buddhism minority), and. such parts of Indonesia as" are inhabited by primiive head-huncing savages, the whole of the population 1s Muslim Islam in Indonesia presents a very different aspect from thar of the Arab coun on auch Sats os Fakign, The ist converts in Java were made at che beginning of the 16th ceneury, ice same teaching: was avalabe frome Matin aders on Yrasious pars of the cous Io mid-Java was the powerful Hindu Kingdon of Macaram, which only collapsed in the 17th cenruy SCLC LhLLr————. Buddhist sins. Islam was only able co gain ground in this ouncty by showing sespect forthe popolar beliefs and traditions The people learned to abandon their idols and attest the unity OF Ga whe they fos aang incongraas in rains th belifo'in a host of invisible forces, inhabiting. tees, plants, Stones, etc” Islam has here effected an advancement inthe inelleceual tirade ¢0 the cosmos while beyond adherence. the Unity of God and the Prophethood of Mubammad, lide has Ghanged fn the ancient, profoundly mystical spiritual life of the Javanese country-dwells Lide is known of Islamic observances to. the average Indonesian. Sixty-eight per cent of the population engage in agriculture, and the average daily wage is 1d. Under such con. ditions, few have had the opporunity to learn much. Among 65 million Indonesians, 90 per cent ate totaly ilierae under Dutch colonization, just before the war, only 600 pupils out of the population of the entire country’ received higher school Indonesia, (Below) ‘ld al-Fitr in Djogiatarta in 1949 This was the last occasion on which the leaders of Indonesia ‘were ill in Djogjakarta. This year they celebrated the ‘Td festival in Dyakarta (formerly known as Batavia) Erom left to right : The former Minitser of Religion, Mubammad Fabih ‘Usman, President Sukarno, Dr. Hatta, the former Prime Minister, Dr. Sukiman, President of the Masjumi (Muslim Party) HLH. Saltan of Djogiakarts, and Mr. Astaat, the Miniser of rhe Interior in the newly constituted Dr. Natsirs Government HH. the Sultan of Djogiakarta, Vice-Premier in the new Government of Indonesia The Sultan, who holds the rank of Liew-General in the Indonesian Army, is seen bere witnessing a march pass on Army Day on October 3, 1949 education. To succeed in life commercially, chey were obliged to perfect their knowledge of Dutch, Thus, with theic intellectual efforts expended on Dutch and Malay in addicion to their own language, few had the means, time or eneray lefe co be devored to Islamic or Arabic studies, chough many tried co learn the Qui'én by heart, while, almose totally ignorant of the meaning of what they recited. In Sumatra are to be found the most pious and instructed Muslims. In mid-Java, few pray regularly or fast during Ramadan. This, however, is co be attributed rather to economic causes than to ‘negligence, Festivals are everywhere celebrated with great rejoicing, though few understand their full signifi cance and origins. Yer ie may be truly ssid chat the people of Java are Muslims at heazt, even if they are under-inseructed from the theological poinc of view. In many cases their mystic, intuitive temperament compensates largely for the lack’ of scholastic accomplishments Plans for the future. ‘The Indonesian government is baling bravely wich all the various and manifold problems created by che achievement of Independence. Everywhere chere is a lack of prime necessities ; hard currency, teachers, materials, housing, doctors, ete. The entire THE ISLAMIC REVIEWThe Minister of Education, Sarmidi Mangunsarkoro, in the outgoing Hatta Government race is making an effore to achieve miracles in the next few years. The country is wealthy and supplies materials bedly needed by countries of the dollarzone. Formerly the profits from such products went overseas to Holland, while the peasants continued fo starve in their ignorance. Now i will shordy be possible for the people of Indonesia to benefit personally from the proceeds of local industries. The government wishes first of all to raise the purchasing power of the average citizen, With increased purchasing power must come @ more advanced education. "Where before 600 students attended advanced Higher Schools, to-day 9,000 have these facilities Schools ere overcrowded, classes are t00 large. Yet, step by step, all these problems are being solved. More and more books are being translared into Indonesian Malay (which unlike chat of Malaya, is exclusively written in Roman characters), and the ‘couniry has a coul of 67 daily newspapers, appearing in Malay, Ghinese, and Dutch. The Durch language as been entirely climinated from all modern education, and replaced by Malay, a5 1 teaching medium. English is now taught everywhere as 3 medium of communication with Wescera races, and o enable students to follow cechnical works published in thar language. Plans are being made 10 encourage more Indonesians to trade (formerly only 5 per ceat of che population engaged ia OCTOBER 1950 ‘commerce). By this means, it is to be hoped chat Chinese profiteering and exploitation of the people will gradually be abolished. “To-day the markers ace sell full of Chinese manu- factured substitutes for many British and American goods, spurious articles that are being sold to che ignorant purchaser at ‘many times the cost of the genuine article. The later is frequently unavailable owing to import restriction, Java is considered over-populated, and plans have been made to resettle numbers of families in’ different under-populsted islands. The people still demand that Holland hand over Trian (Dutch New Guinea) to che Indonesian. government, Irian is fone half of the world’s second largest iskind. Formerly a part of the Dutch East Indies, ic has nor yet been ceded to Indonesia, ‘of which it forms a part linguistically and geographically Meanwhile, the Islamic political parties contiaue their work of educating che masses in a better knowledge of their religion An Islamic University is now being created in Djogjakarta, and schools are active in disseminating theelogical instruction and Arebic grammar, For five years now, the Indonesian people have been work- ing hard to make themselves worthy of their newly-acquired free dom, destroying the old order, rebuilding and reforming, Ever on their lips is the word Merdeke. Ic is used as a greeting on centering a house, it figures ac the commencement of speeches and levers, and has been given as a name to children, hotels and town squares. The meaning of this word is " Freedom", Indonesia is, in truth, a glorious example and encouragement 10 all those councties, Islamic and others, who are still fighting for their right to freedom and independehce, desirous also of throwing off the yoke of foreign domination and repression, so that they may Likewise acquite international recognition of those rights ‘which belong to all free peoples, ‘Ud al-Fitr in Djogjabarta, 1950 ‘The Khutba (Sermon) is being delivered by Dr. Avast, Minister of the Interior, in the New Indonetian Government constituted by Dr. Muhammad Nets'r, who bas succeeded Dr Hatta as Premier of the Republic of IndonesiaMAHYA Illuminated Inscriptions of Turkey By NECATI In the nights of sacred fasting and on festivals the skies of Istanbul are lighted with illominated drawings and inscriptions, such as" Allah”, "Mubammad”, “Welcome”, ” Farewell", fand similar verses, hung between two minarets of many of the mosques. ‘Those who are noe familiar wich che customs of this City gaze at these lights with greac incerest and admiration. These flluminations give an impression as if, 0 prepare such inscrip- tions, a heavenly hand had selected some stars from the sky and had placed them there. ‘These ilhiminated inscriptions, which can be seen nowhere cbse in the world but Istanbul, are called Mabyz, and the artist ‘who instal chem is called Mabjaci (Mahya maker). What is Mahya ? ‘This illumination has co be fixed on three thick ropes of wires between two minaret of the mosque, one of the Topes being the, mainline and the oer wo being used ro arrange the. positions of the oll light bulbs (or electric bulbs). which form the leters luminated Every. single bulb, that form pt of the Kters of che sentence reel be ome ms be. placed. locally one by one benteen the ropes, They could noe be prepared beforehand and Strung tp afterwards, During the fixing of these luminated inscriptions the ol Tight balbs, hang’ on the ropes before being fixed a their proper level begin to swing around and truce caves. of light inthe darkness, giving # poetical Sppearance ‘Tike the falling of inandreds of stars The Fixation of these bulbs ‘on the main r0pe ts‘an operation that requites prea experience. Only very well Ceaned aed qualified specials undertake and complete the work ally and withoue failure Before the inseallacion che specialist in charge has ro make a sketch and fix the level of evety bulb co be strung and mark ies position on the paper. Buc this is « acd job. One is con- frosted ‘with some’ mathematical problems and_conseguendy good mathematics are also needed, Somerimes slide mistake in the mathematical operations may cause considerable disorder in the line of the sentence t0 be strung. To locate such a mistake tsa matter as dffcule a to calculate small igure among a tual of thousands “The difficuley of this att can easily be realized and under- seood from the fact that even the best master of ehe are needs & Stall of & persons and 15 days ro complete en ostallaton of this Find. Singe the early days of the beginning of this are unel the presen time, in every historical period thas has passed 50 fat, noe nore than two of thee artists have existed in ‘Turkey who could Be Considered a past pasters of the are ethaps the falene and cad Cm 2 The name of the Prophet Mubammad displayed in electric light illumination — Mabya — between the minaress of vbe Bayacid Mosque at Istanbul, Turkey DOGANBEY ability of creation inthis direcion isa naural impulse cha could nly be bestowed by the grace of Go How this art was created. Driog the petod of Sultan Abmed I, clligeaphist named ‘Ahmed ‘Kefevi, one of the muezzins of the Mosque Fatih (Mehmec the Conqueror), decorated a wonderful inscription on four comers of 2 large cloth and presented it a6 4 gilt © the Sultan Ahmed ‘Kefevi received 4 warm recepeion and. con- Sidcrable offerings. from the Sultan. ‘The caligaphise then Yentured co make the following requcse of the Saltan: "If your Majesty woul be gracious enough to order me co do 0, I should beloroured sting and lumina he sume insripion Berween two f the minares ofthe Sultan Ahmed Mosque” Te may be remnarked in pasing tat this mosque Ts the only one dha has Six minarets, built under dhe ofders of Solan Ahmed Magy of, he sax abjected to this request and lame that such a ork could tthe elie tha th faligephise had requested. cis in onder to secure some benebit for hime “At list in spite of Placing any money a¢ thecal Graphists. disposal, the Sun owed him co sare dhe istalla- tion of 4 Mahya between dhe iminafets of the Sule Ahmed Mosque. Not long after dis the Ciligrphist Ketest _proeded srth the work, sad of a sacred Dighe was secesfl comple tng for the fst time in hissy the invtallacion of an ilsminated inscription in space, and hs his cameras been. enrolled in im- thoral fame, "This event of i scribing in dark space iuminated verses trom the Holy Quen, Sxpresave, as celestial light, bas a world-wide importance (ib26 a) "the honour of erating the art of illuminated inscriptions (M@tabya) belongs to che Tusks, Indeed very few people know this fet. "This Turkish ate, which was made known some 300 Yeats ago, bas since become’ teidtion, and still exis atthe “The name of thrshim. Mueferia mise be mentioned moog thase who hive helped to improve tis ar in Turkey. ‘The commencement of this improvement began in the period ar Sultan “Aue Buc the climas of the art was reached during the reign of Sultan Rashid and che last Caliph Majid. With the S25 ad inerese of the imperial Princes and Beys even. the ineerions ofthe monques used tobe illuminated with Suc inserip- font extended from he top of the cresent down tO the floor. fers generally suppsed hat this was the best period of the at Prince Seyfeddin son of Sultan “Ariz, had leaned this art from the master craftsman “Ali Ceyhan, who isthe oaly living artis THE ISLA MIC REVIEW