Pneumatic Controls

Pneumatic Controls
JOJI P.
'
Pneumatic Controls
Joji P.
Deputy Director of Training,
Govt. of India, )linistry of Labour & Employment
Directorate General of Employment & Training (DGE&T),
Foremen Training Institute, Bangalore
\"1ilc-y lndia Pvt. Ltd.

Pnewnatic Controls
Copyright@ 20 08 by \ Viley India P\t. Ud , 4435/7, Amari Road~Daryaganj~ Ne\.,. Delhi-110002.
All ,W,ts resel'\'ed. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form \\ithout the written permission of the
publisher.
limits ofLiability: While the publisher and the author ha,-. used their best efforts in preparing this book,
\\:Uey India Pvt. Ltd and the author make no representation or warranties \\ith respect to the accuracy or
completeness of the contents ofthis book, and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of mei:cliantability or
fitness for any particular purpose. There are no warranties \\nich extend beyond the descriptions contained in this
paragraph. Xo warranty may be created or e.\tended by sales representali\·es or written sales materials. The accuracy
and completeness of the information pfO\ided herein and the opinions stated herein are not guaranteed or warranted
to produce any particular results, and the ad\ioe and strategies contained herein mar not be suitable for el'ery
indi\adual. :,either\\'iley India Pit Ud. nor the author shall be liable for any loss of profit or air;other commercial
damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages,
Disclaimer of Liabili~o The contents of this book ha,,. been checked for aocuracr , Since de,aations cannot be
precluded entirely, Wiley India P\1, Ltd or its authors cannot guarantee full agreement As the book is intended for
educational purpose; ,viler India Pvt, Ltd or its authors shall not be responsible forany errors~omissions ordamages
arising out of the use of the information contained in the book. Only qualified personnel should be allo\\'ed to install
and work on pneumatic and electrical equipment. Qualified persons are defined as persons ,,noare authorized to
commission; to ground and to tag circuits;, equipment and systems in acoordance ,-.ith established safety practices and
standards.
This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritati,,. information \\ith regard to the subject matter
covered. It is sold on the understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rende.riog professional ser\ices. If
professional ad\iceor other e.,.-pert assistance is required, the senioes of a competent professional should be sought
Trademarks: .,\ll brand names and product names used in this book are trademarks, registered trademarks, or
trade names of their respective holders. Wiley India Pit. Ltd. is not a..<sociated \\ith any product on-.ndor mentioned
in this book.
First Indian Edition: 2008

ISBN: 978-81-265-1542-4
ISBN: 978-81-265-8004-o (ebk)

Foreword
I am happy to write foreword for this book written by Joji P. I compliment the author for
his dedicated and committed efforts to bring out this much-needed book. Pneumatics is
basically an emerging technical area, especially in the world of industrial automation.
The engineering design of a pneumatic system requires the knowledge of how to
interconnect various components of the system, such as actuators, valves, sensors, etc.,
to satisfy various control requirements.
There are only a few books available for reference in this field. A student has to refer
to many books to get the complete information on this subject. This book provides a
comprehensive study of pneumatic and electro-pneumatic systems and presents all
related information together. The fundamentals of pneumatic systems, typical
pneumatic and electro-pneumatic circuits, and the maintenance aspects of pneumatic
systems are all well covered. Interfacing of pneumatic system components "ith PLCs
and their programming aspects are also well covered. This book also carries latest topics,
such as fluidic muscle, vacuum equipment, valve terminals, etc., which have, perhaps,
been presented for the first time compared to other contemporary books on this subject.
So the students need only one book for their study of pneumatics.
Further, the author has tried to project a comprehensive account of the subject
matter in a proper logical sequence and in an easy-to-understand language. The
balanced treatment of theory, t echnology, and circuits makes this book rather unique
and educational. I recommend Joji's timely book not only for undergraduate students
but also for professionals and industrial technicians involved in pneumatics. I believe
that this informative book "ill benefit many readers and be a fine reference.
HA Keshava l\furthy
Deputy Director General
Go,1. of India, l\'linistry of Labour & Employment
Directorat e General of Employment & Training (DGE&T)
New Delhi
Preface
Pneumatic Controls is an introductoiy textbook designed to provide basic t echnical

information for dealing " ith pneumatic components, circuit diagrams, PLC programs
and systems. Educating people to properly use pneumatic power is crucial for the
economical use of energy. The three aspects ha,ing a ,ital bearing on the efficient use of
pneumatic power are: proper designing of pneumatic circuits, selection of appropriate
components for a pneumatic system, and top-class maintenance of a system. This
textbook covers the operation and maintenance procedures of pneumatic devices
thoroughly. It has been designed to make students, engineers, and technicians feel at
ease while trJ,ing to understand the 'why' and 'ho\1° of the operating principles of
pneumatic and electro-pneumatic equipment and their control aspects including
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)-based controls.
The contents of this book evolved gradually over the last 10 years from the notes
used by the author in training the participants attending programmes on 'Pneumatic
Controls', 'Electro-pneumatics', and 'Programmable Logic Controllers' at the Foremen
Training Institute, Bangalore. Besides, a number of books, manuals and catalogues were
consulted, and information from the electronic media was used in the preparation of
this book. The author has tried to acknowledge all these sources in the bibliography. As
pneumatics is among the fastest gro\\ing engineering fields, the book's text has been
kept as current as possible. The illustrations and their explanatory t e:-.1: graciously
supplied by many manufacturers are greatly acknowledged.
The author expresses his appreciation of ff_,\,K for his, professional advice and
constant encouragement that helped a lot in the book completion. The writing of this
book was inspired and assisted by numerous scholars working in the area especially
S.D.L., B.V.S., D.V.K, KR.G., G.N.E., G.C.R., C.R.S., B.N.S., and J . :Mukhopadhyay. It is
a pleasure to thank each one of them for their intellectual exchanges, valuable
suggestions, critical reviews and technical assistance. Several organizations have also
contributed significantly to this effort. The author also extends his thanks t o his former
students for their evaluation and suggestions during the early stages of the manuscript
preparation. l\Iost of the text material have been reviewed and tested in the classroom
by both trainers and students. To everyone involved goes my deepest appreciation.
Thanks to Paras Bansal, the editorial, and the production team at \\Tiley India for
handling the production of the first edition of this book. The author also wishes to
express his thanks to all friends who have helped in any manner in the preparation and
writing of this book.
\ \1hile working on this book, the author had spent long hours, numerous evenings
and weekends in isolation during the last few years that had a bearing on his personal
life. He appreciates the patience and understanding of his friends, students and his
family members during these t ense periods.
The author requests all prospective readers to offer their valuable suggestions for
further improvements. Finally, the book has been completed and the author hopes you
enjoy reading it. Have fun and good luck!
Acknowledgements
The author expresses grateful thanks to the follo" ing organizations in the alphabetical
order for their support and kind permission t o reproduce extracts from their training
material and other publications.
• Festo Controls
• Norgren 11\H
• Nucon
• SIEl\fENS
• S)-lC Pneumatics
JOJIP
Contents
Prefa ce
1 Industrial Prime J.\,lovers

Learning Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Power System Functions
1.3 Control ~stem Functions
1.4 )Iechanisation and Automation
1.5 Electrical Power System
1.6 Fluid Power System
1. z....._Hydraulic Power System
1.8 Pneumatic Power System
1.9 Selection of Energy l\Iedia
1.10 Comparison of Different Energy :Media
1.11 Overall Power ~stem
Questions
2 Introduction to Pneumatics
Learning Objectives
2.1 Pneumatics - Definition
2.2 Compressed Air for Transmitting Power
2.3 Historical Review
2.4 ComP-osition of Atmospheric .'\ir
2.5 SI System of Units
2.6 Review of .Mechanics
2.7. Pascal's Law
2.8 Air Pressure
2.9 Economical Pressure in Pneumatics
2.10 Pressure Scales
2.11 GasLaws
2.12 Boyle's Law
2.13-.fuy-Lussac's Law
2.14 Charles' Law
2.15 Combined Gas Law
2.16 Air Compression Process
2.17. Free .'\ir and Kormal .'\ir
2.18 Flow Rate
2.19 Fluid Velocitr.
2.20 Contaminants in Atmospheric Air
2.21 Absolute Humidity and Relative Humidity
2.22 Quality of Compressed .'\ir
2.23 Characteristics of Compressed Air
2.24 Pneumatic Applications
2.25 Standardisation
Questions
3 Com11ressed Air Generation and Contamination Control

Leaming Objectives
3.1 A Typical Pneumatic System
3.2 Air Compressors
3,3 Classification of Compressors
3.4 Terms and Definitions
Delivery, volume
Pressure
Drive
Cooling
Regulation
3,5 Compressor Types
ReciprocatingJ>iston compressor
Dia12hragm compressor
Screw compressor
Flow compressor
3.6 Preparation
3.7 Stages of Preparation
3.8 After-Cooler
3.9 !\fain-Line filter
3.10 Oil Removal
3.11 Dryer
Dew point temperature and pressure dew point
Absorption dry,er
Adsorption dry_er
Dew point measurement
Refrigerated dry_er
l\fembrane dry,er
3.12 Air Receiver
3,13 Air Distribution System
Fluid conductors
Fitting§.
Qyick-disconnect coupling
Air fuse
Flow resistance
Sizing.9f_piping~ystem
Pipe threads
Pipe layout
3.14 Secondary Air Treatment
Filter
Filter-regulator
Pressure gaugg
Lubricator
Air service unit
Questions
.4. PneumaticActuators
Learning Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Basic Actuator Functioning
4,3 Thrust
4~4_ Cylinder Air Consumption
4,5 __~ylinder Speed and its Relation to flow Rate
4.6 Stroke Leng!!!
4;7- Piston-Rod Buckling
4.8 Constructional Details
Barrel
Piston
Piston rod
End ca~
Seals
.4.9 All about seals
Characteristics
Classi.ficati.on
Seal design
Seal materials
4.10 Installation of Cylinders
4.11 Classification of Pneumatic Actuators
4.12 Linear Actuators
4.13 Single-Acting_Cylinder
4.14 Double-Acting_Cylinder
4.15_ Cylinder Cushioning
Fixed cushion cylinder
Adjustable cushion gy_linder
4.16 Classification of Cylinders According to Dutr.
llficro-gy_linders
llfidget cylinders
Standard-duty_s;ylinders
Heavy-duty_s;y_linders
Other gy_linder variants
4.17- Diaphragm ~ylinders
4.18 Cylinder with i\Iagnetic Piston
4.1uylinder "ith Non-Rotational Guiding
4.20 Rodless Cylinders
llfagneti.c coupling_
lvlechanical coupling
d,pplicati.on oirodless gy_linders
4.21 Cylinder "ith Through Piston Rod
4.22 Bellows Actuator
4.23 Pneumatic .Muscle
Pneumati.c muscle terms
Characteristi.cs
Advantages
Disadvantages
Safgty_
Application ofJ2neumatic muscle
4.24 Tandem Cylinder
4.25 :Multi-Position ~ linder
4.26 Impact Cylinder
4.2-z....Hydro-Pneumatic Feed Unit
4.28 Pneumatic Feed Unit
4.29 Rotm Inde.xing Table
,:1.30 GriPPfil:
Types of_grjppers
Finger-like griRPer
Vacuum devices
.4,31 Rotm Actuators
.4,32 Semi-Rot ary Actuators
.4,33 Air :Motors
Piston motor
Radial piston motor
Axial piston motor
Gear motor
Turbine motor
Vane motor
4,3.4 Pneumatic Tools
Questions
5 Pn eumatic Valves and Control Circuits

Learning Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Classification ofVa!Yes
5.,3 Functional Classification of Valves
Directional control valves
Non-return valves
Pressure-control valves
Flow-control valves
5,..4 Graphic Representation
5.5 Port )'larking~
5.6 Ports and Positions
5.7 Graphic Symbols for DC Valves
5.8 l\fethods ofDCValveActuation
5,.9..-3L2-Directional Control Valves
NC-ty~/_2-DC valves
l\'O-ty~2-DC valve
5.10 Non-Return Valves
5.11 Check Valve
5.12 Flow-Control Valve
5'!3 Throttle Valve
5.14 One-,Vay Flow-Control ValYe
5.15 Pneumatically Actuated 3L2-DCValve
5.16 Control of a Rodless Cylinder
5,17 l\fanually Actuated ,iL2-DC POJ!J!et Valve
5.18 :Manually Actuated 5/2-DC Valve
5'19 Pneumatically Actuated,_5L2-DCValve
5.20 Speed Control of Double-Acting..Qylinder
Sul2J2]y-air throttling_
Exhaust-air throttling_
Pressure- speed grap.h
5.21 5/2-DC Double-Pilot Valve
Signal conflict
Application basis
5.22 Logic Controls, Pneumatic
Shuttle valve
Two-pressure valve
£:>.tension of-number of-inputs, logic valves
d,pplication of-logic valves
5,23 Structure of Pneumatic Circuits
Designation of-pneumatic system components
Representation of-valves actuated in the initial position
5.24 Automatic Control
5,25 Roller Vah·e
5.26 Quick-ExhaustValve
Silencers
5,27 Time-Delay Valves
Time-delay_ valve, NC-ty~
Time-delay_ valve, NO-ty~
Timing diagram
5.28 Pressure Sequence Valve
dJ;)plication of-pressure sequence valve
~g__Cyclic Operation of a Qylinder
5.,30 Pneumatic Counters
Questions
6 J.\,lultiple-Actuator Circuits
Learning Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Representation of a Control Task
T1Ut{orm
Positional layout
Notational form
Displacement-step diagram
Displacement-time diagram
6.3 Sequence Control
6.4 Circuit Design for the SequenceA+B+B- A-
6.5 Elimination of Signal Conflicts
Signal conflict elimination by_ idle-return rollers
Signal conflict elimination by_ reversing valves
Cascade method - Design and operating principles
Shift. register - Design and operating.12rinciples
6.6 Step l\fodule
6. z :VIodular Sequencer
Questions
z Electro-Pneumatics
Learning Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Integration of Technologies
7.3 Solenoid Valves
7.4 Fundamentals
z,5 DC Solenoids vs. AC Solenoids
Core construction
Behaviour oisolenoid during switching-on
Behaviour oisolenoid during switching-off
Other miscellaneous solenoid characteristics
'J..&_3/ 2-\ Vay Single Solenoid Valve,AJ)ring Return
z.,z_ 5/2-V,ay Single Solenoid Vah·e, Spring Return
7.8 5/ 2-\ Vay Double Solenoid Valve
7.9 Industrial Control Voltages
7.10 Control De,ices
7.11 S" itch
7.12 Push-Button
7.13 Terminal l\farkin~
7.;k4 Push-Button Station
7.15 Relax
7.16 Logic Controls, Electric
7.1z .M emon' Function
7.18 Operation of the 'Dominant OFP Circuit
7.19-0peration of the 'Dominant 0::-<' Circuit
7.20 Electronic Sensors
7.21 Limit Switch
7.22 Reed S"itch
7.23 Proximity Sensors
Inductive proximity_ sensor
Capacitive proximity_ sensor
Optical proximity_ sensors
Through-beam sensor
Diffy,se sensor
Comparison ofproximity_ sensors
Connection and circuit technology
7.24 Time-Delay Relays (Timers).
7.25 Two-Hand Safety Operation
7.26 Electric Counters
7.2z Pressure s,-itch
7.28 Electro-Pneumatic l\fultiple-Actuator Circuits
Designf..or two-groups electro-pneumatic circuit
Designf..or three-groups electro-12neumatic circuit
7.29 :Mounting i\-Iethods and Arrangements
7.30 i\-Iodular Valve Technologx
7.31 :Miniaturization, J\iodularitr., Integration, and Intelligence
Questions
8 Interfacing ,~ith PLC

Learning Objectives
8.1 Hard-\Vired Control Systems
8.2 Programmable Control Systems
8.3 Comparison of PLCs and Relays
8.!i, Structure of PLC
8.5 PLC System Components
Power suimJy_
InP-fili.oumut (l/.0) section
Analog input module
Analog output module
Digital input module
Digital output module
Central Processing Unit (CPlD.
8.6 CPU l:\femory Areas
Load memory:
l-Vork memory:
5y_stem memory_
8. 7. PLC Hardware Design
8.8 l:\fodular PLCs
8.9 PLC Software
8.10 Project Structure
8.11 Hardware Configuration
8.12 User programs
8.13 Program Scan-~
8.1!1, PLC Ladder Programming in General
8.15 PLC Bit Logic Operations
NO contact, PLC
z..rc contact, PLC
Coil, PLC
8.16 Program Contacts vs S"itching Contacts
Push-button NO contact vs program NO contact
Push-button NC contact vs program NO contact
Push-button NO contact vs program NC contact
Push-button NC contact vs program NC contact
8.1z PLC Logic Operations
8.18 PLC Timers
PLC on-delay timer
PLC oft-delay timer
8.19 PLC )Iemory Elements
8.20 Counters, PLC
8.21 11ultiple-Actuator Circuits for PLC-Based Control
8.22 Areas of PLC Application
8.23 PLC St andards
Questions
9 PneumaticAp.J!lication Concepts
Learning Objectives
9.1 Introduction
~5 Selection and Optimisation Criteria
'J:yR§_gf_motion
Stroke and stroke control
Force
Speed and speed control
9.,3 Classification of \Vork Operations
Vacuum systems
Inspection
9.,..4 Design of Pneumatic Systems
9.,5 Selection of Pneumatic Actuators
9.,5 Selection of Pneumatic Valves
Questions
10 l\iaintenance, Troubleshoo ting, and Safecy
Learning Objectives
10. 1 Introduction
10.2 Classification
10.3 Requirements of Preventive :VIaintenance
10.4 Definitions of l\faintenance Acti,-ities
10.5 Preventive :Maintenance of Pneumatic Systems
General maintenance procedure
10.6 System :Vfalfunctions
l\falfil.nctions due to contaminants
l\falfil.nctions due to im12roper mounting~
l\falfil.nctions due to inadequate air supp_/!,'
l\falfil.nctions due to under-lubricationLover-lubrication
10. 7 :VIaintenance Ti~
l\faintenance oicompressors
l\faintenance oiair receivers
lvlaintenance oiair-mains
l\faintenance oiair service unit (FRL).
l\faintenance of pneumatic gylinders
l\faintenance of pneumatic valves
10.8 Troubleshooting
General troubleshooting procedure
Faults in pneumatic systems
10.9 ~ neral :Vfalfunctions
l\falfil.nctions in pneumatic gylinders
lv!alfil.nctions in pneumatic valves
l\falfil.nctions in limit switches and reed switches
10. 10 Safetr in Pneumatic Systems
Sa.fgty, hazards
General saiety, measures
10 . 11 Energy Saving
Questions
Ap.J!endix 1 GraP.h ical Symb ols for Pneumatic Components as

per ISO 1219
Ap.J!endix 2 Graph ical Symbols for Electrical Components
Ap.J!endix 3 General Information on Pneumatic Actuators
Ap.J!endix 4 Conversion Tables
Ai!l!endix 5 Comparative Study of SIE:.VIENS and Allen Bradlex
PLCs
Ai!l!endix 6 ComJlaratiYe Study Of Pure Pneumatic, Electro-
Pneumatic, and PLC-Based Controls
Ap.J!endix 7 Designation of Pneumatic System ComJlonents bY.
Alph abets
Biblio~JmY.
1 Indt1strial Pri1ne Movers
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completing this chapter, you should be able to:
• Specify the basic components of industrial power systems.

• Describe the power system and control system functions.
• Understand the t erms mechanisation and automation.
• Describe the function of electrical power systems.
• Explain fluid power.
• Describe the function of hydraulic power systems.
• Describe the function of pneumatic power systems.
• Differentiate between the t erms pneumatics and hydraulics.
• Compare electric, hydraulic and pneumatic power systems.
• Understand the interrelations among various power systems.
T he history of ci,ilisation is filled "ith many examples of how to exploit different

sources of energy for economic and technological development. People invented
machines to utilise and control energy from sun, water, "ind, fossil fuel and atom.
Electric generators were used to harness the tidal energy of the sea; water wheels
captured the fluid energy of running water; and sails were made to utilise the potential
energy of the "ind.
Technologists and scientists are concerned with converting energy into useful
forms, and transmitting and controlling it to provide energy required to run industrial
units. Even though we have applied our ingenuity to search and create many ways to
acquire new sources of energy, we have succeeded in developing only three major
systems for transmitting power. These are: mechanical, electrical and fluid power
systems.
This chapter deals >vith the fundamentals of electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic
power systems. The basic concepts of mechanisation and automation are introduced. A
comparison of different energy media is also presented.
ti:-1 Introduction
l\lodern production machines are designed to carry out a "ide variety of useful works in
all spheres of industrial acti,i ty. The muscle power to carry out a specific job is usually
provided by a prime mover. An industrial prime mover is a device capable of taking over
a large number of work operations, earlier performed manually. The prime mover may
be an electrical or a hydraulic or a pneumatic device capable of providing linear or rotary
motion or applying a force. A prime mover is selected for a specific job according to the
machine requirements of parameters like load, force, speed, duty cycle, type of
operation, etc.
Some prime movers are connected to the mechanical loads by 'V' belts or direct
mechanical couplings. Others are connected to the loads by gear reducers or clutches. In
many cases a prime mover becomes part of the machine it drives. Usually the power
source of a machine is not at the point where work is to be performed. Power must be
transmitted to a machine's point of work by an electrical or a fluid power system. The
basic components of these systems, shown in Figure 1- 1, are power source, control
system, and actuating de,ices.
Powe: system ,-,•achL,e
_________________________ +_______________ _ •
'
1
Energymed!um !- · - · - · - · - · - · - · - 1• - • - • ... • - • - • - • - • - • ~
!I Powe, sowc• I !► Co11001sys:.m 1 - - -~ Pnni• mo,e, ~► Load
I I I .
I- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ._ . - • - • - • - • - • - • _I,. - . - • - . - • - • - . - • - . -
Figure 1-1Basiccomponents of apowersystem.
Fluid power is the t echnology that deals ,vith the transmission of energy by means
of enclosed pressurised fluids. This technology includes application of hydraulics, which
is the engineering science pertaining to liquid pressure and flow, and pneumatics, which
is the engineering science pertaining to gaseous pressure and flow.
In electrical transmission, energy in the form of electricity is transmitted
through a conductor to an electric actuator (motor) where work is to be done.
In hydraulic transmission, energy in the form of pressurised liquid (oil) is
transmitted through piping t o a hydraulic actuator (cylinder) where work is to be done.
In pneumatic transmission, energy in the form of compressed air is transmitted
through piping to a pneumatic actuator (cylinder) where work is to be done.
~ Power System Functions
The main function of a power system is to convert energy from one form to other
convenient form and then convey it, in a controlled way, to the point where power is
required. The power system also uses various conditioning or other elements to render
the power medium suitable for the machine where work is to be done. The power
medium should be capable of being influenced by a control system.
fj.:3 Control System Functions

A control system may perform several functions t o govern or regulate machine
operations such as starting, accelerating, regulating speed, reversing and stopping.
Controls can be classified into two categories-open-loop controls and closed-loop
controls. The open-loop control is used in manual control systems where an operator is
always present to make decisions such as when to start or stop a machine. But, in a
closed-loop control, as used in automatic control, a process controls itself by the
feedback of its condition. In a modern plant many machines are designed for complete
automatic operation. A typical sequence of actions in automatic operation of a machine
or process is that it starts, performs several automatic operations, stops for a few
seconds, and then repeats the cycle using several integrated components of the closed-
loop control. I\"owadays, control problems are solved using appropriate components
from a "ide variety of technologies such as electrical (electromechanical), electronics,
pneumatics, hydraulics, microprocessor, PLC, etc. Thus it is possible to design a control
system to fulfil optimum economic and technical requirements.
~~41 Mechanisation and Automation

The operation of work-processes has evolved from manual to mechanisation to
automation. In mechanisation, mechanical work is taken over by a machine that
provides the necessary working energy. An example of mechanisation is the work-
process using a pipe-threading machine or a conventional lathe. In a mechanised work-
process, the machine operator decides the sequence of work operations.
In semi-automation, a machine automatically carries out several recurring partial
steps in the processing of a work-piece. In this case the operator is required to initiate
any change in the operating condition of the machine through one or more manually
operated pilot de,ices such as pushbuttons, toggle s"itches, etc. A fine example of semi-
automation is the start-up sequence control for a conveyor system.
In complete automation, a machine takes over the complete work-process
automatically. One or more automatic pilot devices, like sensors, thermostats, level
s"itches, pressure s"itches, etc., are invariably used to provide information concerning
the process control variables to the machine processor.
Another term, which is sometimes used in connection "ith automation, is the "low-
cost automation" (LCA). It is the technique of introducing simple pneumatic, hydraulic,
me<)hanical, and electronic devices into the existing production machinery, which can
partially or fully automate machining processes and systems. The LCA helps industries
improve manufacturing methods and their efficiency " ithout going in for highly
sophisticated and costly equipment.
.5 Electrical Po,ver System

The basic elements of an electrical power system are depicted in Figyre 1- 2 . In this
system, the power device is a generator that converts mechanical power to electrical
power. Energy in the form of electric current is transmitted and distributed through
conductors. The energy medium may be controlled through devices such as S\\itches,
pushbuttons, relays, contactors, timers, sensors, pressure sivitches, etc. Finally, an
electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy in the form of rotary
motion to perform some useful work. Electric motors are considered to be the optimum
form of rotary devices. Linear motion can also be obtained from rotary motion by
employing devices such as screw jacks and rack-and-pinions. An electrical control or
transmission system is the most effective means of operating over long distances and is
efficient when low power levels are involved.
Electric motors are classified according to the t}'J)e of electric current required for
their operation, namely, direct current (DC) motors or alternating current (AC) motors.
DC motors are ideal for precise speed control requirements, but have high maintenance
requirements. r.1ost industrial motors in electrical systems operate on alternating
current. Small AC motors generally operate on single-phase supply, while large AC
motors are built to operate on poly-phase (usually three-phase) systems. Being the
workhorse of industrial systems, the three-phase induction motors are designed for
\irtually maintenance-free operation. However, these are considered to be fixed-speed
devices.
Electrical power systems do have limitations. S1'itching contacts in components
may arc or corrode. Electric arcing is a fire hazard in explosive environments. The
response time of electro-mechanical solenoids is too sluggish for today's control needs.
The sivitching time of control elements is usually greater than 10 ms. Electrical systems
need to provide for heat dissipation as do most systems which generate heat by pressure
or friction.
Electron flow
Power source
(generator)
Control .. Load
(motor)
Figure 1-2 Basic elements of an electrical power system.
g Fluid Po,ver System

Fluid is a substance that has definite mass and volume at constant temperature and
pressure; however, it has no definite shape. It takes the shape of the vessel in which it is
put. Further, a fluid has minimum resistance to flow. The two most important fluids of
our interest are oil and air. These fluids under normal conditions have no inherent
power and have to be converted into power sources by pressurising them. Then the
energy stored in pressurised fluids can be conveyed to actuating devices to perform
some useful work. The generation of fluid power, as it is defined and understood today,
is possible through the use of pumps and compressors which create high pressures
"ithin a confined system and use relatively small quantity of fluid.
The branch of fluid power system, "·hich uses incompressible oil for energy
transmission, is called hydraulics. The branch of fluid power system, which uses
compressible air for energy transmission, is called pneumatics. The two branches are
quite different in behaviour and performance and hence are to be treated separately.
Often the two branches are referred to jointly, but unless the basic laws governing them
are studied separately, the results could be misleading.
Fluid power systems are used "idely due to their ability to do useful work
economically and efficiently. Perhaps the greatest advantage of these systems is the
flexibility "ith which power can be distributed and applied easily to the point of work.
,Vith fluid power, there is no need for belts, chains, clutches, brakes, cams or levers;
hence no measures required to protect the personnel from the accidents these devices
may cause. In other words, machines can be designed primarily to perform the required
tasks rather than bothering about the ways to transmit power to them. Fluid power
systems also face limitations, and a major problem facing them is contamination of the
fluid medium.
•'Z Hydraulic Po,,,er System

The basic elements of a hydraulic system are depicted in Figyre 1-3. In the hydraulic
transmission of energy, a pump is used as the power source to raise the pressure of an
oil medium to the required level almost instantaneously. Then the energy stored in the
pressurised oil is transmitted through piping in a controlled manner to a hydraulic
actuator to perform some useful work. A hydraulic system is designed as a high-pressure
system and hence is capable of generating a force of large magnitude economically.
A major advantage of hydraulic systems is that they can easily generate linear
motion through the basic actuator, cylinder. Speed control is also achieved easily by
regulating the volumetric flow rate of oil to the actuator. Precise control of speed even at
low values is another advantage of a hydraulic system.
fj.~a Pneumatic Po,ver System

The basic elements of a pneumatic system are depicted in Figure 1-;1. In the pneumatic
transmission of energy, a compressor is used as the power source to raise the pressure of
the air to the required level quite slowly. The slow response of an air compressor
necessitates storage of compressed air at the required pressure in a receiver tank. The
energy stored in the compressed air is transmitted through piping in a controlled
manner to a pneumatic actuator to perform some useful work.
Oil
Power source Actuator

Control valve
(pump) (cylinder)
Figure 1-3 Basic elements of a hydraulic system.
Air
Power source
(compressor)
! Control valve ►
Actuator
(cylinder)
Figure 1-4 Basic elements of a pneumatic system.
A great advantage of pneumatic systems is that, like hydraulic systems, they can
easily generate linear motion through the basic actuator, cylinder. Speed control is also
achieved easily by using flow control valves. However, pneumatic systems are not
suitable for obtaining uniform motion. Operating pressures in pneumatics are generally
much lower than those used in hydraulics. Pneumatic systems are generally designed as
low-pressure systems and hence are capable of generating only small-magnitude forces
economically unlike hydraulic systems. The S\\itching time of control elements is usually
greater than 5 ms and the speed of control signal is 10 to 40 m/s (approx.).
b q Selection of Energy Media

A design engineer has to decide which energy medium will provide the most efficient,
economic, safe, and dependable machine or system which is being designed. The
designer's decision is normally influenced by such factors as performance requirements,
size, easy availability of system components, and cost. Generally, design engineers are
not quite familiar \\ith all types of energy media, which limits their design capabilities.
An understanding of the fundamental laws and principles of all types of energy media
"ill help engineers design efficient systems of increasing complexity ,vith different but
compatible energy media.
An industrial automatic control system may contain electrical, electronic, magnetic,
mechanical, hydraulic, and pneumatic devices. An integrated process control system
may utilise a \\ide variety of analog and digital elements and modules to meet a specific
set of functional requirements. Thus it is imperative for a design engineer to concentrate
on the essentials to get hold of the control technology and grasp the practical
applications to deepen the understanding of the subject matter. \Vith this, a control
specialist "ill be able to select appropriate control media.
it:10 Comparison of Different

Energy Media
Choosing the right and efficient form of energy for a drive system in industry is not an
easy task. Its selection depends on various factors. Table 1- 1 gives a survey of the range
of applications, costs, advantages, disadvantages, etc. of different forms of energy
medium.
:l•Y Overall Power System

A combined power system representation is given in Figure 1-5 to present an overall
picture of various types of power system and their inter-relations.
Table 1-1Comparison of different energy systems

I Cril#rld
I l:,,!io, r, ...,,1,1i:,:lk,.!. < '""I''(''"''· d l'\frit "II'
Ill)( 1,•.,r ,!r,\\•11
,,, ... 1.1!•11!(, ••! c:<nH,,11:, ~, .nl.,t,k i )!,1,num;: ,111,I ,h,r«,..,m;:
m~ !mm •·•·,·n•y, ;...,.. ,;,e <d " , , ..11\
1:11... i,.:~ ,1 <JtJ.;:,· la b,,u,.-n ,, ,n.J , d i- :o l.,nn•nl ,v,:~('(Jl\l.hl11;, l.,;r_.:t' ,UHl >IH il t,111 h.'
J. , m.,11 ,•J((« H: <".:>:! 't ·n,1•·•· ,n ;iu u111ul.,1..1, ,i:,,, , , , t ..h •,l ,n r,(tsl\ N 1,1111.~
.u :,o! 1H.&1f1!<"""•"'"' ,!111'.: ,:I: f l\'\,!(",f .h ,1'1 Ao/,(1!tM\' \\ ,1 ''""' ; : ( (', I: ,., l"' ""''
ll)l,!IUm
i: '1tt',:; ("""'"""'"" I ·"ff ,! "1.11 ~ (', \'\('U l r ••• WU ,,, 1· rr" 1c11111 ,,.,
!,,c,y,;n,I I 11111, l,,:m
( ,.,,, ol \'llt''F ~ .,11.,lk,t f lo,:!, 11,_i.:ll\·,t
c:,.,n:,,.,n.,,i-,!,1\ 1.,m11,~: nw.111, ..1 :-;«·"! " ·,11:r,.,I ,, , ..r~· :-1««,i ul!1: m! 1, ,•.\ ,:, , bm
« NU f<~ . h,;:), «"-1 i-;, ...! ,.,,.,.., ,.,I!:, u i ,!,..,. , .,11!..n \1 ,,,.,,,.,! ",~..:
,,..,.,,J u n.is•· r o ,,,M,•
IJ l',\ N I<><,,•,,!'"~ " I ..f;:<- 10,,,.,,f,,.. 1,, 1,,i-h F,,,,,., lu)1,1o«! 1,,p :o
••Ill,; f<•l)I y, rr..M tto (It rr.·,,ur,•. .!{(• ..! -.11r,oo :,., , ,!u,· 10 f,,.,.
, " <·d,,.,J,,,,: . h ,,:I, r:1tri,::, , <>(If foll .1.hi 111:, • •m,! l''l""!I((' .,n:! ,:, !,11,k, ,!i.,,
,,11,,w np11•<1 ,:ur.n.;,: n, .. l ""'1hi!wr ,.,! i.H,:!\' ,1wk,· h1,i:h ,;,._,,,.i "l'<"r.111 un •\Ip
l,>M! .,rui 1.,r,:,· rlw..,.1-I ""'' e,, I S ,11 , ), i"~h
.1.t.,•!,,r.1111.<r1. ,u,,k~ vr 10
1 1• m pu,,,h!r
, m_i:. m" lumu l imk,,;,:,•,, l ,1n~ , , 1,n,l,·r, ~nd w,,,..i l • Il l.I{ • H ll l f(ll,1ry ,I\Ul.lt,.f•.
hi;:11....., ...-:ru ,.,,:..\·, 1.,.,..,.,1 M ho,oh •h. 11 ,ll h <<"!OW ,.,,.,) r,,1.11« ~) ur ,,, ,t,,,,. (,,.fi,,,t.
l••fll' lt' ,!( , (,m,t._; , 11 .11 , (,,mh.:.I! -o1l-k1. (o,II l< ►r.jl/'l" l"\ \'ll ,1 (
,1.m,l,1111, fl\.0:1111\1!11 h it,1<1"
<it I ')II Nm ,.11 <• Iv.,
I \ ,,..;.: ,·!,, u .. ,n(>t,~,. h,;.:h,,t l ·, ,n;: hi·,!1:11,! .. m<111>r,. l ' ..,1;: .o:r ,n.,1<1,h, -.•r\' !u;.:h
\'Iii, l\ 'lll. ~. lt1111h •,I ' f''\\I ~••,;I d1i.,1t•nq . ,..,.,1:, •i'\'l""• lip W '10 111111 q•ru,
, ,<iao!l.1.!>I,· ,... iwn m""n;: 'u)11•!,·, r.·,<'r.,h!,·
,!,,w, hoi,;!, l"''!"""J"';;-
,iu,· (" h,;:h 1•r.---1ir,•
' '*"l'k ,In( l" l'l<'"Vlt' ., 1111!'k ,Ii..,, ,,. I'"'""'''
r.·;:u!.1.1,11;.: ,.,!,.. r.·;:ul.11111,i: ,.,h ,·
( 1>1h\a11r t1"n ,,( N ,,ml,ul1 wul, t,.,,,1 u:1_ !ho:·1
O w-rlo,uim,: ~..1 !, ..,!.,hf,. .,t ,ut1,!,ttll 1......1,!.1.M,· un ul ,1.111,l-:,II
'I,., ,,1-.;·,.,,1,,.r ln,\'*'" '"f 11, ,.,n.,(i,,,., R.-l,1,1nd~ "''<""'' ":" <' <11
m t! UttlH' rn ,.,m1«·r.,n1r<- :I\ (\'ml'<'l,)Hl!<- \ ",!fl.II lf•lh :n :<'lll)"'·r.,u u,·
1,.,•.11..,F, l.,;(l~,1 ""'-' okm :i,k .,t 1.<"' "' ,·nn;: ~•.,:,,I I."",, ,p :n,:•
h 1,1J1 H,h .,1;,-:..,, ,·1w,r,,nnwm.,I 1..11lm;.:
·'I"'" ,.,h....«1 k:i,,•,.,.k<l,t,.-t· Mm,· m 1ri,,11,·
r.~111:r.« t
1.-,oJ ,IH\ M(n,i,; 11(11-1.' ,,t f'\111\I' " "'""' ,I\ h1;:l1 l ur!,•,,-.,a: t' Xl l.l\h: ,,,,....,.
Ul!l (,l\ t(I(, .I.I\!! h • I.,:,, ! •h •••llh •• u.11 1,. ~ h,...,1hr
' ""·•llm;: " l ol\ \'h
·········· ·· ······· ·· ······· ·· ·· ······· ······· ·· ·····: ········ ·· ········· ·················· ······· ·· ······· · ········,
!
:
eiecViot,
l
~:::=:,~ i,i 6 oor
Ai1
r,,.,
cx::ntrCX
Prime mo,ers i
:
, Ger.era!ot Com;resso: e'erner l A:11.111i0< .
; (ACiOC; Contcol Mo:o-t '------' '--~~--' ' - - - --' :
' - - - ' : :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .i . ...................... :
'
'
Sig'l31 proccssu,;
lAnalogiO;gital) Air ~ S>;nal~:ocessn',g
''
(ana!og/t!:gita\)
Etectricily - ~•I
pneuma!ica'ly.rhydrau!ica!!y
O,l =⇒>
c, etec!ricaU·f.tvia Pt.C
: I I! HM:cr
. .. .. .. ... .. ... .. .. .. .. .. ... .. ...
~ ...................... .
'' ''
, --~ : : > 150 bar Prime mo,·ers ,
: ,- : : -- - - - - ~ Fin(!! -- - - ~ •
: • .- Oil OC(l!fel .-
Mo:-c<
:'
'•
Pump
_____ C'.tmcn
'-----' :
....................................................:: :: ............................................................
'------' _,
•'
At !UiHO;"
'
H:;<lra:.i!icpowCI' system
Figure 1-5 Combined power system representation.
Questions
1. \\'hat is an industrial prime mover?
2. \\'hat are the factors that are to be considered " 'bile selecting a
prime mover?
3. \\'hat are the different \\'ays to couple a prime mover to a
mechanical load?
4. \\'hat is the main function of a power system?
5. \\'hat are the most common methods of transmitting po, ver to
industrial equipment?
6. \\'hat is a fluid po"•er system? Name some important basic
functions performed by a fluid po"'er system.
7. \\'hat are the main divisions of fluid power systems?
8. Force developed by a hydraulic cylinder is greater than that
generated by a pneumatic cylinder of the same size. Give reason.
9. \\'hat is the major advantage of fluid pol\•er systems?
10. l\fovement of hydraulic cylinders is smooth and steady as compared
to pneumatic cylinders. Give reason.
11. l\fention a fel\• fundamental differences bet\\•een pneumatic and
hydraulic systems.
12. Explain briefly the basic elements of (1) electrical po\\ er system, (2)
0
hydraulic po,ver system, and (3) pneumatic po"·er system.

13. Explain the roles played by mechanisation and automation in the
evolution of industrial "'ork process.
14. \\'hat do you understand by mechanisation and automation?
15. Give an example each of semi-automatic control and full automatic
control?
16. list a fe"' advantages of pneumatically operated systems or
machines.
17. list t\\ o applications of pneumatics l\ith \\mch you are familiar.
0
18. Name some important basic functions performed by a fluid po,ver

system.
19. l\fention a fel\• advantages of hydraulic power systems.
10. Compare and contrast electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic energy
media \\ith respect to the follo"ing parameters: maximum distance
for energy transmission, energy storage, cost of energy production,
force, type of motion, and controllability.
2 Introdt1ction to Pnet1matics
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Define the term pneumatics.

• Explain how power can be transmitted through compressed air medium.
• Appreciate the history of the pneumatics.
• Understand the t erm pressure and its units of measurement.
• Specify the economical pressure in pneumatics.
• Differentiate between gauge pressures and absolute pressures.
• Apply Pascal's law and gas laws to pneumatic systems.
• Calculate the force produced by a pressure.
• Differentiate between free air and normal air.
• Identify the adverse effects of contaminants in pneumatic systems.
• Specify the quality of compressed air.
• List key pneumatic applications.
• Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of pneumatic power.
• Understand the importance of standardization.
F luid power in the form of compressed air fulfilled the need for an energy transmission
syst em \\ith muscle, which could easily be customised as per the needs of automated
machinery. Tremendous amount of compressed air is used throughout industry due to
its versatility and simplicity in application. !l'iany unique characteristics of air make it
more suitable to fulfil various needs of industrial applications than other energy media.
The 'pneumatic muscle' power has managed to find its place between low-cost
automation and high-tech applications, affirming its innovative capability. Pneumatics
not only includes the cylinder and directional control valves, it also encompasses a ,vide
range of diversified components such as sensors, processors, various types of actuators,
and extensive accessories and auxiliary components.
This chapter introduces the basic laws and principles of pneumatics. It also portrays
the physical beha,iour and characteristics of atmospheric air. The expansion of
pneumatic systems is well supported by the development of standard representations of
their components and circuits. Hence, it is appropriate to conclude this chapter "ith a
note on standardisation.
,2.:11 Pneumatics - Definition

The study of pneumatics deals "ith systems operated with air or other gaseous media to
impart power or to control power. The t erm 'pneumatics' is derived from the Greek word
pneuma, meaning " ind or breath. Hence pneumatics may be defined as the study of
movement of air. Pneumatic power is the power that is transmitted by pressurised air. It
may be used to power machines or to control or regulate machines.
Compressed air
Air Power sou rce Actuator

, Control valve
(compressor) (cylinder)
Figure ~·1.\ simplified pneumatics;~tem.

~;:.g Compressed Air for Transmitting
Po,,,er
A simplified pneumatic system "ith only three blocks is given in Figure 2-1. In industry,
the pneumatic medium usually employed for transmitting power is the highly
compressible air. Since gaseous substances are compressible in the ratio of decrease in
volume to increase in pressure, a compressor is used as an energy source. The
compressed air is then prepared or treated in several stages to remove undesirable
contaminants present in it and stored in a tank called receiver tank. Other issues of
concern at this stage are the distribution of compressed air, regulation of pressure and
introduction of fine mist of lubricating oil in the compressed air.
The compressed air medium is subsequently used to do work in a controlled
manner by allo,dng it to expand back to the atmospheric pressure. The work done in
this expansion is transmitted to a load surface such as a piston or a vane, which \\ill be
moved by the expanding air with a force equal to the product of the air pressure acting
on the piston and area of the piston (force = pressure x area).
The function of a pneumatic system can be simply summed up as follows: Applying
a force to a gaseous fluid like air and transmitting pneumatic pressure all through the
fluid, and then converting the stored energy back into mechanical force before work
could be done.
~3 Historical Re,ie,v
The use of fluid power predates the Christian era, and it is in all probability as old as
civilisation. There are many ancient, historical descriptions of the use of air to power
vessels for almost as long as man has been embarking on the waters of the world. The
economic exploitation of compressed air as a source of energy has been practised at least
for the last 100 years. :Modern pneumatics with its capacity to perform work and various
control functions has been developed only since the 1960s. Table 2-1 chronicles the
historical developments in the field of pneumatics.
Table 2-1 Chronology of developments in pneumatics
Period Development
• Discovery of power of natural air and invention of
machines, which were able to mobilise objects using air
3rd century BC and
power, by Ktesibios of Alexandria.
the succeeding • Economic utilisation of 1'indmills and bellows as air
centuries power devices and use of military equipment such as air
rifle.
• Discovery of the lifting force against a vacuum by Otto
von Guericke in his r-Iagdeburg eis-periments.
• Discovery of a fundamental law of physics by Blaise
17th century AD Pascal on which fluid svstems are based.
• Charles Boyle, an Irish.scientist, established the relation
between volume, pressure and temperature of a gh·en
quantity of fluid.
• Use of pneumatic machines in railways and tube post.
• Inventions of first air-driven riveting hammer and drill.
• Use of first pneumatic percussion drill for building ll'lont
Genis tunnel.
19th century AD • First compressed air network encircling Paris for use in a
variety of applications.
• Setting up of factories in several countries for production
of compressed air tools such as pneumatically operated
chisels hammers and drills.
• Advent of industrial pneumatics for utilising compressed
air for doing work and control function.
• Appearance of first pneumatic cylinders and valves in
some factories in the United States, shortly after the
Second ,vorld vVar.
20th century AD • Construction of timber processing machinery, clamping
devices, conveyor controllers, etc.
• vVidespread use of pneumatic equipment in the
manufacturing and sen1ce sector of all kinds.
• Advent of intelligent pneumatics 1'ith the integration of
pneumatics and electronics.
~4l Composition of Atmospheric Air
Dry air at sea level comprises 78.03% nitrogen, 20.99% o:,.-ygen and 0.98% argon by
volume. It also contains traces of carbon dioxide, hydrogen, neon, helium, krypton and
xenon. Apart from gases, atmospheric air holds many harmful impurities like dust,
water vapour, etc.
~S SI System of Units
:Most industrial countries have standardised their measurement systems on the
International System of units (SI). Some basic quantities and derived quantities, and
their units in the SI system are given in Table 2-2.
~~Ci Revie,\' of Mechanics

l\fass (m): 1\Iass of a body is the attribute of the body that determines the effect of a
force applied to it. Practically speaking, the mass of a substance is a property that we can
calculate by weighing it and dividing the weight by the constant of acceleration due to
gravity (g= 9.81 m/ s2).
Table 2 - 2 SI units of some basic and derived quantities

Leng th ivlerre (,n)
l\Iass Kilogram (kg)
Basic qua ntities
Tin1e Second (s)
·1e n1pera tu re Kdvin (K) (0 °C = 27:\ . l 5 K)
force Newcon (N)
A rea Square n1etre (n1 1)
Derived qw1ntities Pressure Pascal ( Pa)
Volun1e Cubic n1cr re ( n1;)
Flow rate Cu bic metreisecond (m 3/s)
Table 2-3 Units in SI system
Mass Weight
Kilognun (kg) Newcon (N) Newton (N )
'\\'eight (w): \ Ve are all familiar "ith the idea of weight, which is the force arising
from gra,itational attraction between the mass of an object and the earth, \Veight is
related to the force of gravity, and is given by the relation:
w=mg
Force (F): Force is a basic concept, because without force there is no power or
work. A force is any influence capable of creating change in the state of motion of a body.
It may be either a push or a pull. In physics, a fundamental law states that force is equal
to mass multiplied by acceleration, that is F = ma. The units of mass, weight and force in
SI system are given in Table 2-3.
"\\'ork (t\-): Force is a static concept. If you are sitting on a chair, you are applying
a force to that chair corresponding to your weight. But no matter how long you sit there,
no work is done. If, on the other hand, you exert a force of 100 ::'l to move the chair to a
distance of 2 m, a work of 200 Nm has been carried out. \\Tork is always expressed as a
product of the applied force and the distance through which it moves, or IV = F x d. The
SI unit of work is joule which is defined as 1 J = 1 ::'lm.
Pol\•er (P): Power is defined as the time rate of doing work, that is, power =
work/ time. The SI unit of power is watt, defined as 1 v\Tatt = 1J/s.
Torque: The term torque (1) is used to characterise a rotary force. It is determined
by multiplying the applied force (F) by the distance (r) from the pivot point to the point
where the force is applied as shown in Fiwe 2-2. That is: T = F x r.
In SI system, the unit of torque is ::'le\\ton - metre (Nm). If a force of 50 N is
applied at a radius of 2 m, a torque of 100 Nm is developed, but no work is done unless
motion occurs. If the torque (T in Nm) and speed (,V in rpm) of a motor or any other
rotating device are known, the power (P in k'\\1) conveyed may be calculated by the
fol101,ing relationship:
- - kW
P =TN
9500
The value of 9500 for the constant in the denominator of the above equation is valid
only when the torque T has units of Nm and the rotational speed ,¥ has units of rpm.
That is,
P(kW)=T (Nm)x £u(rad/s) / 1000 = T (Nm)x 2r.n(rps) / 1000

= T(Nm)N(rpm) / [1000 x 60 /(2 x 3.14)]
= T(Nm) x N(rpm) / 9550
Here ro is the angular velocity.
Pivot point F
T= F x r
Figure •-z Application of torque,
Energy: Energy may be defined as the capacity to do work, and it is the product of
force acting on an object multiplied by the distance the object is caused to move by that
force. The unit of energy in SI system is joule.
~'n Pascal's Law

Around 1650, the fundamental law of fluid power syst ems was formulated by French
mathematician and scientist Blaise Pascal. It is a two-part statement as given here:
'Pressure at any one point in a static fluid is the same in every direction' and 'pressure
exerted on a confined fluid is transmitted equally in all directions, acting " ith equal
force on equal areas'. This law is at the heart of all fluid power applications and
contributes as the basis for all calculations and predictions.
,2 .8 Air Pressure
Pressure in pneumatics operat es according to the Pascal's law. Thus, pressure is the
distributed response of force acting through a fluid.
In Figure 2-3, force Fis applied to the air enclosed in a chamber through a piston of
area .4. The enclosed air is compressed and its pressure (P) rises in direct proportion to
the applied force and in inverse proportion to the area of the piston. Pressure can,
therefore, be defined as the force acting per unit area.
F
P=-
A
In SI system, the unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa), and 1 Pa is the constant pressure
acting on a surface area of 1 square metre "ith a perpendicular force of 1 Ne\\ton.
1 Pa= 1;J./m2
For industrial pneumatic purposes, Pascal is too small a unit for use 1n
measurements and hence a more practical unit, called 'bar' is used.
1bar = 100000 Pa
=10 5 Pa(l OOkPa)
In addition to Pascal and bar, other units of pressure are also used. These units and
their relationship to other units are mentioned below.
Kilogram force per square centimetre (kgf/cm2 )
1kgf/cm2 = 0.981 bar

1 bar = 1.02 kgf/cm2
Figure ~-3 Generation of air pressure.
Pounds per square inch (psi)
1bar = 14.5 psi
Physical atmosphere (atm)
1atm = 1.013 bar
The conversion factors for various units of pressure are given in AppendLx 4. The
follo,ving units of pressure are no longer acceptable for commercial or technical
purposes:
• at (technical atmosphere); absolute pressure in the technical system of

measurement;
• atm (physical atmosphere); absolute pressure in the physical system of
measurement;
• mmHg;
• Torr.
~;g Economical Pressure in
PneUD1atics
Pneumatic systems have been developed as low-pressure systems in comparison to
hydraulic power systems. Pneumatic air consuming devices such as valves and cylinders
are designed for a maximum operating pressure of 8 to 10 bar. However, practical
experience has shown that 6 bar is the ideal pressure for the economical operation of
pneumatic systems. This pressure allows for:
• compressors to be relatively simple and cheaper,

• installation cost of pipe system to be kept minimum,
• valves and cylinders to be kept to reasonable dimensions,
• minimum wear and maximum efficiency.
2:"to Pressure Scales

The earth is enclosed by atmosphere. Evel")-thing on the earth's surface is subjected to a
significant pressure from the weight of air above. This pressure is termed as an
atmosphere (atm) and is approximately equal to 1 bar (1.01325 bar, to be more exact).
Atmospheric pressure may be described as the force air exerts on every point it contacts.
It fluctuates "ith geographic location and weather conditions. Atmospheric pressure
cannot be experienced as it is exerted on evel")-thing on the earth.
Two pressure scales are utilised to measure pressure in fluid power systems: a
gauge scale [bar(g) or bar] and an absolute scale [bar(a)]. The gauge pressure measures
the pressure with reference to the atmosphere but does not include the pressure exerted
by the atmosphere. It is the pressure above atmospheric pressure regardless of the
altitude. Zero gauge pressure is the atmospheric pressure. The absolute pressure scale
begins at the point where there is complete absence of pressure (zero absolute pressure).
Gauge pressures may be converted to absolute pressure by adding the atmospheric
pressure [i.e. 1.013 bar(a) or 14.7 psia] to the gauge reading. Absolute pressures are to be
used in calculations. The relationship between absolute pressure and gauge pressure is
illustrated graphically in Figl!re 2 - ~ -
A vacuum is any pressure condition "ith a pressure less than the atmospheric
pressure. In measuring a vacuum, absolute zero or atmospheric pressure may be used as
the reference. Thus a vacuum of -0-4 bar is equal to o.6 bar(a). Because pressure is an
indication of molecular energy and movement, and we do not know how to take away all
the molecules from any space, zero absolute pressure is physically impossible, although
we can attain very low pressures.
Pressuret .-----r---------------.
Gauge pressure
+bar(g)
Normal atmosphere
0 bar(g) t-----,,--'------+-------.------,-- Gauge reference line
Absolute pressure - bar(g)

+bar(a)
1atm = l.013 bar
Vacuum region
0 bar(a) '---''------'------------'!__ Absolute reference line

Figure z-4 Relationship between absolute and gauge pressure scales.
It is important to understand the three variables of pressure, volume and temperature,

and their relationships in the operation of a pneumatic system. The fluid, a gas, in a
pneumatic system is sensitive to changes in volume, pressure and temperature, and its
beha,iour is governed by the gas laws. Air is a mixture of gases and follows the laws of
perfect gas with regard to its behaviour in volumetric expansion or contraction, and in
absorbing or releasing heat.
a,12 Boyle's La,,.

The relation between pressure and volume of a gas is given by Boyle's law. It states: 'At
constant temperature, the volume of a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to the
absolute pressure'. Let V1 be the volume of a gas at pressure P1• \\'hen this gas is
compressed to a volume l'2 then the pressure will rise to a value of P 2 • ]).fathematically,
(T is constant)
As air is compressed, energy used in this work is dissipated as heat, that is
t emperature "ill rise as the air is reduced in volume. This is known as adiabatic
compression. Various types of compression process are explained in a later section.
2:-!3 Gay-Lussac's La,,.

Gay-Lussac's law states: 'If the volume of a given mass of gas is held constant, the
absolute pressure varies directly " ith the absolute temperature'. ,Vith usual notations,
the relationship can be expressed as
(Vis conscanc)
;:i:-1~ Charles' La,v

Charles' law, named after French scientist Jacques Charles, states: 'At constant pressure,
the volume of a given mass of gas is proportional to the absolute temperature'.
:Mathematically,
(P is constant)
2:-mCombined Gas Law
The general gas law explains the manner in which the variables of pressure, volume and
temperature are related to a fixed mass of gas. This law is expressed mathematically as
Example2.1
piston compresses air at atmospheric pressure to 1/Jth the volume as illustrated in
igure 2-5. Assuming a constant temperature, what is the gauge pressure of the
esulting air?
olution
iven: P 1 = 1 bar (absolute)
V1 _ 7
or - - -
V2 l
ccording to Boyle's law,
P2 I x 7 bar = 7 bar(a)
P2 = (7 -1) bar = 6 bar(g)

hus, we can conclude that a compressor that produces 6 bar must have a compression
!F
V V
8 P(•) P(g) 8 Pia) P(g)
6 6 6 6 6
4 10 10 4 10
V1, P1
2 2
V2.P2
0 0
(a) Pre-corn;.vessbn sta:e (b) Posl·com;;ession state
Figure z -5 Compressing air.
g.1ij Air Compression Process

The process of air compression is sometimes thought to be under ideal conditions such
as isothermal or adiabatic for ease of analysis. However, polytropic compression process
closely stands for the true conditions that exist when air is compressed.
In isothermal compression process, air is compressed at constant temperature.
Therefore, the heat of compression must be removed at the same rate as it is produced.
However, in practice, it is not possible to take out all the heat when it is generated. In
adiabatic compression process, air is compressed ";thout the addition or removal of
heat. In other words, the heat of compression is retained there. However, in practice,
heat from the compressed air is dissipated to the atmosphere ";th the resultant cooling
of air. For compressors and pneumatic actuators operating in the normal range, the
polytropic compression process is nearest to the actual compression process.
The condition as specified by Boyle's law is an isothermal one, and the equation
governing this compression process can be stated mathematically as
PV is a constant
This equation is sometimes written in a general term, to permit direct comparison "ith
the equations of other types of compression processes, as
PV11 is a constant
In isothermal process of compression, the value of n is 1. In adiabatic process of

compression, the value of n is 1.4 (for air). The value of adiabatic exponent 'n'varies "ith
the gas. In polytropic process of compression, the value of n is 1.3 (for air). In this case,
the value of n is determined experimentally for each gas.
The power needed for adiabatic compression at 6 bar is about 35% more than that
for isothermal compression. Therefore, isothermal compression is ideally preferred as it
requires less work. In actual practice, compression of air occurs in between the two
limits of compression, namely adiabatic compression and isothermal compression.
Compression efficiency is the ratio of the theoretical power needed to compress the
amount of air that is actually delivered to the actual power developed in the compression
chamber. It is usually expressed as a percentage. The theoretical power can be based on
either isothermal compression or adiabatic compression and is expressed accordingly.
2:"t~ Free Air and N onnal Air

In pneumatics, the existence of the following two conditions of atmospheric air is well
accepted: (1) Air at the atmospheric condition at the point where the compressor is
locat ed is defined as free air. The term does not mean air under identical conditions
because altitude, pressure and temperature are different at different locations and at
different times. Free air "ill therefore vary ,vith atmospheric conditions. (2) A more
standard t erm for the condition of air at any given location or time is the normal air.
This is defined as the air at sea level [atmospheric pressure of 1.01325 bar (conforming
to ISO/ R.554), temperature of 20°C, and relative humidity of 36%]. The conditions of
normal atmosphere are employed as a basis for deri,ing average values for compressor
delivery volumes, efficiencies and operating characteristics.
2:"t8 Flow Rate
The volume of air flm,ing through a pipe in unit time is its rate of flow. Flow rate is
usually measured in cubic metre per hour or cubic metre per minute (or in other units).
Various units of flow rate and their conversion factors are given in AppendLx ,i. \Ve
recognise that this flow rat e can be under various pressures. But flow rate generally
points to the volume of air as it ent ers a compressor under normal conditions.
Flowmetres can be used to measure the flow rate of fluids. Probably the most common
type of flowmetre used is the Rotametre. It consists of a metering float lying in a vertical
tapered glass tube. It is designed in such a way that the float rises up in proportion to the
flow rat e of the fluid flm,ing in the pipe to which the flowmetre is attached. The glass
tube is calibrated to allow a direct reading of the flow rate. This is frequently employed
to evaluate the performance of pneumatic de,ices as well as troubleshooting of
pneumatic systems.
;z-;:1cj Fluid Velocity

In a dynamic system, air flo"ing through a pipe is mo,ing at a certain velocity. For
example, in order to fill a tank of 20 m3 of normal air in 1 min, the air may travel at a
speed of 10 m/s. In order t o fill the same 20 m3 of normal air in the tank in 1 min
through a smaller pipe, the air must travel at a higher speed, say, 20 m/s. In both the
cases the flow rate is identical whereas the fluid velocities are quite different.
In a pneumatic system, flow discharges at a certain velocity from a high-pressure air
receiver to a low-pressure actuator side take place as a result of pressure differential
between the two sides. However, an increase in pressure differential " ill not always
cause the flow to increase, and there is a limit as to how much pressure differential
influences air velocity. It has been established that the flow "ill increase corresponding
to an increase in pressure drop only if the fluid velocity is less than the speed of sound.
This velocity cannot be made to go beyond this value regardless of the magnitude of the
pressure differential between the two points. In a pneumatic system, the flow is greatest
when the downstream pressure is 53% of the upstream pressure.
2 :20 Contaminants in .-'\bnospheric
Air
Atmospheric air is a mi:,1:ure of nitrogen, oxygen, traces of inert gases, water vapour and
impurities such as dust, soot and other particulates. Depending on the humidity, air may
hold up to 4% water vapour at any one time and place. In industrial surroundings, air
carries several harmful dust particles and oil particles. Industrial dust includes iron,
carbon, silicates, fibreglass and abrasive materials of all kinds. Particle size is measured
in micrometres (microns). Dust particles are usually larger than 10 µm, whereas oil
particles are usually in the order of 1 µm. These particles must be prevented from
ent ering a pneumatic system, othen,ise they "ill damage compressor seals and disturb
the operation of do\\nstream components such as regulators, valves and cylinders.
l\'Ioisture is present in air in the form of invisible vapour (superheated steam). The
moisture in the vapour form is difficult to remove from air as it is in the suspended
form. The maximum amount of moisture that can be absorbed by a given amount of air
at a particular temperature is called saturation quantity. It is a function of t emperature
and is given by the dew point chart shown in Figure 2-6. Dew point temperature is the
t emperature at which air gets saturated \\ith water vapour. As can be seen from the
chart, air " ith 17-4 g of water vapour per cubic metre has, for example, a dew point
temperature of 20 °C. The ability of a given volume of air to absorb moisture increases
\\ith increase in t emperature as shown in the chart.
2 :2 '11 Absolute Humidity and

Relative Humidity
The amount of moisture present in the atmosphere is usually expressed in terms of
either absolute humidity or relative humidity. The absolute humidity is the actual
amount of moisture present in 1 m3 of air. For example, if 8.7 g of moisture is present in
1 m3 of air at a particular temperature, say 20 °c, then the absolute humidity is 8.7 g/ m3
at 20 °C. Relative humidity (RH) is the ratio of absolute humidity and saturation
quantity, and it is usually expressed as a percentage. That is,
-
- - -- - ,- - .
-
;'
100
I= - - ::: - - - --- - - - --- -
50
40
30
20 - -- - - - -
i=" ,_ ,_ -
,o
,_ >- ,_ >-
I/
3
,_ - ,_
2
I
OS
-
03
02
,- 1-/ - - - - - - - -- --
~1 I C
~o 30 20 ,o o 10 20 ~ ~o so oo 1-0 so oo 100
Figure 2-6Asample of dew point chart (not to scale).
Absolute hu m idity . ) &.

RH =- ------ X 10( ,10
Satu ration q uantity
For the earlier example of air containin g 8.7 grams of water vapour per cubic metre at
20°C, the relative humidity is calculated as follows:
8.7
RH= --x 100% = 50%
17 .4
As an example, consider the follo"ing: At 20 •c, 100% RH means that the air is
saturated and contains 17.4 g/m3 of water vapour, and 25% RH means that the air
contains 4.35 g/m3 of water vapour.
RH value is dependent on both temperature and pressure. Decreasing the
t emperature (cooling) or increasing the pressure "ill result in condensation of excess
moisture above the saturation level. \\Tater droplets resulting from the condensation can
cause many serious problems such as rusting of exposed surfaces, formation of sticky
emulsions and consequent jamming of valves. It can also wash away lubricants from
pneumatic components, resulting in faulty operation, corrosion and excessive wear. In
the recent years, there is a trend to manufacture miniature valves having small
openings. In these types of valve, it is imperative to pro,ide high-quality compressed air.
In general, to achieve any degree of reliability, the components of pneumatic systems
must get clean and dry air. Hence, air must be prepared or conditioned before it can be
allowed to go into a pneumatic system.
g.22 Quality of Compressed Air

ISO 8573-1, part 1 stipulates contaminants and quality classes of compressed air for
general use. Air contains solid, water and oil particles as contaminants. A quality class
number is defined for each contaminant according to the permissible levels of certain
parameter(s). These parameters and their permissible values against each class are
given in Table 2-afl.
An air quality class is specified as a combination of the three air quality numbers.
For example, a quality class 1.2.1 means that air contains solid particles of maximum
size 0.1 µm and of maximum concentration 0.1 mg/ m3, moisture content corresponding
to a dew point of-40 •c and oil particles of maximum concentration 0.01 mg/ m3.
2:~Characteristics of
Compressed Air
Some most important positive characteristics of compressed air systems are outlined in
Table2-5 .
Although the advantages of compressed air systems are numerous, they are
count eract ed by certain disadvantages. To be able to establish clear demarcations in the
field of pneumatic applications, it is necessary to understand the negative characteristics
of compressed air systems, given in Table 2-6.
Table 2-4 Permissible levels of contaminants of air

Solids \Varn- Oil
Qnalily tlass
Ma,\'. partid.e siu J\l,,x. ,one,utrutil#I J\la.v. pffssur~ d~-,,, Cone~•tration
(pm) (mglm 1) point(°C) (mg'",'J
() 1 O, I 11 ,( IJ
2 II, I
\ ; s
I) s.
~ . j() I"
,, + 10
Table 2-5 Advantages of compressed air systems

Quantity • Air is available everywhere in unlimited quantity.
Power • Compressed air can be easily transmitted through pipes over long
transmission distances.
• Huge quantities of compressed air can be easily stored in a receiver
Storage tank. This is the stored potential energy. The system can receive the
compressed air directly from the tank, and the compressor need not
be in operation always.
• Compressed air is a fast working medium. The range of operating
speeds of pneumatic cylinders is 1-2 mjs.
Speed and • Air is extremely compressible and elastic and is capable of absorbing
acceleration large amounts of potential energy. These properties make possible
the use of compressed air to obtain smooth acceleration and
deceleration of actuators. and reversal of direction of motions "ith
relative freedom of shock.
• Actuator speeds in a compressed air system can easily be controlled
by the simple use of valves. Because force can be easily controlled,
Control mechanical elements driven by compressed air systems can be stalled
for infinite periods without any damage. A compressed air system can
quickly and efficiently be controlled "i th a few control elements, and
can readily be adapted for automation.
Overload • Compressed air tools and working elements can be subjected to loads
even at standstill and are, therefore, overload-safe.
• A compressed air system is a simple method of transmitting energy.
• The use of a compressed air system may allow simplification of
machine design, and it is easy to install and maintain.
• Components of air systems are usually very compact, light in weight
and can be easily serviced.
General • There are fewer mechanical parts in compressed air systems, and
hence these are more efficient and more dependable.
• Air may be exhausted to atmosphere "ithout any harm, so return
lines are not required.
• Air equipment is not normally subjected to sudden failure.
• Compressed air systems may be used in hazardous areas where
electrical controls cannot be used.
Table 2-6 Disadvantages of compressed air systems

All compressed air systems are vulnerable to damage by dirt or
Preparation contamination. Hence, compressed air requires good preparation to
remove dirt and moisture present in it.
Compressed air actuators are only economical up to a certain force

Force requirement. Based on the normal operating pressure of 6 bar, the limit is
limitation approximately 48 k.'\T.
It is not possible to achieve uniform and constant piston speeds 1'ith

Uniform compressed air. Compressibility and elasticity of air can impair operations
speed unless these characteristics are properly understood and used.
Compressed air is a relatively expensive energy medium. The high costs of

energy are compensated by inexpensive components and high
Costs performance.
Exhaust air is noisy. Nowadays, this problem has been solved 1dth the
E.xhaust air availability of effective silencers.
~::,yl Pneumatic ..\.pplications

Pneumatic systems h ave been in use "ithin the industrial processes since the Second
v\'orld \Var and as such have set up a strong presence in modern industry. Continuous
research and development of pneumatic power technology has significantly expanded
and augmented its applications to many areas hitherto unknown for adopting
pneumatics. Amongst many applications and users of p neumatic systems, few are
outlined below;
1. Aircraft manufacturers
2. Cement plants
3. Chemical plants
4. Coal mines
5. Cotton mills
6. Dairies
7. Distilleries
8. Forge shops
9. Foundries
10. l\fachine tool manufacturers
11. l\faterial conve)ing
12. l\fetal forming
13. Oil refineries
14. Paper mills
15. Printing
16. Space exploration
17. Steel mills
18. \ Tehicle manufacturing
An air-equipment presents no sparks in explosive atmospheres; therefore, it can be

utilised in oil refineries, chemical plants and other plants that have the problem of
explosive atmosphere. -~-equipment can be employed under wet and humid conditions
because there is no electric shock hazard.
The ever-increasing number of pneumatic applications is due to research
investments by the component manufacturers and the efforts of creative people who
design and develop flexible and efficient pneumatic control systems. Perhaps, a major
factor that contributed to the speedy gro\\th of pneumatic applications was the
development of symbols and standards that have become "idely accepted and used
throughout the manufacturing and processing industries all over the world.
~~:ZS Standardisation
In the early stages of development of industrial pneumatics, the inevitability for
standardisation was quickly recognised due to the use of inconsistent and often
company-specific terminology and details. Apart from American S}mbols, there was a
"ide range of company-specific symbols used for representing pneumatic circuit
diagrams. Standardisation stands for uniformity for the benefit of everyone. The
rewards of standardisation are unquestionable in all branches of technology. Amongst
other things, standardisation encourages rationalisation and contributes to the safety of
both people and machines by way of internationally laid-down and universally
understandable characteristics. It has been estimated that in the absence of
standardisation, the cost of engineering processes would be about 40% higher.
The efforts for a uniform definition and standardisation of pneumatic components
were initiated by German organisations like VDI and VD!l1A. This led to DIN and then
CETOP and later to DIN ISO standards and recommendations for a uniform and
consistent terminology in pneumatics. Standardisation work throughout the world is
coordinated by the ISO (International Standardisation Organisation). The ISO
standards for pneumatics have been accepted by almost every nation. The International
Electro-technical Commission (IEC) works along similar lines as the ISO. The IEC
primarily draws up standards for electrical components.
Table 2-7 Some pneumatic standards

ISO Fluid power systems and components - Graphic symbols and circuit
1219-1 diagrams - Part i: Graphic symbols for conventional use and data-
2006 processing applications. This standard replaces ISO 1219-11991.
Fluid power systems and components - Graphic 5ymbols and circuit

ISO diagrams - Part 2: Circuit diagram (This standard establishes the rules for
1219-2 dra"ing diagrams of fluid power systems using symbols from ISO 1219-1).
1995
Port markings of pneumatic directional control valves.

ISO 5599
!lfounting dimensions of pneumatic cylinders: 8 to 25 mm.

ISO 6432 .
i\iounting dimensions of pneumatic cvlinders: 32 to 320 mm.
ISO 6431 .
CETOP Hydraulic and pneumatic system circuit diagrams.

RP41
Identification code for ports and operators of pneumatic control valves and
CETOP other components.
RP68P
Quality classes of compressed air for general use.

ISO 8573
System engineers must draw pneumatic circuits that installation engineers and the
maintenance personnel can read and understand easily. Therefore, the field of
pneumatics requires that engineers and technicians involved in this area must be
familiar "ith the standard units and symbols. Table 2-z presents some standards
applicable to the field of pneumatics. Graphical symbols for fluid power systems are also
defined in the Indian standard IS 7513-1974.
1. CETOP - Comite Europeen des Transmissions Oleohydrauliques et

Pneumatiques is a federation of European manufacturers, which is
involved, since 1962, in the standardisation of pneumatics and
hydraulic components in co-operation "ith the users of these
products. CETOP recommendations l\ith the number RP ... P are
included in national and international standardisation work.
2. DIN - Deutsches Institute fur Normung E. , ,.
3. VDI - Verein Deutscher Ingenieure (Association of German
Engineers).
4. VDl\,lA- \'erband Deutscher l\,laschinen und Anlagenbau
(Association ofl\,lechanical Engineers).
Questions
1. Explain briefly ho"' air medium can be used for transmitting po\\·er
to industrial equipment.
2. State and explain Pascal's la"'·
3. Nanle the n ,•o pressure measurement scales and differentiate them.
4. Explain Boyle's la,v.
5. '\,\,'hat is the difference ben..-een adiabatic and isothermal process of
compression?
6. Differentiate ben,,een free air and normal air.
7. \\'hat are the contaJllinants usually present in the atmospheric air?
8. '\,\,'hat are the harmful effects of contaminants if present in the
compressed air?
9. Nanle rn,o \\'ays to express the aJllount of moisture present in the
atmosphere.
10. Llst out a fe, v important advantages of compressed air systems.
11. Llst out four disadvantages of compressed air s ystems.
12. Ho,v are the variables pressure, temperature and volume related in
the case of a gas?
13. \ \ 'hy is 6 bar regarded as the most economical pressure in
pneumatics?
14. '\,\,'hat is 'saturation quantity' \\ith regard to the moisture content in
. ?
arr.
15. \\'hat is the limit of force available in the case of a pneumatic
cylinder, and "'-hat is the reason for this limit?
16. \\'hat are the advantages of standardisation? l\,lention a fe\';
standards used in pneumatics.
17. If the amount of moisture present in a given volume of air is at the
rate of 9 g/ m 3 at 20 °C, ,vhat is the relative humidity of the given
air? (Assume saturation quantity is 18 g/ m3 at 20 °C.)
18. A mass of 500 kg needs to be pushed up"·ards using a double-acting
cylinder. '\,\'hat diameter of cylinder do " 'e need if the pressure
available is 6 bar?
Compressed Air Generation and
3 Contamination Control
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Specify the components of a t)']lical pneumatic system.

• Describe the classification, construction, and operation of pneumatic compressors.
• Understand the t erms delivery volume and pressure regulation related to a
compressor.
• Describe the stages in the preparation of compressed air.
• Describe the objectives of primary air treatment.
• Explain the purpose and function of main-line filters and dryers.
• Describe the purpose and construction of air receivers.
• Explain the objectives of air distribution system.
• Identify categories of fluid conductors.
• Understand various piping layouts in air distribution system.
• Describe the objectives of secondary air treatment.
• Explain the purpose and function of air service unit (FRL).
C ompressors are devices for converting mechanical energy into pneumatic energy. They
are the heart of any pneumatic system because they generate compressed air that is used
as force to perform useful work. Ho\\·ever, the compressed air as delivered by a
compressor is contaminated. But, it is essential to have high-quality air for reliable and
efficient operation of pneumatic components. Therefore, to render the compressed air
suitable for any industrial use, it is subjected to appropriate contamination treatment.
The process of removal of contaminants from the compressed air is also known as
'preparation' or 'conditioning' of the compressed air.
This chapter deals ";th the compressed air generation and various stages of
contamination control. It also presents details of storage and transmission of
compressed air. The functions of different components that make up a Filter-Regulator-
Lubricator (FRL) unit are described in detail at the end of the chapter.
13!Ai A Typical Pneumatic System

A simplified arrangement of a pneumatic system ,dth only three blocks was explained in
Section 2 .2 (Chapter 2 ). An elaborate arrangement of a typical pneumatic system
comprising various components is depicted in Figure 3-1. The power source is
subdivided into the follO\sing: compressed air generation, primary air treatment,
storage, air distribution, and secondary air treatment. The objective of any compressed
air (pneumatic) system is to produce dry, oil-free, and dust-free compressed air at low
cost. Dust and oil particles from compressed air can be removed ";th filter systems, and
moisture can be removed "ith dryers.
This chapter deals ivith the first block in the pneumatic system given in Figure 3-1,
that is the 'power source'. This block shows the devices for the generation, storage,
treatment and distribution of the compressed air. Our discussion on power source
begins "ith the air compressors.
,-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·
. -·-·!
' Actuator
Power Control ' I
source
..... valves
~ Actuating devices
I
' .
··- -·· ··;··-·· ··· ··1··· ·· .
;...... ·,····
,
.
........... '
.-----. '
I ; .
' ,_,,--,..,...- ,i-, '
'
'
'
Valve '
'
'
Storage Secondary air treatment
Generation Primary air treatment Air distribution

, .. . ... .. . .. . ... .. . .. . .... . .. . .... . .. . .. ... .. . .. . ... .. . .. . ... .. . .. . ... .. . . . .... . .. . .... . .. . .. . ... . . .. . ... .. . .. . ... .. . .. . ... -. .. . .... . .. ... ~
; !
; rl"::::"h !
'
;
~4--~-4-~ 'i
; ~
'
'
'
Filter FRL '
'
0 Ring Main '
'
'
'
Compressor After-cooler '
'
Receiver tank
'
'
Power source Dryer '
'
'
Figure 3-1 A typical pneumatic S)>lem.
y Air Compressors
1lost industrial plants have centralised compressed air generation systems "ith
compressors located preferably at the load centre. The effectiveness of the equipment
that is operated by a pneumatic system is governed by the capacity of the compressor
and the quality of the compressed air it delivers. Therefore, it is essential for an engineer
or technician to have a working knowledge of 'what a compressor is?' and 'how does it
operate?'. v\'e "ill try to find answers to these questions in this section and the follo"ing
sections.
A compressor is the most common industrial energy supply unit that converts
mechanical energy into fluid energy. It is designed to take in air at atmospheric pressure
and deliver the received air to a closed system \\ith a certain volumetric flow rate, at a
higher pressure. l\'Iajority of pneumatic systems use air as the operating medium (a few
systems use nitrogen or even natural gas). In Figyre 3-2, a reservoir having a volume of
2 m3 is connected to a compressor which delivers 3 m3/min of air. Using Boyle's law, the
pressure rise can be calculated easily. The values of absolute pressure and gauge
pressure \\ith respect to time are given in Table 3-1.
\Vhile selecting a compressor, the follo\\ing essential parameters are taken into
consideration: the pressure at which it would operate, the volume of air it would have to
deliver, and the required quality of air. Compressor sizes vary from a small one
generating less than 1 litre of air per second "ith little or no preparation equipment, to
multiple compressor plant installations generating thousands of litres of air per second.
Compressors "ith delivery volume up to 40 litres/sec (1/s) and drive power less than 15
k\\1 are considered small compressors. l\Iedium compressors are those whose delivery
volume is benveen 40 and 300 1/s and drive power between 15 and 100 k\V.
Compressors above the medium limit are considered as large compressors. Various
units of volumetric flow rate and their conversion factors are given in Ai;mendix 4.
Outlet
D
Compressor
Inlet Volume
2m3
Reservoir
3 m3/min
Figure 3-~ Pressure calculations.
Table 3-1 Pressure rise "ith respect to time

N,,,_,, ._,,,.,, (.,,/ p <""'-'•1•) (I,.,.)
I Timc,mi11) p (p,,g,)(,_.)
() 2
I \ .?.~
"I.\
> s i.' > 'd)
"
\ 11 \5 ~.\
11 ..... fi.O
~ Classification of Compressors
There are vanous ways of classifying compressors. Let us understand these
classifications. Generally, compressors are classified according to the method of air
compression as (1) positive displacement devices and (2) dynamic displacement devices.
Displacement refers to the quantity of air that passes through a compressor in a single
revolution. In a positive displacement compressor, air is confined " i thin an enclosed
space where it is compressed by decreasing its volume. In a dynamic displacement
compressor, air is accelerated by rapidly rotating elements, such as rotor blades, thus
. . .
causing an increase 1n pressure.
According to the type of motion of the compressing element, compressors are
classified as rotary type or reciprocating type. Compressors are also classified as single-
acting and double-acting according to the number of times air is compressed in each
revolution of the rotating element. A compressor that discharges only one pulse of
compressed air during each cycle of the piston movement is called a single-acting
compressor. Obviously, only one set of valves is required to obtain this single-acting
operation. A double-acting compressor makes use of two sets of valves and produces
compressed air during the motion of the piston in each direction. Compressors are also
classified as single-stage and multi-stage compressors according to the way they are
interconnected to get higher pressure. In a single-stage compressor, an increase in
pressure takes place only in a single cylinder. However, in a multi-stage compressor, the
exhaust of one cylinder feeds the in-stroke of another to obtain higher outlet pressures.
A broad classification of compressors is shown in Figure 3-3.
Compressors
I
I I
Posi!ive <.11sjllacernen1 O,•namic displacement
oompresSO<s compressers
I
I I I
Axial flow Radial now
Recipr~lin; cornpresSQrs Rctary oolll)res-sors compressors oom;xessors
I I I I
Pis:on !>.a;:hragm S.':c.ling •,ane Suew

conp,cssors conp,~sors comp,~sors COl"l!)ftsSOfS
Figure 3-3 Classification of compressors.
3~4 Terms and Definitions

The most important factors pertaining to a compressor are its delivery volume, pressure,
drive unit, cooling methods employed, and regulation. These terms are briefly e:,.1>lained
below.
Delivery Volume
Delivery volume is the quantity of air that a compressor delivers to a system. It is
specified in terms of air at normal atmospheric conditions (Nm3/min or Nm3/h). It is
further divided into two types: (1) theoretical delivery volume and (2 ) effective delivery
volume. For a reciprocating compressor, the theoretical delivery volume is the product
of volume of air swept in one revolution of its rotating element and the number of
revolutions per unit time. Compressor manufacturers usually refer to this value in their
specifications. However, to pneumatic personnel, only the effective delivery volume is of
interest as this air volume is available for driving and controlling pneumatic equipment.
Pressure
In the compressor context, pressure is of two types: working pressure and operating
pressure. v\'orking pressure is the compressor outlet pressure or the pressure in the
receiver tank and in the pipelines. Operating pressure is the pressure that is required at
the operating position. In most pneumatic systems, the preferred operating pressure is 6
bar. v\'orking pressure is usually higher than the operating pressure.
Drive
Compressors are driven by either electrical motors or internal combustion engines. In
factories, three-phase induction motors act as prime movers for compressors.
Cooling
vVhen air is compressed, work is done, and a part of this work appears as heat in the
compressed air. The heat produced must be removed by cooling the air. Good cooling
ei,,1:ends the life of the compressor. Selection of a suitable cooling system depends on the
amount of heat produced. Cooling fins on smaller air-cooled compressors permit the
heat to be removed by radiation. A large compressor is usually equipped "ith an
additional fan to take away the heat. In the case of a compressor \\ith a drive power in
excess of 30 kVv, air-cooling is not adequate. Such compressors are equipped "ith a
water circulation cooling system.
Regulation
To match the delivery volume of the compressor "ith the fluctuating air consumption
and as a safety measure, it is necessary to regulate the pressure developed by the
compressor. Various methods of regulation are employed for this purpose. However,
only the most commonly used on-off regulation is explained here.
On-offRegulation
In this type of regulation, the drive motor of the compressor has two operating
(s\\itching) positions (i.e., OJ\' and OFF) that are governed by the pressure conditions in
the system. Actually, these conditions are the pressure (s"itching) limits Pma.x and Pmin
that can be set on a regulator. The drive motor is S\\itched off on reaching a preset
maximum pressure, Pma.x• The motor is s"itched on again when the pressure has
dropped to a preset minimum pressure, Pmin. To reduce the s"itching frequency of the
motor, a large gap between Pmax and Pmin and a large compressed air receiver are
necessary. Remember, the most critical operation in an electrical motor is its s"itching.
The circuit diagram for on-off regulation is given in Figure 3-4.
~ Compressor Types
Various ways of classifying compressors were explained in Section 3,3. Operating
principles and other important features of few important compressor types are given in
the fol!O\sing sub-sections.
Check valve Receiver tank

To system
Compressor Drive motor Pressure •

switch ---:- -- ! ,.
- -_-_;_ _ _ __,
M
~--------'
K Contactor
ON-OFF switch
Air inlet
N- + - + - f - - - ' - - - - - - - - - - - - - + - - - -
8 -+-+-'---------------'----
3-supply Y - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
R ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
Figure 3-4 On-off regulation.
± I
I
T
,.
'i' Piston
, .... - .. .. .. -- -.. ' .

,,
,
.--.___
''
''
,1.... ''
'
'
) ,
'
''
..... ''
'
''
,'
)
''
' ~ '' ,
' ,,
Figure 3-5 Reciprocating oompre.<sor.
Reciprocating Piston Compressor

Figure 3:5 shows the basic single-cylinder reciprocating compressor. As the piston
moves down during the inlet stroke, the inlet valve opens and draws air into the
cylinder. During the upward motion of the piston, air is compressed and discharged
through the opened outlet valve. Reciprocating piston compressors are very common
and provide a "ide range of pressures and delivery volumes. They are employed where
high pressures (4 -30 bar) and low delivery volumes (<10 ,000 m3/h) are needed. For
pressures exceeding 30 bar, multi-stage compressors \\ith inter-cooling between stages
of compression are used. Cooling between stages reduces the input work requirement
and the volume of air to be handled by the next stage, and this can dramatically increase
compressor efficiency. Generally, single-stage compressors may be used for getting
pressures up to 12 bar in the economical mode of operation, and double-stage
compressors for getting pressures up to 30 bar. However, a reciprocating piston
compressor has relatively complex design 'Vith many mo\ing parts in comparison to
other types of compressors.
Diaphragm Compressor
In piston compressors, there is a likelihood of small amounts of lubricating oil from the
piston walls contaminating the compressed air. This very small contamination may
prove harmful in food, pharmaceutical, and chemical industries. For applications in
such industries, diaphragm compressors may be used as a power source. Here a flexible
diaphragm, as shown in Figure &2, partitions the compressor chamber and the
actuating piston. This feature facilitates the isolation of lubricating oil from the
compressed air supply.
Screw Compressor
The present trend in the design of air compressors is towards the rotary type, such as the
screw compressor. This ty])e of compressor has been developed due to technological
advances that have made available stronger materials and permitted closer machining
and assembly tolerances.
A screw compressor, as shown in Figure 3=z, consists of two helically grooved
screws meshing ,vith each other, leaving a negligible clearance of about 0.05 mm. The
design of the screws makes it possible to move air from the inlet to the outlet of the
compressor. Compression is achieved by pushing the trapped air into a progressively
smaller volume as the screws move ahead. Because there are no surfaces that actually
make contact "ith one another, this type of compressor does not require cooling and is
characterised by low noise level and small loss of efficiency. They have the benefit of
simplicity 'Vith fewer moving parts rotating at a constant speed and a steady delivery of
compressed air "ithout pressure fluctuations.
t
Diaphragm
•
,__.... !
Figure 3-6 Diaphrag)ll compressor.
Single-stage screw compressors are generally designed to operate for capacities up

to 100 cfm and pressures of less than 10 bar. Higher pressure can be attained by multi-
stage compression and higher capacity by parallel operation.
......
Figure 3--, Screw compressor.
Flow Compressor
A large volume of air (up to 5000 m3/min) is often necessary for applications such as
pneumatic conveying, ventilation or where air itself is a constituent of a process.
Pressures in such applications are low, and there is no need for a positive displacement
compressor. In such situations, use of a flow compressor is most appropriate. Its
rotating blades accelerate the compressor inlet air in large quantity, but "ith a small
increase in pressure per stage.
~ Preparation
Dry and clean compressed air is the first requirement for the satisfactory operation of
any pneumatic system. As we are aware, compressed air is contaminated to a high
degree. The contamination is caused by dust and humidity from the atmospheric air
taken in by the compressor and the particles originating in the compressor, such as
residues of lubricants and mechanically abraded particles. Any compressed air supply
system is also a source of contamination as fine and micro-fine rust particles, residues of
condensate and scale are taken up by the flow of compressed air. The heat developed
during compression may lead to undesirable oxidation and combination of dirt particles
in the air. This may cause damage to the compressed air supply network and the
consuming devices downstream. Hence compressed air must be conditioned or prepared
to prevent contamination and remain of high quality.
Preparation of the compressed air involves the following important acti,ities:
reducing its temperature, removing water and solids from it, regulating its pressure, and
in many cases introducing a lubricant in it. The compressed air at the compressor outlet
has many objectionable and harmful states and contaminants. They are as follows:
1. It is very hot. For example, at the outlet of a scre,v compressor, the

temperature of the air may be in the range of 70-100°C.
2. It coDtains a very high concentration of solid particles such as dust,
dirt, pollen, etc. A typical city atmosphere contains about 40
million parts per m3 of solid particles. If this air "·ere compressed
to 7 bar, the concentration ,vould be about 320 million parts per
m3.
3. It coDtains moisture in the vapour form as "·ell as the liquid form.
4. It coDtains oil in the vapour form as "·ell as the liquid form.
~~ Stages of Preparation
In general, the preparation of air falls into three distinct stages as shown in Figyre 3-8.
In the first stage, an intake filter removes larger particles which can damage the air
compressor. The second stage is int ended for the primary air treatment. In this stage,
the air temperature at the compressor outlet is reduced, solid dirt contaminants usually
larger than 100 µm are removed, and the air is dried to reduce its humidity. The units
used in the primary air treatment are after-cooler, main-line filter, and dryer. A typical,
medium-size compressor installation consists of an electrically driven compressor u nit
"ith inlet filter, after-cooler, and water separator. The third stage is intended for the
secondary air treatment. In this treatment, an effort is made to finely prepare the
compressed air j ust before its entry into the controlling valves and actuating devices.
That is, there is a need to remove moisture and fine dirt particles, regulate the pressure
as per individual machine's requirement, and introduce a fine mist of oil to the
compressed air to aid lubrication. The u nits used in the secondary air treatment are
filter, regulator, and lubricator (FRL).
Compressor ~~
Primary air treatment
Main-line filter Dryer

Receiver tank
-
Secondary air treatment
Air service unit
To system
Intake filter After-cooler

Figure 3-8 Stages of preparation.
3.8 After-Cooler
High t emperatures are produced when air is compressed and hence its efficient cooling
is important. The after-cooler is a heat exchanger intended to reduce the temperature of
the hot air discharged from the compressor to approximately 15 to 25 •c above that of
the ambient air. Two basic types of after-coolers are: (1) air-cooled after-cooler and (2)
water-cooled after-cooler. Air-cooled after-cooler uses the ambient air to cool the hot air
discharged from the compressor. In the water-cooled after-cooler, the hot compressed
air is passed through the after-cooler tubes, and cooling water is passed in the opposite
direction through the after-cooler shell. The counter current flow provides an effective
method for reducing the temperature of the compressed air. By reducing the
temperature, most of the suspended water vapour and some oil vapour "ill condense to
the liquid state. This liquid is then drained away from the system.
3t_g Main-Line Filter

As the compressed air cools further, water condenses, making freshly generated
compressed air very wet. A main-line filter with a mesh "idth of 100 µm or above will
remove this liquid together "ith large solid dirt contaminants. An efficient main-line
filter "ill remove most of all coarse particles during the initial preparation stage.
3.10 Oil Removal

'Where air is to be used "ith precision appliances and instruments or is likely to come in
contact "ith manufacturing components, it must be oil-free. 'While the main-line filter
"ill remove most of the oil in the liquid form, oil vapours can only be removed by means
of appropriate chemical processes. An efficient oil removal filter should be installed for
remo,ing all oil in the liquid form as well as the vapour form.
3.yDryer
The natural water vapour content of air is concentrated and is carried through the
compression process in the vapour form at high temperatures. For simple applications,
to remove the excess humidity we need a simple after-cooler, an air receiver, and a filter
"ith condensate traps. However, to get high-quality compressed air additional means of
dehydration must be provided. Better dehydration can be achieved by installing an
efficient air dryer downstream of compressor and reservoir. The dryer function is to
lower the dew point of the compressed air by remo,ing moisture from it.
Generally, four basic types of air dryer are used in industries. These are: (1)
absorption dryer, (2) adsorption dryer, (3) refrigeration dryer, and (4) membrane dryer.
Each type has its o"n specific characteristics and " ill produce optimum results only
when used correctly. All dryer types have been discussed in subsequent sections.
It is worthwhile to use an after-cooler before using any type of air dryer to reduce
the amount of work by the dryer. However, it should be noted that the drying of
compressed air results in additional costs depending on the drying process used and the
dryer capacity. Also the selected pressure dew point has a considerable influence on
drying costs irrespective of the dl'jing method used. The additional cost of installing an
air dryer can be offset over a short period due to reduction in maintenance costs,
reduced downtime, and increased reliability of the system.
Dew Point Temperature and Pressure Dew Point

Before taking up further discussion on dryers, let us understand the subtle difference
between the meanings of the terms 'dew point temperature' and 'pressure dew point'.
Dew point temperature is the temperature at which the volume of air under
consideration is saturated (i.e., it has 100% relative humidity). Lower the dew point
temperature, the more water vapour "ill condense, thus reducing the moisture
entrapped in the compressed air.
The relevant operating pressure of a pneumatic system should be taken into account
while comparing different methods of air-dl'jing. The term pressure dew point is used in
this context. It is the lowest air temperature reached during the dl'jing process at the
specified operating pressure.
Absorption Dryer
This dryer is also known as deliquescent dryer. It uses a chemical desiccant such as
phosphoric pentoxide or calcium chloride as the dl')'ing agent. The moisture present in
the compressed air reacts "ith the dl'j'ing agent chemically when the compressed air is
passed through the chamber containing the drying agent. The resultant water compound
is collected at the bottom of the chamber, from where it can be drained off. As the water
compound contains both water and chemical, its disposal may be a problem. Absorption
dryers are capable of achieving pressure dew points below o •c. However, the absorbent
material is used up during the drying process and needs to be replenished at regular
intervals. Nowadays absorption dryers are not used practically as their running costs are
too high.
Adsorption Dryer
Adsorption is the physical process of moisture collection on the porous surface of certain
granular materials. Gaseous molecules are attracted to certain solid surfaces by Van der
v\laals forces and this causes adsorption. The degree of attraction (or adsorption) is
dependent on the properties of the gaseous molecules and the desiccant. Activated
alumina, molecular sieves, and silica gels (silicon dioxide) are the most important
industrial desiccants. These materials are produced with very high internal surface areas
and thus have high adsorption capacity. \\later vapour exhibits a high degree of
attraction for these porous adsorbents.
Figure 3=9 shows various parts of a typical adsorption dryer. This dryer is also
kno\\n as regenerative desiccant dryer. As sho\\n in Figure 3=9, wet incoming
compressed air after passing through a pre-filter is directed to the adsorption chamber
containing the desiccant. v\later vapour in the compressed air is adsorbed by the
desiccant. Thereafter dry compressed air is allowed to pass to the application through an
after-filter. An adsorption dryer is the simplest form of desiccant-type air dryer for
achieving a pressure dew point as low as -40 •c.
Adsorption dryers usually have nvo desiccant-filled chambers with interconnecting
piping and 5',itching valves. The valves permit removal of the collected moisture from
one chamber while the other chamber is used to purify the compressed air. The n,in-
tower design (Figure 3:.9) facilitates simultaneous compressed air drying and saturated
desiccant regeneration for non-stop production. A contaminated desiccant bed can be
regenerated (i.e., purified) by either elevating its temperature (heated regeneration) or
by decreasing its pressure and purging (heatless regeneration). In the heated
regeneration method, atmospheric air is blo"n through a heater and then to the
saturated desiccant bed. In the heatless regeneration, the desiccant chamber is
depressurised to the level of atmospheric pressure through a purge valve. A portion of
the dry compressed air is allowed to pass through the desiccant to flush out the
moisture. v\'hen the regeneration is complete, the purge valve is closed and the chamber
is pressurised again to the line pressure for a smooth changeover at appropriate
intervals. Either a time-based s"itching or a dew point-based S\\itching can be used for
the changeover.
Moistair n
/}:}:- Pre-filter
Shut-off valve ,..............,
Hot air
Desiccant
chamber
Heater
:}{}\ After-filter
Dry air n
Figure 3-9 Adsorption dryer.
The capacity of the desiccant bed is limited o"ing to abrasion and contamination of
the adsorption medium by oil and other substances. Under normal conditions, it is
required to replace the dryi ng agent once in 2 to 3 years.
Dew-point ,l'Ieasurement
Dew-point monitoring of dryers ensures that they are functioning properly. Portable
dew-point transmitters are available for measuring the pressure dew point of the
compressed air. The pressure dew point at the outlet of an adsorption dryer can be used
as a criterion to determine the saturation level of the desiccant and hence to adjust the
interval for a desiccant regeneration cycle.
In the conventional regen eration "ith time-based switching, the regeneration is
carried out at equal intervals of time irrespective of the saturation level of the desiccant.
In regeneration ,vith dew-point-based s"itching, the actual condition of the desiccant is
taken into account by measuring the dew point of the desiccant. The actual regeneration
interval in the case of dew-point-based S\\itching may be much longer than that in the
time-based s"itching. Therefore, regeneration "ith dew-point-based switching provides
the user "ith up to So% sa,ing in energy costs for drying the compressed air.
Refrigerated Dryer
The layout of a fy'J)ical refrigerated air dryer is shown in Figm:e 3 -10. It is composed of a
heat exchanger (Stage 1) and a refrigerating un it (Stage 2) to reduce the temperature of
the compressed air. The incoming warm and humid air is first passed through the air-to-
air heat exchanger, and then through the refrigerating un it to reduce the temperature of
the compressed air to as low as +2 °C. This drying method is based on the principle that
if the compressed air is cooled to a t em perature below the dew point, condensation takes
place and water is precipitated. Almost all the water and oil particles get condensed, and
collected in the water traps provided at appropriate points. The cooled compressed air is
then filtered to remove from it the suspended solid particles and most of the oil mist.
Air-air heat exchanger
Dry air outlet <=
Moist air inlet =:> ~ --<
Separator
Cooling agent
Separator
r--- Slage 1 ---+-l<l•1------

Figure 3-10 Refrigerated dryer.
Refrigeration plant
Stage 2 -----+-
The pressure dew point that can be achieved 1'ith a refrigerated dryer is about 2 •c.
If 1 m3 of fully saturated compressed air is cooled to just above the freezing point,
approximately 7596 of the vapour "ill be condensed out. If this compressed air "·ere
warmed back to 20 •c, it would be dried to nearly 25% RH. Finally, the clean and dry air
goes out of the refrigerated dryer through the heat exchanger. As long as the
t emperature of the dried compressed air remains above 2 •c, no further condensation
" ill take place. The dew point of 2 •c is sufficient enough for the smooth operation of
most of the industrial and process applications.
li'Iernbrane Dryer
:Membrane dryers present another means to solve the problem of water in compressed
air lines. The complete unit of a membrane dryer is constructed on a multi-stage design.
It consists of an air filter, a coalescing filter, and a membrane module as shown in Figure
In the first stage, the air filter removes water and contaminants down to 5 µm. In
3 - 11.
the second stage, a high efficiency coalescing filter \\ith an auto drain removes oil and
sub-micron particles down to 0.01 microns. Finally, in the third stage, a membrane
module removes the remaining moisture in the vapour form.
Purging valve
Wet purge air
I i-~
Coalescing
Air filter filler
Ory air
t>-
Wet compressed air To applicalion
Figure 3-11 Membrane air dryer.
The drying process in a membrane dryer begins >vith the passing of the pre-cleaned
compressed air through a bundle of hollow fibres in the membrane module. The hollow
fibres constitute a membrane layer specially designed to attract the water vapour inside.
This water vapour diffuses through the very thin selectiYe layer until it reaches the
outside of the membrane due to the partial pressure difference between inside and
outside of the membrane. The permeated water Yapour is then swept away by a small
amount of dry air fed back along the length of the membrane fibre through a purging
valve. )Iembrane dryers typically maintain a pressure de"· point of o °C.
The membrane air dryers are very simple and compact. Constructed "ith corrosion-
resistant materials, these dryers run almost noiseless, "ithout mechanically movable
parts to wear out. The membranes of the dryer never become saturated, so there is no
need for regeneration. Further, they do not require an electric supply. These dryers are
used in a " i de variety of applications including instrument air, spray paints, dental
compressors, Co-ordinate r.Ieasuring 1',Iachines (C:II)I), process controls, and many
others.
3.12 Air Receiver
An important function of a compressed air system is the storage of compressed air. An
air receiver (also called a receiver tank) is a simple device used for the storage of
compressed air. The slow response of a compressor to compress the air to the required
pressure calls for storage of the compressed air in a receiver tank. These tanks also assist
in suppressing demand surges and provide further cooling of the compressed air. As we
are aware, cooling of the compressed air results in condensation of water vapour.
Therefore, pressure in the receiver tank is generally set higher than that is required at
the operating position.
Figure 3 - 12 shows the layout of an air receiver. To provide a large surface area, a
receiver tank is given a cylindrical shape. It is also provided \\ith
1. a safety relief valve to guard against high pressures arising from the
failure of pressure control scheme,
2. pressure 5"itch to sense the pressure inside the tank,
3. high temperature 5"itches for remote alarms,
4. pressure gauges for pressure indication,
5. a drain cock for the removal of condensed " 'ater,
6. a manhole for manual cleaning.
Shut-off
Thermometer va lve
Pressure
gauge -+
00 Manhole
Fignre 3-u, Reoeiver tank.
The size of a compressed air receiver depends on the delivery volume of the compressor,
load requirements, and allowable pressure deviations in the receiver. The receiver can
be fitted downstream of the compressor to act as an air chamber and selectively at
points where air consumption is high.
The advantages of compressed air receivers in pneumatic systems are as follows:
1. Air receivers tend to provide constant air pressure in a pneumatic

system regardless of fluctuating air consumption or compressor
S\\'itching.
2. The large surface area of the receiver tank cools the compressed air
by ,vay of dissipating heat quickly to the atmosphere. Thus a
fraction of the moisture in the air is condensed and collected at the
bottom of the receiver tank "·hich then can be drained off.
3. In the event of electrical pO\\'er failure, the air receiver can
maintain the compressed air supply for some more time so as to
carry on "ith the production.
3~!3 Air Distribution System

The objective of an air distribution system is to act as a leak-proof carrier of the
compressed air and keep pressure drops "ithin permissible limits. The air distribution
system is made up of conductors and fittings which interconnect various components of
a pneumatic system. A well-organised industrial pneumatic distribution system is so
designed that it has minimum number of elbows and bends connecting its pipes and
components to ensure that the pressure energy is not unnecessarily wasted.
The distribution of compressed air should be planned and executed carefully by
taking into account the follo"ing parameters:
1. choice of pipe materials,

2. flo"' resistance,
3. correct sizing of pipes,
4. pipe layout,
5. installation and maintenance requirements.
Fluid Conductors
Fluid conductors are used in an air distribution system to carry the compressed air from
the reservoir to the actuators and then take it to the atmosphere, after performing the
intended work. The selection of conductors should be dependent on the conditions
under which the pneumatic equipment is to be used. The fluid conductors are generally
divided into three classes:
1. Pipe (rigid)
2. Tubing (rigid or semi-rigid)
3. Hose (flexible)
:More than one type of conductor may be used in the same installation. The proper
selection and installation of conductors are vital in the efficient operation of a system.
The choice of conductors is decided by considering the follo"ing requirements: (1)
permissible pressure drops, (2) leak-proof operation, (3) resistance to corrosion, (4) cost
of pipes per metre run, (5) flexibility of future expansion, and (6) installation and
maintenance costs. Further, the lines should have smooth inside surface to reduce
frictional losses, and must be capable of "ithstanding working pressures and peak shock
pressures produced 1'ithin the system. The follo"ing sub-sections present fluid
conductors (including pipe, tubing, and hose) as part of the auxiliaries used to conduct
the compressed air from one point to another.
Rigid Pipe
The main air distribution system is made up of rigid pipelines, feeder lines, and
associated fittings and accessories. Copper, steel, aluminium, and iron pipes must be
brazed and welded or can be joined through threaded connectors to avoid introduction
of scale and welding particles into the system. '\.Velded connections are robust and leak-
free, and are the main choice for fixed main distribution pipelines. As a rough rule,
piping is employed for a diameter above 50 mm. Hoses and tubing may be employed for
conducting the compressed air to air-powered tools and equipment, instruments, and
gauges.
Tubing
Tubing can be used to conduct clean and dry compressed air to pneumatic tools and
equipment. Plastic tubing has gained "ide acceptance in industry for use as conductors
in pneumatic systems as it is inexpensive and extremely easy to use "ith high degree of
flexibility. Food-grade tubes are totally colourless and tasteless, and "ill not pass
e:-.1:raneous flavour or odour to susceptible foods or beverages. A tube is usually specified
by outside diameter and inside diameter.
Tubing is of two types - rigid and flexible. Examples of rigid type are: steel,
aluminium, copper, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and those of flexible type are nylon
and polyethylene. Nylon tubes are robust and can be used for a variety of applications
"ithin general pneumatics. Polyurethane tubes are extra flexible and soft, and are
especially suitable in applications where short bending radii for the tubing are
indispensable. Each material has some special characteristics which make it more
suitable for some services than others. Because tubing can be bent, lines from the tubing
require only a minimum number of fittings.
Hose
Hose assemblies are chiefly used to bend lines or to connect the compressed air source
to actuators that must be located on movable parts. Additional advantages of a hose
assembly are that it can be easily installed, requires less installation skills than required
for pipes or rigid tubing, can absorb shock, and is readily available in a whole range of
pressure ratings.
Flexible hoses are manufactured from natural and synthetic rubbers, and several
plastics. They are reinforced by fabric or "ire braid. Few hose types are polyester-
reinforced PVC hose, metal braided rubber hose, etc. A hose is usually specified by the
outside diameter and inside diameter. The hose should have a smooth bore, and must be
resistant to oil vapours and lubricants. The hose walls must be sufficiently hard to resist
heavy impacts and shock blows. The outer structure of hose must be strong and
abrasion-resistant.
Fittings
Pipes and tubes are joined to other pipes and tubes or components in an installation
through fittings for their leak-proof connections. For pneumatic systems also, different
types of fittings are available. Push-in fittings are used for simple and quick assembly of
pneumatic circuits. They are very compact units comprising retained collets and positive
tube anchorage for easy tube insertion and hence facilitate rapid assembly. Fittings are
made of stainless steel, aluminium, bronze, or plastic "ith silicon-free nitrile
rubber/viton 'O' rings. They are available in various shapes to form unions, elbows, tees,
nipples, caps, plugs, couplings, crosses, etc.
Quick-disconnect Coupling
Quick-disconnect couplings are >videly used in pneumatic systems, particularly where it
is essential to uncouple the lines frequently for maintenance, t esting, and safety. )<{any
quick-disconnect couplings have double checks that can be used for easy detachment
"ithout any loss of the compressed air.
Air-fuse
A pressurised open end of a long hose or tubing can cause severe damage through a
whiplash effect. By fitting an air-fuse, perhaps to comply \\ith safety regulations, this can
be avoided. An air-fuse operates like an in-line two-way valve. It is designed to prevent
pneumatic hoses or tubing whipping around, exhausting high-pressure air in the event
of a hose or tubing fracture. The air fuse reduces the flow of the compressed air to the
atmosphere so that only a very small amount of the compressed air escapes compared to
full line failure flow. It should be fixed in the correct direction, directly between the rigid
pipe work and the flexible tube, to screen the whole length of the flexible tube, and
consequently to safeguard against the possible whiplash. Only that portion of tubing or
hose which lies after the air-fuse is protected.
Flow Resistance
The flow of compressed air through a piping creat es friction and consequent pressure
drop. Nevertheless, it should be acknowledged that differential pressure is essential for
the flow of compressed air. The pressure loss is proportional to the square of the flow
velocity. Elbows, T-pieces, nvo-way valves, slide valves, etc. are also responsible for the
interference "ith the flow and the corresponding loss of pressure. However, this
pressure drop cannot be totally avoided but can be considerably reduced by routing
pipes properly and assembling the fittings correctly.
Sizing ofPipe Systems

The pipe size should be selected appropriately to keep the pressure drop to a minimum
in the whole air distribution system. Correct sizing of each part of the pipe system
should be ensured for reliable and trouble-free operation of the system. The selection of
pipe size is governed by the follo\\ing factors: (1) delivery volume, (2) pipe length, (3)
operating pressure, (4) permissible pressure drop, and (5) number of fittings such as
elbows, T-pieces, and valves. Pipe manufacturers provide nomograms linking delivery
volumes, pipe lengths, operating pressures, and permissible pressure drops to different
pipe diameters. Selection is best made ";th the support of nomograms. It may be noted
that a nomogram is a nvo-dimensional graphical diagram designed to allow the
approximate computation of a function.
Pipe Threads
Threaded pipe connections must contain male threads on the pipes. For male threads, a
variety of standards are available, like American National Pipe Threads (NPT), Unified
Pipe Threads (UNF), British Standard Pipe Threads (BSP), and r.:Ietric Pipe Threads
(r,,:I). The choice of standards is determined by the standards already chosen for a user's
region or country. Taper threads are cone-shaped, and form a seal benveen the male and
female parts as they tighten, ";th assistance from some joining compound or plastic
tapes.
Pipe Layout
Various piping arrangements can be used in air distribution systems depending on
usage requirements, plant size, and delivery volume. Generally, air distribution is
arranged as per the manifold layout sho,vn in Figu...li..3=13!~) or as a ring main layout
shown in Figl!re 3:13.(!;i)..
As the actuating de,;ces consume air, pressure is decreased at the downstream. One
technique of compensating the pressure drop is to use the ring main layout, by which
any demand for the compressed air can be met in nvo directions. The ring main layout
ensures largely uniform pressure conditions in the air nen,·ork. vVith the interconnected
nenvork system as shown in Figure 3-13.(g)., parts of the ring can be separated using the
shut-off valves for maintenance, repair, and extension of the nenvork ";thout disturbing
rest of the system.
The distribution pipe system can be considered a part of the storage, and the
compressed air inside the system is also subjected to external cooling. This causes the
moisture in the air to condense and consequently to precipitate water. Hence, to pro,ide
drainage, the pipes should be inclined 1 to 2% downward in the direction of airflow
(figure 3-14), preferably to each corner. All take-off points are tapped from the top of
the pipe to prevent the entry of water in the branch lines. The condensate can then be
released from the system through a dead leg at the lowest point. An automatic drain
valve can be provided for terminating a dead leg. '\Vith this arrangement, accumulated
water can be automatically drained off when pressure is on or when the system is shut
down.
-r- r-
---··1
--
(,>
Fjgure 3-13 Pipe layouts.
Heavy demands for the compressed air are to be met occasionally at the ends of
long lines, which can result in serious pressure loss. This pressure loss can be reduced by
the installation of intermediate reservoirs as close as possible to the demand points.
Thus, air power can be stored close to the point where it is most needed.
3.y Secondary .lli Treatment

As mentioned in the previous section, the function of an air distribution system is to
convey the compressed air to the final stage of the compressed air treatment, known as
the secondary air treatment. The objectives of this stage of the compressed air treatment
were explained in Section 3.10. The following sections elaborate the functional and
constructional features of filters, regulators, lubricators, and pressure gauges.
Filter
Two types of filter unit are shown in Figyre ;k15, The basic design of a filter unit consists
of a frame "ith inlet and outlet ports, filter bowl "ith a maximum condensate mark,
filter element, baffle plate, and drain cock. Filter bowls are made of either metal with
level indicator or transparent plastic material "ith or "ithout a guard. A filter "ith
metal bowl is used when temperature is >50 ° C or pressure is >10 bar or solvent fumes
are nearby. Additional components of filters may include mechanical or electrical serdce
life indicator and coalescing type filtering element.
Take-off points
/ t
Downward
=:> gradient
Compressed air 1 to 2%
Branch lines
Figure 3-14 Tapping of branch lines.
ln~ct ~ - - - - - - ~ Ou!let
C) C)
Lou•,,ers
.__,_,_ Filte1element
Draincock.
( .,:, (h)
Figure 3-15 Filters.
Air entering the inlet port of filter is dire<)ted to flow through angled louvers. This
causes the air to spin as it enters the bowl. The centrifugal action of the rotating air
causes large pieces of dirt and water droplets to be thro\\n against the inner wall of the
filter bowl. These contaminants then flow do"n into the bottom of the filter bowl.
A baffle prevents turbulent air from splashing water onto the filter element. The air,
which has been pre-cleaned in this way, then passes through the filter element of certain
pore size (mesh "idth), where fine dirt particles are filtered out. The size of the dirt
particles, which can be filtered out, depends on the mesh width of the filter cartridge. In
standard fine filters, mesh "idths of 5 to 40 µm; are used. The compressed air then exits
through the outlet port.
\\'hen the filter cartridge is clogged, the throughput is reduced and results in the
wastage of energy. The extent of pressure difference between inlet and outlet will
indicates the degree to which the filter element is clogged. This element must be
regularly cleaned to remove the trapped dust particles.
The function of a basic filter unit was explained above. However, commercially
available filters come out ,vith many additional features like automatic drain facility,
coalescing type filter element, service life indicator, etc. These features are explained in
the follO\sing sub-sections.
Automatic Drain
The accumulated condensate at the base of the filter bowl should be ejected before the
mark for the maximum condensate level is reached, othen,ise this condensate "ill re-
enter the system. If a large amount of condensate accumulates in a short time, it is
better to go for an automatic drain instead of a manually operated drain cock. An
automatic drain is shown in Figure ;kls!Q).. It uses a float to determine the level of
condensate in the bowl, and when the mark for maximum condensate is reached, a
control piston opens a valve seat that automatically ejects the condensate accumulated
under the air through a drain line.
Inlet Outlet
Q Q
Stainless steel
cylinder
Figure 3-16 Coalescing filter.
Coalescing Filters
These can be used for applications such as food and drug processing, air bearings, paint
spraying, etc. where the air has to be extremely clean and free of oil. An efficient
coalescing element in this type of filter eliminates sub-micron particles of size down to
0.01 µm. The constructional features and operating principle of a coalescing filter are
explained below.
The filter unit of a coalescing filter consists of a filter element medium like
borosilicate glass micro fibre and a form sock medium. These two media are supported
on a perforated stainless steel cylinder as shown in Figyre 3-16. The compressed air
enters through the inside of the filter element and passes through the filter media to the
outer surface. Oil-aerosol particles in the compressed air coalesce (join together) when
they come in contact \\ith the borosilicate medium. The pathways through the medium
are so fine that the particles cannot pass through it without making a contact ,vith it.
Form sock medium diffuses the air flow to a low velocity to prevent oil re-entrainment in
the compressed air. Oil soaks and drains to the bottom of the sock medium from where
it drips into the bottom of the filter bowl.
Filter with Service Life Indicator

The operation of a filter "ith service life indicator is illustrated "ith two views in Figures
3=17-(!!,). and _(Q).. A standard senice life indicator monitors the pressure drop across the
filter element to warn when the latter requires replacement. The pressure differential
across the filter element is (P1 - P2), where P1 is the inlet pressure and P2 is the outlet
pressure of the filter. The same pressure differential appears across a diaphragm sho\\n
in Figure 3-1z.•>.s the filter cartridge is clogged, the flow of the compressed air is
reduced. The developing pressure differential across the filter element tries to lift a red
sleeve covering a green sleeve. The first movement of the red sleeve starts at a pressure
differential of 0.3 bar and its movement continues proportionately "ith the increase in
the pressure differential until it covers the green sleeve fully at a pressure differential of
1 bar. At this point, the filter element must be replaced. An electrical sel'\ice life
indicator can be used for remote ,isual and audible warning and even turning off a
machine or process automatically if the pressure drops beyond the permissible limit
across the filter element.
Pressure Regulator
'While using the compressed air, it is necessary to maintain the required pressure level in
the system. \\'hen the pressure is too low, it results in poor efficiencies, and when the
pressure is too high, energy is wasted unnecessarily in the creation of excess pressure,
and the equipment decays faster. Generally, pressure is regulated in a pneumatic system
at two places: (1) at the receiver tank and (2) in the load circuits. Pressure regulation at
the receiver tank is required as a safety measure for the system. In the load circuits,
pressure regulators are used to regulate the pressure for do\\nstream components such
as valves and actuators.
Green sleeve
1 bar Red sleeve
0.3 bar
P2
Inlet OuUel
Filter clogged
!
11
111
mm
(a) Case when P1· P2 <= 0.3 bar (b) Case when P1· P2 >= 1 bar
Figure 3-17 Sel'\i.ce life indicator of a filter.
\\'hen air is being consumed, significant pressure drops can result between the
receiver tank and the load (actuator) due to high flow velocities. Hence pressure in the
receiver tank is usually retained at a higher level than that required at the operating
point. In pneumatic systems, pressure fluctuations also occur to a greater or lesser
degree due to variations in supply pressure or load pressure. It is therefore essential to
regulate the pressure to match the requirements of the load regardless of the variations
in supply pressure or load pressure.
A diaphragm regulator is a common pressure regulator found in industrial
pneumatic systems. There are two types of diaphragm regulators: (1) relieving or venting
type and (2) non-relieving or non-venting type. Generally, a diaphragm regulator
consists of a body "ith an inlet and an outlet, a diaphragm, a spring attached to the
diaphragm, a valve stem, and seat. In the venting type regulator, there is a centrepiece
on the diaphragm \\ith a hole, and in the non-venting type regulator there is a solid
centrepiece (\\ithout a hole).
The normal operation of a regulator is explained with the help of Figure 3- 18(,!,)., A
spring whose tension can be adjusted, acts on one side of the diaphragm in a diaphragm
regulator. The pressure is set by adjusting the spring tension. The operating pressure is
indicated on a pressure gauge which is invariably fitted \\ith the pressure regulator.
The compressed air, which flows through a controlled cross-section at the valve
seat, acts on the other side of the diaphragm. The diaphragm has a large surface area
exposed to the downstream pressure and is quite sensitive to its fluctuations. The
movement of the diaphragm regulates the pressure. For example, whenever the
compressed air is consumed on the secondary side, the load pressure reduces causing a
drop in the corresponding force acting on the diaphragm. The opposing higher spring
force pushes the diaphragm in such a way as to increase the cross-sectional area at the
valve seat, permitting more air to flow to the secondary side and thus increasing the
pressure again.
nt holes
Oiaphra
r---.,,;:,
Inlet Outte1
c) I - - - .JJ.¼~--j c:)
Vat...e seat
Spring
(a) Nonna! o;era:ion (b) Air escaping lhtO'Jgh ,;e-nl ho!e

Figure 3-18 Pressure regulator ,,;th ,-ent hole.
On the other hand, whenever the supply pressure increases, the corresponding force
acting on the diaphragm also increases. The diaphragm moves in such a way as to
reduce or block the cross-sectional area at the valve seat and hence not permitting the
downstream pressure to build up. Thus, the pressure regulation is achieved by the
continual movement of the diaphragm, and the consequent closing and opening of the
valve seat as the pressure fluctuat es.
The functions of a pressure regulator "ith vent hole and "ithout vent hole are
explained in the follo"ing two sub-sections.
Regulator with Vent Hole

As shown in Figyre 3-18(121 in a relieving type regulator, the diaphragm is provided " i th
a centrepie<)e having a hole. 'When the secondary pressure becomes so great due to
abrupt changes in the load, the diaphragm moves to such an extent against the spring
force as to cause total closure of the outlet cross-sectional area at the valve seat. The
centrepiece of the diaphragm then opens allo"ing the compressed air to exhaust
through the vent holes in the diaphragm and regulator body.
Regulator without Vent Hole

A regulator "ithout vent hole is sho\\n in Fig ~ 9. In this case the compressed air
cannot escape to the atmosphere in the event of high backpressure acting on the
diaphragm, as there is no exit path provided in the diaphragm for the trapped air.
Figure 3-19 Pressure regu]aton,ithout ,-.nt hole.
Filter-regulator
The units for the secondary air treatment are commercially available as individual or
combined units. One such popular design is the filter-regulator unit. This design is
explained below:
In this design, filter and regulator are combined as a single unit without affecting
their individual functions. Air flows first through the filter and is directed to the primary
side of the regulator. Pressure is then regulated to the set value. The advantage of this
design is that only one unit is to be mounted thus simplifying the installation work and
reducing the costs.
Pressure Gauge
Air pressure is measured relative to one of the follm,ing two references: (1) atmospheric
pressure and (2) absolute zero pressure. Atmospheric pressure is the most commonly
used reference because we operate in the atmospheric en,ironment. Pressure measured
relative to atmospheric pressure is called gauge pressure.
The most commonly used devices for measuring pressure are Bourdon tubes and
diaphragm gauges. The well-known mechanical pressure gauge is the Bourdon tube,
which is given in Figyre 3 - 2 0 . A metallic tube of non-circular cross-sectional area is
formed into an arc. 'When pressure is applied to the tube internally, it forces the tube to
expand. The greater the pressure, the greater "ill be the bending radius. This movement
is transferred to a pointer through linkage, gear segment, and pinion, which indicates
pressure level on a circular scale calibrated in a proper unit of measurement.
Lubricator
The moving parts of valves and cylinders require lubrication to keep friction and wear to
a minimum. Proper lubrication greatly increases the life of seals and wearing surfaces. It
also prevents sticking of mo,ing parts. Thus lubrication increases the service life of the
equipment. Requirements of lubrication can be met by any one of the follm,ing ways:
Figure 3-20 Bourdon pressure gauge.
1. By using valves and cylinders pro,ided \\ith basic lubrication on

assembly, "·hich \\Ul last for the normal life expectancy of that
equipment "ithout any further lubrication.
2. By injecting controlled quantities of oil mist into the air stream by
means of an airline lubricator (Figm:e 3 .21).
As a general rule, valves and cylinders \\ith heat-resistant seals must not be provided
"ith lubricat ed compressed air because the special grease pro,ided in these valves and
cylinders would be washed out. Lubrication of the compressed air by means of mist
lubricators may be necessary in most cases where extremely rapid oscillatory motion of
pneumatic actuators is involved. The oil is introduced as a fine mist, but it can only be
added to a thoroughly clean and dry air, otherwise a troublesome sticky emulsion
develops.
A mist lubricator unit is shown in Figyre 3-21. This unit consists of a body "ith inlet
and outlet ports, a check valve, an oil reservoir, a suction tube, an oil-regulating screw,
and a mist chamber. The unit is also equipped \\ith a 'venturi' (or a nozzle) in the airflow
passage. The oil is usually stored in a transparent polycarbonate bowl or a metal tank of
large volume "ith a sight glass. 1\Iost of the lubricators operate on the Venturi principle.
As the compressed air is passed through the lubricator in the direction of the arrow
marked on the lubricator, the check valve opens and the compressed air flows to the
outlet port. The restriction in the flow passage creates a differential pressure between
the bowl and the mist chamber causing the oil to be drawn up through the siphon tube
to a point of low pressure. The oil then drips into the nozzle and gets atomised. The air
stream takes up the fine mist of oil. Hea,1' oil drops fall back into the bowl. The
lubricated air exits through the outlet port.
Lubrication has to be pro,ided to equipment where it is explicitly indicated. It
should, however, be noted that excessive lubrication may produce sluggish operation of
valves and cylinders, malfunction of components and increased pollution. To indicate
delivery, a sight dome is pro,ided at the mist chamber, and manufacturers specify the
number of drops per minute. Set this count typically to 20 drips per minute at the flow
rate of 101/s. :Metering of the oil is accomplished by a regulating screw which provides a
controlled orifice size.
The oil, when used up, can be filled up through the hole provided for the purpose.
Due to the high-pressure flow in the bowl, normally a mist lubricator cannot be filled
under pressure. To fill the oil, first turn off the air supply and exhaust the trapped air, if
any. Then remove the bowl and fill it with the lubricating oil up to the marked level.
Replace the bowl securely. To fill under pressure, replace filler plug "ith a nipple
adaptor. :Manufacturers generally recommend non-detergent, petroleum-based oil, SAE
10/ Shell Tellus 37 or equivalent oil, for use "ith airline lubricators. Usually a good
quality, light grade spindle oil "ill meet the lubrication requirement of most air systems.
Oil regulating
--+-1-- Mist chamber
Inlet OuUet
c:::'.> c:::'.>
,.
, __ __, 1--
.. ---1
.I ' .•..•
Oil SuClion tube
reservoir
Figure 3-:u .-\irline lubricator.
Air Service Unit

As we have seen earlier, primary air treatment was intended to remove heat, moisture
and coarse particles from the compressed air system. Secondary air treatment is
necessary to obtain the compressed air which is finely filtered and dried, regulated and
perhaps lubricated just before its entry into a machine or a tool. These functions are
accomplished through auxiliary airline equipment, namely, filter, regulator and
lubricator. They are commercially available as individual units or as combined
equipment called FRL unit or air service unit. An FRL unit should be installed in the
inlet line to each branch circuit.
A combined FRL unit and detailed and simplified 5ymbols are shown in Figure
3 -22. For ease of use and system flexibility, a handy method of combining these units is
to use a modular system. This comprises the follo"ing units:
1. shut off valves to isolate upstreant air and do\\nstreant air,

2. combined filter and pressure regulator \\'ith gauge,
3. lubricator
These units are connected together for left to right flow "ith quick clamps, wall
brackets, and pipe adaptors for rigidly fixing to the pipe work. Individual units of the air
service unit can be easily combined and slid into the pipe work using quick clamps.
These units can be easily removed for sen.icing or replacement without disturbing the
pipe joints.
Pressure gauge
·-----·
.
.' .-·- -·- . -·- . - ·- . - ·-.- ·- . - ·-. - ·-·- ·-· - ·-·- ·'
0 {b) Symbol
Filter 1 -t<-- Lubricator
{a) FRL unit (c) Simplified symbol

Figure 3-22 Air sel'\ice unit.
Questions
1. Ho,v is pressure developed in a fluid po" 'er system?
2. Define the term <n,,o-stage compression'.
3. \ \ 'hat is the advantage of multi-stage compressors?
4. Differentiate ben, een positive and d:1-namic displacement
0
compressors.
5. \\'hy is cooling essential " ith reciprocating compressors?
6. Name h\ o types of displacement compressors.
0
7. State the reason ,vhy reciprocating and air compressors are

identified as positive displacement compressors.
8. Explain the working principle of a scre,v compressor. \ \'hat are its
important characteristics?
9. \ \ 'hat is a diaphragm compressor?
10. \ \ 'hat is the advantage of a diaphragm compress or?
11. Define the term 'displacement' and 'delivery' in relation to a
compressor.
12. Explain the on-off regulation of compressor "ith a neat sketch.
13. Explain the different stages of preparation of compressed air.
14. \ \ 'hy is the filtration of dust particles in a pneumatic system carried
out in a graded manner?
15. State the effect of moisture content as air is cooled?
16. \\'hat is the function of an after-cooler?
17. Briefly e."\.-plain the main function of a main-line filter.
18. Ho,v are oil particles present in compressed air removed?
19. \\'hat are the different methods of dr,ing compressed air?
10. Explain the working of a regenerative dryer \\ith a neat sketch.
21. \\'hat is the reason for using hvo dr,ing chambers in parallel, in the
case of silica gel adsorption dr,•er?
12. Explain the functional and constructional features of a refrigerated
dr,•er.
13. Name the four methods of drying compressed air. \\'hat are their
important differences?
14. \\'hy must receiver tanks be drained periodically?
25. State three functions of an air receiver in a pneumatic system.
16. Name three fittings, other than safety valve, required on all air
receivers.
27. An air reservoir of 3 m3 is connected to compressor, ,vhich delivers
6 m3 of air per minute. '\,\'hat ,\ill be the pressure in the tank
measured by a pressure gauge after 3 min?
18. \\'hat are the important maintenance acti,ities to be carried out in
the case of an air receiver?
19. Sho\\· by means of a neat sketch the correct method of tapping an
air main.
30. list four factors that affect the tlo,v of air through a pneumatic
system.
31. \\'hat are the important factors to be considered "·hile planning
and designing an air distribution system?
32. \\'hat causes the pressure drop " 'hen air is flo"ing through a pipe?
Ho,v is it related to the flo"· velocity?
33. Ho,v can the pressure drop in air distribution system be
. . . d?.
JlllJllllUSe
34. \\Trite a brief note on pipe materials for air distribution system.
35. \\-'hat are the various methods of piping layouts used in air supply
system?
36. Naine four components that make up an air senice unit.
37- Naine TI\'O containinants removed from compressed air by
filtration.
38. Explain the function of the filter in the air senice unit.
39. Explain the function of the regulator component in the air senice
unit.
10. Explain the function of the lubricator in the air senice unit.
41. \\'hat are the important maintenance acti,ities to be carried out for
a filter?
12. l\fention an important maintenance acti,ity to be carried out for a
lubricator.
13· \\'hy is it necessary to lubricate compressed air in many pneumatic
systems?
14· Dra"' a simplified symbol for FRL to ISO 1219.
45. Differentiate beh,,een relie,ing fype and non-relie,ing type
regulators.
16. Give brief notes on the follo,\ing:
1. Coalescing filters
2. Filter "ith senice life indicators
3.1\fodular design ofFRL
47. Give reasons for pro,iding a seniee unit in a pneumatic system.
18. Explain the compressed air supply system \\ith all stages starting
from the compressor.
t9• Give a brief note on the follo"ing: (a) pneumatic po\\·er
transmission, (b) storage of pneumatic energy, (c) contamination
control in compressed air.
4 Actt1ators
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Evaluate the thrust delivered by a pneumatic cylinder.

• Determine the air consumption of a pneumatic cylinder.
• Describe the constructional details of pneumatic cylinders.
• Explain different types of seals and their applications.
• Identify various types of pneumatic cylinder mountings.
• Identify many categories/variants of pneumatic actuators and their applications.
• Describe the purpose, construction and operation of cushioning cylinders.
• Explain the operation and features of diaphragm cylinders, rodless cylinders,
pneumatic muscle, tandem cylinders, multi-position cylinders, impact cylinders,
hydro-pneumatic feed unit, and rotary indexing table.
• Describe the purpose, construction and operation of vacuum generators and suction
cups.
• Discuss the construction and operation of pneumatic rotary actuators.
l\lodem pneumatics is capable of utilising the compressed air for performing work and
control functions. The first pneumatic cylinders and valves, which were characterized by
their large dimensions, emerged from some factories in the United States shortly after
the vVorld \Var II. l\'owadays pneumatic actuators are built in a "ide variety of sizes,
styles, and types, including those made as per round-line, clean-line, compact, rodless,
and rotary designs, and other special designs. )<[odels "ith additional features such as
end-position cushioning, non-rotational guiding, etc. are also offered by manufacturers
to meet special requirements.
A great advantage of pneumatics is the flexibility \\ith which it can be applied. The
work output can be made to be linear or rotary, continuous or intermittent in operation
and constant or variable "ith respect to speed. Today, state-of-the-art pneumatic muscle
and vacuum products are used in a diversity of applications.
This chapter deals ,vith pneumatic actuators of varJ,ing designs. It also includes
principles of their operation and construction. Classification of actuators is discussed in
detail. Applications, advantages, and safety requirements of actuators, wherever
applicable, are also covered.
f!l.s.l Introduction
Pneumatic actuators are output devices that convert energy contained in the compressed
air into motion (linear or rotary) or a force. These devices make power and motion
available to automated systems, machines, and processes. For example, using actuators,
work-pieces or tools can be moved from one position to another, or force can be applied
to hold or shape or compress a product using pneumatic actuators.
Pneumatic actuators can be categorized into two basic types:
1. linear actuators: They convert pneumatic energy into straight-line

mechanical energy.
2. Rotary actuators: They convert pneumatic energy into rotary
mechanical energy.
Compressed air
}_-
d
X
Figure 4 -1 Basic actuator.
~;2 Basic Actuator Functioning

The basic linear actuator is a cylinder as shown in Figure 4-1. An air cylinder is a simple,
low-cost, easy-to-install device that is ideal for generating powerful linear movement.
Air cylinders are versatile and fast acting, and "ith the use of special seals they can
"ithstand ambient temperatures even up to 2 50 ° C.
An elementary cylinder consists of a body containing a movable piston of diameter
D and a rod of diameter d connected to the piston. End caps are fastened to the cylinder
body barrel. The rod passes through a hole in one end of the cylinder. A double-acting
cylinder has its either end ports (X and Y) through which air can enter or exit. If
pressure is applied to port X, "ith port Y venting, the piston extends with a theoretical
force (thrust) equal to the product of applied pressure and effective area of the piston
upon which the pressure acts. Similarly, if pressure is applied to port Y, " ith port X
venting, the piston retracts " ith a force (pull) equal to the product of the applied
pressure and effective area of the piston excluding the piston rod area. Thus,
reciprocating linear motion can be obtained quite easily through this simple
arrangement. Other important factors of concern with regard to the cylinder operation
are its air consumption, speed, stroke length and piston rod buckling. The follo" ing
sections describe, in theoretical and applied terms, the force (thrust and pull) that is
developed by a pneumatic cylinder and the air consumption, speed, stroke length and
piston rod buckling. Understanding the basic laws and principles ,viJl permit the reader
to use basic theoretical concepts in practical applications.
~ .3:Thrust
The theoretical thrust (out-stroke) or pull (in-stroke) of a cylinder is determined by
multiplying the effective area of the piston by the working pressure. The effective area
considered for the calculation of thrust is the full area of the cylinder bore, and is given
by @/4. The effective area considered for the calculation of pull is the full area of the
cylinder bore minus the rod area, and it is given by n{D2 - d2)/4.
The present-day practice is to specify bore (D) and piston diameter (d) in
millimetres (instead of metres), and working pressure (P) in bar (instead of Pascal).
Hence, a multiplying factor (1/10) is used in the formula for the force to effect these
changes. The theoretical thrust and pull of a cylinder are given by
-rrD2 p
Thrusc, F = - - ·- N
4 10
_-rr- (D2 - d 2) p N
P ll11 , f
4 - ------- · -
4 10
Example4.1
etennine the theoretical thrust and pull of a 50 mm bore double-acting cylinder
aving a piston rod diameter of 20 mm, supplied with the compressed air at a
ressure of6 bar.
olution
·)
,r. 50-
Thrust, F = - - - x 6) = 11 78 N
40
. _ 1T (50
2 - 20 2 )
Pull, I- = - - - - - x 6 = 989.6 N
40
Values of thrust and pull for single-acting and double-acting cylinders are given in
Tables .~5 and .~ in AppendLx 3. Tbe given values do not make allowance for the
loss due to friction or air leakage. As the air pressure in a plant may vary erratically due
to intermittent use of large volumes of compressed air in all types of pneumatic
equipment, the bore size of the cylinder must be large enough to provide the required
force after allo"ing for any normal pressure drop. This consideration is very important
as insufficient force may spoil the entire operation.
~-~ Cylinder Air Consumption

A cylinder while performing work consumes air. This air consumption for one cycle of
motion of a cylinder is the volume of free air displaced by the cylinder piston during its
one cycle of operation. Tbe equations for the volume of free air displaced by the piston
during the out-stroke (forward stroke) and in-stroke (return stroke) of a double-acting
cylinder are:
·)
1T D- <' (PS + P,) -6
V(ouc-scroke) = - - x ,ix · xlO
4 P,,
? ·)
1T(D- - c/- ) (P +P)
V(in-scroke) = - - - - - x S x ' " x 10- 6
4 P,,
where
D = Cylinder bore, mm
cl = Rod diameter, mm
V = Vol ume of free air, elm·'
S = Stroke, mm
P, Supply gauge pressure, bar
p" Atn1ospheric pressure (assun1ed to be l bar)
(P, + P,,)/P,, Con1pression ratio
The compression ratio (P5 + Pa)/Pa may be considered as a multiplying factor to
normalise the pressure condition. To estimate the total average air consumption of a
typical pneumatic system, make a calculation for the air consumption for each cylinder
in the system using the equations given above. Add the estimated air consumption of all
cylinders, and add 5% to make allowance for the loss due to leakage and friction. Values
of air consumption for forward and return strokes of pneumatic cylinders are given in
Table ~ =Zin Appendix 3.
Example4.2
Calculate the air consumption per mm of forward stroke and return stroke of a
ouble-acting cylinder with 32 mm bore and 12 mm piston diameter, which is supplied
the compressed air at a pressure of 6 bar.
olution
he air consumption during the forward stroke and the return stroke of the cylinder can
e calculated from the equations for the volume (out-stroke) and the volume (in-stroke)
espectively (see Section ,1~4) ,
',,
-,,. )'- (6, + I) - (, I
Volu nw (ou r-scrokt) = · - x Ix - - x I O = 0,00565 d m l mm/srrokt
,j I
. r. c,2-' -12->
'
Volume ( in -stroke)= - - - - - x I x - - x 10
<6+n - r. ,. ,. ,
= O.O(H8•1 elm /mm/srrokt
4 I
Volume ( ror.ilJ = 0.01047 dm·1/mmirvrle
~-5 Cylinder Speed and its Relation to

Flo,\'Rate
The flow rate of the compressed air passing through a pipe (or a duct) was explained in
Section 2,M, Chapter 2. The relation between the speed of a cylinder piston and the flow
rate is explained in this section. In Figm:e i1,-2, the piston of area A (m2 ) has moved a
distance S (m). This occupies a volume V (m3) of air where V = _4.5 (m3).
If the piston coYers a distance S in time t (min), it attains a speed of v (m/min)
where
V
s m/min
I
⇒ t - -
s 0110
.
'U
The flow rate, Q (m3/min), to achieYe speed vis thus:
V AS = Av m 3 !min
Q
t t
.. •
•
'' '•
'•
•
'
-•
A
•
• ..
'
'
'•
•' .
'
• '
•
•• '
•
•
X
Figure4-z illustration of two piston positions during its forward motion for determining its speed
It can be seen that speed of the piston is proportional to the flow rate. Fluid
pressure has no effe<)t on the piston speed (although it does influence acceleration). But,
maximum force available is unrelated to flow rate, and is determined by \\·orking
pressure and piston area (see Section 2.2).
~.6 Stroke Length

Every pneumatic cylinder has stroke and volume. The stroke of a cylinder is the distance
through which its piston rod moves. The maximum stroke of the cylinder is the
maximum linear movement that it can produce. The volume of the cylinder to be
occupied by air is related to the piston's displacement, and it is calculated by multiplying
the cylinder stroke "ith its piston area.
~-'.Z Piston-Rod Buckling

Cylinders capable of giving very long strokes are essential for some applications.
However, if a compressive axial load is to be applied to a piston rod, it must be \\ithin
the safety limit to prevent rod buckling. Q,-ing to buckling stress, the permissible load of
the piston rod having long stroke length is lesser than that ought to have been provided
by the same maximum permissible working pressure and the piston surface area. This
load should not go beyond certain maximum value as given by Euler's formula that is
related to the stroke and piston rod diameter. Euler's formula for elastic instability is
expressed as:
where
Fk = Permissible buckling force (N)
E = :Modulus of elasticity (N/mm2 )
J = l\'loment of inertia (m4)
S = Safety factor (chosen as 5)
lk = Equivalent free buckling length (cm) = (1 to 2) x stroke length, I
The equivalent free buckling lengths for different cylinder mounting arrangements
are given in Figm:e 4:3. For a slender column ,vith one end free and the other end fixed
(Euler case 1), lk = 2I. For a pin jointed slender column (Euler case 2), lk = I. In certain
special cases, lk < 21 and lk < 1.51.
~:8 Constructional Details

Pneumatic cylinders are built in both single- and double-acting versions. Pneumatic
cylinders may be of either die-cast construction or tube-and-cap design. The cut-away
view of a simple double-acting cylinder "ith cushioning de,ices is sho\\n in Figyre a-a.
Various parts of the cylinder and their functions must be studied to know how the
cylinder operates. The most important materials used in the construction of pneumatic
cylinders are given in Table A3:3 in ,Appendix 3.
The factors concerning the design of a cylinder are its style, size, cost, duty,
materials, mounting arrangements, and suitability for proximity sensing. In the 'sealed
for life' type cylinders, the piston may be pre-greased for life using an appropriate type
of grease and can be operated "ith non-lubricated air. On the other hand, the life of the
'serviceable' type cylinders can be extended by replacing worn seals and re-greasing.
These cylinders can be dismantled and reassembled by the user. The manufacturer's
literature should al"·ays be checked to make sure that the cylinder is appropriate for the
service conditions.
, J t I
ti oo The eoo of too rodis free la!eia!!;·
3 ' - - - - ~Ji,___- ==:::!~O
4 _J tf; Eu ►
-t case 2
•
Awom rod bearing will a!o,v
5 lt1ial !);)Cktng as
If the cod were pin ~o:n:ed
7
•
8 I-
Figure 4-3 Equi\'alent free bucldioglength.
Barrel
A barrel is generally made of a seamless dra"n steel tube that is precision-machined to
an accurate finish. The internal surface of the barrel needs to be very smooth to avert
wear and leakage. Adequate lubrication of such cylinders is most essential. In
applications where the cylinder is used occasionally or may come in contact "ith
corrosive materials, aluminium, brass, or steel tube \\ith hard-chromed bearing surface
can be used for the barrel. Unlike steel, brass and aluminium are not subjected to
corrosion when they come in contact "ith the moisture present in the applied
compressed air. They are also better conductors of heat and assist in remo,ing heat in
high-frequency cyclic operations.
□ □ □ □ □
□□□ □ □ DD □
1. Rearend CO'ler 8. F,onl port
2. Cushion slee\·e 9. Barrel seal
3. Barrel 10. Piston seal
4. Fronl end cover 1t. Wear ring
5. Guide bush 12. Cushion seal
6. Piston 13. Cushion screw seal
7. Road "'per seal 14. Rear po~
Figure4-4 .-1. cross-sectional ,iew of a simple double-acting pneumatic cilinder.
Cournsy: ::SORGRE,',,
Piston
The piston is a loose fit inside the cylinder barrel, and it is held by a suitable
seal/ packing, providing a tight seal between high-pressure and low-pressure sides.
Apart from transmitting force to the rod, it must also act as a sliding bearing in the
barrel. Pistons are usually made of cast iron or st eel.
Piston Rod
The surface of the piston rod is exposed to the atmosphere when extended and is liable
to suffer from the effects of dirt, moisture, and corrosion. \Vhile retracting, the settled
particles on the rod may be dra"n back into the barrel causing harm to the precision
parts inside. Heat-treated chromium alloy is used for the piston to give it strength and to
reduce the effects of corrosion. Precision ground stainless steel piston rods are used in
standard cylinders.
End Caps
Cylinder end caps are generally cast from iron or aluminium. For small-bore cylinders,
glass-reinforced nylon may be used for end-caps. They can also be made of corrosion-
resistant materials. End caps have to \\ithstand shock loads at the extremes of piston
travel. These end-of-travel shock loads can be reduced \\ith cushion valves built into the
end caps. The end caps can be fixed to the cylinder barrel by tie-rods, flanges, or threads.
They also incorporate threaded entries for ports. The most important threads used in
pneumatic cylinders are )letric Thread, British Standard Pipe Thread, :'<ational Pipe
Thread, and Unified Fine Thread.
Seals
Seals are important group of accessories used in cylinders that prevent or control the
escape of the compressed air or entry of foreign materials. The follo"ing section
discusses seals in detail.
14.19 .,\ll About Seals

Leakage from a pneumatic system can be a major problem leading to wastage of energy,
loss of efficiency, t emperature rise, environmental damage, and safety hazards. Seals are
used in cylinders to prevent the losses caused by leakage and to make the effective use of
the compressed air energy medium. The characteristic features of seals and their
classification based on certain parameters are presented in the follo"~ng sub-sections.
Characteristics
Seals are delicate and must be mounted "ith sufficient care. Dirt on a shaft or barrel can
easily scratch a seal as it is slid into place. The important characteristics needed in a
good seal are: (1) long life, (2) low friction, (3) resistance to heat, (4) stability of form, (5)
higher range of working pressure, (6) higher range of working temperature, and (7) good
mechanical strength.
Classification
Based on the stress-conveying pattern, seals can be categorized into the follo"ing two
types:
1. Static seals
2. Dynamic seals
Figure 4-5 Static seal.
Based on application, seals can be categorized into the follo"ing six types:
1. Cushion sere"' seal

2. Cushion seal
3. \\'ear ring
4. Piston seal
5. Barrel seal
6. Piston rod/"iper seal
A brief explanation of static seals and dynamic seals is presented as follows. An

explanation of seals based on application is presented next.
Static Seals
Static seals are used to provide a sealing between the stationary parts of a cylinder, for
instance, between end caps and barrel. 0-ring, shown in Figure <1,.:5, is probably the most
commonly used static seal.
0-ring seal is usually made of synthetic Buna-::-, as a standard material and viton as
an optional material. The moulded 5ynthetic ring has a circular cross-section when
unloaded. Application of the load causes the ring t o be compressed at right angles to give
a positive seal (zero leakage) against two annular surfaces and one flat surface. 0 -rings
are primarily used as static seals and may be used as piston seals in small-bore
cylinders. However, these are not used as piston seals in medium and heavy-duty
cylinders because any movement of a surface across the seal "ill cause it to rotate,
allo"ing leakage.
Dynamic Seals
'When a seal has to be provided between two surfaces of which one is moving, a dynamic
seal is most appropriate. Typical examples of dynamic seal are the cup seal and 'Z' seal
as sho"n in Figyre ,i,-6. Pressure in the cylinder makes the lip of the seal to spread out
and grip the barrel tightly to give a positive sealing. Effectiveness of the seal increases
"ith pressure. At low pressures, leakage tends to be more of a problem. For normal air
pressures, dynamic seals are almost invariably made of oil-resisting Synthetic rubber,
moulded into shape. Applications of cup seals and 'Z' seals are given in the follo"ing two
sections.
I I
- ~
(a) Cup (b) Z seals

Figure 4-6 D:,'1alllicseals.
C.Ourte.sy: NORGRI.'1.
Cup Seal
A cup seal (cup packing) is sho"n in Figyre 4-6(9).. This seal is used on medium and
large bore cylinders. It can provide sealing only in one direction of air flow. For single-
acting cylinders, single-cup sealing is used and for double-acting cylinders, double-cup
sealing is used.
Z-ring
Z-ring, sho"n in Figyre i1-.:filQ), is used on small-bore cylinders. It can provide sealing in
both directions of air flow. Its another advantage is that it takes up less space. 'Z' shape
acts as a light radial spring providing a light grip on the metal parts when un-
pressurised. \\-'hen air pressure is applied, the seal grip is automatically tightened.
Seal Design
Seals are designed in different shapes according to different application requirements,
and they are made of different materials to go well ,dth varying environmental and
operational conditions. Figure i1,-4 shows different types of seals used on different parts
of a standard pneumatic cylinder. Tolerance of leakage, shock, temperature and
precision of operation dictate the nature and type of packing and seals. To protect the
seals and packing of pneumatic cylinders from drying out, it is vitally important that a
fine mist of oil be injected into the air upstream of the cylinder. The follo"ing sections
explain the seals used on different parts of a pneumatic cylinder.
Piston Seal
An 0-ring piston seal (figure 4: 5) is used on small-bore cylinders. This ring is a loose fit
in the groove provided on the piston. v\lhen pressure is applied, the O ring is pushed
sideways and ounvards to seal the clearance benveen the piston and the barrel. For
medium and large bore double-acting cylinders, double-cup seals [Figure 4-6(1!,).] can be
used. They are cheap and easy to fit. However, they may easily be damaged by dirt.
I.Vear Ring
A wear ring, shown in Figure 4.:Z, is an open band fixed around the piston. It is made
from a hard plastic material (reinforced Teflon compounded "ith poly'J)henylene
sulphide) or a good quality bearing bronze to provide best wear resistance and excellent
bearing support. In the event of high side load acting on the piston, this ring becomes a
bearing that prevents excessive distortion of the piston seals. This ring also guards the
barrel against scoring by the piston.
Wear ring
Figure 4-i Wear ring.

Courtesy: NORGRI.'1,
Barrel
End cap -w-
Static seal
Figure 4 -8 Barrel seal.
Barrel Seal
An 0-ring barrel seal is shown in Figyre 4-8. It is a static seal and it is a tight fit in the
groove location.
Cushion Seal
Cushioning protects a cylinder and its load by absorbing the energy at the end of the
stroke. Fixed cushioning "ith shock absorbing pads (buffer) can be fitted to small light
duty cylinders. Large cylinders can be provided "ith adjustable air cushions. The basic
idea here is to progressively slow dol\n the piston to facilitate a gentle contact between
the piston and the end cover, thus eliminating the impact.
Figures 4=9.(1!.l and .(]l). illustrate the dual purpose of the cushion seal. It can perform
the role of a seal when air flows in a particular direction, and acts as a non-return valve
when air flows in the opposite direction. The cushion seal blocks the exhaust air from
the cylinder as the piston approaches the end of its travel, thus performing the role of a
seal as shol\n in Figure 4=9.~l - "When air flows in the opposite direction, flow is directed
through the grooves in the cushion seal, hence making the way for air to flow freely
through the orifice as shm,n in Figure 4=9l2l - Here the seal performs the role of a non-
return valve. Additional information on the application of cushion seals is given in the
section on adjustable cushion cylinder.
Piston Rod Sealjf\Tiper Seal

A piston rod seal, also kno"n as >viper seal, is shol\n in Figure 4 -10. It is a special seal
for harsh en,ironments. This seal plays the dual role of pressure seal and "iper seal,
thus enhancing the sersice life of the cylinder on which it is fitted. The 1'iper seal is
usually prepared from durable synthetic material. A classic example is the standard lip-
type urethane "iper seal. The external body of this seal is a pressure-tight fit 1'ithin the
bearing housing. Cleaning action of the seal removes abrasive particles that can settle on
the rod during the outstroke of the cylinder.
(bl Cus!t·o,1 sea, Ho' c as cMck val.-t
Figure 4-9 CUshion seal.
Piston rod Wiper seal
\'----------'-,
Figure 4-10 Wiper seal.
Bellows
Figure 4-11 Piston rod bell01,~.

Piston Rod Bellows
Figure 4-11 shows the piston rod bellows. These bellows seals are used as an alternative
to "iper seals. These are an ideal way to overcome the problem of the piston rod getting
scratched or abraded by falling debris when the piston rod is extended.
Seal Jl,faterials
Seals are manufactured from a "ide variety of materials. The choice of the seal material
is determined by the follo"ing factors: (1) Type of fluid being used in the pneumatic
system, (2) operating pressure, and (3) temperature range. The mat erials commonly
used for making seals and their charact eristics are listed in Table 4-1.
Earlier leather and cork were used to make seals. These materials have now been
replaced by plastic and synthetic rubber. Standard seals are generally recommended for
use in continuous running in the temperature range of 2 to So •c. Higher temperatures
make the seals softer. So they wear quickly and produce added friction. Lower
t emperatures harden the seals and make them brittle. They are also liable to splitting
and cracking. For continuous running applications that involve high ambient
temperatures of up to 150 •c, cylinders fitted " i th 'viton' seals should be used.
Table 4-1 Seal materials
i Material Temp,raturw ra•g• Cbarael,rhlie

-5o 0 c to + 1oo•c (;he.tpt'st
Silicofl - I 00 °C ro + 150 °C E ~pc1Hi\'c , tt•1)ds co rear
Po lru rt'rhane - .1n°c to + 200 °C Eas y to US<-'
- 20 °C ro + J90 °C
'Ji:ilon -8o •c to +2oo •c ti.lost rig id
~.10 Installation of Cylinders

Proper mounting of cylinders on the machine and the piston rod coupling are quite
important, as any mismatch "ill result in stress on the cylinders leading to the reduction
in their service life. All mountings must be fastened securely. As soon as force is
transmitted to a machine, bearing stresses arise at the cylinder barrel and the piston
rod, resulting in high edge pressures on the cylinder bearing bushes and the piston rod
guide bearings. )Ioreover, increased and uneven stresses may be developed on the
piston seals and piston rod seals due to high side load acting laterally across the axis of
the seals. The different cylinder mounting styles should be studied to determine how
they could be installed for best results.
A cylinder should be so installed that side loads on the piston rod bearing are
reduced to a minimum. A side load is the force component acting laterally across the
axis of the bearing, and this load can rarely be eliminated; however, by taking the
advantage of good engineering practices, they can be reduced to an acceptable limit.
,Vherever possible, carry the load on a slide or roller guides.
l I Tie rod extension
I ~ ~ I I
Front flange
~
I I Rear flange
I ~ Fool
Rearclevis Centre trunnion
Rear eye
Rear hinge
I -------L....111
..______._t io,.
Fron! hinae UniversaJrod eve
Figure 4-u. Cylinder mountings.
Cournsy: ~ ORGRu',.
Some important mounting methods are depicted in Figure ,i-12. Cylinders can be
rigidly fastened t o the machine or can be allowed t o swivel as part of a linkage in one or
more planes. The segments to be fixed are the cylinder body and the piston rod end.
Generally used mounting methods are: foot, flange, trunnion, s,vivel flange, clevis, tie
rod and bolt mounting. The style of mounting is determined by the way in which a
cylinder is to be fitted to a machine or fixture. The cylinder can be fixed "ith a
permanent type or adjustable type of mounting, and the latter type has the advantage
that it can be altered easily as and when required.
Alignment, stroke length, shock, acceleration and other service conditions must be
considered while selecting a mounting style. Another important factor to be considered
while selecting a cylinder mounting style is whether a large force applied to the machine
"ill cause stress or compression of the piston rod.
~ :-11 Classification of Pneumatic

Actuators
The pneumatic cylinder as a linear drive element has been able to establish on the
application level very quickly and in many different ways. An important reason for this
is the fact that there is no substitute for pneumatic actuators for core applications "ith a
comparable cost-benefit ratio. )lost manufacturers bring new products continually to
suit every industry sector. Availability of cylinders in a ,vide range provides the users
"ith the flexibility to meet their requirements precisely. Standard values for cylinder
diameters, maximum stroke lengths, sizes, and rotating angles for rotary actuators are
given Table . ~ in Appendix 3. Some important types of actuators are categorised in
Table4-2.
Table 4-2 Classification of pneumatic actuators

S.No Cl4ss oft#IIUllors Examples
I. Linear acruators • Sin<•lc-an ino
C>
cv) inde r
C> ,
• l)oo ble-:Krini::
, . c ,vlindc:r
( ;l} Non-cu:.hioncd ryp<·
(b) Fix,x.l-<..' ushio1,cd tn)('
(t.'} Adjustabl<- c.·ushion<·d cyp<·
2. Sp<:c ia l actuators • l)iaphra~m q •l in,lc·r
• i\-hlg nc:ric rypc:
• Rodlcss rypc
• T h rough piston rod cyp<·
• N on -rot::u i1,~ piston rod cyp<·
• Bdlows a<..' tuator
• Pn<:urnat i<.: n'lu~<.: k·
.). • Tandc:m c:ylindt'f
• t\•hilri-position q •linder
• Jmp,Kr cylinder
• Tc:lc-scopic cylinder
• H yd ro-pneumatic fot:d uni r
• SHip-foc:d u n ir
• Rornry ind<·xinb rnhlc
• (;ripp<·rs (finger-like·. v:-\ (u u1,,*)
-1 S(•mi-rorn r>r/Rornry • Vant typt (s<.:rni -rotary)
acruarors • Ra<:k-and-pin ion typt- Csl"mi-rornr y)
• Air motor
5 *V:l(uun, cqu iptncn t • V~u.: mun ~(.:flc.:rntor and ~u<.' t ion n ips
~ .12 Linear Actuators

Linear actuators convert the energy of the compressed air into straight-line mechanical
energy. Technically and economically, pneumatic cylinders are the optimum form of
linear actuators. Single-acting and double-acting cylinders are the two basic ty-pes of
pneumatic linear actuators. They cover everything from a 2.5 mm bore micro-cylinder to
a 320 mm bore standard cylinder. They may also include non-standard cylinders with a
bore diameter of up to 500 mm (20 inches). In the more popular bore sizes, a variety of
models are available, each offering distinct advantages.
~-13: Single-Acting Cylinder

A single-acting cylinder is depicted in Figure 4-13. This cylinder is a linear actuator with
a barrel, piston, piston rods, end caps, spring, and a single port at the piston side for the
passage of the compressed air. This cylinder can produce work only in one direction of
motion when the compressed air is applied and hence the name single-acting cylinder.
The return stroke of the piston is produced by a built-in spring when the air supply is
interrupted. However, the spring is designed only to carry the piston back "ith
adequately sufficient speed and not to carry any load. The 5ymbol of a single-acting
cylinder is given in Fiwe 4 -13.
In the mostly used sprung-in type design, the spring is provided on the rod side of
the single-acting cylinder. In the alternative design, the spring is provided on the piston
side of the cylinder and is the sprung-out type. The stroke length of the single-acting
cylinder is limited to 100 mm due to the natural length of the spring. The exhaust air on
the piston rod side is vented to the atmosphere through an exhaust hole, which is
usually pro\ided "ith a gauze cover or filter to prevent the entry of foreign particles into
the cylinder. The construction and simplicity of operation of the single-acting cylinders
make them particularly suitable for applications such as clamping, cutting operations,
ejecting parts, pressing parts, feeding, and lifting. For many applications the return
forces required are minimal, thus enabling spring return to be used. This minimises the
cylinder air consumption and the required pipe work/tube connection. In the event of
the compressed air failure, a single-acting cylinder "ill return to its rest position
automatically.
~=-•~ Double-Acting Cylinder
The constructional features of a double-acting cylinder are similar to that of a single-
acting cylinder. However, there is no return spring provided in a double-acting cylinder.
Instead, an additional port is provided on the rod side to produce the return stroke when
the compressed air is applied. The piston is extended by the application of the
compressed air through the piston-side port "ith the other side exhaust ed. The piston is
retracted by the application of air through the rod-side port with the other side
exhausted. The cross-sectional view and the symbol of a double-acting cylinder are given
in Figure ii,-14.
End-plate Barrel Spring Pislon rod
Port Piston
Figure 4 -13 Single-acting cifuider.
Elld plate Barrel
½ ½
I.,_._.
I I-----.-,: ·
I I
t
Piston-side port Piston Piston rod Rod-side port End plate
Ilgure 4-14 Double-acting C)iinder.
The double-acting cylinder can perform work in both directions of motion and
hence the name double-acting cylinder. For standard cylinders, bore sizes range from 8
mm to 320 mm. The force transferred by the piston rod is greater for the forward stroke
than that for the return stroke. Ideally, a conventional double-acting cylinder can be
designed "ith unlimited stroke length, but practically the maximum stroke length is
limited to about 2000 mm due to buckling and bending of the very long piston rod when
extended. Double-acting cylinders are available in a "ide range, conforming to ISO and
VD)1A standards. Cylinder selection is discussed in Chapter 9.
~-15 Cylinder Cushioning

Cylinder end caps have to withstand shock loads at extremes of piston travel. These
loads arise not only from fluid pressure but also from kinetic energy of the moving parts
of the cylinder and load. \\'hen the piston of a normal cylinder is about to complete its
stroke, the piston runs into a cylinder end. If inertia is high enough at this point, the
cylinder may experience a shock that could be damaging. The end-of-travel shock loads
can be reduced \\ith fixed cushions or valves built into the end caps. As per the cushion
arrangement, cylinders are classified into the follo"ing three types:
1. Non-cushioned cylinder
2. Fixed cushion cylinder
3. Adjustable cushion cylinder
Non-cushioned cylinders are appropriate for full stroke working at low speed. Higher
speeds are achievable "ith external cushions or internal cushions. Either fu,ed cushions
or air cushions can be provided in the cushion cylinders. As a rule, cushions are applied
to cylinders whose piston speeds exceed 0.1 m/s (20 ft/ min).
Fixed Cushion Cylinder

Small-bore light duty cylinders have fixed cushions. These cylinders make use of
synthetic rubber buffers to gh·e a simple fixed cushion effect. These shock absorbent
discs placed into the end-covers cushion the impact of the piston. Figyre 4-15 shows a
double-acting cylinder "ith fixed cushions and its symbol.
~ - - Shock absorbent discs--~
Figure 4-15 Fixed cushion c;iinder.
Adjustable Cushion Cylinder

An adjustable cushion slows down a cylinder's piston movement just before reaching the
end of its stroke. Cushions can be applied at one end or both ends of the cylinder, and
these can be adjustable type or non-adjustable. Figure 4-16 shows a double-acting
cylinder "ith an adjustable cushion and its symbol. This cushion consists of a throttle
valve and a sleeve attached to the piston. As the piston approaches the end of its travel,
the cushion sleeve blocks the normal exit for the air and forces it to pass through the
throttle valve which restricts the flow, progressively retarding the piston movement. The
air cushions are usually designed to function over the final 2 cm of the piston stroke. The
cushioning can be adjusted by controlling the throttle valve. In the reverse direction,
flow bypasses the throttle valve by means of a check valve "ithin the cushion seal of the
cylinder. \Vith very large forces and high accelerations, extra measures like providing
external shock absorbers to assist the load deceleration must be taken.
~:-16 Classification of Cylinders

According to Duty
According to the duty, cylinders can be classified as micro, midget, standard, and heav-y
cylinders.
3ficro Cylinders
These cylinders cover very small models from 2.5 mm to 6 mm bore. These are available
in both single-acting and double-acting versions for use in light duty miniature assembly
and manufacturing.
3fidget Cylinders
This type of cylinders covers small to medium bore sizes - from 8 mm to 25 mm. These
are available in both single-acting and double-acting versions. These cylinders conform
to ISO 6432. These are low-cost and light-duty cylinders sealed for life by rolling the
barrel ends and end covers down to make a pressure-tight seal.
Cushion sleeve
Throl1le valve ' - - - - Adjustable cush:on

Figure 4 -16 .-\djustable cushion ciunder.
Standard-duty Cylinders
For a majority of applications, standard-duty cylinders are most suitable. They are
available in bore sizes ranging from 32 mm to 320 mm. All standard-duty cylinders can
be provided "ith fully adjustable air cushioning. This pro,ision, coupled \\ith more
rugged construction, enables them to cope \\ith high speeds and loads as well as harsh
en,ironments. These cylinders conform to ISO 6431. Standard-duty cylinders with
clean-line design and square cross-section are obtainable for use in situations where
hygiene and ease of cleaning are important.
Heavy-duty Cylinders
These cylinders should be considered for use in the most adverse environments.
Extensive use of corrosion-resistant materials gives these cylinders the ruggedness to
cope "ith the harsh environment in mines and foundries, steel plants, and other
applications. Hard chrome-plated piston rods and barrels pro,ide them resistance to
wear and have long life.
Other Cylinder Variants

:Many cylinders are designed "ith other alternative options such as magnetic pistons for
non-contact sensing of piston positions, acid-resistant piston rods and heat-resistant
seals for harsh environments. Compact cylinders have short overall dimensions as
compared to cylinders of normal design. Notable among other types of cylinders are
fixed range positional models, servo-cylinders and positioners, torque units, etc.
r.Iany non-standard designs of cylinders are also available to meet various industrial
demands. J!-,fany designs are adapted to suit special circumstances such as high
temperatures, wet conditions, etc. Locking and braking arrangements may also be
provided in cylinders for safety in the event of air failure. It is possible to stop and hold a
load at any position of the stroke, using passive or active add-on piston rod locking unit.
,Vith the integrated mechanical end-position interlock, a cylinder can be prevented from
creeping in case of a pressure drop.
~-1'.Z Diaphragm Cylinders

A diaphragm cylinder consists of a built-in flat or round, pre-tensioned diaphragm
usually made of polyurethane. A piston rod is mounted on the diaphragm. In the de-
energised state, the piston rod remains in the retracted position due to the resetting
force provided by the pre-tensioned diaphragm. ,Vhen pressure is applied on one side of
the flexible diaphragm, it is fully stretched thus e:-.1:ending the piston rod. Thus a
diaphragm cylinder can be regarded as a single-acting cylinder due to their functional
similarity. As these cylinders move rapidly when the compressed air is applied and they
do not have any end-position cushioning, they should only be operated against a work-
piece. The de-energised and the energised states of a flat diaphragm cylinder are given
in Figures 4-1::z.(~J. and _(Q)., respectively.
Plslon r<X!
I
Oiapr,agm A:mospne<ic air
Figure 4-17 Diaphragm c:,iinder.
Permanent magnets Reed sensors
I
Figure 4-18 C;iinden,ith magnet piston.
Cournsy: ::-!ORGRu',.
Diaphragm cylinders are used in light-duty short-stroke (ty]lically from 3 mm to 5

mm) applications such as for rapid clamping of sensitive and slightly uneven parts "ith
small dimensional de,;ations. The flat diaphragm design and relatively high clamping
force are particularly suitable for clamping elongated work-pieces in confined spaces.
These cylinders are charact erised by a short overall axial dimension as compared to their
bore size. They can also be used for embossing and lifting operations.
~ .18 Cylinder ,~ith Magnetic Piston

In this type of cylinder, shown in Figure ,a-18, a permanent magnet or a permanent
magnetic band is provided around the circumference of the piston. The magnetic field of
the magnet is used to trigger proximity (reed) s"itches/valves. These proximity s"itches
are usually designed "ith identical dimensions and can be fitted in the sensor groove of
the cylinder or fastened to an integral rail on the cylinder. Cylinders "ith magnetic
piston when used in conjunction \\ith magnetically operated s"itches/valves will
provide an electrical/pneumatic output signal which can be used for many industrial
applications. These cylinders have a number of advantages over conventional trip
s"itch/valve systems, pro,iding a compact installation and supporting a neater
appearance at a lower cost.
!i•19 Cylinder ,\ith Non-Rotational

Guiding
Non-rotational guiding of a piston rod is shown in Figure 4-19. This guiding is employed
for applications where a load, attached to the piston rod end, needs guidance to
maintain precise movement as in guiding of heavy loads in conveyor systems. Guided
compact cylinders consist of integrated or add-on 1',in guide bars running in bearings
"ithin the extruded cylinder body. They provide excellent rigidity against torsion.
Add-on block
Cylinder
Figure 4-19 C)tinder "ith non-rotational guiding,

Cournsy: ::SORGRu',,
~.20 Rodless Cylinders

A rodless cylinder consists of a cylindrical barrel, a piston, and a carriage. The carriage is
provided for the purpose of e:-.1:ernal loading. The piston in the rodless cylinder can move
freely in the barrel as in the conventional cylinder when the compressed air is applied.
As there is no piston rod in this cylinder, there is no positive external connection or
e:-.1:ension. Hence for power transmission, the piston is to be coupled magnetically or
mechanically to a carriage as in a rodless cylinder with mantic coupling or mechanical
coupling, respectively. These nvo versions of the rodless cylinder are explained in the
foll01,ing nvo sections.
Afagnetic Coupling
In the magnetically coupled version of the rodless cylinder, the piston as well as the
carriage is fitted "ith sets of annular permanent magnets of opposite poles. J!-,fagnetic
coupling occurs between the internal piston and external carriage. As a result, the
carriage travels synchronously "ith the piston when the latter is moved by the
compressed air.
Jvlagnetic coupling should be stronger by a certain safety factor as compared to the
pneumatic thrust derived from the permissible working pressure and the piston area.
This version of the rodless cylinder is especially adaptable to extremely long stroke
lengths of up to 10 m because of the absence of the piston rod. Another advantage of this
design is that the cylinder barrel can be hermetically sealed from the outer carriage, as
there is no mechanical connection. Further, there is no possibility of leakage losses.
3fechanical Coupling
A mechanically coupled rodless cylinder is shown in Figure 4 -20. A full-length slot in the
barrel joins the piston and external carriage in the rodless cylinder "ith mechanical
coupling. Strips are continuously parted and closed as the piston moves through the
stroke. Long sealing strips on the inside and outside of the cylinder tube prevent loss of
air and ingress of dust. Adjustable cushions can also be pro,ided to prevent end-of-
stroke shocks.
Applications ofRodless Cylinders

Rodless cylinders have a number of remarkable advantages over the cylinders of
conventional design. They are very compact, highly reliable and occupy much less space
in comparison to other cylinders. There is no projecting piston rod in this case. They are
ideally suited for use in simple multi-axis handling de,ices. They also save a great deal of
space "ith in-feed, removal and transfer functions. There is no need to protect the
piston against torsion.
Carriage Piston
! Elastic strips
J
Figure 4-•o ~lechanically coupled rodless ciunder.

Cournsy: ::SORGRu',,
Figure4->1 Cjiinder \\ith through piston rod.
As there is no piston rod here, there is no risk of a buckling piston rod. Yet another
advantage of rodless cylinders is that they can provide an extremely large stroke length.
Besides, the thrust is same in both directions of motion. For the accurate positioning of
the carriage, the circuit of the rodless cylinder uses check valves to prevent the carriage
from creeping. A circuit for the control of a rodless cylinder is given in Chapter 5.
~.2ll Cylinder ,~ith Through Piston

Rod
This type of cylinder has a piston rod extending out of the cylinder at both ends as
shown in Figyre it,- 21. The double-ended rod provides better rod alignment as the rod is
riding ben,·een nvo bearings. This type of cylinder has equal areas on both sides of the
piston and can give equal forces and speeds in both directions of motion.
The cylinder "ith a through piston rod can be pro,ided with a hollow passage for
the purpose of conducting a fluid energy medium like compressed air. A vacuum
connection can also be made at one end of this passage "ith the other end fitted "ith a
suction cup (see Section ,1.3.Q). This ty'J)e of cylinder is usually centre-mounted. It can be
used when the same ty'J)e of task is to be performed at either end on staggered cycles, or
when one end of the rod is to be used for transmitting force while the other end is to be
used for tripping limit s"itches or some other mechanism.
~-22 Bellows Actuator

Bellows actuators are durable concertina-like, single-acting actuators. As sho\\n in
Figure <1,-22, they have no reciprocating parts or sliding seals, and hence they are
virtually frictionless and maintenance-free units. These actuators are designed with one,
two, or three convolutions, which make their installation easy. A bellows actuator is
constructed "ith a flexible fabric-reinforced synthetic rubber or polyurethane or
neoprene coated polyamide, and reinforced "ith steel chord or aramide.
Figure 4 -22 Bellows.

\\'hen the compressed air is applied to a bellows actuator, it inflates and provides
powerful short strokes. This movement can be used to lift a load. The bellows actuator
must not be pressurised while unrestrained as it "ill overextend, and the end plate is
likely to be blown free which could cause serious injuries. In the de-energised state, the
bellows actuator is deflated and the loads fall under gravity. It should be noted that
maximum extension and compression of the bellows must be limited by external
restraints. \\-'hen the bellows actuator is exhausted, it must be prevented from crushing
by the load.
The bellows actuators are designed to function efficiently and economically in the
harshest environments. These are available \\ith plastic end plates for lighn,·eight and
corrosion-resistant applications. The versatile air bellows can be used to solve a large
number of problems experienced by engineers in industries. In particular, they are very
effective as single-acting cylinders where short strokes and high forces are required such
as in clamping or pressing operations, or where heavy loads are to be moved for short
distances. This actuator is often used in pneumatic spring systems and is ideal for
absorbing vibrations of supported loads.
Standard bellows actuator models are manufactured "ith nominal diameters in the
range from 8 inches to 14½ inches ,vith one, t\,o or three convolutions and stroke
lengths in the range 80-380 mm.
~:23 Pneumatic Muscle

Pneumatic muscle is a type of tensile actuator that mimics the natural muscular
movement. Basically a pneumatic muscle consists of a tubing that shortens under
pressure. In the construction of a pneumatic muscle, flexible tubing, which is
impervious to fluids, is pro,ided \\ith an integrated covering made of strong fibres in
rhomboidal form. This results a three-dimensional grid structure thereby reinforcing the
tubing. Figure 4-23 illustrates the operation of a pneumatic muscle. ·when air is allowed
in, the pneumatic muscle changes its shape through radial expansion, and a tensile force
is developed in the axial direction. The greater the internal pressure, the more the
muscle is shortened. The maximum tensile force of a pneumatic muscle depends on its
internal diameter. It can be operated "ith the compressed air or " ith incompressible
fluids. The materials used for the reinforced tubing are chloroprene and aramide.
Chloroprene is a plastic material of the elastomer group. Aramide is a reinforcing fibre
made of aromatic polyamides. Some terms and other features associated "ith the
pneumatic muscle are given below.
Pnewnatic ,l'Iuscle Tenns
1. Nominal length: Nominal length of a muscle is the length of the

membrane in the no-load and non-pressurised state.
2. Expansion: The muscle expands ,vhen an external force like a free-
hanging "'eight is applied.
3. Contraction: \\'hen pressure is applied, the muscle contracts, that
is, it shortens and thus develops a pulling force.
4. Degree of contraction: The degree of contraction describes the
relationship between the nominal length and the extent to ,_.hich
the muscle can be shortened. The smaller the degree of contraction,
the longer the service life of the muscle.
Figure4-~3 Pneumatic muscle.
Courtesy: FFSTO.
Characteristics
Pneumatic muscles can be operated at temperatures ranging from 5 to 60 •c, and
pressures ranging from o to 6 bar. The pneumatic muscle reacts to smallest of pressure
changes. The maximum permissible elongation of the muscle is about 3% of its nominal
length, and the maximum contraction is about 20% of its nominal length.
The pneumatic muscle is available for the follo"ing nominal diameters: 10, 20, and
40 mm, and the corresponding maximum stroke forces at 6 bar are: 400, 1200, and
4000 N, respectively. The pneumatic muscle can be produced in nominal lengths up to
9000mm.
The service life of a pneumatic muscle is shortened by e:-.1:reme operating conditions
like large contraction of the muscle, excessive load on the muscle, and elevated ambient
or operating temperature. Continuous use of pneumatic muscle at more than 60 •c is
not recommended >vith the standard material as this leads to premature ageing of the
rubber elastomer. A few of the most important technical data for the pneumatic muscle
are given in Table As-8 in Appendix 3.
Advantages
1. Development of up to 10 times higher initial force compared to a
conventional piston cylinder \\'ith an identical diameter.
2. Highly d:,namic operation and high acceleration possible.
3. No stick-slip characteristic (see Section 9.2 for definition of stick-
slip effect) as there is no piston used in the muscle.
4. Intermediate positions can be set easily by regulating pressure.
5. Lowcost.
Disadvantages
1. Double-acting function is not possible.

2. Guidance of load is not possible.
3. Ageing of rubber material.
4. Problem of overloading.
Safety
Safety also needs to be taken into consideration when using the pneumatic muscle. A
muscle under pressure has enormous energy potential. A sudden release of this energy,
for example, caused by busting of the reinforced tubing d ue to incorrect use, can
considerably accelerate the attached components of the muscle. Any repair work on the
muscle must therefore only be carried out in the u n-pressurised state.
Applications ofPneumatic ;);luscle

The considerable force developed by the pneumatic muscle and its stick-slip-free
movements make it an interesting choice for many lifting tasks in applications where
accurate positioning at reduced speeds is required. The pneumatic muscle, being a
compact, powerful t ensile actuator, is ideally suited for gripping work.
- - - Ccmp<essed ai, ---
Figure 4-24 Tandem ciiinder.
The pneumatic muscle finds application where high initial force and high
acceleration are required as in lifting equipment, clamping devices, and gripping
systems. O>ving to its lighnveight and slim design, the muscle is suited for applications
in aviation, mobile technology, car construction, and highly dynamic de,ices such as
cutting units, simulators, and robotics. Because of its ability to react quickly, the muscle
can also be used as a drive for handling units. Other areas of its application are clean
room, biomedicine, sewage treatment plants, areas subject to explosion hazards, and
wood working as this de,ice is hermetically sealed.
(For more details on this topic, the reader is ad,ised to refer to the textbook The
Fluidic 11:fuscle in Application - 150 Practical E-.:amples using the Pneumatic ,"\,Iuscle by
Stefan Hesse, Blue Digest on Automation, Festo Didactic.)
~-~ Tandem Cylinder

A tandem cylinder is sho>vn in Figyre 4-24. This cylinder consists of nvo or more
cylinders mounted in-line "ith pistons connected by a common piston rod. Rod seals
are installed benveen cylinders to permit double-acting operation of each cylinder. A
tandem cylinder can pro,ide amplified output force as compared to a conventional
cylinder of the same bore diameter. In a tandem arrangement, it is possible through
end-to-end linking of nvo to four cylinders of the same diameter and the same stroke
length to obtain 2, 3, or 4 times the thrust of a conventional cylinder.
A tandem cylinder is used in places where a greater force needs to be developed in
an actuator of smaller diameter. In other words, this type of cylinder finds application in
places where the diameter of the area in which the cylinder is placed is at a premium,
but not its axial length. Typical applications for the tandem cylinder are found in work
holder devices and lathe equipment.
~-~ l\'lulti-Position Cylinder

A multi-position cylinder for three or four positions consists of n vo separate cylinders of
identical diameter, which are interconnected back-to-back by using a suitable mounting
kit. The piston rod of one cylinder in the multi-position arrangement is fixed and the
piston rod of the second cylinder is used for loading purpose. It is t o be noted that if one
end of the piston rod is fixed into position, the cylinder barrel will then execute the
motion. A multi-position operation can be obtained depending on the control method
used and the way the strokes are subdivided. A three-position operation can be achieved
by linking together two cylinders of same stroke lengths, and a four-position operation
can be achieved by linking together n vo cylinders of different stroke lengths. Figure 4-25
illustrates the operation of a four-position cylinder. Flexible lines must be used for
multi-position cylinder connections. This cylinder has " ide application in the machine
tool industry where it is used to position materials for successive operations.
D Compressed air D Atmospheric air 2 4
- -
1 3
c:-'~ '=
I
t;, rl I I ..c:7 r --=
ti" .(). .(). ti"
--+-
c:'_ '=
I
t;, r. .r, r: ..c:7 '
r'
.(). ti" .(). ti"
c:' _ , J
- I
--+-
'=
I
t:; ~ r:i. :7 n. c::-, r --=
ti" .(). ti" .().
c:'
- I '=
l:;1 r. .r, I I
:;-i r.-='
.(). ti" ti" .().
Figure4-•5 ~Iulti-positionciiinder.
! l ~ lmpactCylinder
Pressures and forces in pneumatic systems are lower than those in hydraulic systems;
but by accelerating a cylinder piston to a high velocity and then allo"ing it to strike a
target can generat e a large impact force. Such a device is called an impact cylinder. The
constructional features and the operating principle of an impact cylinder are extremely
simple, inherently offering reliability and long life.
The principle of operation of an impact cylinder is illustrated in Figure i1,- 26.
Pressure is initially applied to port B to retract the cylinder. Pressure is then applied to
both ports A and B simultaneously. The cylinder remains in the retracted position
because area X is less than area Y. Port B is then exhausted rapidly using a quick-
exhaust valve. Immediately, the full piston area (X) experiences the port A pressure.
vVith large volume of gas stored behind the piston, it accelerates rapidly to a high
velocity.
An impact cylinder can be used as a power unit capable of providing the impact load
to an infinite variety of press work applications conventionally carried out on machinery
such as fly presses, kick-presses, drop stamps, crank-presses, etc. In fact, many
applications benefit from the impact working, as the high tool velocity and high rate of
energy application can produce results such as cleaner edges when cutting and enhanced
grain structure when forging. For all impact applications, complete guarding must be
integrated, either fixed or interlocked "ith the control circuit. Impact cylinders are
employed in operations requiring large forces.
A
In-built reseNO::r
B ¢:::,
l
I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I
Fignre 4->6 lmpact ciunder.
Impact cylinders can develop a stroke velocity of up to 10 m/ s and depending on the

cylinder diameter, impact energies up to 500 Nm can be attained.
~-2~ Hydro-Pneumatic Feed Unit

A standard pneumatic cylinder is not suitable for application where uniform working
speed is required as in feed applications. But a hydraulic cylinder can deliver a uniform
speed, therefore it can be used in combination "ith a pneumatic cylinder as in a hydro-
pneumatic feed unit to utilise the advantages of both the types.
A hydro-pneumatic feed unit is sho\\n in Figure 4-2:z. This unit consists of a
pneumatic cylinder, a hydraulic cushioning cylinder "ith an integrated throttle-check
valve, and an air control block to form a compact unit. The pistons of the two cylinders
are joined by a crosstie. The pneumatic cylinder is engaged as the working element. An
integrated air control block controls the unit. \\'hen the compressed air is applied to the
pneumatic cylinder, the piston in the hydraulic cylinder is carried along with it,
transferring the oil present in one side of the hydraulic cylinder to the other side of the
piston through a throttle valve. The throttle valve can be adjusted for regulating the feed
speed. The presence of oil prevents the feed from being uneven when the applied load
changes. On the return stroke, the oil can move quickly to the other side of the piston
through the check valve, and hence the return stroke can be made to traverse quickly.
r------------ ,
I I
I
I
I
I
I ;:_J
I
I
I
1 ____________ I
Hydraulic cylinder
~
I
=i
Pneumatic cylinder
I =i
'
-
'
Control block '
'
'
'
''
'
'
'
----------- - '
4 \J Figure 4 -:,7 Hydro-pneumatic feed unit.
Through a hydro-pneumatic feed unit, slow and constant feed movements are
possible. The speed of the working stroke can be regulat ed typically between 30 and
6000 mm/min by using the restriction valve of the hydraulic cushioning cylinder.
~.28 Pneumatic Feed Unit

A pneumatic feed unit consists of two grippers: (1) clamping gripper and (2) feed
gripper. Single-acting cylinders are fitted in the stroke slide and in the base to act as feed
gripper and clamping gripper, respectively. By using these grippers, it is possible to
clamp and feed rods, tubes, and profiled materials synchronously. Figure 4-28 shows a
typical pneumatic feed unit.
A typical sequence of operations during a cycle in a pneumatic feed unit is
enumerat ed below:
1. l\'laterial is loaded through the guides;

2. feed gripper closes;
3. stroke slide advances \\ith the material;
4. " 'hen end of stroke is reached, the clamping gripper closes;
feed gripper opens;
6. stroke slide is returned to the starting position;
7. the machine operation is carried out on the material;
8. clamping gripper opens.
The pneumatic feed unit can be used for feeding tapes or strips or tools to various
machines. The feed speed, feed length, and feed force are infinitely variable. The width
of the feed mat erial can be up to 200 mm. A feed accuracy of 0.02 to 0.05 mm can be
achievable.
Clamping gri;,;:e, Feed gripper
Ma:enal
fi n
Figure 4-:,8 Pneumatic feed unit.
~~q Rotary Indexing Table
In many manufacturing processes, it is necessary to carry out feed motions in a circular

path. Rotary indexing tables are used for rotary indexing work "ith a high level of
indexing accuracy on automatic assembly and packaging machines, embossing and
marking equipment and drilling stations. The powering de,ice in a rotary indexing table
is the pneumatic cylinder used in conjunction " ith an air control block which controls
the movement cycles. A typical application of rotary indexing table is illustrated in the
self-explanatory Figure 4-29.
ll •
••
,I
Figure 4-29 Rotary inde:dng table.
Some key functions of modern industrial handling systems and many other automatic
systems are: holding, retaining, and subsequent release of work-pieces. These functions
can be realized through a technical component known as 'gripper'. The grippers behave
as hands in automated machinery, and by using them it is possible to easily pick up and
move all sorts of products. They form the link between the work-piece and the
manipulating machine concerned.
The suitability of a gripper for a given application is dependant on its technical
properties, work-piece parameters and environmental parameters. The major
t echnological parameters are: (1) time available for gripping, (2) the gripping force, and
(3) the number of work-pieces to be gripped simultaneously. The most important work-
piece parameters are: (1) mass, (2) shape, (3) surface properties, (4) material, (5)
strength, and (6) temperature. The most important environmental parameters are: (1)
process forces, (2) space available for gripping, (3) dirt, (4) humidity, and (5) vibration.
Types of Grippers
There are two basic types of grippers. They are:
1. Finger-like grippers
2. Suction grippers
Finger-like Gripper
A finger-like gripper is made of a double-acting pneumatic drive with fingers attached to
the cylinder piston through the rack-and-pinion or lever me<)hanism. The piston
movement makes the fingers to open or close. The finger shape is to be tailored as much
as possible to the shape and ty'J)e of surface of the work-piece in order to achieve a large
effective area.
Finger-like grippers are categorised according to the number of fingers used and
according to the "·ay the gripper fingers are moving. According to the number of fingers,
they are classified into the follo,,ing ty'J)es - two-point, three-point, or four-point
grippers. Three-point grippers are the preferred one for handling cylindrical work-
pieces. According to the way of the movement of fingers, they are classified as parallel
grippers, radial grippers and angled grippers. In parallel grippers, fingers move in
parallel across the entire stroke. An assortment of different gripper ty'J)es is depicted in
Figure <1-.:30.
•
\
'-...:.......
3-point gripper Parallel gripper Radial gripper Angled gripper

Figure 4-30 Types ofgrippers.
Courresy: FFSTO.
The grippers are usually attached with at least two sensing slots for sensing the jaw
position. It is possible to block the gripper exhaust air so that the gripped work-piece is
stopped from being dropped from the gripper fingers in the event of a compressed air
failure. The important characteristics of grippers are: low-cost, high gripping
force/torque, and precise centring.
Vacuum Deuices
A vacuum is an absolute pressure below the level of atmospheric pressure. Vacuum
generators and suction cups are exceptionally suitable for pneumatic systems for picking
up small parts made of metal, plastic or wood. They are extensively used in industry as
an inexpensive component especially suitable as an automation tool. On handling
systems, by using these devices, it is often possible to ignore a pump for generating a
vacuum.
Vacuum Generator
The cross-section of a vacuum generator is shown in Figure 4=3!· A vacuum generator
functions in accordance "ith the Venturi principle. This generator produces ,·acuum in
the suction chamber when the compressed air is permitted to flow from P to R as a
result of air expanding through an orifice. A suction cup is the dynamic component that
creates the contact between a handling de,ice and the work-piece to be handled. This
cup is coupled to the vacuum port U of the vacuum generator. If a work-piece blocks the
suction cup, the vacuum produced in the suction cup grips the work-piece. If a pressure
of 6 bar is applied, typically a vacuum of -o.8 bar is generated. A silencer is integrated
in the housing.
Various types of vacuum generators are available, all of which can be equipped "ith
various tyl)es of suction cups. To obtain the specified values of suction force, the surface
of the work-pieces has to be clean and even; othen,ise the values are reduced depending
on the quality of the surface.
Suction Cups
The suction cups (or vacuum gripper) can be used to pick up and grip work-pieces "ith
smooth and non-porous surfaces by vacuum. \\'hen vacuum is present ,vithin the
suction cup, the work-piece is pressed to the cup by atmospheric pressure. The soft
suction cups make certain that the surface of the work-piece is not damaged. Bellows
suction cups can pick up work-pieces \\ith slightly uneven or curved surfaces. Suction
cups can also be used to grip non-magnetic materials such as glass, ceramics, and wood.
The choice of suction cups is very much influenced by the intended application and the
associated loads offered by the work-piece and the en,ironment. Important properties
required for suction cups are: (1) resistance to abrasion, (2) oil resistance, (3) chemical
resistance, and (4) short-term and long-term t emperature resistance.
Vacuum generator
u
Work-piece
Figure 4-31 Vacuum generator and symbol.
Flat Suction cup Oval Suction cup
Bellows Suction cup Deep Suction cup

Figure 4-3~ Suction cups.
Courtesy: FFSTO.
The materials used for suction cups are perbunan (Buna-N), pol}urethane, silicone,
natural rubber, ,>iton, etc. \Vork-piece temperature can vary from -50 •c to +250 •c. In
an industrial environment, anything above 70 •c is considered as a special case and
usually requires special materials. At temperatures belo"· o •c, the hardness of suction
cup may increase making cups virtually rigid and preventing adequate adaptation of the
work-piece surface. Pol}urethane suction cups can be used in temperatures ranging
from -40 •c to + 200 •c. Silicon suction cups are superior for use in food industries.
Figure 4.:32 shows a few designs of suction cups. They are available in the >vide
variety of sizes "ith nominal (effective) diameters from 8 mm to 150 mm. There is a
large range of suction cups with flat/bellows type in round/ square/ oval shape. They are
also available in standard/extra-deep designs. Suction cups in the form of bellows allow
convex surfaces to be gripped.
Vacuum Switch/Vacuum Yalve

A vacuum S\\itch (vacuum valve) works like a sensor and checks whether or not a
vacuum has been achieved. It is connected ben,·een vacuum generator and suction cup.
The vacuum switch (vacuum valve) is turned on when a particular level of vacuum exists
due to the blocking of the suction cup by the work-piece. \'\'hen the 5',itch (valve) is
triggered, this unit generates an electrical (pneumatic) signal.
Applications of Vacuum Equipment

Vacuum is extensively used for lifting and handling many types of products and
materials, permitting many ways of holding, picking up, transporting and settling do\\n
work-pieces. For handling operations, compact vacuum generators "ith a \\ide variety
of suction cups made of different materials and vacuum S\\itches (vacuum valves) can be
used. The industrial robot is an important handling machine that roughly imitates the
human arm ivith the application of mechanical hands in the form of grippers.
~-311 Rotary Actuators

Rotary actuators convert energy of the compressed air into rotary mechanical energy.
They are used in all types of applications, particularly where there is a risk of explosion.
They are characterised by low installation costs, rapid acceleration, and high starting
torque.
Air motors are designed for continuous rotation (>360°). Semi-rotary actuators are
designed for reciprocating rotary motion (up to 360°). A rotary actuator can be defined
in terms of the torque it produces and its running speed. Starting torque of a rotary
actuator is the torque available to move the load from rest. Stall torque is the torque that
must be applied by the load to bring a running actuator to rest. Running torque is the
torque available at any given speed.
The speed, torque, and direction of rotation of rotary actuators can be controlled
and adjusted to job requirements. An air motor can " ithstand repeated stalling and
reversing " ithout harm or overheating. This motor can accelerate rapidly due to the fact
that the energy contained in the compressed air is released at a high rate.
Rotary actuators are employed for continuous movement of scrapers or knives in
the papermaking industry, or as a 'flame-proof drive for mixtures and stirrers in process
industries. They are also used for mo,ing of conveyor belts or as a power drive for
reciprocating machine tools. Other applications include the operation of liquid pumps
and for the movement of an oscillating coolant nozzle on cutting operations.
~__g Semi-Rotary Actuators

A semi-rotary actuator is constructed "ith a rotating vane or " ith a rack-and-pinion
design. The vane type rotary actuator, as shown in Figure f!: 33, "ith limited travel
consists of a single vane coupled to the output shaft. This vane type actuator is usually
designed for double-acting operation "ith a maximum angle of rotation of 270°.
Usually, the angle of rotation can be adjusted. The compact rotary actuator is well suited
to robotics and material handling applications where there is limited space. It can also
be used as a drive for turning components, operating process control valves and
providing a wrist action in robotic applications.
Figure 4-33 Semi-rotary actuator- Vane type.
"f/1 ... 'W' 'W

...
Fignre 4 -34 Semi-rotary actuator- Rack-and-pinion type.
The rack-and-pinion ty])e rotary actuator 'Vith limited travel is sho\\n in Figure
,:1: 3<1· This rack-and-pinion ty])e actuator consists of a double-acting piston coupled to
the output shaft by a rack-and-pinion arrangement. Angle of rotation up to 360° is
possible "ith this ty])e of design. This t}])e of actuator can also be designed for double-
acting double-torque version.
~-33 Air Motors
Air motors convert the potential energy of the compressed air into rotary mechanical
energy. They are designed to provide continuous rotation. Piston, vane, and gear designs
are generally used for air motors. The speed range and the required torque are the major
aspects to be considered while selecting air motors for applications involving varying
loads. In most cases, air mot ors are produced in lower hp ranges. Typically, air motors
I
are available in the power ratings ranging from 8 to 25 hp. r.Iany speed ranges are
possible ranging from as low as 40 rpm up t o as high as 5 0 , 000 rpm or more. Normally,
air motors are considerably lighter and smaller than electric motors of the comparable
horsepower rating. They can be overloaded or stalled without burning out. Air motors
start and stop straightaway, and provide infinitely variable control of t orque and speed.
They are impervious to explosive atmospheres. Air motors also have disadvantages
including higher initial costs and lower efficiencies as compared to electric motors.
Applications of air motors are found in powering conveyor belts, printing presses,
screwdrivers, hoists, and mixers, and for many types of portable air tools.
Piston ,l<Iotor
A piston motor is designed to have four to six cylinders which are arranged in either
radial or axial positions. Applying air pressure on the piston ,vithin each cylinder causes
the development of torque in piston motors. As the pistons reciprocate in sequence, they
actuate a wobble plate which in tum imparts a rotary motion to the output shaft. The
compressed air energy is expended by moving a piston, and this energy is converted to a
mechanical force by the rotation of the output shaft. Piston-type motors gain their full
speed in milliseconds.
Radial Piston .11,f otor

The radial piston motor is a low-speed, high-torque output device ,vith five or more
reciprocating pistons. These pistons are designed to reciprocate in sequence when the
compressed air is applied. This causes a crankshaft to tum through a connecting rod
causing the rotation of the output shaft. The power output of a radial piston motor is
dependent on its operating pressure, number of pistons, area of pistons, stroke length,
1
and piston speed. These motors are available in power ratings ranging from 8 to 25 hp.
The speed of a radial piston motor is limited due to high inertia of moving mechanical
parts. This motor operates at speeds ranging from 200 to 3000 rpm. Radial piston
motors are particularly suitable for low-speed operations where high starting torque is
necessary.
Axial Piston ,1\.fotor

In axial piston motor, five or more cylinders are arranged axially, and their reciprocating
movements are changed into rotary movements through a swash plate. They are
I ,, I
available in sizes ranging from 8 to :) 2 hp "ith speeds ranging from 220 to 5000 rpm.
Axial piston motors are compact in design, operate smoothly even at low speeds, pro\ide
high torque and reach full speed in a fraction of a second.
Gear ,tlotor
In this type of design, torque is generated by the tooth profiles of two meshed gear
wheels. One of these gear wheels is secured to the motor shaft. Gear motors are available
"ith a very high power rating of up to 60 hp. The gear motors are used in liquid pump
drives, robot arms, mixing, drum pumps, conveyor drives, belt drives, etc.
-0-
Clockwise
Anticlockwise
\ I)
Figure 4-35 Sliding,,.,,. motor.
Turbine ,\1otor
Turbine motors are used mainly for extremely high-speed applications such as starting
aircraft jet engines and for special high-speed grinding applications involving light
loads. The turbine motor, perhaps the most sophisticated air motor, has extremely low
starting torque for use in high-speed applications. A dentist might use such a motor
operating at a speed of 50,000 rpm or more for grinding or polishing teeth.
Vane,\1otor
A rotary vane motor (figyre !1,.:35) consists of a cylindrical rotor ivith sliding vanes
placed eccentrically in a cylindrical housing. As air enters the inlet port and passes into
the cylinder, a pressure unbalance acts on the vanes. This develops a torque that turns
the rotor against the motor's load. The vane then ejects the air out of the exhaust port.
Rotary vane motors are available in power ratings ranging from 8 to 25 hp and in
speeds ranging from 800 to 6000 rpm. The efficiency of rotary vane motors is generally
low, sometimes only 25%. Rotary vane motors generally require lubricated air for
optimum sliding efficiency on the housing. Vane-type motors are used in many types of
portable tools, power shovels, mechanical saws, lifting jacks, controlling motors, driving
pumps, driving blowers, and driving conveyors.
~~ Pneumatic Tools
The compressed air permits the use of tools which are compact, light in weight, portable,
and easy to operate. From the point of view of application, there are two main classes of
pneumatic t ools. These are: portable tools and rock drills. Pneumatic portable tools
carry out a "ide range of operations such as nut running, screw driving, grinding,
drilling, riveting, scaling, stud dri,ing, and " ire \\Tapping. Portable tools include
screwdrivers, hammers, riveters, abrasive tools and hoists. In the air-operated
hammers, a piston imparts a series of blows to a forming tool or chisel at the end of the
hammer. Air-operated hoists are used in numerous applications, especially in machine
shops and foundries. The second type of air-operated tools includes various rock drills.
The hammer drill is an air-operated tool commonly used in mining and general
excavation work. A rotary vane type air motor is usually used for pneumatic tools. Speed
control can easily be achieved by throttling the air supply to the tools. An air motor is
variable in speed and reversible in direction, and it can "ithstand stalling from an
overload "ithout damage.
Questions
1. Name the n,•o basic types of pneumatic actuators and differentiate
them.
2. Define the term actuator and explain its function using a simple
double-acting cylinder.
3. \Vrite the equation for the thrust of a double-acting cylinder.
4. \ Vrite the equation for the pull of a double-acting cylinder.
5. \\.'hy is it difficult to calculate the exact thrust of a single.acting
cylinder?
6. \Vrite the equation for the air consumption of a double-acting
cylinder for the fonvard stroke and return stroke.
7. list h\ o factors affecting the speed at ,vhich a piston moves.
0
8. Ho,v is the effective area for the rod-end determined ,vhen

calculating the force and speed of a given actuator?
9. \ \.'hat is cylinder rod buckling? ,-\.'hat is the effect buckling on the
ma.tjmum load that can be applied to the actuator?
10. Briefly e.-...-plain various t ypes of body styles for pneumatic cylinders.
11. list five factors that should be considered in selecting a pneumatic
cylinder.
12. Explain the constructional features of a double-acting cylinder.
13. list out the important characteristics of cylinder seals.
14. Ho, v seals are classified based on application?
15. Differentiate beh, een static and dynamic seals.
0
16. Describe the operation of static seals "ith the help of a neat sketch.
17. \ \.'hat are seals? Through a neat sketch, sho"· the action of a cup
s eal under pressure.
18. Describe the operation of a 'Z' seal ,\ith the help of a neat sketch.
19. For the cylinder sho,vn in Figure 4-36, mark the follo,\ing
components: (1) piston, (2) "iper seal, (3) rod bush, (4) barrel, (5)
piston seal, and (6) cushion seal.
10. State the function of"iper seal.
2 1. State the function of the " 'ear ring on the piston of a cylinder.
12. \\.'hat are the different " ·ays of pro,i ding protection to the piston
rod of a pneumatic cylinder?
13. Briefly e.-...-plain the functional requirements of air-cushion seal.
24. Name three fypes of seals that can be used on pneumatic cylinders.
25. \ \ 'hat is the function of the piston rod "'iper seal?
26. list out different materials used for seals in pneumatic cylinders
along "ith their temperature range.
27. \\'hat is the effect of (1) lo"' temperature and (2) high temperature
on seals?
?8. \\'hat is the maximum stroke (typical) of a commercially available
single-acting cylinder? And " 'hy is the stroke length limited in this
case?
29. \\'hat is the importance of proper mounting of pneumatic
cylinders?
30. \\'hat are the different methods of mounting pneumatic cylinders?
31. \\'hat are the precautions that must be taken \\ hile installing
0
cylinders?
32. Differentiate ben, een single-acting and double-acting cylinders.
0
33. Ho,v can piston and rod seals in cylinders be protected from dr},ing
out?
34. Differentiate ben, een a pneumatic muscle and a conventional
0
single-acting cylinder.
35. Differentiate ben, een buffer cushioning and air cushioning.
0
36. Name h\ o ISO standards governing the cylinders and briefly

0
explain them.
37. list out a fe,v important features of commercial actuators.
38. l\fention the maximum bore size for pneumatic double-acting
cylinders as per ISO 6431.
39. l\fention the standard values of diameter for pneumatic double-
acting cylinders as per ISO 6432.
10. l\fention the maximum stroke of a commercial standard double-
acting cylinder.
41. Ho,v are pneumatic actuators classified?
i2. l\fention a fe\\ applications of pneumatic actuators.
0
t3• State hvo advantages of using pneumatic actuators as compared to

electrical actuators for obtaining linear motion.
t4• Write a brief note on the commercial bore sizes of standard
cylinders.
45. Explain the working principle of a single-acting cylinder , vith a neat
outline sketch.
t6, list out a fe, v typical applications of single-acting cylinders.
t7• Sho"· by means of a neat sketch the ISO 1219 symbol for a double.
acting cylinder ,~ith adjustable cushioning on both sides.
is. \ \ 'hat does a cushioned cylinder mean?
t9• \\'hat is the purpose of pro,iding 'cushioning' in pneumatic
cylinders?
;o. \\'hat are the different \\"ays of providing 'cushioning' in pneumatic
cylinders?
51. Explain the purpose of pro,iding the follo"ing on pneumatic
cylinders: (1) magnet on the piston, (2) air-cushioning, (3) integral
guide bars, (4) heat-resistant seals, (5) piston rod locking unit.
;2. Explain the constructional features of diaphragm cylinders.
;3. \ \ 'hat is the typical application area for the diaphragm cylinders?
;4. Explain the constructional features of the rodless cylinder.
;5. \ \ 'hat are the different designs of the rodless cylinder?
; 6. \\'hat are the advantages of the rodless cylinder?
; 7. Give a fe\\ applications of the rodless cylinder.
0
;8. Dra\\ the ISO symbol representing a cylinder " ith through piston
0
rod.
;9. \ \ 'hat fype of cylinder can be used to produce equal forces and
velocity in both directions of motion?
,o. Briefly ea-...-plain the construction of the bello, vs actuator. ,<\-'hat are
its applications?
61. \\'hat are the precautions to be taken "'hile using the bello\\'S
actuator?
52. \\'hat is a pneumatic muscle? Explain its constructional features.
53. \\'hat are the important characteristics of a pneumatic muscle?
54. l\fention fe"' applications of pneumatic muscle.
55. Explain the design features of a tandem cylinder "'ith a neat sketch.
56. \\'hat is the advantage of a tandem cylinder?
57. Explain the method of construction of a multi-position cylinder for
four positions "ith a neat sketch.
,8. Design a multi-position cylinder to stop precisely at positions 25
mm, 50 mm, and 75 mm. The estimated maximum torque is 400 N
and the operating pressure is 6 bar.
59. Explain the ,vorking principle of an impact cylinder. l\·I ention a fe"'
applications of impact cylinders.
70. Explain the working principle of rotary indexing table.
71. \\'hat is the function of pneumatically operated grippers?
72. \\'hat are the n,,o basic types of commercial pneumatic gripper
systems?
73. Explain the working principle of finger-type gripper.
74. \\'rite a brief note on different types of finger-type grippers.
75. Explain ho\\' gripping of \\'Ork-piece is possible by the arrangement
of vacuum generator and suction cup.
76. Explain the working of a vacuum generator.
77. \\'hat is the function of a suction cup in handling applications?
78. l\fention the different types of suction cups "'ith regard to the
follo\\ing: (a) the materials used, and (b) shapes.
79. \\'hat fype of suction cup can be used to grip round pieces?
lo. \\'hat type of suction cups is used in food industries?
81. Ho,v can rotary actuators be classified?
32. l\fention n,,o fypical applications of rotary actuators.
33. \\'hat is the difference behveen semi-rotary actuator and air motor?
34. \\'hat are the advantages of air motors over electric motors?
35. Name the type of air motor used to operate light loads at very high
speeds of the order of 50000 rpm.
l6. Dra"' symbols as per ISO 1219 of the follo\\ing: (1) double-acting
cylinder \\ith magnet, (2) semi-rotary actuator, (3) air motor, (4)
double-acting cylinder "ith variable end-position cushioning on
both sides, and (5) double-acting cylinder \\ith through piston rod.
37. Give a typical value for each of the follo\\ing parameters \\ith
regard to pneumatic cylinders for normal industrial applications:
(1) medium, (2) operation, (3) operating pressure, (4) size, and (5)
stroke.
5 Pnet1n1atic Valves and Control Circt1its
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Describe the fundamental control functions of pneumatic valves.

• Differentiate between poppet valves and slide valves.
• Identify the graphic symbols used for p neumatic valves.
• Describe the purpose, construction, and operation of 3/ 2-, 4/ 2-, and 5/ 2-directional
control valves.
• Describe the purpose, construction, and operation of flow control valves.
• Describe the purpose, construction, and operation of a p ressure sequence valve.
• Design and develop single-actuator p neumatic circuits for various control tasks.
• Analyze the speed control of pneumatic cylinders.
• Understand pneumatic circuits for memory, logic and time-delay controls.
• Understand the concepts of semi-automation and complete automation.
• Explain the operation of single-actuator pneumatic circuits drawn using graphic
symbols.
• Explain the significance of silencers.
T he compressed air is being utilised as a signal transmission and processing medium
for quite some time now. However, it was not until the 1960s that great strides "·ere
made in the pneumatic control technology. !\'lost recent products in this technology
include an array of valves connected to Fieldbus control systems capable of highlighting
any problems through the fieldbus link to a centralised controller.
This chapter describes the fundamental control functions performed by valves.
Essentially, valves control the direction, flow, and pressure. Generally, a control valve is
named based on its function in a pneumatic circuit. Basic pneumatic circuits may be
designed to accomplish control actions designated as :Memory, A,'ID, OR, Time-delay,
Counting, etc. The construction, operation, and application of the valves discharging
these functions have been discussed in this chapter.
A number of basic circuits are illustrated to enable the reader get a clear
understanding of how these circuits operate. There are no specific rules that can make
the circuit design simple. The only way to learn how to design pneumatic circuits is to
practice. This chapter provides a cross-section of practical applications, reference, and
engineering assistance for solving circuit design problems.
5• Introduction
In fluid power systems, power is conveyed and controlled through a fluid under pressure
"ithin a circuit. Therefore, pneumatic systems require valves to control or regulate the
flow of pressurized air from compressor to various actuators. A pneumatic valve is a
de,ice consisting of aluminium or brass body and an internal moving part, like a ball,
disc, spool, etc., which controls the movement of air within the valve body. In other
words, pneumatic valves are devices to control direction of flow or rate of flow or
pressure of the compressed air. These valves control a "ide range of functions - from
the simplest task of S\\itching a single flow path 'on' and 'off to the sophisticated
proportional control of pressure and flow.
5;.g Classification ofValves

The range of pneumatic valves is very extensive. They may be categorised according to
paramet ers such as function, design principle, method of actuation, size, mounting style,
application, etc. A brief explanation of these parameters' relationship with the valve
functioning is given below:
1. Function refers to the S\\itching task of a valve, for example,

directional control, tlo,v control, pressure control, etc. This
function-based classification is elaborated in Section 5,3.
2. Design refers to the principle of operation around which the valve
has been designed, for example, spool valve, poppet valve, and
plate valve.
3. l\iethod of actuation refers to the " 'ay the valve is actuated, for
example, manual, mechanical, pneumatic, and electrical. J.\,lany
variations arise in the applications of small control valves, and
accordingly a \\-ide range of valve operating mechanisms is
available.
4. Size refers to a valve's port size. For similarly designed valves, the
amount of airflow through the valve usually increases '\\ith the port
size. The port sizes are specified as
~-1- G·• I G' G ' G 1 G ' G J
IV ) , 8, 4' 8' 2 ' 4' · ' etc. The letters l\.1 and G
denote the types of thread used. (see Section 5.6 for more
information). For detailed discussion on the selection and sizing of
pneumatic valves, refer to Section U in Chapter 9 .
5. l\iounting style refers to the valve installation method, for example,
sub-base, manifold, in-line, or valve island.
6. Application refers to the complexity of a valve depending upon the
requirements of a control task. Accordingly they are classified as
standard valves such as power valves, speed control valves, signal
processing valves, etc., and specialised valves such as proportional
valves, fail-safe valves, soft-start valves, etc.
5;3: Functional Classification of
Valves
According to their S\\itching function, pneumatic valves can be divided into the
follo,ving groups:
1. Directional control valves (\\'ay-valves): These control the direction

of flo\\• of the compressed air.
2. Non-return valves: These allo\\' the flo"· of the compressed air in
only one direction, blocking the flo\\• in the other direction.
3. Pressure control valves: These regulate or limit the pressure of the
compressed air or generate a control signal \\•hen a set pressure is
reached.
4. Flo\\• control valves: These restrict the compressed air to reduce its
flo\\• rate.
Directional Control Valves

The primary function of a directional control (DC) valve is to direct or prevent air flow
through selected passages in the valve. This function is achieved by some moving parts
in the valve, such as poppet or slide, controlling the direction of air flow. Directional
control valves are usually used to control pneumatic cylinders and rotary actuators.
According to the method of construction, directional control valves can be subdivided
into the follm,ing types:
1. Poppet valves,
2. Slide valves (or spool valves).
Poppet Valve
In a poppet valve, a simple valve seat is used in conjunction "ith a movable disc or ball
or cone t o open or close internal air passages. A poppet valve quickly opens up a
relatively large orifice in a short travel to permit the full flow of air. Thus the poppet
valves have an intrinsic characteristic of fast response and they find application in
control circuits. The poppet valves are simple, inexpensive, and insensitive to dirt. They
also have a long working life as they have few parts which are subjected to wear. A major
disadvantage of these valves is the high actuating force required to operate them. This
force is necessary to overcome the force of the built-in reset spring as well as the force
exerted by the compressed air.
Slide Valve
In a slide valve, a spool moves axially " ithin the valve body to control the direction of
flow. A slide valve is especially used as a final control element to handle the power signal
to an actuating device because it is easy to shift the spool to perform the required
s"itching function.
Non-return Valves
Non-return valves include such devices as check valves, shuttle valves (OR elements),
two-pressure valves (AND elements), and quick-exhaust valves.
Pressure-control Valves
As is obvious from their name, pressure control valves control pressure in a pneumatic
system. These valves are used to reduce or relieve or regulate pressure or begin another
function. Pressure regulators (valves) regulate the system pressure t o a set value. A
pressure sequence valve generates a control signal as a function of a given input
pressure, and its objective is to start a sequence of operations in pneumatic systems.
Flow-control Valves
Flow-control valves (also known as throttle valves) influence the volumetric flow of the
compressed air passing through them, in both directions of flow.
54 Graphic Representation
Valves are represented by symbols because the representation of their complex control
functions by sketches may become too difficult to draw. A symbol specifies only the
function of the valve \\ithout indicating the design principle. A symbol also indicates the
method of actuation and designation of ports of the concerned valve. Pneumatic symbols
have been standardized and described in the recently updated ISO 1219-1:2006 (Fluid
power systems and components - Graphic S}mbols and circuit diagrams - Part 1:
Graphic symbols for conventional use and data-processing applications). This standard
is a set of basic shapes for the construction of fluid power S}mbols. It lays down rules for
de,ising fluid power 5ymbols for use on components and in circuit diagrams. This
standard replaces ISO 1219-1:1991. Another standard ISO 1219-2:1995 establishes the
rules for dra,ving diagrams of fluid power systems using symbols from ISO 1219-1. Port
designations are described in ISO 5599. The symbol structure of a directional control
valve is given in Figyre 5-1.
Swt1Chi~ POSitions are Shown by $(l.1taies Working ports S~\11bo!s fer 'val·.•c aauationsare shown al
and are drawn adjacenl lo each other. I.he left-hand side or righi·hand side only.
Line with arrow represenlsdirection of ~ 4 / 2

now. Shut-off posrlion is sht1Nn b;· T. I"----- -..
T ,)"' TYi
Normal pos11ionis 1rie sv.i:crimgposi1ion

V s -~ 1· ~ ~
The htes drawn en the ouiside of the
square'" the ~rma1or ini1ia1pesilion
when the val'/e is nol a,.uated.
Pressure port
/\ represent the ports.
Exhal/St ports
Figure 5-1 s-,1Jlbol structure of a directional control (DC) ,.J,,e.
5;5 Po rt Markings
As per the current practice, ports are designated using a number system in accordance
"ith ISO 5599. Earlier, a letter system was used to designate the ports. Both systems of
port marking are presented in Table 5-1. To avoid faulty connections, all the inputs and
outputs of a DC valve must be identified.
5:;§ Ports and Positions

Dire<)tional control valves are described by the number of port connections or 'ways'
they control, for example: two-way, three-way and four-way valves. A two-way valve is a
simple on-off valve used to control air supply through the pressure port and the working
port of the valve. A three-way valve controls air supply through the pressure port, the
working port and the exhaust port of the valve. Directional control valves are also
described by the number of S\\itching positions they have. 1\vo-position and three-
position valves are the most commonly used in pneumatic systems.
Table 5-1 Port markings of directional control valves

p...,
Pr~...:..:tirt· p1;n
Ull~r sy1l,i11
p
N••"" ''""" c--~-,
.Supply pore
\X1ork,in;.: p,irt A 2 $/ l nc , •,1lv<,•
\'?orkinJ,.: pou:- .~ . B •i. 2 i /1 or 5/ 2 tX : v,1lw
Exh:,w;i pm: ~ _; $/ J DC v,1h'<:
Exh.iu:-t poni- R. S 5 ..l ~/i DC , •:1h•<·
Pil(,! pmc 7. rn· y 11 1>ilot lin<: (llow I - > .?)
1',k,t ,,.,,tc z I•i Pilot Ii111: Ulow I - >,i>
Pil(,1 pm< 7. o r'( 10 f>ilot lin~· (fiow dos<:d )
luh•m:d p il(lf p,x-1, I':,;, P~· 1' I , 9 1 Am:ili.1ry p ilur .~ir
A directional control (DC) valve is generally specified as a 'port/position valve',

where 'port' is the number of ports and 'position' is the number of s" ; tching positions of
the valve. Thus a 3/ 2 valve has 3 ports and 2 S\\; tching positions. In the case of valves
" ;th two S\\;tching positions, right-hand square usually represents the normal position,
and left-hand square represents the actuated position (figu~). The lines for
pressure, working and exhaust ports are drawn attached to the square that represents
the normal (initial) position.
In the case of a directional control valve controlling a cylinder, the valve port size
should match that of the cylinder. The most important threads used in pneumatic valves
are: (1) !\fetric thread (!If), (2) British Standard Pipe thread (BSP z G), (3) National Pipe
Thread (NPT), and (4) Unified Fine thread (UNF).
Actuated position Normal position
2
212-<!,rectional control valve
312-<ltrectional control valve {normally closed)
2
312-<lirectional control valve {normally open)
1 3
4 2
412-<lirectional control valve
1 3
4 2
512-<lirectional control valve
5 3
513-<lirectional control valve {mid position closed)
5 1 3
Figure 5-2 Grapbics-,lllbols for directional oontrol valves,
5:j Graphic Symbols for DC Valves
Graphic symbols serve as an aid in functional identification of components in circuit
diagrams of fluid power systems. They can also be employed on hardware for the same
purpose. A close look at the valve representation given in Figure 5-2 "ill make the idea
more clear. A large number of the commonly used symbols of pneumatic components
are listed in Appendix 1.
5~ Methods of DC Valve Actuation

An important feature of directional control valves, which merits attention, is the method
of their actuation. These valves can be actuated in four ways: manually, mechanically,
pneumatically, and electrically. Their actuation method may also be an appropriate
combination of the just listed four basic methods. \\'hen the controlling spool of a valve
is held in one extreme position by the force of its resetting spring, the spool is said to be
'spring offset', and when the spool is held in the centre position by the spring, it is said to
be 'spring-centred'. Symbols for methods of valve actuation are presented in Figure 5=3
and Appendix 1.
5.q 3/2-Directional Control Valves

A 3/ 2-directional control (DC) valve has three controlled connections and two S\\itching
positions. This valve can be built " ith a ball poppet or disc poppet or spool ty-pe design,
and "ith or "ithout an internal pilot valve. There are two versions of 3/ 2-DC valves,
classified according to the way the pressure port is maintained in the normal position.
The two versions are: normally closed (NC) type and normally open (NO) ty-pe. In the
NC 3/2-DC valve, the pressure port is blocked in the normal position. But in the ::-,o
ty-pe, the pressure port is open to the working port in the normal position. The 3/ 2-way
valves can be used to control single-acting cylinders and other valves. In most designs, a
3/2-DC valve can be adapted for use either as NO type or as NC t}'Pe. The terms NO and
NC contacts are also used in electrical circuits where they denote entirely different
functions. For instance, an NO contact in an electrical circuit is a contact that is open
when not actuat ed, thus inhibiting the energy flow. You should not get confused with
such difference in representations. Refer to Appendix 6 for a comparative study of NO
and NC valves/contacts in pneumatic and electrical circuits.
NC-type 3/2-DC Valves

In NCetype 3/2-DC valves, the pressure port (1) is closed and the working port (2) is
open to the exhaust port (3) in the normal position. These valves are designed with ball
poppet, disc poppet, sliding spool, etc., as the internal control elements. Accordingly,
they are called as ball poppet valves, disc poppet valves, spool valves, etc., respectively.
These valves are e:q>lained in the follo,,ing sub-sections.
Ball Poppet Valve

The cross-sectional views of a plunger-operated 3/2-DC valve l\ith ball poppet design in
the normal position as well as the actuated position are shown in Figure 5:..4. These
cross-sectional \iews are presented only to highlight the functional requirements of the
valve rather than show its exhaustive constructional features.
In a ball poppet valve as shol\n in Figure 5:..4, a ball in conjunction l\ith a simple
valve seat is used to control the flow. The operation of the valve is explained "ith the
help of nvo ,iews of the valve in the normal and actuated positions. In the normal
position, a spring forces the ball against the valve seat \\ith the result that the working
port (2) is closed (blocked) to the pressure port (1) and is open to the exhaust port (3).
Actuation of the valve plunger against the reset spring and the force due to the
compressed air causes the ball to be forced away from the valve seat. In the actuated
position, the working port (2) is open to the pressure port (1) and closed to the exhaust
port (3). The ball poppet valve is a very compact de,i ce "ith the possibility of fitting
various types of actuating heads. Thus, the valve can be made to actuate manually,
pneumatically, or electrically. The limitation for a directly actuated valve is the large
force required to operate the stem.
M3nuJI Meehan.Cal
General
F[ S;irr.o; te:urn ] N\
Pv;llb.Jlton
9= S;mng cer'.ered
✓\ov,
le\'er
~
Oetent re,•er
~
Rei/er OtefJ!OO
4=
Foot 1,.-e<!a!
FC klle·teh..c'.O roi:er
0'~
Pneumatic
Prieu:nai,:, Clrect
···l>··[
Priou·1t.a~. in(j·c,:;t (er intemal p101j
{>--~
Elc,cltiUI
Sir.g' e so'enold
lZ[
~
D-'.A..tl:C $0lerorJ
Combinec:I
D:ub:e soleno.d intema1p!~ w,tn rnanu,;; c·1e.'00e

~ ~
Figure 5-3 Methods of DC vah'e actuation.
~D.:
. ... .. 2
.:: ..:
('
-------<
...
• .
•
: : >---~ - - -· 'i - - - - ~
.... ..
... ..
'
. ;.
· -'-------1
~ c:::::>
----I A(2)
A(2)
P(1)
=
P(1)
(a} Normal position (b) Actuated position

l1gure 5-4 3/ 2-DC ,oh'eS (NC}- ball poppet type.
Disc Poppet Valve (lYith Internal Pilot)

The operation of a 3/2-DC valve "ith a disc poppet design is similar to a valve with ball
poppet design just explained. The only difference between the nvo is that a disc is used
as a poppet in the former to open or block valve connections. Apart from this difference,
a pilot valve may also be incorporated within the main poppet valve "ith a connection to
the pressure port via a small hole. VVhen the valve is actuated, the pilot valve opens
causing the compressed air to flow to a diaphragm. The larger force developed by the
compressed air, acting on the diaphragm, moves the valve disc downward through a
plunger, thus actuating the main valve. The major advantage of pilot operation is that
the necessary actuating force can be reduced. The cross-sectional views of a 3/2-DC
valve (NC) based on disc poppet design \\ith internal pilot, in the normal position as well
as the actuated position, are shown in Figure 5:5•
3 3
(a) Nounal p0s1tton (b) Aclualed p,s11100

Fignre 5-5 3/ 2-DC vah'eS (NC) - dL<c poppet ,ah-. "ith internal pilot.
2 2
n_
I
(
- -- . . \...J,=,e---j
rL
3 1 3 1
(a) Normal position (b) Aclvate<J position
Fignre 5-6 3j2 DC ,alves (::-1C) - spool type,
Spool Valve
The cross-sectional views of a 3/ 2-DC valve (NC) based on the spool design, in the
normal position as well as the actuat ed position, are depicted in the self-explanatory
Figure 5-6.
NO-type 3/2-DC Valves

In an NO-type 3/ 2-DC valve, the power supply port (1) is open in the normal position.
The cross-sectional views of a 3/ 2-DC valve (NO) based on the spool design, in the
normal position as well as the actuat ed position, are depicted in Figure 5=7-.
Example 5.1: Direct control of a single-acting cylinder

Control task: .4 single-acting cylinder of small piston diameter is to clamp a
omponent when a push-button is pressed. As long as the push-button is pressed, the
ylinder is to remain in the clamped position. If the push-button is released, the
ylinder is to retract. Develop a pneumatic control circuit to implement the above
equirements using a sf2-DC valve.
olution
neurnatic circuit: Here is the first circuit for you! In fact, two positions of the
neumatic circuit for the control task, in the normal and actuated positions of the
ingle-acting cylinder, are shown in Figy;e 5-8.
F
(a) Normal position (bl Actuated position

Fignre 5-7 3/ 2 DC vah -.s (NO) type.
IVPvII11VJ!i
►
F
1 1 3
(a) Initial position (b) Actuated position
Figure s-8 Two positions of the circuit for the direct control ofsingle-acting ciiinder (ExamP.le 5,1).
The cylinder can be controlled by using a manually actuated 3/2-DC valve (NC
•'Pe). The self-explanatory circuits in the normal and actuated positions of the single-
cting cylinder are shown in Figures 5-8(9). and .(!)). respectively. In Figure 5-8~)., the
ow placed alongside the valve indicates the application of a force (F).
5.10 Non-Return Valves

Non-return valves (NRVs) are devices which preferentially stop the air flow in one
direction and permit it in the opposite direction. The basic ::-IRV is a check valve. There
are also other derivatives of the basic ::-IRV. The check valve can be found as an element
in the follO\,ing valves:
1. One-way flo"'· control valve

2. Shuttle valve
3. T,vo-pressure valve
4. Quick-exhaust valve
C ,,/ --_ ___
lb) Frow rs b~ocked
Figure 5·9 Check ,,,Ive,
5.1:1 Check Valve

A check valve permits the air flow in one direction but stops it completely in the opposite
direction. A check valve basically consists of a valve body and a movable part like a cone
or ball or plate or diaphragm. The movable part is biased by a spring force.
\\'hen the system pressure at the check valve inlet is high enough to overcome the
low spring pressure, the poppet is pushed off its seat allowing air to flow freely through
the valve. \\'hen the compressed air enters through the outlet, the poppet is pushed onto
its seat and hence flow through the valve is blocked instantaneously. A check valve is
often used as a bypass valve. The control action of a check valve in both directions of air
flow and its graphic symbol are shown in Figure 5-9.
5;12 Flo,,,-Control Valve

In any pneumatic application, it is the flow that controls the speed. Flow-control valves
are used in pneumatic circuits to control the rate of flow of the compressed air from one
part of the circuit to another. Their function is to regulate the amount of the compressed
air passing through a valve by means of a metering orifice. The throttle valve is an
example of flow-control valve. This valve is used to control the speed of pneumatic
cylinders in both directions of motion. A one-way flow-control valve is used to control
the speed of pneumatic cylinders in one direction of motion only. These valves are
further explained in the follo\\ing sections.
Accurate flow control under conditions of changing load is difficult to achieve ,vith a
pneumatic circuit. Pneumatic flow controls can successfully be used in applications only
when the load does not vary excessively.
5;13 Throttle Valve

A throttle valve consists of an orifice whose cross-section can be controlled by an
externally adjustable needle. The air flo,ving through the controlled cross-section can be
regulated by the pointed needle. The throttle valve is also called restriction valve or
needle valve. The cross-sectional ,iew of a throttle valve and its graphic 5ymbol are
given in Figure 5 - 10.
II I I I I 11 II
lI I I I I
'"
Cross-section
Figure 5-10 Throttle ,ah-..
5;1~ One-Way Flow-Control ,Talve

A one-way flow-control valve is also called as throttle-relief valve or throttle-check valve.
This valve is simply a parallel arrangement of a throttle valve and a check valve. The
check valve blocks the flow of air in one direction forcing the air to flow through the
controlled cross-section. Hence the air is throttled in that direction. In the opposite
direction, the air flows freely through the opened check valve. The cross-sectional view
of a one-way flow-control valve and its graphic symbol are given in Figure 5-11.
Example 5.2: Speed control of a single-acting cylinder

Control task: .4 single-acting cylinder of a small bore is to push and clamp
ightweight work-pieces in a feed magazine when a push-button is pressed. The
orward motion of the piston must be slow. The piston is to retract with normal speed
•hen the push-button is released. Develop a pneumatic control circuit to implement
the above requirements using a throttle valve.•4.lso designate the ports. The schematic
iagramfor the control task is given in Figure 5 -12.
(a) Flow lhro1.:9h throlt!evatve (b) Flow lhrougn check ·1al••e

Figure 5-11 One-way flow-c.ontrol ,:alve,
· "-·hcmati<.· dia~ram:
•
Fi.gore 5-1:.:. Schematic arrangement for the clamping of work-pieces as stated in f ,'!ample 5.2.
olution
neumatic circuit: Two positions of the pneumatic circuit for the control task in
Example 5.2~ in the normal and actuated positions of the single-acting cylinder are
hown in Figl!re 5-13.
Let us see what happens when the push-button is pressed as stated in Exam~5,_g.
shown in Figure 5-13.CQ)., when the 3/ 2-DC push-button valve is actuated, port 2 is
onnected to port 1 allo"ing the air to flow through the valve. The compressed air then
ows to the cylinder through a throttle valve, thus controlling the speed of the cylinder
uring the forward motion in accordance "ith the setting of the throttle valve.
\\'hen the push-button is released, the air is exhausted through the bypass check
•alve and the cylinder retracts ivith the normal speed [Figure 5=13.(;!).]. It may be noted
at to get the speed control during the return motion of the cylinder, the connection to
e throttle valve, made earlier, may be reversed. You may try draiving the circuit for
· control.
I.. IVHI~
..'
Air flows through check valve tif~I t 1. Air flows through throttle valve
.'

Figure 5-131\,u positions of the circuit for the speed oontrol of single-acting c;iinder (F,xample Se!),
2 2
12
- I
r,
>-
I
1 I I I
3 3
i~) No1mal Jl(IS1:ron (b)Acluated ;m.!ion
Figure 5-14 Pneumatically actuated3/ 2-DC valve.
In a pneumatic system, as cylinder load varies, air expands or compresses.

Consequently, it is impossible to achieve a constant piston rod velocity "ithin
reasonable limits >vith an ordinary flow-control valve. For this reason, pneumatic
cylinders are seldom used in applications where uniform speed must be achieved.
545 Pneumatically Actuated 3/2-

DC Valve
The cross-sectional ,iews of a pneumatically actuated ::-.c type 3/2-DC valve in normal
position and actuated positions are depict ed in Figyre 5-g .
In the normal position, the working port (2) is closed to the pressure port (1) and
open to the exhaust port (3). \\'hen the compressed air is applied through the pilot port
(12), the spool is moved against the reset spring. In the actuated position, the working
port (2) is open to the pressure port (1) and closed to the exhaust port (3). Thus, the
application of the compressed air to port 12 causes the pressure port (1) to be connected
to the working port (2).
Pneumatically actuated or pilot-operated air control systems are preferred in pure
pneumatic automated systems. This is due to their great flexibility for use in simple as
well as complex control systems and their adaptability for use in safety circuits. Various
control functions can be easily incorporated as and when required, and feedback signals
from sensors can be applied conveniently for the purpose of controlling the pilot ports of
these main valves. This means existing pneumatically actuated control circuits can be
modified easily to incorporate any additional control requirements.
Example 5.3: Indirect control of a single-acting

cylinder
Control task: To clamp a work-piece, a single-acting cylinder having large piston
iameter is used (E.igure 5:15). Upon operation of a 3/2-DC push-button valve from a
emote position, the cylinder is to e:ctend, and when the push-button is released, the
equirements.
neurnatic circuit: The two positions of the pneumatic circuit for the control task, in
e normal and actuated positions of the single-acting cylinder, are sho\\n in Figure
-16.
chernaric diagrarn: Work-piece
i
Figure 5-15 .'UTallgement for the cl.amping of work-piece as stated in ExamP.le 5:3•
In the control circuit shown in Figyre 5-16, the single-acting cylinder is controlled
y a pneumatically actuated 3/2-DC main valve which is in turn controlled by a
anually actuated 3/2-DC control valve. Initially, the cylinder is in the retracted
osition. In the normal position [Figure 5-16 (a)], the compressed air is blocked in the
ain and control valves. 'When the control valve is pressed, port 2 of the valve is open to
ort 1 and hence signal passes through the valve and actuates the main valve as sho"n
· Figure 5-16(\ll. Port 2 of the main valve is then open to port 1 and the compressed air
ows to the cylinder making it to e:-.1:end. Upon release of the push-button, both the
·alves return to their respective normal positions through reset springs, and the
ompressed air in the cylinder is exhausted through port 3 of the main valve, making
e cylinder to retract.
5.1§ Control of a Rodless Cylinder

The operation of a rodless cylinder was explained in Chapter ii· For the accurate
positioning of the carriage and to prevent the carriage from creeping, the circuit for the
rodless cylinder uses check valves. The circuit for the carriage positioning control is
given in Figure 5-1::z.
II
2 2
12 12
.. ----►
1 3
' 2
:2
'
F

Figure 5-16 Two positions of the circuit for the indirect oontrol of a single-acting C)fuider (E.'!aml!!t.5,3),
As seen in Figure 5-1z, air is directed to both sides of the rodless cylinder through
the 3/2-DC (normally open) valves to keep the piston stationary benveen nvo cushions
of air. The piston can be made to move in either direction by releasing the air from that
side. For instance, if the 'Right' push-button is pressed, the compressed air from the
right side of the rodless cylinder is exhausted, and the piston then moves in the right
direction. As the push-button is released, the compressed air again enters the cylinder
and stops the piston. Similarly, when the 'Left' push-button is pressed, the rodless
cylinder moves in the left direction.
Carriage ~..r::1 ::::::-11 Rodless cylinder
2 2
,. --- ,-----
''
2 2
Left Right
Figure 5-17 Circuit for the rodle.(S cylindefs carriage positioning control.
5;1jManually Actuated 4/2-DC

Poppet Valve
A 4/2-DC valve has four ports and two switching positions. This valve can be used as a
final control element to control double-acting cylinders. The cross-sectional ,iews of a
manually-actuated 4/2-DC valve "ith disc poppet design in the normal and actuated
positions are shown in Figure 5-18. In the normal position, paths from port 1 to port 2
and from port 4 to port 3 are open. \\o'hen the valve is actuated, paths from port 1 to port
4 and from port 2 to port 3 are open.
5.18 Manually Actuated 5/2-DC
Valve
A 5/2-DC valve has five ports and two S\\itching positions. This valve is used to control
double-acting cylinders. The cross-sectional views of a manually actuated 5/2-DC valve
in the normal and actuated positions are shown in Figyre 5=19.
In the normal position of the manually actuated 5/2-DC valve, paths from port 1 to
port 2 and from port 4 to port 5 are open, and the exhaust port 3 is closed. \','hen the
valve is actuated, paths from port 1 to port 4 and from port 2 to port 3 are open, and the
exhaust port 5 is closed.
The normal design of a spool-type directional control valve lends itself readily to a
five-port arrangement, which includes two working ports, two exhaust ports and one
pressure port. This may be used to eliminate check valves when they might othen,ise be
necessary, as in direction-sensitive speed control applications. Can you find any
functional difference between the 4/ 2-DC valve and the 5/2-DC valve? An analysis of the
functioning of a 4/2-DC valve and a 5/2-DC valve would reveal that functionally there is
no difference between these valves.
4 2
... I
:, •
4 4
(a) Normal po~tion (bl Actuated position

Figure 5-18 Manually actuated 4j 2-DC poppet ,,,Ive,
Example 5.4: Direct control of a double-acting cylinder

Control task: .4 double-acting cylinder of small bore is to e,ttend and clamp a work-
iece when a push-button valve is pressed. •4s long as the push-button is actuated, the
ylinder is to remain in the clamped position. If the push-button is released, the
equirements.
5 I 3
2 4 2 4
J L L
-
~
7
F
' ' '' '

3 I 5 3 1 5
(a) No,n,al Position (b) A<:tva:e~po~tion
Figure 5-19 ~Ianually actuated5/ 2-DC ,ah-e.
►
I
'
''
''
'
.''
---------'
4: 2
-
' ~ 2
QJ T
5 ✓
~
,V 3
F ►
1 1

Ilgure s-~o Two positions of the circuit for the direct control of a double-acting C)iinder (F.,;amP.le 5c4l-
olution
he double-acting cylinder can be controlled by using a manually actuated 5/2 (or 4/2)-
DC valve. The cross-sectional views of the circuit in the normal and actuated positions
e shown in Figure 5-20. It may be noted that as long as the valve is actuated, the
iston "ill stay out.
Pneumatic circuit: The two positions of the pneumatic circuit for the control
ask, in the normal and actuated positions of the double-acting cylinder, are shown in
Figure 5-20.
5.19 Pneumatically Actuated 5/ 2-

DC Valve
The functioning of this valve is similar to the manually actuated 5/2-DC valve (Figure
5=19) except the method of actuation. Here a pilot port 14 is readily available to apply the
compressed air and to actuate the valve pneumatically. In the normal position, paths
from port 1 to port 2 and from port 4 to port 5 are open and the exhaust port 3 is closed.
In the actuated position, paths from port 1 to port 4 and from port 2 to port 3 are open
and the exhaust port 5 is closed. Port designation 14 indicates that the application of air
to this port connects port 1 to port 4.
Example 5.5: Indirect control of a double-acting

cylinder
Control task: A double-acting cylinder is to extend and clamp a work-piece when a
ush-button valve is pressed. The cylinder is to retract when the push-button is
eleased. The schematic arrangement of the control task is given in Figure 5 -21. The
ylinder is of a large bore requiring a large flow rate to operate at the correct speed.
evelop a pneumatic control circuit.
Solution
Pneumatic circuit: The two positions of the pneumatic circuit for the control task, in the
normal and actuated positions of the double-acting cylinder, are shown in Figure 5 - 22.
• I>
• ~ -
>-
I. .ci r~ -
Figure 5-~1-~ e-ment for the clamping of work-piece as stated in ExamP.le 5:5.
The cross-sectional views of the circuit in the normal and actuated positions are
shown in the self-explanatory Figure 5-22. Also compare this circuit with the circuit for
the indirect control of a single-acting cylinder given in Exam~5,3.
5:29 Speed Control of a Double-

Acting Cylinder
The compressed air is a fast working medium for both linear and rotary motions.
Operating speeds of normal cylinders range up to 1.5 m/s. The operating speed of a
pneumatic actuator is determined by how quickly it can be filled "ith air from one side
through one port (inlet) and exhausted of air at the other side through the other port
(outlet). The maximum natural speed of a double-acting cylinder is governed by a
number of factors. Among these, the most important factors, which relate to cylinders,
valves, and air supply, are enumerated below:
1. Cylinders - dimensions, port size, load, m ounting position, and

cushioning.
2. Valves - sl\itching time and nominal flo'\\' rate.
3. Air supply - tube diameter, tub e length, fittings, and pressure.
It is possible to increase or decrease the speed of an actuator from its normal
maximum speed. Slow motion of the actuator can be realized by installing flow-control
valves. Rapid motion of the actuator can be realized by installing quick-exhaust valves .
..
.________ ..,
•
4 :• 2 4 2
14
2 1 2

Figure 5-:,:, 1\,u positions of the circuit for the indirect control ofa double-acting C)under (Example 5,5).
To adjust the speed of a pneumatic actuator as per requirement, we have to control

the rate at which the compressed air is allowed in or taken off from the actuator. This
can be achieved by using flow-control valves (throttle valves) installed between the
actuator and the main valve. Speed control is often required to be direction-sensitive,
and this necessitates the inclusion of a check valve in parallel "ith the throttle valve. As
explained in Section 5-1&1, this parallel arrangement of check valve and throttle valve is
kno\\n as throttle-relief valve or throttle-check valve. A throttle-relief valve permits full
flow of air in one direction of motion and reduced flow of air in the other direction of
motion. Similar results can be achieved \\ith the use of two throttle valves at the exhaust
ports of a five-port main valve. The throttle-relief valves can be installed for the speed
control of a double-acting cylinder in either of the following nvo ways:
1. Supply-air throttling
2. Exhaust-air throttling
Supply-air Throttling
This method of speed control of double-acting cylinders is also called meter-in. _'\s seen
in Figure 5-22 (Exam~5,5), during the forward motion of a double-acting cylinder, the
supply-air passes through one of the nvo power lines connected to the cylinder, and the
exhaust-air passes through the other line. It is left as an exercise for the reader to find
the supply-air and exhaust-air lines "ith respect to Figure 5-22 during the return
motion? In supply-air throttling, throttle-relief valves are installed benveen the cylinder
and the main valve in such a way that the air entering the cylinder (supply-air) is
throttled in each direction of motion of the cylinder. The exhaust air can pass freely
through the corresponding check valve in each case.
In the case of supply-air throttling, slight fluctuations in the load on the cylinder
piston rod lead to very large irregularities in the feed speed. For example, this happens
while the piston rod is passing a limit s"itch. Therefore, supply-air throttling is used
only for the speed control of single-acting cylinders and small-volume cylinders.
Exhaust-air Throttling
This method of speed control of double-acting cylinders is also called meter-out. In
exhaust-air throttling, throttle-relief valves are installed benveen the cylinder and the
main valve in such a way that the exhaust air leaving the cylinder is throttled in both
directions of motion of the cylinder. The supply air can pass freely through the
corresponding check valves in each case.
In this case, the piston is loaded benveen n,o cushions of air while the cylinder is in
motion and hence a smooth motion of the cylinder can be obtained. The first cushion
effect is due to the supply-air entering the cylinder through the check valve, and the
second cushion effect is due to the exhaust-air leaving the cylinder through the throttle
valve at a slower rate. Therefore, exhaust-air throttling is practically used for the speed
control of double-acting cylinders. The circuit for controlling the speed of a double-
acting cylinder using exhaust-air throttling is given in Figure 5-25 related to E.xamRle
5.6.
Pressure-Speed Graph
The beha,iour of pressure and speed during the forward stroke of a typical cushioned
cylinder fitted \\ith throttle-relief valves for exhaust air throttling is depicted in Figure
~3· The relevant circuit diagram for the control of the cylinder is also shown alongside.
P1 is the pressure driving the piston forward " ith a velocity v and P 2 is the backpressure
on the annular side of the piston. !!J> is the differential pressure to maintain the velocity
against the applied load and friction.
P. bar v, nits
8 P, 08
6 ' AP 0.6
•
4 0.4
/
Ve!ooty, v
2 \_ 02
0 .L-~,"----------------'=;--___.,
•• • 0
f..~ 1ion ~ ms Mohan Ntds

Valve swi!cheo
Figure 5-23 Pre.<sUre-speed graph.
Example 5.6: Speed control of a double-acting cylinder

Control task: .4 simple arrangement to cut pipes using a double-acting cylinder with
large bore is shown in Figure 5-24.. The double-acting cylinder is used to drive the
utter wheels towards the centre of a pipe to cut and separate it. The feed speed is
ontrolled by the exhaust-air throttling. The pipe is pushed through a chuck up to a
topper. Develop a control circuit to implement the above requirements.
neumatic circuit: The two positions of the pneumatic circuit for the control task, in
e normal and actuated positions of the double-acting cylinder, are sho\\'11 in Figure
· t:hcm :tt ic.: dia.~ ram:
Cultet Stopper
Sp,n
. die dnve
.
>- -
Pipe >- -
Figure 5-24 .-vrangement for the rutting of pipe using a double-acting cyunder as stated in El<amP.!e 5.6.
I
- : I
-- 11 ":
onlrols lhe speed ol
'
11
1ft]
[ft]. t
"
Conlrols lhe speed of
relurn mo1ion c:::::>
I· li·
.. .. . . . . .. ..
4:
"
2 4 :2
¢:::, relurn molion
" "
14 14
"
:2 1 2 1
"
F-+-
(a) Initial position (b) Actualed position

Figure 5-2,; Two positions of the cilcuit for the speed control ofa double-acting citinder (ENamP.!e 5.6).
The throttle-relief valve, connected to port 2 of the final control element, controls
e speed of forward motion, and the throttle-relief valve, connected t o port 4 of the
nal control element, controls the speed of return motion. You may examine the role of
ese throttle-relief valves when used for supply-air throttling.
5.211 5/2-DC Double-Pilot Valve

The cross-sectional ,iews of a 5/ 2-DC double-pilot valve in two possible positions are
depicted in Figure 5-26. A pneumatic signal at pilot port 14 causes the spool to s"itch
over as sho\\n in Figure 5-26(!:!}. In this position, paths from 1 to 4 and from 2 to 3 are
open, and exhaust port 5 is closed. The valve remains in that position even if the signal
at port 14 is removed. If a signal is applied at pilot port 12, the spool switches over as
shown in Figyre 5-26(3,}. In this position, paths from 1 to 2 and from 4 to 5 are open, and
exhaust port 3 is blocked. The valve remains in this position even if the signal at port 12
is remo\'ed. Hence, it can be observed that a double-pilot valve is a two-position valve
that remains in one position until a pulse or continuous signal is applied in the opposite
direction. However, this valve is beset with the problem of 'signal conflict' which is
explained in the next section. The basis of application for this valve is also presented.
-~ -
4 2
14 IT7itti 12
5 3
1
2 4 2 4
' ' ' '
-
.J L _J L
14 - 12 14 12
' ' ' '

3 5 3 1 5
(a) Signal applied lo port 12 (b) Signal applied to port 14
Figure 5-~6 5j 2-DCdouble-pilot valve.
Signal Conflict
A major problem "ith the memory valve is its inability to change the s" itching position
when pilot signals appear simultaneously at both pilot ports of the valve. These signals
produce equal and opposite forces on the valve spool and hence the latter t ends to
remain stationary until one of the signals goes 'off. This problem, called 'signal conflict'
or 'signal O\'erlap', is a major hurdle in multi-cylinder circuits. Various control methods
have been devised to O\'ercome the problem of signal conflicts, and these are e:,.-plained
in Chapter 6.
Application Basis
The double-pilot valves make a very good foundation for the pneumatic circuit design, as
they are equally reactive to short pulses as well as continuous signal. A double-pilot
valve is also called an impulse valve or a memory valve as only an impulse is sufficient to
s"itch the valve over. This valve is then retained in the new position by limiting forces
like friction. 11emory function is found to be an unavoidable part of almost all industrial
pneumatic circuits and hence double-pilot valves find application in circuits involving
this function. Survey a few applications of memory function generally found in your
organisation or home.
Example 5.7: l\iemory control of a double-acting

cylinder
ntrol task The piston of a double-acting cylinder is extended to the final forward
osition when a 3/2-way push-button valve (forward) is actuated. This piston is to
emain in that position until the return stroke is set in motion by a second 3/2-way
ush-button valve (return). The cylinder is to remain in this position until a new start
·gnal is given. The speed of the cylinder is to be adjusted in both directions ofpiston
otion. Develop a control circuit to implement the above requirements using a 5/2-DC
•alve as the main valve.
e normal and actuated positions of the double-acting cylinder, are shown in Figure
-28.
Sch e rnaci c di agra,n:
,..
• • '-= - .....
=
I ' C7 r'
Figure 5-:07 _-\rrangement for the clamping of work-piece as stated in Exampl• 5,7..
I 1~11= '
•........ .
[Et it '
'
'
F- F-
3 3
(a) Signal from lhe valve ·Return· (b) Signal trom lhe valve ·For.var<!·
Figure 5-28 1\,-o positions of the ciroiit for the memory control of a double-acting ciiinder (ExamP.le 5,7) .
\ \'hen the 3/ 2-way valve meant for the 'forward' motion is pressed, the 5/ 2-way
-alve S\\itches over through the signal applied to its pilot port 14. The piston travels out
d remains in the forward end position as shown in Figyre 5-28(2}. \\'hen the 3/ 2-way
-alve meant for the 'return' motion is pressed, the 5/ 2-way valve s" ;tches back to the
· itial position through the signal applied to its pilot port 12. The piston then returns to
·cs initial position and remains in the rear end position as shown in Figure 5-28(1!).,
This circuit [figyre 5-28(~). or (b)] is called a memory circuit as the 5/ 2-way
ouble-pilot valve can 'remember' the last signal applied in terms of the position of the
pool in the absence of reset springs, thus memorising or storing the pneumatic signal.
ou may analyse the effect of pressing the push-buttons for the forward and return
otions simultaneously.
5.22 Logic Controls, Pnewnatic

The term 'logic' is defined as the science of formal principles of reasoning. Boolean
algebra is a mathematical system developed by George Boole to solve logic problems.
This system formulated logical statements symbolically so that they could be \\Titten and
proven in an identical way as used in ordinary algebra. This is the algebra of
propositions where only two possibilities are allowed: That is, 'true' or 'false'. Binary
arithmetic uses only two figures, namely, 'o' and '1' for easy representation. For
example, a '1' represents a 'true' or 'ON state' or 'the presence of a signal', and a 'o'
represents a 'false' or 'OFF state' or 'the absence of a signal'.
A logic device is a technical element >vith a certain number of inputs and usually one
output. This device produces a binary output signal depending on the binary input
signals. The terms used to describe various logic elements are designated by names such
as 'OR', 'A..'<D', 'NA1'<D', 'NOR', etc. The rules for various logic functions are standardised
for uniformity.
The OR logic element has two or more inputs and one output. The output is ON if
one or more of the inputs are OK. The output is OFF only if all inputs are OFF. All
combinations of inputs and outputs can be sho\\n in a table called 'truth table'. A two-
input OR element "ith inputs X and Y and output A and its truth table are given in
Figure 5-29.(~)..
X X
>=1 A & A
y y
X y A X y A
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
(a) OR logic (b) AND logic

Figure 5-29 s ,mbols and truth tables for logic controls.
The .'\ND logic element has two or more inputs and one output. The output is ON
only if all the inputs are ON, and the output is OFF if one or more of the inputs are OFF.
A two-input AND element \\ith inputs X and Y, and output A and its truth table are
given in Figure 5-2!l(Q)..
Logic valves for 'OR' operation and 'AND' operation are extensively used in
pneumatics. The pneumatic valves used to implement logic functions are shuttle valves
and nvo-pressure valves.
Shuttle Valve
This valve is the pneumatic OR valve, and it is also called a double check valve. It is one
of the derivatives of the NRV as explained in Section 5 .10. The cross-sectional \iews of a
shuttle valve in two positions are given in Figure 5:32. As shown in the figure, this valve
has two inputs 12 and 14, and one output 2. If the compressed air is applied to the in put
14, the ball seals off the other input 12, and the compressed air flows from input 14 to
output 2 as sho"n in Figm:e 5-30(,!,).. If the compressed air is applied to input 12, the ball
seals off the other input 14, and the compressed air flows from input 12 to output 2 as
shown in Figure 5-3o(!;i).. VVhen input signals are applied to both the inputs 12 and 14,
the signal that is applied first flows to output 2.
12 14 14
(a) Signal a1 14 (bJSignal at 12

Figure 5-30 Shuttle , .ke.
2 2
12 14 12 14
(b) $19na~ al 12 and 14

Figure 5-311\,u-pressure\'ah-e.
Two-pressure Valve
This valve is the pneumatic A..'<D valve. It is also a derivative of the :'<RV. The cross-
sectional views of a two-pressure valve in two positions are given in Figure 5: 31• As
shown in the figure, this valve has two inputs 12 and 14, and one output 2. If the
compressed air is applied to either input 12 [figure 5-31(!!ll or input 14, the spool moves
to block the flow, and no signal appears at output 2. If signals are applied to both the
inputs 12 and 14, the compressed air flows through the valve, and the signal appears at
output 2. It can be seen that when input signals are applied to inputs 12 and 14 one after
another, the signal that is applied last flows to output 2 as shown in Figyre 5-31.(Q)..
Extension ofl•lumber ofInputs, Logic Valves

A pneumatic AND or OR valve is designed "ith only two inputs as standard. To extend
the number of inputs as required in applications, a number of logic valves "ill has-e to be
interconnected. For example, a three-input OR function can be realized by connecting
two OR valves as shown in Fiwe 5:32~).. Similarly a three-input Al'<D function can be
realized by connecting two A..'<D valves as shown in Figyre 5:sg_(lll , It can be seen that
for 'n' inputs, ' (n-1)' valves must be used.
Application ofLogic Valves

Logic problems in pneumatics can be solved successfully by applying the simple
principles of Boolean algebra. As the field of pneumatics is becoming more and more
sophisticated, the use of logic valves, namely shuttle valves or two-pressure valves, is
becoming more and more prevalent.
',
H
',
H
(a) Three-input OR (b) Three-input AND
Figure S-3~ Illustration for the e.,tension of number of inputs for logic vah-.s.
An important area of application of OR valves is the control of a machine from

different locations. If a cylinder or a valve is to be controlled from one or more of the
several positions, shuttle valve must be used.
In machine controls, a device designed to disable a machine in the event of an
unsafe condition, such as an open access panel/ safety panel or an operator has left
his/ her workplace or a person has strayed into an unsafe area, is kno\\n as an interlock.
An area of application for AND valves is the pro,ision of interlocks " ·here several valves
must be operated simultaneously before an action can start. Another application of A1"\TD
valves is a machine that has two guards both of whom must be in place before the
machine operation can commence. You may observe how these logic functions are
applied in a lift operation in a multi-storey building.
Example 5.8: Control of a double-acting cylinder ,\ith

OR logic
Control task: A large-bore double-acting cylinder is to extend and punch a work-
iece when either a push-button valve or afoot-pedal valve is pressed. The cylinder is
to retract when a second push-button is pressed. Develop a pneumatic control circuit
to implement the given control task.
neumatic circuit: The two positions of the circuit for the control task, "ith signal
· put from a push-button valve alone and signal input from a foot-pedal valve alone, are
hown in Figl!re 5=33·
The double-acting cylinder extends due to the application of a signal either from the
ush-button valve or from the foot-pedal valve. This is illustrated in self-explanatory
Figures 5=33.(a). and .(Q)..
Example 5.9: Control of a double-acting cylinder \\ith

AND logic
Control task: A large-bore double-acting cylinder is to €).tend and clamp a work-
iece when two push-button valves are pressed simultaneously. For safety reasons,
these push-button valves are installed in such a way that both valves cannot be
perated with one hand, implying that both hands must be used to operate these two
•alves. The cylinder is to retract when any one or both push-buttons are released.
evelop a pneumatic control circuit to implement the control task.
Ul
- 11 :
4 '. 2
"· r,.nm;J.•?........ ·,
,vg;- :
1 :
lb) Sig;ia 'rom focl•pe6a1
Figure 5-33 Two critical positions of the circuit for the OR oontrol of a double-acting c-,iinder ~pie 5,ID.
olution
he requirement of the given control task is the well-known 'two-hand safety operation,.
his means that an operator can operate the machine for clamping the work-piece only
y pressing the two push-buttons simultaneously and he has to use both his hands to do
· . The explanation of the two-hand safety control is given in Chapter z.
Pneumatic circuit: The nvo positions of the pneumatic circuit for the control
ask, \\ith signal input from only one push-button and signal input from n,·o push-
uttons, are shown in Figure 5: 3<1·
The double-acting cylinder does not extend when only one push-button valve is
ressed [figure 5-3..4.(91]. This cylinder extends when both push-button valves are
ressed simultaneously as sho\\n in Fi~ 5=3<1 (b).
Note: An AND function can also be realized through the tandem connection of
signal valves as shm,n in Figure 5-35. This method of connection is economical because
of fewer number of valves used. However, its disadvantage is that the signal from Y valve
alone cannot be used "ith other signal combinations as this signal is 'AND-ed' ,vith the
signal from X valve.
5•~ Stnicture of Pneumatic

Circuits
The standard structure of a pneumatic circuit is e,ident in Figure 5:32. The signal flow
is represented from the bottom to the top as a convention. The power supply is shown at
the bottom of the circuit. The control part is divided into signal input elements and
signal processing elements. Signal input elements consist of push-buttons and sensors,
which are used to input signals to the pneumatic circuit. Signal processing elements
consist of logic valves, pressure control valves, etc., which are used to process the
received signals. The power part consists of final control elements and actuating devices.
Final control elements generate signal outputs to control the actuating de,ices using the
control signals received from the processing section (or from the input section). Speed
control elements, such as throttle check valves, are connected in between the final
control element and the actuator.
111=1::::::=:
''
1 IJ '
: ~i
...... ... ~
'
;· .... ►~
4:' 2
,4..wm~
4 :' 2
:2 ~ 3 2 5~
1 1
nlH:: 114 .... ..... . . i 12 8 14
'
(a) Signal fromone push-bu!lon (b) Signal from t110 push-buttons

Figure 5-34 1\,-c, critical positions of a circuit for the &'\'D control of a double-actillg c;iinder (ExamP.l• 5,9).
Designation ofPneumatic System Components

To simplify the pneumatic circuit layout "ith sensors and to identify each system
element uniquely for the purpose of installation and maintenance, a method for
designating the components is essential. The individual elements of a pneumatic control
system may be designated by using the numbering system as given in Table 5-2 . The
basic form of the designation is X-Y where X and Y are whole numbers specified
according to the working group and the types of elements of the system. The pneumatic
system components in Figure 5: 32 are designated using this method. Another method of
designating pneumatic system components using a letter system is given in Appendix z,
A
Figure 5-35 Tandem connection of \alves,
Pneumatic actuators
1.1
Final conllol etements
1.6 t
Processing elements
1.2 1.4 1.3
lnpul elements
t
Power supply unils
0.1 0.1 0. 1
Figure 5-36 Structure of a pneumaticcircuil
Representation of Valves Actuated in the Initial Position

The valves, which are actuated in the initial position, must be indicated in the circuit
diagram " ith a trip cam alongside. A 3/ 2-DC roller valve, normally closed type, which is
actuated in the initial position, is dra\\n in the circuit diagram as sho\\n in Figyre 5c3Z·
The actuated S\\itching position must be connected.
Table 5-2 Designation of pneumatic system components

X Y Ex,,mpk
E1Wr}:r ~ll]'plr Y u. I . u.?. 11. \ ... .
\ 'i/m kin.i.: ;-:rc,u1,e,: " Y 0 1w W<;ck i11;: f!Wllf' i'('r :,, lu.lH1f
I. AlH1.1t1•r 0 l .O, 2 .0, U 1, .. .
J. Fm .ii ,0111 rul r ll'lnMu l 1.1 . •,t l, U , .. .
i , V.dn:, mflm·n,111~ tlw L!. i. r.. .. ) L.?. 2. i. lo$• . .
1·.,rv.a rd O\u !10 ll •\•\·rn numb1:ri- 1i.,r Y>
,i. V,,h·1.·:- 1ofht\"ll\ 111,~ tlw n . 5. - . . .. ) l.$ . .!.5.2. I L . ..
(od.l numlx-r-. lrn YI
~- Sp,;<'( I ( '<1mr,1I v:1k t, turw.1r,I m , i1ion X 02 LO."!, J .OJ , .. .
t., Sp,'t«.I \'<)ntrul \\1.h·r . r,: nirn m " tt un X 1.01. 2 UI. .. .
"'
1.2
Figure s-37 Representation oh :alve.s actuated in the initial position.
5:241Automatic Control
There is an ever-increasing demand for the automatic control of industrial production or
process control systems. Pneumatic systems are found to be especially amenable for
automation. Sensors play an important role in the automation of industrial production
or process systems. Therefore, \\ith the increasing popularity of automatic systems, the
study of sensors has become very important for a control engineer.
A sensor is a device for converting a physical variable, such as distance, pressure,
temperature, etc., pertaining to a production or process system into a more convenient
electrical or pneumatic signal. A sensor can detect whether a particular operation or
event in the system has been complete or not, and then it can generate an output signal
to indicat e this detection. This signal can be fed back to the associated system controller
for triggering the start of the next action.
Sensors are operated either by means of a physical contact or "ithout a contact.
Roller valves, limit s"itches, etc. are examples of contact type sensors. )Iagnetic sensors,
optical sensors, etc. are some of the examples of contactless type of sensors. The
actuating head of a simple roller valve is shown in Figyre 5:~. To understand
automation brought about by sensors, a typical example using roller valves is presented
in the following sections. Details of electric/ electronic sensors are given in Chapt er z.
5.25. Roller ,raive

A roller valve consists of a 3/2-DC valve fitted "ith a roller either directly to the end of
the valve plunger or preferably to a lever which operates the plunger. On completion of a
particular machine operation, the actuator or some moving part of the system actuates
the roller valve generating a control signal. The actuating head of a roller valve and its
symbol for actuation are given in Figure 5:38.
Actuating head
(• l
Figure 5-38 Roller valve.
Sch e n, atic d iagra1n:

Fi.gore 5-39 Arrangement for pushing work-piece (E,cample 5.10).
Exainple 5.10: Automatic return motion of a double-

acting cylinder
Control task: .4 double-acting cylinder is to extend and push work-pieces onto a
hute when a push-button is operated. •4fter reaching the forward end position, the
ouble-acting cylinder is to retract automatically, provided the push-button for the
orward motion is no longer actuated. The arrangement for pushing the work-piece is
iven in Figure 5-39. Develop a pneumatic control circuit to implement the control
task.
neumatic circuit: The two positions of the pneumatic circuit for the control task, in
e normal and actuated positions of the double-acting cylinder, are shown in Figure
-42.
I.O - 1.3 ,._1.0 , .3
Ii : I
IEl I
(a) Posi11cn when cylinder is extending (b) Posa11on when cylinder beg:r,s to retract
Figure 5-40 .\utomatic return motion of a double-acting c:,iinder (F.xample 5.10).
To implement the given control task, a 5/2-DC double pilot valve (1.1) is used as the
nal control element. A 3/2-DC push-button valve (1.2) is used to initiate the forward
otion of the cylinder. A roller valve (1.3), mounted on the extended position of the
,linder, is used to obtain the signal for the automatic retraction of the cylinder. 1\vo
ositions of the circuit are presented in Figures 5:..40(11,). and .(Q). for easy analysis. This
•'Pe of control where the presence of an operator is required for the initiation of each
,cle is known as semi-automatic operation.
5.2CJ Quick-Exhaust Valve

v\'e has-e studied in Section 5.12 the idea of lowering the cylinder speed below its normal
speed using a throttle valve. It is also possible to get cylinder speeds above its normal
speed using a quick-exhaust valve. The basic idea here is to exhaust the return air from
the cylinder quickly to the atmosphere by pro,iding large exhaust ports to the valve.
Apart from this, the valve is usually attached directly to the cylinder ports to avoid the
dead volume of air in between the cylinder and the final control element which are the
two elements connected on either side of the quick-exhaust valve. Therefore, the
exhaust-air from the cylinder can be released quickly to the atmosphere, directly
through the quick-exhaust valve \\ithout the need for the air to pass through the usual
long exhaust route through the final control element. But, the quick release of the
compressed air to atmosphere causes a loud noise. Therefore, a quick-exhaust valve is
always coupled to a silencer to reduce the noise. An explanation of silencers is presented
in the follo"ing sub-section.
The cross-sectional ,iews of a quick-exhaust valve and its symbol are given in
Figure 5-4.1. This valve consists of an inlet port 1, an outlet port 2, and a large exhaust
port 3. A poppet lip-seal moves inside the valve when pressure acts on it to block either
the inlet port or the exhaust port.
2
.
.. .... ..
. 3
2 2
D D-
3 1
(a) Flow from 1 to 2 (b) Flow from 2 to 3

Figure 5-41 Quick-exhaust ,.ke.
\Ve "ill consider the follo'Ving two cases for understanding the function of the
quick-exhaust valve usually connected in between a cylinder and the associated final
control element for the rapid motion of the cylinder: (1) when the air flows to the
cylinder from the control valve (from port 1 to port 2 of the quick-exhaust valve) and (2)
when the air exhausts from the cylinder (from port 2 to port 3 of the quick-exhaust
valve).
Case 1 (port 1 to port 2): The air flows from the final control element to the cylinder
past the poppet in the quick-exhaust valve. The exhaust port is sealed by the poppet due
to the compressed air acting on it, permitting the air to flow to the cylinder in the
normal way as shown in Figure 5-41(11,)..
Case 2 (port 2 to port 3): V..,.hen the compressed air is to be exhausted from the
cylinder, the poppet moves away from the exhaust port and seals the inlet port due to air
pressure acting on the poppet as shown in Figure 5:..4.1(!i).. \Vith the poppet released from
the exhaust port, the compressed air in the cylinder rapidly exhausts through the large
exhaust port and a silencer, bypassing the normal exhaust route through the final
control element. Pressure is thus released much more rapidly in the exhaust side,
resulting in the rapid motion of the cylinder.
Let us move on to learn the advantages of using quick-exhaust valves in certain
applications. Rapid motion of the cylinder enables long piston return times to be
reduced, particularly "ith single-acting cylinders. This valve can also be used in impact
applications such as punching or bending.
Silencers
After the compressed air has served its usefulness, it is always released to the
atmosphere. The compressed air makes noise ranging from a 'hiss' to a loud 'bang' when
exhausted rapidly to the atmosphere. Continuous exposure of the loud noise might
cause nervous tension and dissatisfaction among operators. This in turn "ill result in
decreased concentration and efficiency of operators due to mental fatigue, irritation, or
temporary loss of hearing. Loud noise may also block out warning alarms and may cause
accidents. r--Iany countries have enacted pollution control laws specifying the allowable
noise levels for discharging the compressed air. To bring the exhaust blasts within the
allowed noise levels, efficient silencers can be installed. These silencers are quite
effective in significantly reducing the noise of the exhaust air. Another advantage of
silencers is that they can be screwed into the exhaust ports of pneumatic valves and
other pieces of equipment.
Figure 5-42 Silencer.
It is appropriate to study the constructional and functional aspects of a silencer

here. Its cross-sectional view and symbol are given in Figyre 5-42. The essential parts
are of a silencer are: (1) a damping material and (2) a perforated cover. The exhaust air
ent ering the silencer is distributed over a large surface area. The speed of the air is
reduced by making it flow past the sintered particles contained in the labyrinth style in
the damping material. This slower pressure relief causes less noise. The degree of
effectiveness of a silencer depends on the efficiency "ith which the velocity of air is
reduced as this air enters the atmosphere "ithout incurring the penalty of too much
backpressure. The damping material may be made of sintered plastic or sintered metal
(aluminium or steel). Remember. silencers are not intended to throttle the exhaust air.
So, while selecting silencers, care should be taken to ensure that these components do
not creat e unnecessary loss of energy through excessive pressure drops.
' .
Schen1atic cliagr·un· -
11 g I I gti: ~ I
-
I ,- ------- -.
-·
~
Figure 5-43 Bending de\ioe for the control task as stated in FsamP.l• 5.11.
Example 5.11: Rapid motion of a double-acting

cylinder
Control task: The operation of two identical push-button valves causes the advance
otion of a forming tool on a bending device as shown in Fi~ 4 3. For rapid
orward travel, the circuit utilizes a quick-exhaust valve. The forward movement folds
the edge of a flat sheet. If either of the two push-buttons is released, the double acting
ylinder is to return to the initial position. Develop a pneumatic control circuit.
e actuated and normal positions of the double-acting cylinder, are sho\\n in Figure
-4-4.
IU 1. 11=1
... ==:==,
:2 .... ,
., , .. ..
~ ..L..,!Xt:J> ...
....... .
~
~........ .
F- F-
(a) Raprj for.vard stroke (b) Normal return stroke

Figure 5-44 The two positions of the circuit diagram for the rapid forward motion (Exam.RI• 5.11).
5.2~ Time-Delay Valves

In many pneumatic systems, deliberate time delays are required to be introduced
between specific operations. These time delays can be achieved using pneumatic time-
delay valves. A pneumatic time-delay valve is used to generate or cancel an output signal
after a specified interval of time \\ith reference to the application or removal of a pilot
signal.
It has been observed that the combined functions of various control elements can
usually produce a new function. A new component can be designed to achieve this new
function. The new component can be constructed by the combination of individual
elements or manufactured in an integrated configuration to reduce its size and
complexity. An example is the pneumatic time-delay valve which is a combination of a
pneumatically actuated 3/ 2-DC valve, an air reservoir, and a throttle-relief valve. A time
delay is needed between the application or release of a signal to the pilot port of the
valve and its operation. The time-delay function is obtained by controlling the airflow
rate to or from the reservoir by using the throttle valve. Adjustment of the throttle valve
permits fine control of time delay between minimum and maximum times. In one type
of timer, the 3/2-DC valve can be actuated only after building up sufficient pressure in
the air reservoir. In pneumatic time-delay valves, typical time delays in the range 5-30 s
are possible. The time delay can be extended ,dth the addition of external reservoirs.
A time delay in the operation of the 3/2-DC valve can be effected "ith reference to
the application or release of the compressed air as a pilot signal. Accordingly, pneumatic
timers can be classified as
1. On-delay timer
2. Off-delay timer
In the on-delay timer, the 3/2-DC valve is actuated after a delay "ith reference to
the application of the pilot signal and is reset immediately after the release of the pilot
signal. In the off-delay timer, the 3/2-DC valve is actuated immediately on the
application of the pilot signal and is reset only after a delay "ith reference to the release
of the pilot signal.
Pneumatic timers can also be classified according to the type of pneumatically
actuated 3/2-DCvalve as:
1. Time-delay valve, NC-type

2. Time-delay valve, NO-type
One can think of using timers for the automatic control. However, this option is not
generally used. This is because, \\ith the use of timers for getting automatic control, we
cannot ensure whether a particular operation in the control system is complete or not.
'Whereas, "ith the use of sensors for getting automatic control, we can always ensure
that a particular operation is complete before the commencement of the next operation
in the control system.
Time-delay Valve, NC-type
The constructional views of an on-delay timer (NC-type) in the normal and actuated
positions are sho>vn in Figyi:e 5-45. It can be seen from the figure that the 3/2-DC valve
(NC-type) operates in the on-delay mode permanently. But, in some designs, the valve
can be operated in the off-delay mode by connecting the check valve in the reverse
direction. For this purpose, the ports of the throttle-check valve should be brought out.
Time-delay Valve, NO-type

The function of an on-delay timer (NO-type) is similar to that of an on-delay timer (NC-
type) except for the type of 3/2-DC valve used. In the on-delay valve (NO-type), a 3/2-
DC (NO-type) valve is used whereas in the on-delay timer (KC-type), a 3/ 2-DC (NC-
type) valve is used. The symbol of an on-delay timer (NO-type) is sho"n in Figure 5-46.
2
- ----,
12
1 3
12 f---..J 12 1---'
1 1
(a) Normal position (b) Actuated position

Figure 5-45 On-delay timer, NC-type.
Timing Diagram
The timing diagrams and symbols of many derivatives of pneumatic timers are given in
Figure 5-4z for a comparative study.
Example 5.12: Pneumatic circuit "ith time delay

Control task: A double-acting cylinder is used to press together glued components.
Upon operation of a push-button, the cylinder is to e>..tend and trip the roller valve.
Once the fully extended position is reached, the cylinder is to remain there for 5 s to
ress the components and then to retract to the initial position. Develop a pneumatic
ontrol circuit to implement the control task.
1 3
Figure 5-46 s-,lllbol of an NO-type on-delay timer.
2
ON OFF
..,' ... . ... .. ........... .. .. .. ...l ...... .....
_J L 12
'
. ~~
'
~~
~-..+-- '¼:. .
u_...u.T
~ ,..J ,
•I L 3
'
'
(a) 0 11,dcla:i time, 11.oona!ly dosed type
2
,. . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . ...... .
_J~---------,L . ~-r1-- .
ON OFF : ,-, :
' '
10: :
'
-~I--~' :............................ .."....:

(b) On•de!ay t:mer r:.onna!ly o;>en type 1 3
2
ON OFF ' ............................. ........
' '
_J L '
'
12 • l:;::'~
~ :;i_L-f>-l ¼I
_J ---,L LL-'-4-',-J
'
'
(c) Of!~elay time, normally closed !ype 3
2
,. .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .......
ON OFF ..' ,--, ..'
.'' ~~ ~~-,-j-- .''
_J L 10- :
'
7 .___ _------'-__,I '

....''
3
(d) Otf,delay t:Oer :icnnallyo;>en type
Fjgure 5-47 Timing diag)'ams and symbols of timers.

Solution
Pneumatic circuit: The two positions of the pneumatic circuit for the control task, at
the instant the roller valve is pressed and when the cylinder begins to retract after the
et delay time are shown in Figyre 5-i[.9 .
The required time-delay (5 s) is set using the time-delay valve. Valve 1.2 initiates
the forward motion of the cylinder. \\.'hen the cylinder is fully extended the roller valve
1.3 is actuated and an output signal is generated. This signal is applied to pilot port 12 of
the time-delay valve as shown in Figyre 5-49_(2}. The time-delay valve issues an output
ignal only after an elapse of 5 seconds from the application of the signal at its pilot port
12 to cause the return motion of the cylinder, as shown in Fiwe 5-49.!Q)..
. ►
- • ½::I - -
I
- r, r -=
<
-
Figure 5-48 _>,mngement for the pressing of glued componeuts as stated in F.xample 5,12.
5.28 Pressure Sequence Valve

10 - 1.3 ,o- 1.3
Ifl I
11 :
I
•
~+ ~ I
.........
5sec •.5
_o
1$1
(a) Posibon at the 1os1an1 ,one-: valve is p,csscd (l>J Pcsi,IO<l wl'.Cn cylmcc, tx,g1ns 10 retract after a delay of •rs
Figure 5-491\,u positions of the pneumatic circuit "ith time delay (ExamP.le 5.12).
A brief explanation of pressure sequence valve was given before. The constructional
features of the valve are presented below. The cross-sectional views and the symbol of a
pressure sequence valve are shown in Figure S: 5Q, This valve consists of a pneumatically
actuated 3/2-DC valve and a regulator. The principle of operation of a sequence valve
(assumed to be connected to the power line linking a cylinder piston-port and its final
control element) is that when a preset pilot pressure is reached "ithin the valve due to
the building up of the line pressure after the cylinder piston reaches the end of its stroke,
the spring-loaded piston is unseated. The resulting pilot pressure actuates the integrated
3/2-DC valve of the pressure sequence valve and generates an output signal. Note that
when the piston is seated, the piston area in the 3/2-DC valve, that is exposed to the
pilot pressure, is held to a minimum. This helps reduce the restraining force. \\'hen the
pressure, however, unseats the piston, a large piston area is exposed to the pressure, and
the piston is held "ide open. The adjusting screw on top of the valve sets the pressure.
,---- ---- --- --- --'

'
12 1 2 3 12 1 2 3
(a) Normal position (bJActuated position
Figure 5-50 Pressuresequence,:alve,
Application ofPressure Sequence Valve

Sequence valves are extensively used for sequencing operations in response to the
attainment of set pressures in the relevant sections of a pneumatic system. This type of
situation can occur, for example, if a machine cycle is set to start after a job is clamped
in place. Once the clamp is seated, the system pressure "ill build up to a point at which
the pilot pressure will cause the integrated 3/2-DC valve of the pressure sequence valve
to generate an output signal. This signal may be used for obtaining the next operation in
the sequence.
Ex31Uple 5.13: Pneumatic circuit ,~ith pressure
sequence valve
Control task: A double-acting cylinder is used to press together glued components.
Upon pressing a push-button, the clamping cylinder is to extend and trip the roller
valve. Once the fully €Atended position of the cylinder has been reached and sufficient
clamping force has been developed, the cylinder is to retract to the initial position.
Develop a control circuit using a pressure sequence valve.
Solution
Pneumatic circuit: The two positions of the pneumatic circuit for the control task,
,vhen the cylinder is extending and when the cylinder is fully extended, are shown in
figure 5:5!•
1.0 1.3 1.0 1.3
I II : I
11 : I
Pos!li::o when\'alve I. I
•
I5
1.2 :2
Cq'TJ.rll1\
~
Figure 5-51 Two positions of the pneumatic circuit '"ith pressure.sequenoe vah·e {&xample 543).
The pneumatic circuit to implement the given control task is given in Figure 5:51.
he pressure in the sequence valve is set to the working pressure, and the signal input to
e pressure sequence valve is tapped from the power line from port 4 of valve 1.1 to the
,linder to gauge the pressure on the piston-side of the cylinder.
•>.s shown in Figure 5:51 valve 1.2 initiates the forward motion of the cylinder. 1Nhile
e cylinder is moving forward, the pressure in the power line from port 4 of valve 1.1 to
e cylinder \\ill not build up to the working pressure. Only after the cylinder is fully
i,.1:ended, "ill the maximum pressure in the line build up resulting in sufficient
lampin g pressure. \\'hen the set pressure in the sequence valve is reached, the
· tegrated 3/2-DC valve is actuated, generating an output signal. This signal is used to
eset the final control element 1.1 and thus causing the return motion of the cylinder.
5.2g Cyclic Operation of a Cylinder

A cylinder can perform a continuous to and fro motion "ith the use of two sensors (1.2
and 1.3) placed in the extreme positions of the cylinder piston travel as shown in Figure
5=5'1.· The sensor 1.2 generates a signal when the cylinder is in the retracted position, and
the sensor 1.3 generates a signal when the cylinder is in the extended position. The
signal from sensor 1.2 is applied to port 14 of valve 1.1 and the signal from sensor 1.3 is
applied to port 12 of valve 1.1 for obtaining automatic forward and return motions of the
cylinder. However, for this arrangement for the cyclic operation of the cylinder, there
are no 'start' and 'stop' controls.
1.0 -► 1.2 13 i. o - 12 I3
171 :
Ij I
I. IB I I
Ii .. Ii
.. .. . . .. ..
1.2 1.3
2
-►~~
,rr·
0 F
(a) Position when cylinder tegins to e~enc (b) Positionwhen cylinder begins to relfact
Figure s-sz. Cyclic operation.
To incorporate the necessary start and stop control, a 'start' push-button and a
'stop' push-button can be used to control the air supply to pilot port 14 of the final
control element 1.1 using a 3/ 2 (or 5/ 2 l\ith port 2 blocked) double-pilot DC valve
(figure 5:53), \'\>'hen a momentary input signal is given through the 'start' push-button,
the double-pilot DC valve generates a continuous output signal. This output signal goes
off only when a momentary input signal is given through the 'stop' push-button.
Example 5.14: To and fro motion of a double-acting

cylinder
Control task: .4 double-acting cylinder is to carry out an oscillatory motion after a
'start' signal is given. The cylinder should stop in the retracted position always when a
'stop' signal is given. Develop a pneumatic control circuit to implement the control
task.
(a) Signal from ·s1a~· push-bui:on (bl Signal t,om ·stop· push-!XJ1ton
Figure S-53 'Start' and 'stop' controls.
1.0 - 1.2 i.3 1.0 ◄- 12 1.3
111 : I
I
I. I~ I
I
Ii ...
Bl.
' ........
T
1
1.3
·--~\\\
·~
1A 2
F-•Cq ~
Sia·r 1~ ..
(a) S:gnal from·s1art pt>Sh-bu!ton (b) s.;nal ttom senSDe 1.3

Figure 5-54 Two critical positions of the circuit for the to and fro motion of a double-acting C)iinder (F,xamJlk5,!<I),
olution
neumatic circuit: The two positions of the pneumatic circuit for the control task,
vhen the 'Start' signal is given and "·hen the sensor used for obtaining the automatic
eturn motion of the cylinder is activated, are sho\\n in Figure 5:5.4•
The cyclic operation of the double-acting cylinder ,vith necessary 'start' and 'stop'
ontrols can be realised by using the concepts given in the earlier section. Figure 5:54
hows two positions of the pneumatic circuit for the continuous cycle of operation " ith
e necessary 'start' and 'stop' controls. The state of the circuit after applying the 'start'
ignal is illustrated in Figure 5-54_(A)., and the state of the circuit when the cylinder is
Hy extended is shown in Figure 5:54(2)., \ \'hen a stop signal is applied using valve 1.6,
e output signal of valve 1.8 goes off, thus stopping further forward motion of the
,}inder.
5_-30 Pneumatic Counters

A counter, in general, performs counting task and can count in the ascending or
descending order. Accordingly, there are the fol10\,ing two types of counters:
2 2
12 I 12 I
0 \
11
10
I
0 \
I1 - 10
'
'
(a) Symbol of up-oounter (b) Symbol of down-counter

Figure 5-55 S;mbols of pneumatic oonnters.
1. Up counter
2. Doi,~n counter
An up counter counts in the ascending order (usually from a specified number) up

to a maximum limit (say 99999). A down counter counts in the descending order from a
specified number up to zero. Counters can be designed for working "ith pneumatic
signals or electrical signals.
A pneumatic counter, whether an up-counter or a down-counter, consists of the
follo"ing four ports: P(1) for pressure connection, A(2) for output signal, Z(12) for
'count' signal, and Y(10) for reset signal. It also consists of a repeat button to reset the
counter, a reset key, and the associated digit keys to set the digits and the display
"indow(s). The symbols of an up counter and a down counter are shown in Figures
5=5s!i!l and .Cl!)., respectively.
An up-counter counts pneumatic signals (through port 12) upwards from zero. If a
preset number is reached, the counter generates a pneumatic output signal (through
port 2). A do\\n-counter counts pneumatic signals (through port 12) do"nwards from a
preset number. If the count value of zero is reached, the counter generates a pneumatic
output signal (through port 2).
The output signal continues to be emitted in each type of counter until the
respective counter is reset through port 10 or by pressing the repeat button. Both the
counter types are preset by ke:,,ing in the preset value using the corresponding digit keys
while the reset key is being pressed do\\n. The preset number is retained when the
counter is reset. The actual count value can be seen through a display window.
Let us now conclude the discussion on the basic pneumatic circuits invohing only
one cylinder "ith the follo"ing example. Additional problems are given at the end of the
chapter to test your understanding of the basic circuits. Hope you "ill enjoy going
through the exercise.
Example 5.15: Continuous cycle of operation \\ith

counter
Control task: .4 double-acting cylinder is to carry out an oscillatory motion after a
'start' signal is given. The cylinder should stop automatically after, say, 3 cycles of
peration. Develop a pneumatic control circuit to implement the continuous to and fro
otion of the piston for the required number of cycles.
neumatic circuit: The pneumatic circuit for the control task, is shown in Figure
=52·
The pneumatic circuit given in Figyre 5=52 for the cyclic operation of the double-
cting cylinder for a preset number of cycles is similar to the one given in Figure 5:5,:i
xcept for the 'Stop' control. A counter is incorporated in the circuit to count the cyclic
peration and to generate the 'Stop' signal automatically when the set number of cycles
· completed. The counter can be preset for a count value of 3. The signal generated by
ensor 1.3 in the extended position of the cylinder is generally used as the input signal at
ort 12 of the counter.
1.0 1.2 1.3
I
1.1 4 2
14 12
3
2 1
1.2 ,-!---,--,--,
1 1 3
1.8 4 2
12
3 1.6 2 Counter
1
12 0
10
1
1.4 2
·start·
Figure 5-56 .~ pneumatic circuit "ith counter (F,'ll!mp\e 5.15),

Questions
1. Ho, v is fluid po,ver controlled?
2. \\'hat are pneumatic valves?
3. Ho,v are pneumatic valves classified?
4. list six possible functions that directional control valves can serve.
5. \\'hat is meant by 'spring-centred' directional control valve?
6. l\iention a fe\\• features of directional control valves used in signal
processing.
7. \\'hat are poppet valves?
8. \\'here are slides valves used?
9. Differentiate beh, een slide valve and poppet valve.
0
10. \\'hat are the main features of non-return valves?

11. list out a fe,v derivatives of non-return valves.
12. Explain the operation of a check valve.
13. list three functions performed by pressure-control valves in
pneumatic circuits.
14. \ \ 'hat is the function of a relief valve?
15. Figm:e 1 sho,vs a multi-position actuator in position 1. Assume that
the stroke length of cylinder A is shorter than that of cylinder B. If
position 1 is symbolised by.<\- B-, \\Tite do"n the symbols for
positions 2, 3, and 4.
½
A B 1 2 3 4
~ " I I I I I I
, I
1/. 1,-' I I
~ I I
Figure 1
16. \\'hat is the purpose of pressure reducing valve?

17. \\'hat are the main types of pressure control valves?
18. Explain the function of pressure sequence valves.
19. Explain the operation offlo\\•-control valves.
10. Ho,v is flo\\• control accomplished in flo,v-control valves?
21. \\'hat do you understand by one-\\·ay flo\\'-control valve? Explain its
function "ith a neat sketch.
22. In what way a one-\\•ay flo\\•-control valve differs from a basic flo,v-
control valve?
23. Figm:e 2 sho,vs the ISO symbol of a 5/2-pilot-operated DC valve.
Using the numerical system of port designation as per ISO 5599,
designate the ports.
Figure~
24. Differentiate ben,•een 3/2 normally closed and 3/2 normally open
types of directional control valves.
25. State one reason for preferring pneumatic actuation to electric
actuation in explosive atmospheres.
26. State one reason for preferring pneumatic actuation to hydraulic
actuation in the food industry.
27. Name four methods of actuating pneumatic directional control
valves.
28. Draw as per ISO 1219 the pneumatic s:,"IDbol for a 3/ 2 manually
operated normally open DC valve.
29. \\'here are the three-, vay valves used?
30. \\'hat is the advantage of internal pilot valve in pneumatic valves?
31. Define the term 'maintained signal' as used in pneumatic systems.
32. Design a pneumatic circuit that operates h ,•o double-acting
cylinders simultaneously.
33. \\'hat is the functional difference behveen 4/ 2-and 5/ 2-, vay valves,
if any?
34. \\'hat is meant by 'signal conflict' \\'ith regard to a 5/ 2 double-pilot
valve? Ho\\' "ill it affect the operation of pneumatic circuits?
35. \\'hat are the main functions of sensors?
36. State the effect upon piston movement of a pneumatic cylinder on
using meter-in method of speed control.
37- list three factors which determine the speed at which a linear
actuator moves.
38. Differentiate beh,•een supply-air throttling and exhaust-air
throttling.
39. Exhaust-air throttling is practically used for speed control of a
double-acting cylinder. ,Vby?
10. Explain ho"' automatic control is achieved in pneumatic controls.
41. State the difference behveen a final control element and a signal
element.
12. State any n,,o types of signal processing elements used in
pneumatic controls and their functions.
13· Explain the function of pressure control valves in their role as:
Sequencing valves, Pressure regulation valves, and Pressure relief
valves.
14· Explain ho"' the speed of pneumatic cylinder is increased.
45. \\'hat do you mean by logic control? Give examples of pneumatic
logic valves.
16. Draw symbols as per ISO 1219 for valves ·which give OR function
and AND function.
47. \\'hat are the functions of pneumatic time-delay valves? Ho,v are
time-delay valves classified?
18. Explain the operation of an NC-type time-delay valve. Give an
example ofit.
19· Explain the function of a shuttle valve. Give an application of
shuttle valve.
;o. Explain the function of a hvo-pressure ,•alve. Give hvo applications
of two-pressure valves.
51. \ Vith reference to Figgre 3, state \\•h y there \\•ould be delay ben,,een
operating the valve 1.2 and advancing the piston. Describe the valve
1.4 in terms of its function.
1.0
1.1 4 2
14
1.4 2
1
12
1 3
:rigure3
52. Identify valve 1.6 in Figyre 4 . State one possible reason for using
valve 1.6 in the circuit.
10
I
1.1 4 2
14
' 11/1/\
IT 'T
5 V V 3
1.6 1
2
12 12
H'
2
1.2 1.4
O= T I
Ml\ O= 'T 1 Ml\
✓
1 3 1 v3
Fignre4
53. Figm:e 5 shows symbols from ISO 1219. Identify the component
represented by ea ch sym b ol.
54. Explain the structure of a typi cal p n eumatic circuit.
55. \\.'hat do pressure drops in fluid p o\\·er circuit indicate?
,---- -------
1
H 4 ''
' •
,11....J~
LLL4,3.J ..
'I -' - ------
--- ---- ----
0
- - - - I
r·--- ---------
3 ,. p
''
\, .. -,., ,. .
5
i~ .,
'
_________ ___ _
Figures
56. Dra"' as per ISO 1219 the symbol for the follo""ing: 3/ 2-DC NC-fype
valve, pneumatically-actuated, spring return, 5/ 2-DC NC-type valve,
double-pilot valve, shuttle valve, time-delay valve (NC-fype),
pressure sequence valve, air service unit, 3/ 2-DC single s olenoid
valve and silencer
57. Give a brief note on the follo'\\ing: (a) pneumatic po,ver
transmission, (b) storage of pneumatic energy, (c) speed and speed
control of pneumatic actuators, and (d) control of pneumatic
devices.
;8. A pneumatically controlled press \\'ith a stamping die, as sho""n in
Figm:e 6 , is used for producing badges from a very thin metal sheet.
A double-acting cylinder, \\•hich is used as the drive for the press, is
to extend ""-hen hvo push-buttons S1 and S2 are pressed
simultaneously. The cylinder is to retract automatically after
reaching the fon, ard end position and attaining a preset pressure
0
to get a consistent quality. The cylinder should retract immediately
ifthe emergency push-button S3 is pressed. Develop a pneumatic
control circuit to implement the control task.
I
• 'i'J
t
I I
,_ Stamping die
IL ' '
Badge
Figure 6 Stamping press.
;9. A double-acting cylinder is used for embossing slide rules as sho"n

in Figm;:e 7. The cylinder extends only ,vhen tn•o push-buttons are
pressed simultaneously "ithin one second to ensure complete
safety of operators. The cylinder should retract immediately if any
of the push-buttons is released. Develop a pneumatic circuit to
implement the control task.
!
Slide rule
t===11
Figure 7 Embossing machine.
,o. Figm:e 8 sho'\\'S the arrangement for cleaning washers for injection
pumps in a cleaning bath. A double-acting cylinder is used to move
the container filled l\ith ,vashers up and dol\'11 in the bath several
times. The operator pro,ides a 'Start' signal manually. The "·ashing
operation is turned off automatically after a preset time. Develop a
pneumatic control circuit to implement the control task.
t
Washers
--- - -
Figure 8 Cleaning bath for washers.
61. A double-acting cylinder is used to press components for 20 s. The

arrangement is sho,vn in Figm:e 9 . A push-button PB1 is used to
control the forward stroke of the cylinder. After pressing the
components for 20 s, the cylinder is to retract automatically. The
return stroke must occur even if the start push-button is still
actuated.•-'\ ne\\' start signal may only be effective after the initial
position of the piston is reached and the push-button is released.
Develop a pneumatic circuit to implement the control task.
, ...... r, r
L..,,,
~
- t-
I
Figure 9 Pressing ofcomponents.
52. Pins are to be fed to the next processing station using a double-
acting cylinder. The arrangement is sho"'ll in Figgre 10. The pins
are fed continuously by the to-and-fro motion of the cylinder,
triggered by the start push-button PB1. Pressing a stop push-button
PB2 stops the feeding. Fon,•ard and return speeds should be
adjustable independently. Develop a pneumatic circuit to
Figure 10 Pin-feeding station.

6 Mt1ltiple-Ach1ator Circt1its
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Represent a control task in notational form and step-displacement diagram.

• Understand the concepts of sequence control.
• Understand the problem of signal conflicts in multiple-actuator pneumatic circuits.
• Explain various ways to eliminate signal conflicts.
• Describe the purpose, construction, and operation of an idle-return roller valve.
• Understand the design and operating principles of cascade method.
• Understand the design and operating principles of shift-register method.
• Design and develop multiple-actuator pneumatic circuits using au.wiary conditions.
T he method of developing basic pneumatic circuits involving only one cylinder was
systematically presented in ChaJ!ter 5. This orderly way of developing control circuits
should also be applied to more extensive control systems. Vihen appropriate guidelines
are followed and systematic steps taken, these result in neat circuit diagrams which can
be easily read or modified. This also imparts a certain degree of reliability in the circuit
operation.
The problem of signal conflicts and various methods of their elimination are
explained in detail in this chapter. l!-.iultiple-actuator circuit designs using cascade
method and shift-register method are explained through relevant examples.
Intermediate positions of the circuits are also given wherever possible to ensure easy
learning.
A large number of problems are given at the end of the chapt er as exercise to test
your learning. The starting point in designing any circuit is to have a thorough
understanding of the control task. Once a circuit is initially worked out, then ways can
be examined to improve and simplify the developed circuit.
~ Introduction
:Most of the practical pneumatic systems involve the use of multiple actuators which,
when operating in specified sequences, carry out the desired control tasks. These
actuators extend and retract in relation to the actuation of directional control valves
which act as final control elements. Sensors are used for confirming the cylinder
positions and the resultant actuation of the final control elements. However, it is
important to remember here that double-pilot DC valves are susceptible to the problem
of 'signal conflicts' or 'signal overlaps (Chapter 5). Hence the main requirement in the
development of multiple actuator circuits is the knowledge of different ways to eliminate
signal conflicts.
~ Representation of a Control Task

:Many of the initial concepts of development of pneumatic system circuits involving
multiple cylinders are explained "ith the help of a problem in Example 6 .1 which relates
to a stamping operation involving two cylinders A and B. A problem or a control task can
be expressed in any of the follo>ving four forms: as text, positional layout, notational
form, and displacement-step (or displacement-time) diagram. These forms have been
explained in the follo" ing sections.
Example 6.1: Stamping operation

stated earlier, the stamping operation, taken as an example here, involves two
ylinders A and B working in tandem. The following sub-sections explain various
orms ofexpression of the control task for this stamping operation.
TextFonn
Cylinder A(1.o) e:-.1:ends and brings a job/work-piece under a stamping cylinder B(2.o).
Cylinder B then extends and stamps the job. Cylinder A can return back only after
cylinder B has retracted fully. A pneumatic control circuit has to be developed for
realizing this control task.
Positional Layout
The arrangement and installation of pneumatic cylinders for the control task governing
the stamping operation can be expressed through the positional layout given in Figure
6-1.
Notational Fonn
In the notational form, cylinders are designated as A, B, c, etc. A ' + ' is appended to
these designations to represent the fonvard stroke and a '- ' sign to represent the return
stroke. For example,
A + represents the fonvard motion of cylinder A

A- represents the return motion of cylinder A
B+ represents the fon,-ard motion of cylinder B
B- represents the return motion of cylinder B
8(2.0)
A(1.0)
◄ ►
Figure 6-1 Stamping operation.
A
0
1
B
0
Step -+-► 1 2 3 4
Figure 6-~ Displacement-step diagram.
A
0
1
B
0
Time
Figure 6-3 Displacement-lime diagram.
For the control task specified in Example 6 .1, the sequence of cylinder actions can
be represented by:
A+B+B-A-
Displacement-step Diagram
The displacement-step diagram for the control task in ExamJ!le 6 .1 is given in Figure
6-2. In this way of representation, the displacements of cylinders are plotted according
to the required sequence of cylinder actions in equal steps. A cylinder can move from the
retracted position (o) to the extended position (1) and vice versa, as shown in Figure 6-2.
Displacement-time Diagram
In the displacement-time diagram (Figure 6-3), the displacements of cylinders are
plotted against time.
'6:;a Sequence Control

For the control task of E.-srample 6.1, the power circuit \\ith the cylinders, final control
elements, and sensors is shown in Figure 6-4. Let us understand this circuit. Two 5/2-
way double-pilot valves 1.1 and 2.1 control cylinders A(1.o) and B(2.o), respectively,
through pilot ports 14 and 12 in each valve. For automatic operation in the desired
sequence, a pair of sensors is used per cylinder to confirm the end positions of the
piston. The sensor that is actuated in the retracted position of cylinder A is initially
designated as 'a0 ' , and the sensor that is actuated in the extended position of the
cylinder A is designat ed as 'a{ Sensors for cylinder B can also be designated in the
similar way.
A(1.0) a. a, B (2.0) bo b,
I I I
1 11
'
: I [11 : I
._ ________ *
'---------,
1.1 4: 2 2.1 4 : 2
14 ~ -.-,-1~ 12 14 ~ - . - , - 1 ~ 12
◄ ◄
1 1
Figure 6-4 Power cirolit for the control task of E.'"-'llple 6.1.
i,.4! Circuit Design for the Sequence A

+ B + B - A - (Example 6.1)
Step 1 (Representation of the Control Task)
The first step in drafting a circuit is to write down the notations for the desired sequence
of cylinder actions and the associated sensor designations as shown in Figure 6-5.(l!).,
Alternatively, the displacement-step diagram can also be used as shown in Figure
6-5.( Q}.
From the notational form or from the displacement-step diagram given in Figure
6-5, it can be seen that
1. A+ action generates sensor signal a 1, ,vhich is used for B+ action.
2. B+ action generates sensor signal h 1 , "nich is used for B- action.
3. B- action generates sensor signal ho, "·hich is used for_<\- action.
4. A- action generates sensor signal ao, \\•hich is used for A + action.
Usually, a 'Start' signal is also required along with a0 signal (signal generated due to
the last control action in the sequence) for obtaining A+ action.
The next step in the designing of the circuit diagram is to draw the power circuit
and then the control circuit. The developed circuit is then checked for the presence of
signal conflicts. These basic ideas are clearly explained >vith many circuit positions for
easy understanding in the following sections.
Step 2 (Power Circuit)
1. First of all, dra"· the po\\ er circuit as per the steps given belo"'
0
(also see Section 6.3).

2. Sho,~· cylinders .<\(1.0) and 8(2.0).
3. Incorporate the respective final control elements 1.1 and 2.1, \\'ith
pneumatic actuation at both ends.
4. l\"Iark sensor positions a 0 , a 1 , b 0 , and h 1 (see Ilgyre 6 -4 ).
Step 3 (Control Circuit)
1. l\fove on to complete the control circuit (Figm:e 6-6).

2. Incorporate all the sensors and the 'Start' push-button as per the
required control sequence represented in Fig!![e 6-5.
3. Represent sensors ao and h 0 initially in the actuated state as per the
guidelines given in Section ~3, Chapter 5.
2 ., 5= 1
•, a, b, b, a, A
'Starf
~
\ A+
nnnr B- B- A-
0
a,
b,
1 B•
B
{a) Nc!a!icnal term
0
(b) OispMcement-step <h&;aram

Figure 6-5 Representation ofthe control task of ExamP.le 6.1.
A (1.0) a, a. B(2.0)
b, b,
~⇒:1I I I
r
11n1=1
- ,~ 11==1
- ===::,
-:' I
..' ...'
~
......... . .... ........ '
2. 1 4 ; 2
.
:~~-~-<-~~---··:
.: 5 .:
• 1
..
.. ..
.: 2
.:2 2 a. :2
~
b, 0
·s1art' ~A 1
Figure 6-6 .-\dding control circuit.
Step 4 (Analysis of Control Circuit)

1. Next step is to analyse the circuit for the presence of signal
conflicts.
2. \\'hen the 'Start' push-button is pressed, the signal appears at port
14 of valve 1.1 through sensor ao (Figm:e6-i) .
3. Check for the presence of the signal at the other end (12) of valve
1.1.
A(1.0)
a, a, B(2.0)
~"""2,: bo b,
~⇒:II
,..,..,...1
1 It : =
I
1,..,..,...
11=1 1I
I
'
''
... . ........ '
'
1.1 4 : 2 2.1 4 :' 2
' '
14
~
~ ◄
12 '!~-►~◄· !~..... ''
~ ◄ '
' ' '
5 : 5 3 ;
' '
2 1 1
0
·s1arr
Figure 6-7 Demonstration of si,,,anal conflict at ,ah·e 1.1.
A (1.0) 8 (2.0) b b
0 '
: 1
1 11:::== ,1
'
1.1 4 :2 2.1 4 :2
' '
14►,!&}~2- -1
14 ' 12
-- ,
''
'
' 5 '' 5 3 :
a. :2 '
' 1 '
1 '
''
0 '
'
'
'
:2 '
'
b, :2 a, 2 b, 2
0 -- o 0
'Start· 1 3 1 3
Figure 6-8 Position after c-, iinders.-1.and Bare e.,tended (.-1.+ B • ),
4. It can be seen that the signal is also present at port 12 of valve 1.1,
resulting in a signal conflict.
5. As a result, valve 1.1 is unable to Sl\itch over.
6. The reason for this signal conflict is the persistence of signal at port
12 of valve 1.1 as a result of continuous actuation of sensor b 0 by
cylinderB.
7. If sensor b 0 can be disengaged 'someho"~ then valve 1.1 can 5',itch
over and consequently cylinder A can extend (_>\+) ,vhen the 'Start'
push-button is pressed (Bgm::e 6-8).
8. \\-'hen cylinder_>\ is extended fully, sensor a 1 generates an output
signal which is applied to port 14 of valve 2.1.
9. Check for the presence of the signal at the other end 12 of valve 2.1.
10. It can be seen that the signal is not present at port 12 of valve 2.1
and hence there is no signal conflict here (see Ilgyre 6-8).
11. As a result, valve 2.1 can S\\itch over and consequently cylinder B
can extend (B +) automatically.
12. \\'hen cylinder Bis extended fully, sensor b 1 generates an output
signal which is applied to port 12 of valve 2.1 (Figru:e 6 -9 ).
13. Check for the presence of the signal at the other end 14 of valve 2.1.
14. It can be seen that the signal is also present at port 14 of valve 2.1,
resulting in a signal conflict (see Figru:e 6 -9 ).
15. As a result, valve 2.1 is wiable to S\\itch over.
16. The reason for this signal conflict is the persistence of the signal at
port 14 of valve 2.1 as a result of continuous actuation of sensor a 1
by cylinder.>\.
17. If sensor a 1 can be disengaged 'someho"'' then valve 2.1 can S\\itch
over, and consequently cylinder B can retract (B-) automatically
(Figru:e 6 - 10 ).
18. \\'hen cylinder Bis retracted fully, sensor b 0 generates an output
signal which is applied to port 12 of valve 1.1 ([igru:e 6 - 11).
19. Check for the signal at the other end 14 of valve 1.1.
A(1.0) B (2.0)
2.1 4 2
14 ~ · 12
► ◄
► ◄
5 3
1
·start·
Figure 6-9 Demonstration of.signal oonflict at valve 2.1.
10. It can be seen that the signal is not present at port 14 of valve 1.1
and hence there is no signal conflict here (see Ilgyre 6 - 11).
21. As a result, valve 1.1 can 5"itch over, and consequently cylinder A
can retract (A-) automatically.
Thus, it can be seen that the circuit "ill not operate due to the presence of signal
conflicts. The follo"ing section explains various methods used to eliminate signal
conflicts.
A(1.0) 8 (2.0)
a, a
~-1~1: =I =l
Figure 6-10 Position when cylinder Bis retracting (B-).

A(I.O) a.
I
'
'
''
'
- ..........
'
2.1
,
4: 2
'
14 ~ 2...... .. "I
, --·►
' '
'' ''
: 5 3 :
' '
1
a.
2.2 b,
b,
1.3 2 2.3
1 3 1 3
Figure 6-11 Position \\nenciiinder Ahas fully retracted (A-).
'b.5 Elimination of Signal Conflicts

Various methods are devised to solve the problem of signal conflicts in multi-cylinder
circuits. Some methods are based on controlling the air supply to different sections of
the control circuit. The follo"ing valves/ modules may be used for the purpose of
avoiding signal conflicts: (1) idle-return rollers, (2) reversing valves (memory valves),
and (3) modules as combination of valves.
Signal Conflict Elimination by Idle-return Rollers

An idle-return roller valve consists of a 3/ 2-DC valve fitted \\ith an idle-return roller
mechanism. The symbol of the idle-return roller is given in Figyre 6 -12.
Figure 6-u S)mbol of idle-return roller.
The action of the idle-return roller valve can be understood easily after going
through sequential Figyres 6-13.(11,). to .(g} . Let us understand the working of the idle-
return roller when the associated cylinder piston is at different positions as shown in
Figure 6-13. The idle-return roller valve may be positioned in the control system so that
when the cylinder extends, the piston passes over the idle-roller mechanism of the valve,
thus activating the valve [Figure 6-13.(11,).], but also permitting the valve to be deactivated
immediately when the piston moves to the extreme end position [figure 6-13.~ )J. As a
result, the valve generates a short output pulse during the forward motion of the
cylinder. The idle-return roller mechanism also allows the cylinder to retract without re-
activating the valve as this mechanism tilts away [figyre 6 -13.(~)J. Hence, in the end
position or during the return motion of the piston, the valve does not get actuated, and
no output signal is produced. For the generation of a short output pulse by the idle-
return roller valve during the return motion of the cylinder, this valve may be positioned
in the opposite direction as compared to the case during the forward motion of the
cylinder.
-
........... ·f .... -~... ·!fl·. -
. . . ' . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . ' . .
==~·c!:i., • '
-----< ·- -- - - - - 1- -
JJ
(c)C)111):!e11s reiraang. va'·ro is r ctacwa:ed
Figure 6-13 Function of idle return roller.
From the analysis of the designed circuit in Figure 6 -6 for the control task given in
Example 6.1, it can be identified that roller valves b0 and a1 are responsible for signal
conflicts. To eliminate the problem of signal conflicts in this case, roller valves b0 and a 1
should be replaced with the idle-return rollers. Because the signals from the idle-return
valves are not continuous, and this >viii help in overcoming signal conflicts.
Solution #1for the Problem in Example 6.1

Figure 6-1i1, shows the circuit for getting the control sequence 'A+B+B-A' using the idle-
return rollers at positions b 0 and a1 . The roller valves at positions a0 and b 1 need not be
replaced "ith the idle-return rollers as these valves do not cause signal conflicts for the
given control task. You may check the circuit for the presence of any other signal conflict
and for its correct sequential operation.
Drawbacks ofIdle-return Rollers
The use of idle-return rollers for eliminating signal conflicts has the follo"ing
disadvantages:
1. This method is not reliable.

2. The end position cannot be sensed accurately.
3. Fast control systems cannot be set up.
A (1.0)
a. b,
~1
. 1 1::::::
1 ~⇒:•
1 I
..
..
.. ... .. .. . .
2.1 4 : 2
.
1.1 4 : 2
'
....~~.►~2·······,... ...14
r· · ·►
~12
◄····· · ··,
'
'
'
: 5 3 :
a, ·2
: 1 :'
.: 5 3 :
'
1
0
1
'
:2 :2
·start· 3 1 3
Figure 6·14 Pnewnaticcircuit for'.-1.+B+ B·A' using the idle-return rollers.
Hence idle-return rollers are not practically used in multi-cylinder circuits. The use
of idle-return rollers may be justified only for simpler circuits.
Signal Conflict Elimination by Reversing Valves

A bi-stable memory valve used in an application to eliminate signal conflict is called
reversing valve. 'While using reversing valves to eliminate signal conflicts, the basic idea
is to allow the signals to be effective only at times when they are needed. Two of the
possible designs used to remove signal conflicts through reversing valves are:
1. Cascade method
2. Shift-register method
Cascade i',1ethod - Design and Operating Principles

In this method, the sequence of operations of cylinders (say, A+B+B-A-) can be divided
into appropriate number of groups in such a way that there is no possibility of signal
conflicts. If A+ and A- operations happen to be in one group then there is a possibility
of signals appearing simultaneously at both ends of the final control element controlling
cylinder A, which is a signal conflict state. Similar is the case for B+ and B-, C+, and C-,
etc. operations. Hence the sequence of operations is dhided in such a way that A+ and
A- fall into different groups, B+ and B- fall into different groups, and so on. Such a
grouping is shown in Figure 6-15.
A+ B+ 8- A-
G1 G2
Figure 6-15 Grouping of sequence.

G1 • • • G1 • -- -- -- -- -- -- -- - --• -- -- -- -- -- -- •
'
G2 • -- -- -- -- -- -- + ----------------• G2 • !-e •
'' '
'
''
e1 e2 e1 e2
(a) e1 - G1 (b) e2 - G2
Figure 6-16 Different power supply positions of a two-group circuit.
As sho"n in Figure 6-15, the first two actions A+ and B+ can be placed in group Gt.
The next two actions B- and A- if placed in group Gt may cause signal conflicts, and
hence are placed in group G2. Remember, the desired sequence of actions should be
maintained. Another factor that should be kept in mind is that as the number of groups
increases, the number of valves required also increases. Hence in this method, every
attempt should be made to keep the number of groups to a minimum.
After dividing the sequence of cylinder operations into a number of groups, the next
requirement of the cascade method is to divide the power supply for the control circuit
into the same number of groups as for the sequence of operations in such a way that at
any given point of time, only one group "ill have supply "ith all other groups connected
to the exhaust. By appropriate interconnection of 5/ 2-DC valves, power supply can be
divided into two, three, four or more groups. These groupings are illustrated "ith
multiple power supply positions for easy analysis in the follo"ing sections. Here, e1, e2,
e3, etc., are the input signals to the cascade, and G1, G2, G3, etc., are the output signals
from the cascade. The basis of cascade principle is the clear relationship between inputs
e1, e2, e3, etc., and outputs G1, G2, G3, etc.
Different positions of a two-group circuit are illustrated in Figyre 6-16. It can be
seen that initially the power supply is in the last group G2 [figure 6-16(Q).]. \ \'hen a
control signal is applied to input e1, the power supply changes to group G1 from group
G2 [Figure 6-16(11).] and when a control signal is applied to input e2, the power supply
changes to group G2 from group G1 (fjgure 6-16(1!).]. Therefore, when the control
signals are applied to inputs e1 and e2 in that sequence, the power supply changes to
groups G1 and G2, respectively, across the cascade.
Different power supply positions of a three-group circuit are illustrated in Figure
6-1z. It can be seen that initially the supply is in the last group G3 [Figure 6-17-(£1].
'When a control signal is applied to input e1, the power supply changes to group G1 from
group G3 (fjgure 6-1::z.(11).l; when a control signal is applied to input e2, the power supply
changes to group G2 from group G1 [figure 6-17-(ll).]; and when a control signal is
applied to input e3, the power supply changes to group G3 from group G2 [Figure
6-17-(£)]. Therefore, when the control signals are applied to inputs e1, e2, and e3 in that
sequence, the supply changes to groups G1, G2, and Gs, respectively, across the cascade.
Different positions of a four-group circuit are illustrated in Figure 6-18. It can be
seen that initially the supply is in the last group G4 (fjgure 6-18(d1]. \\'hen a control
signal is applied to input e1, the power supply changes to group G1 from group G4
(fjgure 6-18(!!,).]; when a control signal is applied to input e2, the power supply changes
to group G2 from group G1 (fjgure 6-18(llll; when a control signal is applied to input e3,
the power supply changes to group Gs from group G2 [figure 6-18(£).]; and when a
control signal is applied to input e4, the power supply changes to group G4 from group
G3 [Figure 6-18(91]. Therefore, when the control signals are applied to inputs e1, e2, e3,
and B4 in that sequence, the supply changes to groups G1, G2, G3, and G4, respectively,
across the cascade.
Gl ___ ___.,___ _ _ _ _..
G1 • ..... .. .. ·• ..... ....... ... . -.. • G1 • .... . ..... -,•....... .. ... ...... •
G2 •-· --------- ~··········-··· --• G2 G2 • · · · · · · · · · · -~• · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · •
... ...
G3 • • . . . . . . . . . . ; ... ..... • · .. .. ..•
... G3 •• · .. . .... ; . . ··· ····· • ····· ··• G3 . .- --'-'-- --.- -..
l l e2 e2
: e2
.•.....
e3 •3 e3
---• ◄• ..... "
(3) e1 - GI (bl e2-+ G2 (C) el - G3
Figure 6-•i Different power supply positions of a three-group circuit
G1 G1 •· ···· ·· · ···· ·· · ··· ·· • ·········· -· · -· ·•
G2 .,_
_________,._______.
G2 • · · · · • · • · · · · · · · • · • · · · · • · · • · · · · • · · · · · ·•
.
G3 • ·····, ········· ·: ········ ~ ·········• G3 • · · ··· • ··············:·· ········ • · · · ·•
G4 • · ·• ··~·-······· .;. ..... •.. •r··• ·····• G4 • •... · .~ · · · · · · · · · · · · •.:. · ............••
.' ''
' ' : ' : : '
' ' r+-t--~~ ' ' '
·' ·~-- · ·· ·► J ◄ - :! • • .:·•• •• • e2
1 ••
'
~ -. - .. - ► : e2:'
: 1 l'T T ::
V V : :
'
-· · ···· ···' '
'
~· · ·· ·· ·· · ·· ·· · ·► 1
'<vm'f'-LW
( ............ , ... ... .... .. ,
e1 e4
◄ -... ... ...e4
-. T f-< .....
7 T
V V
(a) e1 - G1 (b) e2 - G2
GI • · · · - · · · · · · · · · · · • · · · · · · - · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·• G1 • ·· ··· ···· ··· -·· • ·· ··· ··· ····-·· -·· ···•

'
G2 • ················: , · · · · ··· ······ · · ····• G2 • ·· ····-·-······-:·•·· ···-·· ····-··-··•
'' ''
G3 - .. .. G3 •·· ··· • · ···· ····!·~-----· ···· •' ·-··-· ·•
•·......·· ··· ··· .~-,.. ---- ···· ··· ...... ·• . ' .
'
'
G4
' ' '
G4 e-- .
_ ....- ·~---~·-;-
'
' '
. ..
•- - - - -·- .,__ •
'
l......►mnn· ··{ ··
' '
oom◄ ···
'
'
' e2
.. .... .. '
' e2.
' '
' '
' ''
'
'' . '
' ~
' '
- - --;
' '
' '
'~ .. ·► ' ' e3
T I '
'
'
~ ~······
\
'......... ....... '
'' : ~-----~
~ ~ - , - !'--,
el e4
· .... -... ... el ... -
-... J e4
···········► ◄ ·►
7 T T T
V V
(c) e3 - G3 (d) e4 - G4
Figure 6-18 Different power supply positions of a folll'-group circuit,
'Start'
G1 G2
l1gure 6-19 Notational form of the control task in ExamP.le 6.L
The cascade can be eiq>anded to any number of groups. The arrangement "ill
always remain the same - that is, all valves are connected in series, the first valve at the
top in the series issues two output signals G1 and G2, and all other valves issue one
output signal. The succeeding valve in the series resets the valve before it, and so on. The
last valve (bottom) in the series receives two input signals. It can be seen that there is a
definite relationship between inputs e1, e2, etc. and outputs G1, G2, etc.
Circuit design using the cascade method (hvo groups)

Let us now use the cascade method to design the circuit for the control task of E.x am]lle
6.1. First, we write the sequence of cylinder actions and associated control signals in the
notational form for the given control task.
1. As explained in the pre~ious section, di~ide the sequence of actions

for the given control task into appropriate number of groups in
such a " 'ay that there is no possibility of signal conflicts. The
notational form of representation for the control task of E.'\:amP.le
6.1 is given in FigYJ:e 6 - 19.
2. Dra,-v the po,ver circuit shol\ing cylinders .-'\(1.0) and B(2.o ), and
their respective final control elements 1.1 and 2.1 as per the
requirements of the control task of E.=P.le 6.1. This circuit is the
same as the circuit given in FigYJ:e 6 -4 (Section 6 .3 ).
Solution #2for the Problem in Example 6.1
The preliminary steps to design a control circuit for the control task of Example 6.1 were
given in the previous section. Remaining steps to design the control circuit for the
control task are given below:
1. Add the group changing circuit for nvo groups just belo\\' the po,ver
circuit. The group changing circuit ensures that only one group ,\ill
have supply at any given point of time \\ith the other group
connected to the exhaust.
2. Add the control valves/sensors as specified in the notational form
given in Figm:e 6-19. Initially sensors a 0 and b 0 are sho,\"ll in the
actuated position. It may be observed that port 14 (for.-'\+ action)
and port 12 (for A- action) of valve 1.1 are always connected to
different supply groups. Similarly, port 14 (for B+ action) and port
12 (for B- action) of valve 2.1 are al\\•ays connected to different
supply groups. This inhibits the signals from appearing
simultaneously on both sides of each final control element, and
hence avoids the possibility of signal conflicts. Finally, designate
the valves and cylinders. The completed circuit is given in Figm:e
6-20 .
Explanation of Cascade Circuit for the Problem in Example 6.1

1. \\'hen the 'Start' push-button is pressed, air supply from group G2
is directed to port 14 of reversing valve 0.1 through the 'Start' push-
button and the actuated sensor ao- The reversing valve S\\itches
over, causing the group supply to change from G2 to Gl. (a0 is
sho,,"ll in the released position due to the subsequent extension of
cylinder A.)
A(l 0) a. a. B(ZO) ,, b.
:'
Pc.-,:ercrcu~
r I
~ I
I
111 111
:
.......... .........,
B-
Groo1>
::hang ng
'
Coo!rol circuil
~ .......................
Figure 6-w Circuit design using the cascade method (two groups) for the control task in E.xampl• 6.1.
2. \\'hen the group is changed from G2 to Gl l\i th G2 vented, the air

supply from group Gl is directed to port 14 of valve 1.1. As there is
no possibility of signal conflict here, valve 1.1 Sl\itches over causing
the A + action. (Figm:e 6-21).
3. Sensor a 1 is actuated as a result of the A+ action, allo"ing the air
supply from the group Gl to reach port 14 of valve 2.1. As there is no
possibility of signal conflict here, valve 2.1 Sl\itches over, causing
the B + action automatically (FigYre 6-22).
4. Sensor b 1 is actuated as a result of the B+ action, allo"'ing the air
supply from group Gl to reach port 12 of reversing valve 0.1. As a
result, the reversing valve S\\itches over, causing the group supply
to change from G1 to G2.
5. As the group is changed from Gl to G2 \\ith Gl vented, the air
supply from group G2 is directed to port 12 of valve 2.1. As there is
no possibility of signal conflict here, valve 2.1 s,vitches over,
causing the B- action automatically (FigYre 6 - 23).
6. Sensor b 0 is actuated as a result of the B- action, allo\\'lllg the air
supply from group G2 to reach port 12 of valve 1. 1. As there is no
possibility of signal conflict here, valve 2.1 s\\itches over, causing
the A- action automatically (BgYre 6 - 20).
A(1 .0) B (2.0)
a, b, b,
I I
111=1
rn-- ==?---,:1I
1.1
- 11 :~, I
.
A+
a,
2.2
G1 • • • • • •
G2 • ····· .. ••• ...................... o ...............<;> ..................................<:, ••••••••
: 0.1 4
.: 2
: a, :"-~............. ~~ ..~ \ ~2....... :.2.1
' • 5 V 3 ► •
' 1.2 :2 :
rorfTT\1
_: A 1 b, :2
~ ll 2.3 :
1 : 3 ~A
12 ~ ll
.
-~
.
~ •• •• •• ••• •• ••• •• •• ••• • #
Figure 6-~1 Circuit pooition during A• action.
The cascade system provides a straightforward method of designing any sequential

circuit. This system "ill always give a workable circuit, and only rarely will it be possible
to suggest any improvements. The cascade system, however, must be carefully
monitored by checking the following points:
1. Preset- The system must be set to the last group for start-up.
2. Pressure drop- Because the pO\\'er supply is 'cascaded', a large
circuit can suffer from excessive pressure drops.
3. Cost- Usually the additional valves and connection greatly increase
the cost of hard,vare.
Circuit design using the cascade method (three groups)

Consider the problem given in Example 6.2 for the control of a drilling machine using
cascade method involving three groups.
Example 6.2: Pneumatically controlled drilling

machine
Control task: Rectangular-shaped work-pieces are drilled using a pneumatically
ontrolled drilling machine given in Figure 6-24. The work-pieces are arranged in a
ravity feed magazine. These work-pieces are pushed and clamped by means of
lamping cylinder A, drilled by drilling cylinder B and ejected by ejecting cylinder C.
The displacement-step diagram is shown in Figure 6-25. The sequence of operations
as to be carried out either for one cycle or for continuous cycles with 'start' and 'stop'
ontrols. Develop a pneumatic control circuit to implement the given control task.
A (1.0) a, a 8 (2.0)
b, b.
~~l1=:=_:=I= /' I 1·
I. 1
4
..
..
2.1
- 4
11 .:
:2 ..
B+ ►
14 • .12
i T ◄··· ·;B-
a, 5
1
3 .:
2.2 2
1 • • • • ••
2 • 0 · ···· · ... ..... ..... . .... . ....6, .. . .... . .... . ..0 · · .. . ... ..... ..... ..... . .... . .... . 6 . .. . . . ..
:
:
0.1 4
.
:2
1 t,1..............'.4 ►IJTilD• '.~..... ~2. '.
: a) l2 s~ l
: ◄ . 2 1 3
i ·s t ~l
.
: 1.4 1: 3 .
Figure 6-22 Circuit position during B+ action.
olution
ositional layout: The positional layout of the control task is presented in Figure
6 -2;!.
isplacement-step diagram: The displacement-step diagram of the control task is
resented in Fi~ 6-25.
The procedure to develop a control circuit for the pneumatically-controlled drilling
achine using the cascade method is as follows:
1. Translate the required control task into the notational form and
then divide the sequence of operations into different groups as
given in Figm:e 6-26. Also indicate the push-button and sensor
signals as sho\-\n.
This grouping for the sequence of cylinder actions results in three
supply groups Gt, G2 and G3. Actions A+ and B + take place in
group Gt, actions B-, A- and C+ take place in group G2, and action
C- takes place in group G3. Sensor signals ao, a 1 , b 0 , b 1, c 0 and c1
are used for automatic operation of the control sequence. Co and
'Start' signals are used for obtaining the first cylinder action.-'\+
through a group change from G3 to Gt.
Note: It can be noticed that the last cylinder action C- can be assigned to group
G1, which results in only two groups. However, such a circuit has the disadvantage of
appearance of initial power supply in group Gi. This might result in incorrect
sequencing of cylinder actions due to the inadvertent operation of limit s,vitches a 1
or b1 in the starting position.
A (1.0) a, a, B (2.0)
b,
lh'=Uf=I I
1.1
'
'
·-
'
'
'
'
B-
~1.3
2 •• • 01 4 :
:.
1 • · ·· ··O· ··· ·· ·· ··· ·· ··· ·· ·· ··· ·· ··· ·· ··· ·· ·· ··O· ·· ··· ·· ··O · ·· ·· ··· ·· ··· ·· ·· ··· ·· ··· ·· ··O· ·•
2 • •
a,
1.2
Figure 6-~3 Circuit position during B- action.

Drilling cylinder
B
inder /56 Ejecting
A V C cylinder
€J Stopper
Figure 6-"4 Drilling machine, pneumatically controlled.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 =1
1
A
0
B
0
1
C
0
A+ B+ B- A- C+ c-
Figure 6-•s Displacement-,;tep dia,,,aram for the oontrol task stated in f.xamP.le 6.2.
0
a, b,
) ()
1 A+
G1
B+
G2
B- A-
G3
Figure 6-~6 Grouping ofsequence of operations for the control task in F.xamP.le 6.2.
2. Dra"' cylinders A, B, and C and associated final control elements.

Complete the po"'er circuit and designate the components,
preferably "ith alphabets for the draft.
3. Dra"' the cascade circuit for three groups using n,•o reversing
valves just belo"' the power circuit.
4. Integrate the po\\•er circuit and group-changing circuit and
incorporate the push-buttons and sensors as per the control
scheme given in the notational form. The first action in each group
is signalled directly by that group supply.
Incorporate all necessary auxiliary conditions, if any.
6. Designate all system components using the number system.
he cascade circuit for the problem of Example 6.2 is shown in Figure 6 -2:z.
An additional problem is presented in E."ample 6.3 to discuss a more complex

situation such as the appearance of signal from the same sensor multiple times during
each cycle of operations.
Example 6.3: Assembly fi.-.."ture for greasing roller

bearings
Control task: After assembling the individual parts, roller bearings are to be
lamped by a pneumatic cylinder A (1.0). Cylinder B(2.o) is required to operate a
rease press twice for injecting grease into the roller bearing. The assembly fixture for
reasing of roller bearings is shown in Figure 6-28. The displacement-step diagram is
hown in Figure 6-29. A pneumatic circuit has to be developed using the cascade
ethodfor implementing the control task.
he abbreviated notational representation for the given control task along with
sociated signals is given in Figure 6-32.
From Figure 6-32, it can be observed that sensors b0 and bt are actuated n,ice in
ach cycle. The signals from these sensors (also b0 and bt respectively) should be
·rected to the appropriate cascade inputs so that the required sequence can be
btained through the cascade. For example, signal bt when appearing for the first time
· the sequence is used for changing the group from Gt to G2 by appl}ing it to cascade
· put e2. And, when appearing for the second time in the sequence, signal bt is used to
hange the group from G3 to G4 by applying it to cascade input e4. This can be achieved
y combining signals from bt and Gt using an AND valve to direct the signal to input e2,
d by combining signals from bt and G3 to direct the signal to input e4 as sho"n in the
artial circuit of Figure 6-31. Similarly signals from sensor b0 can be directed to the
ppropriate inputs.
.\( 1 OJ ,. '·I
&1}01 ,, ,.I ,,
UI : >I
.11 I·' II.I I
ti .... ... : i ;....... :
: -hti~·· ,. ·{llU~}
z;.
.. ..:.
.. ..
••
I
. . .
♦ • ◊··· ·· ··· ·· ··· ··· ··· ··· · : · ·· ··· ··· ·· ··· ·◊ ·· ··(t ·· ··· ·· ··· ·· ···· ··:·· ·· ··· ·· ····! · ··· ·· ··· ··· ··· ·· ···O · ··· ·· ·· •
Gl •········· ·· ··· ·· ······ ··· ◊..................... -;.◊ ··· ···· ···· ·· ·· ¢· ············◊ ····················\·····<;> · •
GJ •• • • :•:•
" -1~ 1I •·······~···························:

.. ?
v.v :
lo a• ., 32
.. ··• ~ ~ , 7......... . ii( - -- Z<
: T T :
... ...
, , :• 'i J
:i. -~ 23
.: uo .: c, > 12
'· - ·, 3,3
• &ln
\V ri1 o:;~
StOSf
\ Y1
~:n.:ooscyth,t • • COfb!'IUOOSC)-00
Figure 6-:07 cascade cireuit for the.sequenoeA+B+B-A-C•C-.

Ciampi ng cylinder
ssembled A
bearings Pressing cylinder
B
Grease box
Fignre 6-"'8 Assembly fixture for greasing of roller bearings.
0
Figure 6-29 Displaoement-step diagram.
Start'
G1 G2 G3 G4
Figure 6-30 ::-rotational repre.<entation of the problem gi"en in ~xamP.le 6,3.
The compressed air can be supplied independently to sensor b 1 as the signal output
om sensor b1 is only applied to the inputs of the 'AND' valves. This signal alone will
ot directly influence the operation of the cascade. The outputs of the '•.>.J.~D' valves are
etermined by the group supply G1 or G3 at the other end of each 'AND' valve. The
omplet e circuit for implementing the greasing control task is given in Figyre 6-32.
G1 -- -
G2
G3
G4
/
'
e2
I "AND1 "
Cascade circuit ,_ e3
e1 e4 b,
- I ·AND2" -
(O J
T T·
L'
Figure 6-31 L<>gical association of si.,anals.
A (\ 0) .,
11
., I
B1201 .,
I
_0
1 -----,-:
.......... . " ....... .. .:
\.1 2t
··
; ·· · ~
' ·T ◄ ,·· ·►mITD•
: 2i 26: ~ 2.7
\.5
[8 '.··~···, r·····~
. .
• •
~',\ .
. . .
GI . . .
• ••◊••········· · ·············· · ·······O········· ·· ·····◊······ · ········:. . . ... ~.. (l .......... .. ............ •
G2 • ···· · ······ · ······· · ···· · ········· · ···;·
. O·······
. .
· · · ············ · ····o · ·:---···6··~---······· · ···· · · · ······ •
. :.: 0.3.::.: .: :: :.: ,m .

G3 • ···························0·········~· ~··· ·· ··· ·· ~ ······· ··· ··· ··:- . ,¢·0····· ·:··· ·· ·· ··· ··· ·· · ···· ··· · •
o,:. . . :: . e2 :
· ••
,......•rrmn
~
... ,: ..............,:...... ,:.. :..L:
=-1...,
02 , •.... ...... ! 2, : I ,
01
►-
:
··• ·
03
····6-r~ :,1 ~. ...........,
:
r•'... ····11\ l~~~ ··· ··· .". ··· ··· ··· i bQ

~ ..
.
:
:
L::l
. '
:
... .. ....
~\\
r~o.s:7
r',1 .. - 1.2
·~\\
b, - 2.3
Figure 6-3z Circuit for .-l.• B•B-B•B-.-1.-.

Limitations of Cascade l'.v1ethod
A major limiting characteristic of the cascade circuit is that the input power to the
control circuit is applied through a single connection. Thus, the compressed air may
have to pass through several valves in the cascade before a control action can be
initiated. This results in a large pressure drop if a large number of valves are connected
in series, and the response of the cascade circuit to input sensor signals tends to become
slower. Thus in practice, the number of groups is limited to four or five output signals
(three or four reversing valves).
Gl •·····················◊ ·•····•················· ·················· ·········· ············· ···········-<?··· ..

. .
G2 • ······ · · ·· · ········•• i ••··· -O················O··· ···· ·· ···· ······························· ········•:••··•
; .
G3 • ·····················=······:················ :......o, .............. -0, •........•....... . . ... .... ... ; . .. .•
: : : : : :
G4 • : : ; ; ; • •
. . . ' .; •
Re•,ersing 0.1 : : 02 ; : 0.3 : OA ;
~I,: r►~·j•2 ;··►~◄-!•3 r··►~◄ ~ ►p;
xC~V1 u~i ~\\ F~~

~4 ~ G4
Figure 6-33 Basic circuit of a 'shift register' (four groups).
Shift Register - Design and Operating Principles

A shift register is also called 'stepper sequencer'. In a shift register, 3/ 2 (or 5/2, with
port 2 blocked) memory valves are used in parallel as sho"n in Figyre 6-33. In this way,
it is possible to connect each memory valve directly to the air supply. Thus, the pressure
drop can be kept low even when there are a large number of stages. The basic circuit of
the shift register, sho,vn in Figyre 6-33, relates to the position when signal X4 is applied
through a push-button valve, and this position is also the initial position.
The three positions when signal x1, x2, and x3 are applied one after another in that
sequence through the push-buttons are shown in Figyres 6-3..4.!l!l , .(Q), and ( !;} , The
fourth position in the sequence "ith the signal X4 applied has already been shown in
Figure 6-33. It can be observed that there is a definite relationship between inputs x1,
x2, X3, and X4, and outputs G1, G2, G3, and G4, respectively.
1. Signal xi sets memory valve 0.1, generating output G1, and resets
memory valve 0.4 [Figm:e 6-3..4.(1!,)J .
2. Signal X2 sets memory valve 0.2, generating output G2, and resets
memory valve 0.1 [:E:igm:e 6-3..4(!11].
memory valve 0.2 [Figyre 6-34.(i;l] .
memory valve 0.3 [Figyre 6-33).
Here, the signals are shown applied manually by using push-buttons. However, it
should be remembered that actual signals might appear automatically through
connected sensors also.
Solution #3for Problem in Example 6.1

The stepper sequencer generates output signals one after another for the execution of
cylinder actions in response to the corresponding sensor signals from the process to
confirm the completion of cylinder actions. To maintain the order of the sequence, each
step combines the signal from the previous step using the AND valve. The pneumatic
circuit using shift register for the control task of E.xample 6.1 is given in the self-
explanatory Figyre 6-32. The notational form of the problem in Example 6.1 is given in
Figure 6-35 for ready reference.
r.· • • ••
~ • · ·· ············ ·· ·· · ·· ··· · ·· ·· ··Q·············•·Q••· · ··· · ·· ·· ···············.... . .. .. .. •
oo . ..... l O ···· ··O• -• · ···· ············· ··· ·· · ··•
0,: • · · ··· . .
"
~r,
r.· • · · · · ··· ····· ·· ·· · · · · · ·◊·· · · · ·· · · ········ ····· · ···· · · · · · · · · · · ..... .....

• ◊ •. .......... ..... ·~ ..
~ •······················i···················································l
. .······?·············O·
. ·····t··•
.
;Ii ; 02 o, ; : 34 :
; -~ - ·lli◄ •W◄- 1 , ~ . !
c1: 6 112 r c-) 6 ~ l Ji
r.· .
• · · · · ········· · · · · · ····◊·· · · · · · ········ ···· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · ·········· ··· · · · · · · ···· · · · · · ·····<>·
. •
<).l •
<)3 •
• •·•,. . 0 ·• • -• · · ••0 ·•····
•
···••·•· ••······················· ···········•••i••
• .
:
Figure 6-34 Different positions ofa four-gJ<>up shift register.

Figure 6-35 Notational form of the problem iil F,'<ample 6.1.
'b:Ci Step Module

As we have seen in the previous section, various logic functions are used in a sequential
circuit to obtain the necessary sequential output signals. Because of similarity in the use
and interconnection of logic functions in each step of the sequential circuit, it is
advantageous to modularise all the necessary control components used in each step of
the sequential circuit. A module designed as per the functional requirements of each
st ep of the control sequence is usually called as 'step module'. As is usual in a pneumatic
circuit, the last stage in the sequential circuit is set initially "ith all other stages reset.
Therefore, the design of the module for the last stage is slightly different from the design
of the modules for other stages. Various manufacturers of pneumatic components bring
out step modules to realize the functional requirements of every step of sequential
circuits.
A(1.0)
rn---ir
a.
I.I. . . .
1=
- =1 ===;:i~':
.
I
, 8 (2 0)
b.
I'
... . .. . .. ... ~ ........ .

L1 2.1 .
r.···· {J]Jl--··--·:.
... ...
.
G1 •··········· · •·6 ••· · ·◊· · ·· ···· ····9' ··········· · ····· · ·······• i ••······ ·• · ·· ·· •·· · · ····· ~······· ··· ·O ··•
' . ' . .
. .
G2 • ····· ······· ·· ·······i· ·· · ·'Q- ··· · ·l··· · ···· · · -<>
' . .
······ ··· ·0· -0 ···· · ·· ··· · · · ·· · ········ ~······· ·• •·;. .. .•
G3 •·· ··················· ' · ·· · ··;.···· · ·'.· ·· · ···· ·· ·'·····◊····'
' ' .. . · ·········O
. · ·· · ·· · ····<;>···O·········· :.;·· ·•
.
G4 •
• ...• • ...• • • ...• •
1.6 0.1 : • 2." : 0.2 . ~5 : 0.3 . 1,5 : 0.4 :
IT.J·-OJP· 1
ffi·►~ ffi·►~- rn►~ 1 1
... ... ....

.
LLLI-H-,J:11 ~\
b., :- 1.3
a. -> 2.2 b. -> 2.3
Figure 6-36 Cirolit for A•B•B-A- using shift register.
A step module consists of an integrated circuit "ith the follo\\ing three logic
functions: memory, AND, and OR. This module generates an output signal for the
execution of a movement included in the cycle after receiving a signal from the process
and a signal from the previous module. At the same time, it has the job of resetting the
p receding module through an OR valve. However, the technical realization of the step
module logic varies from manufacturer to manufacturer.
'b.,z Mo dular Sequencer

The modular sequencer (also known as st epper sequencer) is the backbone of pneumatic
sequential automation. The step module is the basic element in the sequencer, which
controls a step in the cycle. To complete a given cycle, the sequencer must consist of as
many modules as there are steps in the cycle. The modular sequencer provides control to
each step of the machine operation and receives the corresponding feedback signal. The
feedback signal initiates the next step in the cycle, and so on. Figure 6-37- shows the
block diagram of a modular sequencer with four blocks.
Outputs
A1 A2. A3 A4
,
, ,,
,
1 ••
,•
,,
,
, ,,
,
2 ,'
,•
,,
- - ,
, ,,
,
3, ,'
,
,,
,
, ,,
,
4, .,
,
,, 8
,, -+- ,, ,, ,,
A A
X1 X2 X3 X4
Feedback signals
Figure 6-37 Block diagram of a modular sequencer.
Qu estion s
1. \\'hat d o you understand by signal conflict?
2. \\'hat is the effect of signal conflict in m ultip le actuator circuit s?
3. \\'hat are the different "·ays to eliminat e signal conflicts?
4. Explain the step-displacement diagram l\i th a suitable sketch.
5. list fe"' disadvantages of using idle-return rollers for overcoming
signal conflicts.
6. Briefly ~'\.-plain the principle of cascade method.
7. Dra"' a group changing cascade circuit for: (1) hvo groups, (2) three
groups, and (3) four groups.
8. Briefly ~'\.-plain the principle of shift register as used for eliminating
signal conflicts.
9. Automatic forming machine: The simplified plan for an
automatically operated pneumatic machine using three cylinders
for parts transfer (cylinder A), parts forming (cylinder B) and parts
ejection (cylinder C) is shol\'ll in Figyr e 1 . The sequence of
operation is expressed in the notational form as A + B + A- B- C-
C+. To control the cylinders, 5/ 2-double pilot de valves are used.
Roller valves are mounted at both ends of each cylinder to provide
a feedback signal ,~ith the exception of fon,,ard end position of
cylinder B. A pressure sequence valve is used to confirm the
extended position of cylinder B. A push-button (PB) starts the cycle.
Develop a pneumatic control circuit to implement the given control
task.
8
4fr ~--_-_]
c,
C
Figure 1 Automatic forming machine.
10. A multi-position cylinder consisting of cylinder.-'\ and cylinder B is

used to operate a pneumatically-actuated sl\'itching station (Fig!!Ie
_g) for distributing " 'Ork-pieces to four different conveyors. Assume
the maximum stroke length of cylinder.-'\ as 50 mm and that of
cylinder B as 100 mm. Sl\'itching to any one of the distribution
conveyors is to be initiated by means of push-buttons (PBs), and
any desired sequence should be possible. Complete the control
scheme and develop a control circuit to accomplish the desired
control task.
PS I ~
P82~
P83 ~
P84 ~
?osibon Ois!anoe PS NolaOOil
1 0mm PSI A- 8-
A 2
3
Figure ~ 5',itching station controlled by multi-position cylinder.
11. A pneumatically controlled double-sliding door (Fig!![e 3) is to be

controlled either from an 'outside' push-button or an 'inside' push-
button.' The 'opening' and 'closing' operations are initiated by the
same push-button in each case. The speeds of the door movements
are to be controlled. Develop a pneumatic control circuit to
implement the given control task.
12. Pneumatically actuated lathe: The arrangement for an
automatically operated pneumatic lathe is sho\\n in Fig!![e 4_(;i,)..
Cylinder 1 .0 shifts the entire feed magazine to the transfer station.
Cylinder 2 .0 pushes the \\"Ork-piece into the lathe chuck. Cylinders
1.0 and 2 .0 then retract. Cylinder 3.0 moves the slide rest for\\•ard
and back. Cylinder 4.0 then ejects the ,vork-piece follo\\ing the
release of the lathe chuck. The sequence of operations of these
cylinders is sho\\'11 in the displacement-step diagram. Develop a
pneumatic control circuit to implement the given control task; (i)
for one cycle and (ii) for continuous sequence of operation.
PB2
Outside
Ilgure 3 Pneumatically oontrolledsliding door.
2 3 4 5 7 8 I
:/
""
1.0
Feed maga;:ine
I
1.0 2.0 2.0
/
"" /
0
Lalhc Chuc.'-:
I
3.0 3.0
4.0
0
1
"" /
(aj Pneumaoca!!y actuated la!he
0
""
Figure 4 Pneumatically actuated lathe.
13. An arrangement for 'feeding, clamping, processing and ejecting' of

" 'ork-pieces is sho"'ll in Figgre 5(a }. ,vork-pieces are taken from
the gravity feed magazine and placed into the de,ice by cylinder 1.0.
Next, cylinder 2 .0 extends and clamps the l\•ork-piece. Cylinder 3 .0
is used to carry out the processing. The processing time is
adjustable via a timer. Cylinder 4.0 is used to eject the " 'ork-piece.
The required sequence of operation is sho""n in the sequence
diagram. Develop a pneumatic control circuit to implement the
control task.
14. Suppl:,ing of components: Components are to be supplied to a
processing machine from the discharge rail of a ,ibrator conveyor
as sho,\n in Figg1:e 6(1!,).. Cylinder 1.0 extends and picks up the
component from the discharge rail and then retracts. Cylinder 2.0
extends and shifts the component to the machine. Cylinder 1.0
extends once again, lo'\\ ering and dropping the component to the
0
machine. •<\t the end, cylinders 1.0 and 2.0 retract one after
another. The required sequence of operation is shol\'11 in the
sequence diagram. Develop a pneumatic control circuit to
\ 2 3 4 S 6 7
1
• I I •
\.0 0 / I I"'-
1
2.0 O
'
I/
/
-
l
1"'-
"
3.0 O
1
/
"
4,0 O
I I I
(a) Processing ol work-pieces (bj Disp!acemenl-slep diagram
Figures Processing of work-pieces.
1.0
2.0
2 3 5 6 7 =1
1
1.0
0
2.0 1
-
Cll c,Cll
0
Vibrator conveyor
{a) S" pplying of componen1s (bl Disp1acemen1-S1.ep diagram
Figure 6 Suppl)ing of components.
15. Pneumatic flanging device..<\ pipe is to be flanged in h,·o steps in a

pneumatic flanging device as sho\\n in Figm::e 7~).. Cylinder 2.0 is
in the extended position initially to act as a stop for the advancing
pipe. Cylinder 1.0 extends and clamps the pipe, and subsequently
cylinder 2.0 retracts. Flanging cylinder 3.0 ea'\.1:ends for the first
time for the prelinlinary flanging operation and then retracts. The
tool S\\itchover is performed by cylinder 4.0, and flanging cylinder
3.0 is in action for a second time for the final flanging operation.
The complete retraction of cylinder 3.0 triggers the return motion
of clamping cylinder 1.0 and tool 5',itching cylinder 4.0 and
fonvard motion of position cylinder 2.0. The required sequence of
operation is sho\\n in the sequence diagram. Develop a pneumatic
control circuit to implement the control task.
16. Pneumatic system for reaming of drill holes: A pneumatic system is
designed for reaming of drill holes as sho"n in Figm:e 8(;i.),.
Cylinder 1.0 clamps the ,vork-piece. Feed cylinder 2.0 moves fully
fonvard and then back\,,ard \\ith facility for controlling the speed
differentially. The feed cycle is repeated two more times. The
required sequence of operation is sho"n in the sequence diagram
[Figm:e SCT!)J . Develop a pneumatic control circuit to implement the
control task.
23.!567 69 °10
Teel SN.~ct:mg cyliOOer Flanging C)'lindet

1.0 v I
I
I
jtj-
'
"' / /
2.0
0
3.0
r"-.
,I
/
"'
'"
/
i I
(b>D.splace:nent•step diagr;;m
Figure 7 Pneumatic flanging de1ice.

1
Clamping C)'...l!'!er 2 3 5 6 7 3 9=I
I
2 I0
Fc-edc ,fo~cr
2.0
(a) Reaming ol drill holes (b) 0.isp!acernen!•ste;> cli;;g1arn
Figure 8 Pneumatic system for reaming of drill holes.

7 Electro-Pnet1matics
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Explain the advantages of integrating pneumatic power system to electrical control

system.
• Describe the construction and principle of operation of solenoid valves.
• Explain the operation of simple electrical control devices such as push-buttons,
relays, etc.
• Differentiate between dominant-ON and dominant-OFF latching circuits.
• Explain the operation of control devices like electrical/electronic sensors, timers,
counters, pressure s"itch etc.
• l\lake a comparison among various types of proximity sensors.
• Understand the function of sinking output sensor and sourcing output sensor.
• Design and develop single-actuator electro-pneumatic circuits for memory, logic, and
time-delay controls.
• Understand the two-hand safety operation ,vith anti-tie down and anti-repeat
features.
• Design and develop multiple-actuator electro-pneumatic circuits.
• Explain the idea of modular valve t echnology.
E lectro-pneumatic automation consists of an electrical control system operating a
pneumatic power system. In this automation, solenoid valves are used as interfaces
ben,·een electrical and pneumatic systems. Devices such as limit S\\itches and proximity
sensors are used as feedback elements in automatic electro-pneumatic systems.
This chapter explains the functioning of solenoid valves and various electrical
control components, such as push-buttons (PBs), relays, sensors, timers, counters, etc.
The objective of this chapter is to help the reader gain a thorough understanding of relay
circuits "ith the help of typical examples. The relay circuits generally increase in
complexity and the reader is encouraged to work through them in sequence.
The examples in this chapter provide an insight into a range of control circuits that
can be constructed to solve application problems. The possibilities are restricted only by
the ingenuity of the designer.
A piece of advice for pneumatic circuit designers:
1. Use reliable and " 'ell-kno,~n design techniques.

2. l\fake circuits and documentation that are clear to read and
understand.
3. Design for safety.
4. Do not attempt to be too clever, the circuit ·will be complicated for
others to
read and maintain.
!7.:1 Introduction
Various kinds of energy medium can be utilised "ithin a factory or even "ithin a
production machine to permit optimum utilisation of different drives and controls. One
method of classifying these controls is based on the type of physical phenomenon
employed in generating signals. This method, as you know, classifies the control
medium into these categories: mechanical, electrical, electronics, pneumatics, and
hydraulics. In a typical control system, incoming signals are processed in one control
medium and then converted into the required output in the same medium or in a
different medium using signal converters. An example of a signal converter is the
solenoid valve that can generate pneumatic or hydraulic signals quite easily in response
to electrical signals. Thus, it is possible t o work "ith different forms of energy >vithin a
control system "ith the use of signal converters.
A control system has three basic divisions corresponding to its main tasks:
information gathering, processing, and taking action. The information section consists
of pilot devices or sensors to keep track of the signal inputs. In this section, devices such
as limit s"itches, magnetically actuated proximity s,,itches, electronic sensors, etc. are
used to sense such parameters as position, current, voltage, overload, frequency,
t emperature, pressure, etc. This information is passed to the processing devices such as
relays, logic elements, pressure s"itches, etc. The function of these devices, that is
processors, is to modify and direct the received signals to final control elements which,
in turn, control the output devices such as actuators employed for taking the necessary
action.
ltg Integration of Technologies

The integration of pneumatic and electrical technologies has played a vital role in the
optimum design and development of a large number of industrial production systems.
In complex applications, electrical controls are employed almost exclusively. The
electrical actuation of pneumatic valves has certain advantages over pure pneumatic
controls. A few of them are enlisted below:
1. Speedy signal transmission over great distances.

2. Signalling components are cheaper.
3. Less air required in electro-pneumatic systems.
4. Flexibility in the development and alteration of controls.
5. Cost-effective and efficient production systems can be easily
designed.
6. Electric \\'ires are easier run than pneumatic tubing if distances are
substantial.
7. Electrical control de~ices act as the interface bern,een other po,ver
media and PLCs.
8. Only electrical controls offer systematic and easily understandable
means for programming complea-..: machinery.
z.3. Solenoid Valves

As you know, pneumatic valves can be actuated manually, pneumatically, or electrically.
In the electrical actuation, the necessary actuating force is developed electrically to
operate a solenoid valve. A solenoid valve is a converter that generates pneumatic
outputs in response to electrical input signals - either directly or remotely, and acts as
an interlace between the electric/ electronic control systems and pneumatic power
systems. Through solenoid valves, the advantages of both the media can be exploited.
Solenoid valves are classified into three categories: (1) direct acting valves, (2) pilot-
operated valves, and (3) proportional valves.
Z•~ Fundamentals
The magnetic effects of electric current can be used for implementing various t echnical
functions. \\'hen electric current is passed through a straight "ire, magnetic lines of
force are generated around the "ire in a particular direction as shown in Figure z- 1(j!)..
The direction of magnetic lines of force depends on the direction of current flow.
However, this force, shown in Figure z-l(l!l., is distributed over the length of the \\ire and
cannot be employed for any useful purpose.
To concentrate the magnetic lines of force, the "ire is wound in the form of a long
cylindrical coil (also known as solenoid) as shown in Figure z -1(Q).. \'\'hen electric
current is passed through the coil, a strong magnetic field is developed in the coil "ith
its one end acting as the North Pole and the other end as the South Pole. The direction of
the magnetic field is given by the right-hand grip rule. It states: the thumb points to the
North Pole of an electromagnet while the current flows in the direction of fingers. To
strengthen the magnetic force, a soft iron core is introduced inside the solenoid. The
strength of the magnetic field depends on the follo,,ing factors: (1) the number of turns
of the coil, (2) the magnitude of the current, and (3) the nature of the core material.
Conducior
,. ..... Lines cf force
. . ."
Lines of force
~:~~
:
.::>!,
.
..... . ., , ,
..•,
' •.
....
. .. ~
+
(i) Curtent flow$ c1,rl
Coil
(ii) Cur,et1t flows in
(a) Straighl conductor (b/ Solenc,o

l1gure 7-1 Ma,.onetic effect ofelectric currenL
A useful property of the coil is that the core substance, that is displaced from the
coil centre, is pulled back towards the centre when current is passed through the coil.
This linear force can be used for actuating a valve.
/t5 DC Solenoids vs AC Solenoids

As explained in the previous section, a solenoid consists of a coil and a movable iron
core used to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. A solenoid is usually
designed for AC voltage or DC voltage operation. A solenoid designed for AC voltage
operation is called an AC solenoid and a solenoid designed for DC voltage operation is
called a DC solenoid. AC and DC solenoids have been compared ";th regard to their core
construction, beha,; our during switching-on, beha,;our during S\\;tching-off, and
miscellaneous characteristics in the follo,dng sub-sections.
Core Construction
The core of a DC solenoid consists of a solid soft iron providing optimum conductance
for the magnetic field, thus ensuring a simple and rugged design. The heat losses during
the operation of DC solenoids depend on the coil resistance and the current magnitude.
The operation of solenoids " ith AC currents introduces hysteresis and eddy current
losses in the core additionally. Hence, the armature of an AC solenoid consists of
laminated metal sheets to reduce iron losses. However, there is still a substantial
t emperature rise when an AC solenoid is in operation.
Behaviour ofSolenoid during Switching-on

'When the coil of a DC solenoid is switched on, maximum power is developed before the
armature can be pulled in. But, to hold the armature only little amount of power is
needed, and the rest of the power is given off as heat. In contrast, the coils of AC
solenoids are inductive in nature. Therefore, when an AC solenoid coil is 5',itched on, a
higher initial current is dra\\n from the supply, and consequently a large pulling force is
developed.
Behaviour ofSolenoid during Switching-off

'When a coil is 5',itched off, the collapsing magnetic field induces current tJ:J,ing to keep
the coil energised. The induced current appears as a high negative voltage at the
s"itching contacts. This causes a series of arcs across the contacts. This arcing may
damage the contacts. Hence, it is necessary to suppress the induced arcs. If the ends of
the coil were connected at the moment of 5',itch-off, the induced current would flow
around the coil at a low voltage, and die out typically in about a few hundred
milliseconds. For DC solenoids, the arc suppression is attained automatically by
connecting a diode across the coil. For AC coils, the utilization of diode " ill result in
short circuits, and hence a voltage-dependant resistor (VDR) has to be connected across
the coil for arc suppression.
Other Ilfiscellaneous Solenoid Characteristics

DC solenoids are characterised by quiet s" itching action, and they require low turn-on
power and low holding power. AC solenoids are characterised by short S\\itching times
and the development of large pulling force. However, DC solenoids are subjected to large
induced contact wear and over-voltages during cut-off. The drawbacks of AC solenoids
are high mechanical stresses, shorter service life and buzzing noise. AC solenoid is
designed \\ith a lower resistance than that of DC solenoid because the current "ill be
limited by AC solenoid's inductance. If you use DC power on an AC coil, the coil "ill
probably burn up. If you use an AC power on a DC coil, the coil may not develop
sufficient force due to the current being limited by inductance.
,z;c, 3/2-Way Single Solenoid Valve,

Spring Return
The cross-sectional ,iews of a 3/2-way single solenoid valve in the normal and actuated
positions are sho"n in Figure 7-2. In the normal position, port 1 is blocked and port 2 is
connected to port 3. \\.'hen rated voltage is applied to the coil 12, the armature is pulled
towards the centre of the coil, and in the process the armature is lifted away from the
valve seat. The compressed air now flows from port 1 to port 2 , and port 3 is blocked.
'When the voltage to the coil is removed, the valve returns to the normal position. The
manual override facility is usually provided on all solenoid valves as a standard feature.
This can be used to s"itch the valve manually by turning a screw (preferably eccentric)
provided for the purpose. This valve is used as a final control element to control single-
acting cylinders. Visual indication of the O;J./OFF state of the solenoid coils is helpful for
monitoring and fault finding. This feature can be incorporated in the plug housing with
a light-emittin g diode (LED) or a neon lamp.
3 3
12 12
(a) Normal position

Figure 7-2 3j 2-way single solenoid ,'ah-. (spring retum) and its s;mboL
" nJn
~
i,J,!]
"
V
.
'
._ ID<I
V ~
I '
.
!\/
I
~It!
I -fl: i:= I I
3 3
Figure 7-3 5/ 2-w~, single solenoid ,ah-. (spring retum) and its simboL
/t7i 5/2-'\Vay Single Solenoid Valve,

Spring Return
The cross-sectional views of a 5/2-way single solenoid valve in the normal and actuated
positions are shown in Figme ::z:3. In the normal position, port 1 is connected to port 2,
port 4 is connected to port 5, and port 3 is blocked. \\'hen rated voltage is applied to the
coil 14, the valve is actuated through an internal pilot valve. In this position, port 1 is
connected to port 4, port 2 is connected to port 3, and port 5 is blocked. The valve
returns to the normal position when the voltage to the coil is removed. This type of valve
can be used as final control elements to control double-acting cylinders.
~ 8 5/ 2-'\Vay Double Solenoid Valve

The cross-sectional views of a 5/ 2-way double-solenoid valve in the normal and actuated
positions are sho\\n in Figure 7--4. \\'hen rated voltage is applied to the coil 14, the valve
is actuated to a one 5',itching position "ith port 1 connected to port 4, port 2 connected
to port 3, and port 5 blocked. \\'hen rated voltage is applied to the coil 12, the valve is
actuated to the other S\\itching position "ith port 1 connected to port 2, port 4
connected to port 5, and port 3 blocked. The valve remains in a particular position due
to the application of a pulse or continuous signal to the coil at one end as long as no
opposing signal is presented to the coil at the other end. Hence, this valve shows
memory characteristics similar to a double-pilot valve as explained in Chapter 5.
Further, it can be seen that when control voltages are applied to both coils of the valve
simultaneously, the valve \\ill not be able to s"itch the existing position due to signal
conflict. This case is similar to a double-pilot valve described in Chapt er 5.
1z·g Industrial Control Voltages

In earlier days, the control voltages used in industries were 230 V AC, 110 V AC, etc.
However, the tendency was to reduce the control voltage to a lower level from the
operator's safety point of view. The human body is susceptible to electric shock when an
electric current flows through its any part due t o a potential difference (voltage) across
that part. The severity of the shock depends on how much current is flo\\ing through
which part of the body and for how long. It also depends on certain other conditions like
body resistance, environmental factors etc. Therefore, the control voltage was reduced to
a lower level to lessen the dangerous effects of electric shock on humans. The type of
supply was also changed from AC to DC due to many advantages of DC supply. At
present, 24 V DC is the standard industrial control voltage. A DC power pack may be
used to convert 230 V AC to 24 V DC. The possible voltage levels for electrical
components, used in industrial production, are
2 4
2 '
>2
" •
V V
<a) S9na1 <1p;ihe<:! !O 12 t:>l Si5na1apit,eo 10 14
Figure 7-4 5/2-way double solenoid ,:alve and its S}mbol.
1, 12\'DC
2, 24VDC
3. 24V50/60Hz
4, 48 \' 50/60 Hz
110/120 \' 50/60 Hz
6. 220/230 V 50/60 Hz
iz.10 Control Devices

l'.lany a time a technician is overwhelmed by the complexity and size of control systems
for industrial applications like automatic manufacturing assembly lines or other
multiple machine environments. However, this complexity is no issue for those who
understand the fundamentals of control and the principle of operation of basic control
components. The overall control system, considered complex, is actually made up of a
series of individual control circuits involving these basic control components and their
functions. Some basic components are: push-buttons, limit s"itches, float S\\itches,
pressure S\\itches, flow S\\itches, thermostats, relays, proximity sensors, timers,
count ers, etc. The functional aspects of many control components and some typical
control circuits are presented in the follo"ing sections. A list of important graphic
symbols used for electrical components is given in Appendix 2 .
17;1• S"'itch
An electrical S\\itch is a de,ice consisting essentially of a set of control contacts for
making or breaking an electrical circuit. A control contact is the conducting part of the
S\\itch that permits a circuit to be made when it touches another contact. S\\itches are
used in all sorts of electrical circuits, whether they are for power applications or control
applications. In control applications, S\\itches are integrated as control contacts in
various pilot devices such as push-buttons, limit S\\itches, float S\\itches, pressure
S\\itches, etc. The purpose of control contacts is to present electrical signals from various
points of control system to the area of signal processing.
iz.12 Push-Button
A push-button is a S\\itch used to close or open an electric control circuit. This de,ice
consists of a set of fixed and movable contacts and a restraining spring. Pressing the
push-button against the restraining spring operates its contacts. Push-buttons are of two
types: (1) momentary-contact type and ( 2) maintained-contact type (or detent ty-pe). In
the momentary-contact ty-pe, the contacts are operated only when the push-button is
continuously pressed, and the contacts return to their normal position when the push-
button is released. In the maintained-contact ty-pe, the contacts are operated when the
push-button is pressed and they remain in that position even if the actuating force is
removed. The contacts return to the original position only when the push-button is
pressed again.
The contacts of the push-buttons, distinguished according to their functions, are as
follows: (1) normally open (NO)-ty-pe, (2) normally closed (:'<C)-ty-pe, and (3) change-
over (CO)-ty-pe. The cross-sections of various ty-pes of push-buttons in the normal and
actuated positions and their S}m bols are given in Figure Z:5• In the NO-type, the
contacts are open in the normal position, inhibiting the energy flow through them. But
in the actuated position, the contacts are closed, permitting the energy flow through
them. In the NC-ty-pe, the contacts are closed in the normal position, permitting the
energy flow through them. And, the contacts are open in the actuated position,
inhibiting the energy flow through them. A changeover contact is a combination of :'<O
and NC contacts.
In the flush-ty-pe design of push-buttons, the end of the actuating head of the push-
button is flush " ith the S\\itch guard making it difficult to actuate the S\\itch
accidentally. A push-button "ith a mushroom-shaped actuator is called mushroom head
push-button. The mushroom-shaped actuator makes it easy to operate the push-button
in certain requirements such as emergency stop. The function of this S\\itch is to remove
all power from the control circuitry of the associated machine when pressed, and
therefore it shuts down the machine immediately and completely.
1Z !3 Terminal Markings
0
To identify the t erminals of a contact, they are designated "ith a set of numbers based
on the function of the contact. The numbering system for the contact terminals is given
in Table Z:!,
i]_:141 Push-Button Station
Probably, the most used among the pilot de,ices in semi-automatic controls is the push-
button station because this de,ice is compact and less expensive. This device consists of
a number of contact (NO, NC, or CO) pairs/sets ivith a common actuation. Figure 7-6(a)
shows the symbol of a momentary-contact type push-button station "ith a contact
configuration of 2 NO + 2 NC. Figure 7-6(g). shows the symbol of a maintained-contact
type push-button station \\ith a contact configuration of 2 NO + 2 NC. To designate the
terminals of a contact in the push-button station, a pair of successive two-digit numbers
is used. In the two-digit number, the unit place indicates the function of the contact (i.e.,
whether it is an NO- or NC-type). The digit at the ten's place merely represents a serial
ordering of all contact pairs in the push-button station for identifying each contact pair
uniquely. In push-button stations, the actuating force increases as the number of
contacts increases. For this reason, the number of contacts is usually limited in push-
button stations.
(b)Actua:00 position (C) Symbol
NC-type
[ ..
2
la) Ncnna,1posijo,i (b)Actua:oo position (CJ Symbol

F
CO·ly;:e
(a) Nconal posi:ion (b)AcllJa:ed-posi:ion (c) Symbol
Figure i·S 'I',-pes of push-buttons and their symbols.

Table 7-1Terminal markings of electric contacts
Type of pilot device 1'trminal numbers of

NC co11tacl
O rdinary d t•vin •s ( PBs, r(•lays. N C.} I and 2 ) a nd 4
S1x.•cial dt·vi<·('s ('f imc.- rs, roun rC'ts, N C.) 5 and 6 7 a nd K
(a) Momen1ary-oon1ac1type PB S!alion (2N0 •2NC) (b) Mainlained-oonlacl type PB Slalion (2N0•2NC)
Figure 7-6 Push-button stations.
Example 7.1: Direct control of a single-acting cylinder

Control task: A single-acting cylinder is to e:l.tend when a push-button (PB) is
ressed. The cylinder is to retract when the PB is released. •4 3/ 2-way single solenoid
•alve, rated for a coil voltage of 24 V DC, controls the cylinder. Develop a pneumatic
ower circuit and an electrical control circuit to implement the control task.
electro-pneumatic circuit diagram is usually dra\\n " ith two distinctive parts. First,
e pneumatic circuit is dra"n, and then the electrical circuit is dra" n just below the
neumatic circuit. The interface between the pneumatic and electrical elements is the
olenoid coil 12 that appears on both the circuits "ith a common designation.
The desired control task by the single-acting cylin der is illustrated "ith two circuits
· Figures 7-z.(1!.l and _(!l).. The PB actuation generates current flow through solenoid coil
and actuates valve 1.1 as shown in Figure :cz.(9 ).. The com pressed air then flows from
ort 1 to port 2 of the valve, and the cylinder extends.
\ \'hen the PB is released, the electrical circuit is interrupted. The solenoid coil is de-
nergised, and the valve returns to its original position as sho\\n in Figyre :cz(g).. The
ompressed air in the cylinder then exhausts through port 3 of the valve, and the
,linder retracts to its rear-end position.
10 1.0
Pneumatic circuit
1.1 2 1.1 •
:2
Electric circuit
+24V - - - - - ~ T
· 24V •------- ----,•
•
PB + PB h
ov-----~ ov •------- ----·

(a) Position when cylinder is extended (b) Position when cylinder is retracted
Figure 7-i Two positions of the circuit for the direct control ofaingle-acting ciiinder as per E.mnple 7.1.
Example 7_2: Direct control of a double-acting cylinder

Control task: .4 double-acting cylinder is to extend when a PB is pressed and to
etract when the PB is released. •4 5/2-way single solenoid valve controls the cylinder.
evelop a pneumatic power circuit and an electrical control circuit to implement the
ontrol task.
olution
he circuits for the desired control task by the double-acting cylinder are illustrated in
Figure z-8. The PB actuation generates a current flow through solenoid coil Y and
ctuates valve 1.1 as shown in Figure 7.-S(A).. The compressed air then flows from port 1
o port 4 of the valve and reaches the piston side of the cylinder. The compressed air
om the other side of the cylinder exhausts through port 3 of the valve. As a result, the
,linder extends to its forward end position.
v\lhen the PB is released, the electrical circuit is interrupted. The solenoid coil is de-
nergised, and the valve then returns to its original position as shown in Figure 7-S(Q)..
he supply air flows from port 1 to port 2 of the valve and reaches the piston-rod side of
e cylinder. The compressed air from the other side of the cylinder exhausts through
ort 5 of the valve. As a result, the cylinder retracts to its rear-end position.
!Z !5Relay
A relay can be considered as an electro-magnetically actuated S\\itch that operates under
the control of an additional electrical circuit. It is a simple electrical device used mainly
for signal processing. This s"itch is designed to "ithstand hea,y power surges and harsh
environmental conditions. The cross-section of a relay and its 5ymbol are shown in
Figure :z=9. The relay consists of a coil and few sets of stationary and movable contacts.
It also consists of a stationary core and movable core to conduct the magnetic field. The
fi.xed core is placed inside the coil to strengthen the magnetic field of the coil. The
movable contacts are coupled to the movable core. Therefore, when the coil is energised,
the movable core is pulled to the stationary core, thus operating all its coupled contacts
simultaneously. This movement either makes or breaks every connection "ith the
respective fixed contact. A large number of control contacts can be incorporated in
relays in contrast to the case of a push-button station. Relays are usually designated as
K1, K2, K3, etc.
1.0 1.0
!:
I' 1 11
'
: I
, __ - -- - --- .
1.1 4 :2 1.1 4. 2
'
' '
y
3
1 1
- -;-24V •- --- --- --- -,
+24V
PB + PB
h
v I ZrZ
ov-- - ~ ov • ........... :'
Figure 7-8 TM>positions of the circuit for the direct control of double-acting cyfuider as per f .xample 7.2,
Restraining spring
,·· Contacts
Coil Contacts
◄ Terminals
(a) Relay cross-section (b) Symbols

Figure 7-9 Relay.
Relays are generally used to accept information from pilot de,iC€s like sensors and
convert this information into a proper power level. Because a relay is able to govern an
output circuit having higher power than an input circuit, it can be regarded, in a broad
sense, as an electrical amplifier. Relays lend themselves to many control applications
including automation because of their low cost, easy adaptability and high operating
speed. They can perform many functions required by the basic automatic controls. A
relay also possesses interlocking capability that is an important safety feature in control
circuits. This feature needs to be incorporated in situations where the simultaneous
s"itching of C€rtain coils "ill result in short-circuits or other undesirable operations.
Relays can be used to prevent accidental s\\itching of these coils simultaneously with
their interlocking capability.
Example 7.3: Relay control
Control task: .4 large volume double-acting cylinder is to be controlled by using a
-/2-way single solenoid valve. The cylinder is to extend when the PB is pressed and to
etract when the PB is released. Develop an electro-pneumatic control circuit to
'mplement this control task.
olution
he operation of the circuit required for the given control task is illustrated in Figure
z -10. The PB actuation energises relay coil K and consequently all of its contacts are
perated. Solenoid coil Y is energised through the :'<O contact of the relay in branch 2
using the actuation of valve 1.1 as illustrated in Figyre 7- 10(11,).. The cylinder then
:...'tends to its final forward-end position.
1.0 1.0
II :
......... ..
,
1.1 4: 2
1
1 2 1 2
·>24V • • ;,24V •···· ······ 1 ···············:
•
PB h K \
'
•
'
K '---r-' y
ov-- - ------<
N~ I NC
ov •·· ·~···9.········
I N~
~··¥Z
NC
J1g,Jre 7·101\," positions of the circuit for the indirect control ofdouble-acting cylinder using a relay as per
ExamP.!e 7.,3.
\\'hen the PB is released, the electrical circuit in branch 1 is interrupted. Both the
elay coil and the solenoid coil are de-energised, and the valve returns to its original
osition as illustrated in Figure 'Z=!Q!Q).. The cylinder then retracts to its rear-end
osition.
It is usual to show the consolidated information of the positions of the control
ontacts of relay K in the circuit diagram just below the symbol of the relay coil. For
xample, the use of the NO contact of the relay in branch 2 of the electrical circuit is
dicated below the coil as shown in Figure 7-- 10.
~ Logic Controls, Electric

The essence of a logic control circuit is in recognizing that a certain input condition
exists in a controlled system for making an appropriate response. It needs control
signals from sensing de,ices to trigger the logic response. Signals are the basis for all
industrial controls. They fall into two categories: (i) analog, and (ii) digital. A digital
signal is a discrete signal of definite short duration. A pulse is an example of a digital
signal. An analog signal is a continuous signal that represents some quantity or value
over a period of time. A signal from a tacho-generator is an example of an analog signal.
Logic functions are primarily concerned "ith digital signals.
The term 'logic' is usually associated "ith the human thinking process. vVe, the
human beings, take logic decisions based on information drawn from various inputs.
Similarly, logic devices are designed to carry out decision-making functions (outputs)
based on a number of input signals from push-buttons or sensors representing certain
conditions of the associated machines or systems.
The logic function is a means of expressing a definite condition. The rules of logic
functions have already been standardized. Two of the most important basic logic
functions are: 'AJ\.1D' and 'OR'. Logic circuits can be employed to obtain these logic
functions. These circuits can permit or inhibit signal transmissions "ith certain
combinations of control signals. The functions of AND logic and OR logic are described
here. In the AND logic function, there is an output only when all the inputs are present.
An example of the A-'<D logic function is a cylinder that ei,,1:ends only when its safety
guard is placed in position, and a 'start' signal is given. In the OR logic function, there is
an output when one or more inputs are present. An example of the OR logic function is a
lamp that is controlled from one or more positions.
X X
>=1 A & A
y y
X y A X y A
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
(a) OR logic (b) AND logic

Figure i·ll Block diagrams and truth tables for'OR' and 'Al,"D' logic functions.
Signal levels in logic devices are characterised by the follo\\ing nvo states - the logic
'1' state and the logic 'o' state. The designation of the states is chosen arbitrarily. Usually,
logic '1' represents an ON state, and logic 'o' represents an OFF state. The block
diagrams and truth tables for the OR logic and the AND logic are again given in Figures
z-11( 9). and _Cg)., respectively.
Logic controls involving pneumatic elements were explained in Section 5.22 of
Chapter 5. Basic logic functions can also be implemented quite easily using sinlple
electrical circuits. A parallel connection of input devices "ill give an OR function. Its
operation is illustrated in the self-explanatory Figyre 7.-12~). for the control of a lamp
using n1·0 push-buttons in parallel. A series connection of input de,ices such as push-
buttons and sensors "ill give an AND function. Its operation is illustrated in Figure
z-12("!!). for the control of a lamp using two push-buttons in series. Any complex logic
function can also be set up easily by a series-parallel connection of input devices.
,24V
,24V , 24V
----- - ···········~ '
•·........ :
~ 24\I
' '
'
PBl t PB1 P81 P(
. .... .. .- . ..· '

PB2 t E-1. PB2 t t-\
Lamp l amp 0 Lamp ~ lamp
ov ov•········j __J
ov
(a) OR oontrol (b) AND control
Figure 7-1:0 Logic oontrols ofa lamp wing two push-buttons.
17_.17, Memory Function

A memory function 'remembers' the state of the last output even after the input signal
(ON) responsible for this output has been removed. To 'reset' the memory function,
another input signal (OFF) needs to be given. Let us understand the memory function in
detail. A momentary signal from the ON input turns the memory element to the ON
state. This element " ill remain in the o::-, state until a momentary signal from the OFF
input is applied. After receiving the OFF input signal, the memory element remains in
the OFF state till another ON input signal is given. The normal control of a lamp using a
mechanically latched toggle s" i tch in our home is a familiar example of a memory
control. 'When we press the s" itch, it turns to one side and S\\itches the lamp to the ON
state. The lamp remains in the ON state till we press the s" i tch again to turn it to the
other side, that is the lamp is S\\itched to the OFF state, and it remains in that state till
another ON input signal is given. An electrical latching relay circuit, explained in
Exam~7..4, is another example of the memory function.
Example 7.4: Latching circuit

Control task: A double-acting cylinder is to be controlled using a 5/2-way single
olenoid valve. fvnen push-button PB1 is pressed, the cylinder is to e>..tend and remain
·n that position even when PB1 is released. The cylinder is to retract to the home
osition when push-button PB2 is pressed. Also, the cylinder is to remain in the home
osition even when PB2 is released. Develop an electro-pneumatic control circuit with
n electrical latching circuit as part of it.
neurnatic circuit: The pneumatic part of the circuit is given in Figyre 7.-13. In the
neumatic circuit, a double-acting cylinder is controlled by 5/ 2-way single solenoid
•alve as shown in Figure 2=!3• The two positions of the circuit when coil Y is energised
d de-energised are shown in Figures 7.-13.~). and .(Ql, respectively.
To control the coil Y, an electrical latching circuit can be constructed " ith the
ollo"ing control components: (1) an ::-,o push-button for the 'Oc'<' or 'Start' control, (2)
NC push-button for the 'OFF' or 'Stop' control, and (3) a relay. The latching circuit
n be developed in any of the follO\sing two modes depending upon the dominant
osition (ON or OFF) of the circuit (relay coil) when both the 'Start' and 'Stop' signals
e applied simultaneously.
1.0 1.0
I~ :
'
1 11 : I
•--------- ..
1.1 4 :' 2 1.1 4: 2
yt y
1 1
a) Position when cylinder is extended (b) Position when cylinder is retracted
Figure 7-13 Control circuit (pneumatic port) for the control task stated in FRample ?.,A.
1. 'Dominant OFF' circuit

2. 'Dominant ON' circuit
he operation of these circuits is explained in the follo"ing sections.
iz.18 Operation of the 'Dominant

OFF' Circuit
The electrical circuit of the 'dominant OFF' control is given in Figure z-14. An additional
position of the circuit is also given for quick analysis of the circuit. The follo,dng actions
take place when the 'Start' push-button is pressed and then released (that is due to the
application of a short pulse through PB1):
1. Relay coil K1 in branch 1 is energised, operating all of its contacts.

2. The first NO contact of Kl., used in branch 2, latches the 'Start'
push-button (PB1) by pro,iding a parallel path for the current flo,v
so that relay coil Kl remains energised even "·hen the push-button
(PB1) is released. This latched position of the circuit is sho\\n in
Figyi;:e 7•!.J_(a)..
3. The secon d contact of Kl, used in branch 3, S\\itches the s olenoid
valve. The cylinder extends and remains in that position until the
'Stop' push-button (PB2) is press ed.
The follo\\i ng actions take place when the 'Stop' push-button (PB2) is pressed and then
released (that is due to the application of a short pulse through PB2):
1. Relay coil Kl is de-energised as the relay coil circuit is interrupted.

2. All the control contacts of relay Kl return to the n ormal position .
This un-latched p osition of the circuit is sho"'ll in Fig!!,re 7-·!4.(!!)..
3. The cylinder retracts and remains in that position until the 'Start'
push-button (PB1) is pressed again.
1 2 3 1 2
+24V •
•.... ...3
+24V • · •••• •• .•. • · • ••• ••. •• ·•. •.•• ••.•. •
...
J K1 tII . ..
E-\. K1 t I E-\
.
PB1 PBl
...
~
...... ..... .. :,
P82
1 y -·
PB2t1
..
ov •
K1I
? ov
K1 [ j
.. ..
• · · ··· ····· • ··· ····· ···· ····· ·····:
~
~ 3 ~
{a) Ciro,it in lhe latched POSilion {b) Circuil in the un-latched POSition
Figure 7-14 Dominant OFF circuit.

1 2 3 1 2 3
~24V • +24V • · . . •• . . . •. 40 _ • •• ••• •• • · • •• •• ••• •• ,
' I
T ,
..
'
'
''
'
E.\
' '
~ E-\ K1 ti PS I K1 \
''
-
'
'
'
'
'
'
P82 PB2 f:-7
'
' '
• ········ ·· ·~'
K1 .......,.~
y Kl 0
ov
•·
• ..........
~
'
'
.. .. ... .. ... .. ... .. .. :
'
'
~
(a) Circuit in the latched position (bi Circuit in the un-lalched position
Figure i·lS Dominant ON circuit
17, 19 Operation of the 'Dominant

ON'Circuit
The circuit of 'dominant ON' control is given in Figyre 7--15. Analysis of this circuit
reveals that its operation is similar to the operation of the dominant OFF circuit when
either the 'Start' push-button PB1 or the 'Stop' push-button PB2 is pressed, as e:,.1>lained
in the earlier section. The following actions take place when the 'Start' push-button is
pressed and then released:
1. Relay coil Kt in branch 1 is energised, operating all of its contacts.

2. The first NO contact of Kt, used in branch 2, latches the 'Start'
push-button PB1 b y pro,iding a parallel path for the current flo"' so
that relay coil Kt remains energised even ·when push-button PB1 is
released. This latched position of the circuit is sho"n in Figm:e
7::!5(~1-
3. The second contact of Kl, used in branch 3, s\\".itches the solenoid
valve. The cylinder extends and remains in that position until the
'Stop' push-button PB2 is pressed.
The following actions take place when the 'Stop' push-button PB2 is pressed and
then released:
1. Relay coil Kl is de-energised as the relay coil circuit is interrupted.

2. All the control contacts of relay Kl return to the normal position.
This un-latched position of the circuit is sho\\'ll in Figyre 7--15.(!;il .
3. The cylinder retracts and remains in that position until the 'Start'
push-button PB1 is pressed again.
However, the main difference between the dominant-OFF and dominant-ON

circuits \\ill be evident when both the 'Start' push-button (PB1) and the 'Stop' push-
button (PB2) are pressed simultaneously. In the first case, the circuit goes to the 'OFF'
state, hence the name 'dominant OFF' circuit. In the second case, the circuit goes to the
'ON' state, hence the name 'dominant ON' circuit.
Exaniple 7.5: l\femocy control by using a double-

solenoid valve
Control task: A double-acting cylinder is to be controlled using a 5/2-way double-
olenoid valve. When push-button PB1 is pressed, the cylinder is to e:..tend and has to
emain in this position even when push-button PB1 is released. ll'hen push-button PB2
· pressed, the cylinder is to retract to the home position and has to remain in that
osition even when push-button PB2 is released. Develop an electro-pneumatic control
ircuitfor this operation.
olution
n Example Z·!I, the memory was implemented in the electrical part using the latching
ircuit. A memory function can also be implemented in the pneumatic part by using a
ouble-solenoid valve as shown in Figure 7--16.
\\'hen push-button PB1 is pressed, coil Y1 is energised through relay Ki, and valve
1.1 S\Vitches over. The cylinder e:...1:ends and remains in the forward-end position until a
ignal is applied in the opposite direction. Vl-'hen push-button PB2 is pressed, coil Y2 is
nergised through relay K2, and valve 1. 1 S\\itches over. The cylinder retracts to its
ome position until a signal is applied to coil Y1 again. In short, a signal to any of the
oils S\Vitches the valve to the corresponding position. The valve remains in that
"itching position until a signal is applied to the other coil. However, it should be
emembered that double-solenoid valves are susceptible to the problem of signal
onflicts as is the case "ith double-pilot val,·es explained in Chapter 5.
1,0 1,0
-
IB :
,_
111 : I
...........
l.12
"
Yl ~ Y2
, 2:; 3
1
-24V
·----r- -
·
P31 t E-- P62 E\
2
-r ··· · · ·:
Kl t
, 4
K2t\
--24\f
P81
'
E\ P62 t E--
2
K·, t \
3
K2 t
4
.
o--
Kl K2 Q
-<>-- ----- --
¥1 ¥2 ~
······ ······· 0
Kl~ K2 • YI ? ? Y2
0V ~~ ov ~OINC N~ I NC
31 ~
(bl Cytiocc, io 1he (('l(t!Cle6 !)06i!ior,
Figure 7-16 Electro-pneumatic circuit (in two positions) for memory control using a double-solenoid ,llUve as per
f.,ramru!_7.:5.
17_.gg Electronic Sensors

Role of sensors in automation was briefly discussed in Section 5.24 of Chapter 5. \Ve
cannot think of modem industrial production systems "ithout the use of sensors. A
"ide variety of sensors are devised to meet varied demands of these production systems.
Sensors react to change in conditions around them by generating signals in a form that
can be processed by a control system.
An electrical or pneumatic output signal is generated in a sensor in response to a
disturbance caused to some physical medium (such as magnetic, electric, optic, acoustic,
or any other medium) by an approaching object or by the influence of an internal
change. The cause of disturbance may be the variation in pressure, flow, temperature,
force, liquid level, or a particular position of a cylinder piston or work-piece. The
discussion in the follo"ing sections is limited to electric/ electronic sensors only.
A sensor senses the presence of an object either by actual physical contact "ith that
object or by the movement of the object in close proximity. Accordingly, sensors are
classified as contact sensors (e.g., limit S\\itch) or contactless sensors (e.g., proximity
sensor). Sensors are also kno\\n as discrete or analog sensors depending on whether
they deliver discrete signals or analog signals. A discret e sensor converts a physical
quantity into a binary (digital) signal. Examples of discrete sensors are: limit s"itches,
proximity sensors, pressure s"itches, etc. An analog sensor converts a physical quantity,
such as flow, force, torque, pressure, length, etc., into an electrical analog signal such as
voltage or current that is proportional to the input parameter being sensed. Examples of
analog sensors are: temperature sensors, level sensors, force sensors, etc.
Sensors find applications in sequence control of a production system, monitoring of
safety devices in production systems, detection of faults, open-loop control technology,
closed-loop control technology, etc. ,Vear and 'contact bounce' are the major problems
in contact-type sensors. Another problem "ith sensors with S\\itching contacts when
used in circuits \\ith inductive loads is the development of high voltage peaks at the
moment of circuit cut-off due to the breaking-action of the S\\itching contacts.
Therefore, protective circuits are essential in sensors "ith switching contacts. An RC
element or diode or a varistor of appropriate rating may be integrated in the sensor for
protection. Some important sensor types are explained below.
Basically, limit S\\itches perform the same way as push-buttons. However, the main
difference between the two is: push-buttons are actuated manually whereas limit
s"itches are actuated mechanically. A limit S\\itch is used to indicat e particular final
positions of machines or cylinder movements. It comprises a set of contacts and a roller
lever linked to these contacts. An electrical contact is established or interrupted by
means of an external force acting on a roller lever.
Limit s"itches can be distinguished according to their method of actuating the
contacts, that is lever-actuated contacts or spring-loaded contacts. In lever-ty'J)e limit
S\\itches, the contacts are operated slowly. Hence, this type of limit S\\itch is suitable for
slow approach speeds. \\Tith the spring-loaded t}'J)e, the approach speed is immaterial
because the limit s"itch changes its state rapidly.
The moving contacts in limit S\\itches or in any other contact-making s,vitches have
some mass and springiness but " ith low damping they "ill be 'bouncy' as they make and
break. That is, when an KO contact pair is closed, these contacts ,viii come together and
bounce off each other se,·eral times before finally coming to rest in a closed position. The
effect is called 'contact bounce'. If all you want your S\\itch or relay to do is tum on a
lamp or start a fan, then contact bounce is not a problem. But if you are using a 5',itch or
relay as input to a digital counter, a personal computer, or a microprocessor-based piece
of equipment, then you must consider the effects of contact bounce. Here the reason for
concern is that the time taken by the contacts to stop bouncing is measured in
milliseconds. But, the digital circuits in digital counters, personal computers, or
microprocessor-based piece of equipment can respond in microseconds.
•
• ' ''
2 I4
1
Limit switch
Figure 7-17 Limit S\\itcband its symbol.
To prevent false operation of such circuits in sensitive devices due to the duplicate
signals as a result of contact bounce, it is necessary to introduce a built-in time delay in
these circuits so that this time-delay will eliminate the effects of contact bounce. Figure
z-1zshows a simplified cross-sectional view of a limit Sl\itch and its symbol.
A reed switch is also known as magnetically actuated proximity s" itch. Its cross-
sectional view and symbol are shol\n in Figure z-18.
Basically, a reed Sl\itch consists of nvo springy metal strips acting as Sl\itching
contacts, hermetically sealed in a glass tube, filled "ith an inert gas to prevent corrosion.
This unit is further encapsulated in epoxy resin to prevent any mechanical damage. The
S\\itching contacts (soft magnetic metallic reeds) are usually made of an alloy of iron
and nickel. A reed S\\itch is provided "ith an LED indicator to show its S\\itching status.
The s>vitch is designed for mounting on cylinders, and it reacts to magnetic fields of the
permanent magnets usually provided on cylinder pistons. An output signal is produced
at the reed S\\itch when the piston is close enough for the magnetic field to actuate the
contacts of the reed S\\itch.
The basic reed 5',itch consists of only two \\ires - one for the connection to the
positive terminal of electricity supply and the other for taking out the signal output. The
three-\\ire reed S\\itch consists of three "ires - one for the connection to the positive
terminal of the electricity supply, the second for taking out the signal output, and the
third for the negative terminal of electricity supply (necessary for the LED indicator). In
terms of advantages, reed S\\itches are compact, reliable, and wear-free. However,
closing of contacts in reed 5',itches is not bounce-free.
Reed switch Reed switch

Closed Open
8 0
0
I I
~ JL
L.I
_/_
I-
Two-wire Three-wire
{a) Reed s1•,i lches installed on cylinder (b) Symbol of reed switch
Figure 7-18 Reeds"itch and its S)mbols.
iz.23: Proximity Sensors

Discrete output proximity sensors are most important for industrial applications. They
gain importance in such applications where it is necessary to record or count moving
objects or work-pieces on machines or conveyors. In these applications, a limit S\\itch
cannot be used because the actuating force of the work-piece may not be adequate to
trigger this s"itch. Similarly, a reed switch cannot always be used in these cases because
the sensing of the work-piece may not be in the sensing range of the associated cylinder
that can support magnetic sensing. Hence proximity sensors " ith their contactless
sensing are ideally suited in these applications. Basically, there are three types of
proximity sensors: (1) inductive type, (2) capacitive type, and (3) optical type. These
sensors are also available in universal voltage designs hence they can be connected to
either DC voltage or AC voltage.
Inductive Proximity Sensor

An inductive proximity sensor consists of the following blocks: (1) an oscillator (LC
resonant circuit), (2) a s"itching circuit, (3) an amplifier, and (4) an output stage. A
proximity sensor "ith these blocks and its symbol are shown in Figyres 7.- 19.(!!,). and _(!l).,
respectively.
The sensing surface, that is part of the oscillator of the inductive proximity sensor,
is designed "ith a half-open shell made of ferrite material. This creates a magnetic field
across the active surface of the inductive sensor through a small distance called active
s"itching zone. \\o'hen the rated voltage is applied to the sensor, the oscillator creates
high frequency oscillations in the active S\\itching zone. If a metallic object is brought to
this zone, eddy currents are generat ed in the object. The energy for generating these
currents is drawn from the oscillator. As a result, the oscillator gets attenuated,
triggering the s"itching circuit to produce an output signal. Finally, the output signal is
amplified and delivered to the load connected across the corresponding terminals.
D} Obietl
C %
~
\... [> Jl
( - .16'.J!'- _f
1 2 3 4
Acti'le switching zone
•+ I+
(
Oscillator Switching stage Amplifier Load ~ .Jl..
Jl _/_
( -'tlllll'-
I-
Block. diag,amof inductive proximity sensot
Figure 7-19 lnducli\-e pro.\llllity sen.<or and its simboL
The S\\i tching distance of inductive sensors depends on the conducti,ity and
permeability of the metal part "·hose presence is t o be detected. This distance varies
\\ith the material composition of the target object, with mild steel taken as the material
for standard reference. This is described by the reduction factor . The reduction factor is
the factor by which the sensing range of the inductive proximity sensor is reduced based
on the material composition of the object to be sensed, compared to steel [FE 360 (St
37)] as the standard reference. The reduction factors for other materials are: 0.85 for
stainless steel, o.7- 0.90 for chrome nickel, 0 .35- 0.50 for aluminium and brass, and
0.25- 0-40 for copper. Another factor that affects the sensing range of inductive sensors
is the diameter of the sensing coil. A small sensor with a coil diameter of 4 inch has a ·'
typical sensing range of 1 mm, while a large sensor " i th a coil diameter of 3 inch has a
sensing range of 50 mm or more.
Inductive proximity sensors are self-contained, rugged, and extremely reliable. They
can be used in a large number of applications, such as (1) sensing the end positions of a
pneumatic cylinder, a semi-rotary drive, or a press ram; (2) detecting metallic work-
pieces on conveyors; (3) finding the speed of a rotary machine by sensing the passing
gear teeth of the associated feedback device; (4) monitoring drill breakage for fracture
during the work process; etc.
Capacitive Proximity Sensor

A capacitive proximity sensor consists of (1) an oscillator (RC resonant circuit), (2) a
s"itching circuit, (3) an amplifier, and (4) an output stage. A capacitive proximity sensor
"ith these blocks and its 5ymbol are shown in Figyre 7-20.
The sensing surface, that is part of the oscillator of the capacitive proximity sensor,
is designed ,dth an active electrode and an earth electrode. An electrostatic stray field is
created in the active switching zone in front of the sensor between the active electrode
and the earth electrode. If an object is brought into the active S\\itching zone, the
capacitance of the resonant circuit is altered. This change in the capacitance essentially
depends on the follo"ing parameters: (1) distance of the object from the active surface,
(2) the dimensions of the object, and (3) the dielectric constant of the object. The change
in the capacitance of the oscillator circuit triggers the switching circuit to produce an
output signal. Finally, the output signal is amplified and delivered to the load connected
across the corresponding terminals.
O"ing to their ability to react to a "ide range of materials, capacitive proximity
sensors are used more universally in applications. These are suitable for detecting non-
metallic objects, monitoring filling levels of storage containers, etc. However, capacitive
proximity sensors are sensitive to the effects of humidity in the active s"itching zone.
Optical Proximity Sensors

An optical proximity sensor employs optical and electronic means for sensing objects.
This sensor basically consists of two units:
1. Elnitter
2. Receiver
c-. +
·-- %
~
\.. ~ J7..
c--
--- -I I-
_f C> .fl. _ /_
-I I-
1 2 3 4
Active $\\'itching zone
l1gure 7-20 capacili\-e pro.\llllity sensor and its simboL
Emitter Receiver
Figure 7-:u Principle of through-beam sensor.
The emitter is basically a source of infrared light rays. These rays travel in straight
line, and this property is essential for the proper sensing of objects by optical proximity
sensor. Semiconductor LED is a particularly reliable source of infrared rays. The
receiver is essentially a photodiode or a phototransistor that can accept and evaluate
these infrared rays electronically. Tl,·o important types of optical sensor are: (1)
through-beam sensor and (2 ) diffuse sensor. In a through-beam sensor, emitter, and
receiver are mounted separately, and in a diffuse sensor, these units are mounted in a
common housing.
Through-beam Sensor
This sensor consists of two separate emitter and receiver units. The emitter emits
infrared rays when an electrical current is passed through it. The receiver reacts t o the
infrared rays which travel in a straight line. \\.'hen no object is present in the path of the
rays, they hit the receiver. This type of proximity sensor is designed to generate an
output signal only when an object interrupts these rays. A through-beam sensor "ith
emitter and receiver units arranged in-line for the emitted infrared rays to hit the
receiver unit, and an object approaching the path of these rays for its interruption, is
shown in Figl!re z-21.
The sensing range from 1 m up to maximum 100 m is possible ";th different designs
and makes of through-beam sensors. These sensors have the advantage of ";de sensing
range and good positioning accuracy. However, their disadvantage is that they need two
separate proximity modules (emitter and receiver). Receivers are designed ";th PNP or
NPN outputs. (See Sections Sinking (NP1'_'). Output Sensor and Sourcing (P1'7') Output
Sensor for more information.)
Diffuse Sensor
In a diffuse sensor, the emitter and receiver are fitted in the same housing Cfi~ z-22).
In this sensor, the object diffusively reflects a percentage of the emitted light back
thereby activating the receh·er.
Emitter
I-
Receiver
Figure 7 -22 The worl:iog principle of diffuse sensor and its symbol.
Emitter ~ Fibre-optic c,ible

t
I ----D
-.... -
Receiver 1/
Figure i'-~ Diffuse sensor ,\1th fibre-optic cable.
l\laximum sensing distance is usually adjustable from 50 mm to 2 m. The size, surface,

shape, density, and the colour of the object determine the intensity of the diffused light
emission and thus the actual sensing range. Optical proximity sensors " i th fibre-optic
adaptors (Figure 7-23) are used if conventional devices take up too much room or in
areas prone to explosion hazards.
Comparison ofProximity Sensors

A comparison of inductive, capacitive, and optical sensors with respect to various
characteristics is given in Table 7--2. However, the values given in Table 7-2 may vary for
proximity sensors of different manufacturers.
Connection and Circuit Technology

As stated earlier, the three-wire proximity sensors have three connecting >vires. Two
"ires are for the purpose of voltage supply (positive and negative). The third "ire is
meant for the signal output of the proximity sensor. The output stage of a discrete
proximity sensor usually consists of a transistor that acts like a S\\itch. \\'hen the sensor
detects nothing, the transistor acts like an open S\\itch. VVhen the sensor detects some
physical phenomenon, the transistor acts like a closed S\\itch. On the basis of the
connection of the transistor l\ith respect t o the power supply t erminals, discrete
proximity sensors may be categorised into two types: (1) sinking output sensors and (2)
sourcing output sensors. In both sinking output and sourcing output sensors, the
emphasis is on the current flow in order to reduce electrical noise problems.
Table 7-2Comparison of proximity sensors

Cbaract~rist fr C11f,drititt UN.UW Optit-al diffuse SMJtw
I.
J1. J1.
,o \I (DCJ ;o V t DC;
.?SI• V (AC) .!)O \I (,\C >
~; lhlll~ ohjl-._'h Ml'l.,11, Almu,1_.1ll ,1hJr( 1, Any op.tqtir h,11Jr
~ ..m,n,d :.w11<:h1n.i.: d1, 1an,:v (m.tx) 10mm .!U mm 2m
'.'-t•r\·i, l ' lik \ •\ •t}' Ion~ V(·t~ l11n.;-: I.on!-= <1 110, 111,0 In
O pn.11in,: 1<•1111·wr.1llm• -j5 w ..1,~c - .~ s 111 .. 0°c -25 ct, :,;o ~c
Courtesy: FESTO.
~ - - - - -- ············•' ······: -
....
I , . ..
◄ .,. Load ;
Sensor
OrUn!I)'
.- - ·"·'c::J··' Ser.sor
orcuiiry
fv')i. ·►
~
PNP
.n.
.... -
'
S-O,,so.r ......... ..... ;

-
(a) S:nkirig se.1sor (!>I Soi:rcin;, sensor
Figure 7-~ Pro:..imitysensor outputs.
Sinking (lv'F'l\') Output Sensor

A simplified diagram of a sinking output sensor connected to an external load is given in
Figure 7--24.(1!,).. The sinking output sensor has an NPN transistor output " ith its emitter
connected to the negative potential of the supply voltage for negative s" itching. The load
is connected in between the positive pot ential of the power source and the proximity
sensor output. This means that the sensor output \\ill be pulled down to the negative
potential and hence the load " ill be connected to the negative pot ential through the
transistor in the S\\i tched state. This " ill allow the current to flow into the sensor to the
ground (hence sinking) as shown in Fiwe 7-2,1.(l!).. The advantage of this sensor is that
the load can be connected to a different power source (not shown in the figure) rather
than to the same source. Therefore, this sensor is best selected when different sources of
supply voltages are used for various electrical devices in the control system.
Sourcing (Pl\'P) Output Sensor

A simplified diagram of a sourcing output sensor connected to an e:,.1:ernal load is given
in Figyre 7.-2 4 (b). The sourcing output sensor has a PNP transistor output with its
emitter connected to the + Vcc of the supply for positive 5',itching. The load is connected
in between the proximity sensor output and the negative potential. This means that the
sensor output "ill be pulled up to the positive potential and hence the grounded load
"ill be connected to the positive potential through the transistor in the s\\itched state.
This \\ill allow the current to flow from the positive potential through the sensor to the
output (hence sourcing) as shown in Figure 7-2i!!Ql . This sensor is best selected when all
electrical devices in the control system use a single source of supply voltage. Sensors
"ith sourcing outputs (P:'<P) are more popular.
Example 7.6: Automatic return motion of a double-

acting cylinder
Control task: A double-acting cylinder is to extend when a push-button is pressed.
On reaching the extreme end position, the cylinder is to retract automatically. A 5/2-
C single-solenoid valve is used as the final control element. Develop an electro-
neumatic control circuit to implement the control task using (1) a limit switch and (2)
proximity sensor for the semi-automatic operation of the cylinder.
1.0 S2 1.0 S2
I I
11 •
'
'
: 11 :
I
'
1.1 4
'
:2 1.1
······----~
'
- 4: 2
Yt y
5
1 1
124V 1 2 3 , 24V 1
..
2 3
- P\
PB1
'
K1 t K1 tI
• ··········• ·····-·····
P81 P\
:
- ~
K1 ,
:
'
· ·· ·· ·····:
~,\
:
'
''
''
•' ....... - ... ! '
'
'
s2t~/ '
'
'
''
''
'
K1 '--T-'
y
K1c:::J
'
y [ZJ-$:
' '
. .. .. .. .... .' . .. .. .. .. . .... .... .. .. :'
ov ov ~
~
(a} Cylinder while extending (b) Position \'Alen $2 is just pressed
Figure 7·25 Auto-return of the double-acting ciunder using a limit s,,itch as per ExamRle 7.6.
olution # 1 (Using a limit 5'\itch)

he double-acting cylinder is controlled by a 5/ 2-DC single-solenoid, spring-return
•alve. The electrical circuit is latched when push-button PB1 is actuat ed. The valve 1.1
emains in the actuated position even when the push-button PB1 is released as shown in
Figure z-25.(~).. The cylinder then starts mo,i ng forward. \\'hen the fully extended
osition of the cylinder is reached, it automatically actuates limit s" itch S2. Actuation of
e limit s" itch causes int erruption of the electrical circuit as shown in Figure z-25.C!!)..
he cylinder then starts retracting automatically.
olution #2 (Using a proximity sensor)

he position of the circuit when push-button PB1 is pressed and then released is given
Figyre z-26(~).. The cylinder e:-.1:ends to its forward-end position and influences
roximity sensor S2 automatically. Relay K2 is connected across the proximity sensor to
onvert voltage outputs of the proximity sensor to corresponding contact operations.
he function of the only one contact of K2, that is used here, is to interrupt the latching
ircuit when the proximity sensor is sensing. This position of the circuit is sho\\n in
Figure 7-26(2).. The cylinder then starts retracting automatically.
~NV 4 •24V 2 3 4
- E\
PSI
..;
.
Ki t Kl t
S2 *
I-
.
f.!L .:
.
- •......
P81
:
Jl.
K2
l .
.,.__K_1_~_.___v_ ~.. --~

"ov ~
. ··• -~,o--9l~c ov
Kl □
NO I NC
y~
2. , I
(a) Posi'::on when cf..11der is e~ending (b) Posi!ionwhen S2 is jusl sens.mg
Figure ;-,6 Auto-return of the double-actillg cylinder using proJ<imity sensor.

1z;~ Time-Delay Relays (Timers)
Timers are required in control systems to effect time delay between work operations.
This is possible by delaying the operation of the associated control element through a
timer. Pure pneumatic timers "·ere explained in Section 5.2z of Chapter 5. Nowadays,
electronic timers are most popular. Essentially, an electronic timer consists of an
ordinary relay "ith the addition of an electronic circuit which delays the action of its
control contacts. The delay time can be set on the timer using a potentiometer . The
contact operation can be delayed when the coil is energised or when it is de-energised.
Accordingly, there are two basic types of timers: (1) on-delay timer and (2) off-delay
timer. The operations of these types of timer are explained as follows.
•I • I
0 0
R2
ia) On·de!ay timer circuit
Figure 7-~i The two types of timers and their simbols.
In the on-delay timer, shown in Figure z-22(11)., when push-button PB is pressed

(ON), capacitor C is charged through potentiometer R1 as diode D is reverse-biased. The
time taken to charge the capacitor depends on the resistance of the potentiometer R 1
and the capacitance (C) of the capacitor. By adjusting the resistance of the
potentiometer, the required time delay can be set. \'\.'hen the capacitor is charged
sufficiently, coil K is energised, and its contacts are operated after the set time delay.
'When the push-button is released (OFF), the capacitor discharges quickly through a
small resistance (R,J as the diode bypasses resistor R 1, and the contacts of the relay (I()
return to their normal position ,vithout any delay.
In the off-delay timer, sho\\n in Figure 7-27..(Q)., the contacts are operated "ithout
any delay when the push-button is pressed (ON). The contacts return to the normal
position after the set delay when the push-button is released (OFF).
The symbols of the on-delay and off-delay timers are also given in Figure z-2:z. The
timing diagrams for the NO contact of on-delay and off-delay timers are similar to
Figures 5-4.7..(9). and .(gl., respectively. The timing diagrams for the :-lC contact of on-delay
and off-delay timers are similar to Figm:es 5:..4::Z.(lll and .(g )., respectively.
17.,25 T,,,o-Hand Safety Operation

A machine for pressing, cutting, or other similar operations is usually designed "ith a
two-hand safety feature using two push-buttons (PBs) installed in such a way that both
of them cannot be pressed simultaneously by one hand. This means that an operator can
operate the machine only by pressing the two PBs simultaneously and he has to use both
his hands to do this. It ensures that both of his hands are engaged in pressing the PBs,
and thus his hands cannot be on the machine while it is operating.
Further, the machine should not operate when one of the two push-buttons is tied
down permanently by some means. On many occasions, machine operators have done
this t o free one of his hands in order to adjust the work-piece onto the machine while it
is operating. This way of working is an extremely hazardous practice. Anti-tie do"n and
anti-repeat circuits can be used to ensure that both s"itches must be OFF and must be
pressed simultaneously "ithin a short duration of time usually ,vithin half a second to
operate the machine just for one cycle. For the next cycle, these push-buttons must be
released again, and the procedure explained earlier is repeated (also see Question 59,
Chapter 5).
Example 7 .7: Control of double-acting cylinder using

tinier
Control task: A double-acting cylinder is to extend when a push-button is pressed
(short pulse). It is to remain in the €).tended position for 5 s and then to return
utomatically. The final forward position of the cylinder is registered with a limit
•itch 52. A 5/2-DC single-solenoid valve is used as the final control element. Develop
n electro-pneumatic control circuit to implement the control task.
latching circuit is used to obtain the necessary memory function. The position of the
ircuit when push-button PB1 is pressed and then released is given in Figure 7- 28 (a).
he cylinder extends to its forward-end position and actuates limit S\\itch S2
utomatically. As the return motion is to be delayed, an on-delay timer is used to obtain
e necessary time delay. The required time delay should be set on the timer. Limit
witch S2 controls the timer coil T. After the set delay, the timer contact interrupts the
atching circuit, thus causing the return motion of the cylinder as shown in Figure
z-28(b)..
1.0 S2 1.0 S2
II : IR
v.\
1,1 4
1
:' 2
- 24V 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
• • J _···:
to K1 t PB1 E\ @- \
S2 S2 K1 .
.
T ,
,........
' ~
'
'
'
'
T
tt?" 'f sec
'
'
'
:
K1 K1[j
OV~ OV NO NC
--u-r- 2. 4
(a) Positionwhen S2 is just ?ressed (b) Posi1icn after the deiay of 'f seconds
Figure ,-~8 Control of a double-acting cylinder using a timer as per ExamP.!e 7.,.7..
Example 7.8: Cyclic operation of double-acting cylinder

Control task: lo\inen a 'Start' push-button is pressed, a double-acting cylinder is to
erform a continuous back-and-forth motion until a 'Stop'push-button is pressed. The
ylinder should stop in the retracted position always. A 5/2-DC double-solenoid valve
· used as the final control element. Develop an electro-pneumatic control circuit for
'mplementing the fully automatic operation of the cylinder.
olution
he electro-pneumatic circuit for the cyclic operation of a double-acting cylinder
ontrolled by a 5/ 2-DC double-solenoid valve is given in Figure z-29. Limit S\\itches S1
d S2 are positioned for actuation by the cylinder at the retracted and extended
ositions, respectively. The limit S\\itch S1 is actuat ed in the initial position, which is
epresented in the drawing "ith its contact in the actuated position and an arrow
ongside. The fully automatic cyclic operation of the cylinder can be obtained simply by
ing the sensor signal S1 controlling coil Y1 through relay coil 1<2, and the sensor signal
S2 controlling coil Y2 through relay coil Ks- The 'start' and 'stop' controls of the cyclic
peration can be implemented by using a latching circuit controlled by push-buttons
B1 (Start) and PB2 (Stop). A contact of relay coil Kl is connected in series "ith sensor
1 contact in branch 3 to obtain the necessary 'start' and 'stop' controls.
1.0 S1 S2
~I 1=
1I ~_=:=i: ,I
I
,_-- -- -- -- .
1.1
Y1 Y2
1
+24V 1 2 3 4 5 6
•
PB1
i r r K1 K1
i K2
i K3
"Starr
PB2 s1 t©--1
K1 K2 K3 c.....,.-' Y1 '-'-r-' ~ Y2
ov
Figure 7-29 Circuit for cyclic operation of the double-acting citinder as per E.xamR!f.7.8.
iz.26 Electric Counters

A general explanation of counters and the operation of pure pneumatic counters is given
explained in Section 5,3Q of Chapter 5. The same ideas for pure pneumatic counters
apply to electrically operated counters also. An electrically operated counter consists of a
coil, associated circuits and contacts, a reset coil, manual reset, release button, and a
display \\i ndow. Pressing the release button of the counter and entering the desired
count value set the pre-determining counter . The pre-determined count value is
displayed in the window. An up-counter counts electrical signals upwards from zero. For
each electrical counting pulse input to an up-counter coil, the count value is
incremented by 1. VVhen the pre-determined value has been reached, the relay picks up
and the contact set is actuated. A down-counter counts electrical signals downwards
from a preset number. If the count value of zero is reached the relay picks up and the
contact set is actuated. The counter can be reset manually by pressing the reset button
or electrically by applying a reset pulse to the reset coil. The pre-determined value is
maintained when the counter is reset. The 5ymbols of an up-counter and down-counter
is given in Figure Z:3Q-
A1 R1 14 A1 R1 14
5 · · ·· · ··-
A2 R2 1 A2 R2 1
Up-counter Down-counter
Figure 7-30 S)mbols of oounters, electric.
Example 7.9: Control circuit using a counter

Control t ask: 1-Vhen a 'Start' push-button is pressed, a double-acting cylinder is to
erform a continuous back-and-forth motion. The cylinder should stop automatically
rfter performing, say, 10 cycles of operation. Develop an electro-pneumatic control
ircuit using an up-counter (or a down-counter).
olu tion
he electro-pneumatic circuit for the cyclic operation of a double-acting cylinder
ontrolled by a 5/2-DC double-solenoid valve is given in Figyre z-31. Limit s"itches S1
d S2 are positioned for actuation by the cylinder at the retracted and extended
ositions, respectively.
The forward motion of the cylinder is controlled by solenoid coil Y1 through a
ontact of relay K2 (see branch 5) which in turn is controlled by the contact of Kl and
e contact of S1 in a series connection (see branch 3). The return motion is controlled
y solenoid Y2 through a contact of Ks (see branch 6) which in turn is controlled by the
ontact of S2 alone (see branch 4). A signal pulse to the counter coil is input through
ensor S2 in each cycle as shown in Figure 'Z:3!· The ::-,c contact of the counter is used to
· terrupt the latching circuit and to stop the cyclic operation after the set number of
,cles of operation is complete.
1.0 $1 $2
: ,I
1 11
............
1
Y1 . Y 2
5 3
1
,24V 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
•
i i i i i i i
PB1
\_j Kl S2 o K2 K3 S2 PBI
Coumer oon1ae1
C
....... . ...............
,
Coun:er. C
'
' Al R1 ;
' '
' '
K2 ' '
'
'
'
'
''
ov '· ... · ;,_;o·r ·~c·'" """'
Figure 7-31.'Jrtomaticstoppageof the cyclic operation of a double acting cilinder as per F•..,mllk.7"9.
Setting screw
14
Contact set
T
4 4
Diaphragm
14 14
(a) Normal position (b) Actuated position

Figure ,-32 Pre.<sUreS\\i!ch,
iz.2~ Pressure S,,itch

A pressure s" itch is a pneumatic-electric (P/ E) signal converter. Basically these
s" itches fall into three general classes. In the first type of pressure s" itch design,
bellows are used which expand or contract in response to an increase or decrease in
pressure. The contacts are mounted on the end of a lever which is act ed upon by the
bellows.
In the second type of design, a diaphragm is used in place of bellows as sho\\n in
Figure 7,:sg. \\'hen the compressed air is applied at the inlet and when the pre-set
pressure is reached, the diaphragm expands and pushes the spring-loaded plunger. This
in turn operates the contacts. In the third type of design, a Bourdon tube is used to
actuate the contacts through a certain mechanism. The Bourdon tube employs a hollow
tube in a semi-circular shape whose design is such that an increase in pressure tends to
straighten it. The resulting force is sufficient to actuate an integrated snap-action switch.
The pressure is adjustable in the range from 1 to 10 bar.
Example 7.10: Stamping device

Control task: Some components are to be stamped using a stamping device . •4
ouble-acting cylinder pushes the die attached down to a fixture when two push-
uttons are pressed simultaneously. The die is to return to the initial position upon
eaching sufficient stamping pressure as sensed by a pressure switch. Develop an
lectro-pneumatic control circuit to implement the control task for the stamping
peration.
olution
·Vnen push-buttons PB1 and PB2 are pressed simultaneously, relay coil K1 and in tum
olenoid coil Y1 are energised as sho"n in Figyre Z:33· Valve 1.1 S\\itches over and then
,linder 1.0 extends to the forward-end position. \'\,'hen the pre-set S\\itching pressure is
eached in the supply line of the cylinder, pressure s,dtch P is activated. Consequently,
elay coil K2 and in turn solenoid coil Y2 are energised. Valve 1.1 S\\itches back to its
tart position, and then the cylinder returns to the rear-end position.
1_0
: I
1 11
'
p '
~---•
1_1
--------,
4: 2
Y1 Y2
5
1
+ 1 2 3 4
•
PB1
r ~ ------·
i K1
i K2
PB2
K2
K1 K2 Y1 ........ t Y2
NO NC NO NC
3 4
Figure 7-33 Electro-pneumatic cm:uil for the stamping daice as per F.xample 7_,o_
iz.28 Electro-Pneumatic Multiple-
Actuator Circuits
Design requirements of pure pneumatic multiple-actuator circuits including various
methods of eliminating signal conflicts were discussed in Chapter 6. The same principles
apply to electro-pneumatic multiple-actuator circuits as well. Two of the problems given
in ChaJ!ter 6 are again taken up here for explanation. A simple circuit for a two-group
cascade using only one relay and a much more complicated circuit for a three-group
cascade using as many relays as the number of groups are explained in the follo"ing
sections. Once the basic concept of developing three-group cascade is understood,
cascade circuits for more number of groups can be developed using the same concept.
Designfor a Two-group Electro-pneumatic Circuit

In the development of a simple two-group electro-pneumatic circuit, it is necessary to
divide the power supply into two groups in such a way that at any point of time, only one
group is live \\ith the other group S\\itched off. A nvo-group circuit can easily be
designed using a single relay. The structure of a group-changing cascade circuit for nvo
groups (say G1 and G2) using a relay is given in Figyre 7.:3<1·
The first part of the structure is the structure of the familiar latching circuit " i th
blocks for 'Input signals', 'Group-changing signal', 'Rela)', and 'Latching contact'. The
block 'Input signals' represents all control contacts used for changing the group from G2
to Gl. The block 'Group-changing signal' represents control contact used for changing
the group from G1 to G2. The blocks 'Relay' and 'Latching contact' represent the relay
coil and its contact used for obtaining the required memory function of the cascade
operation. The relay coil also controls the group-changing action of the cascade circuit
through its NO and NC contacts.
+
Latching NO NC
Input signals
contact contact contact
G1- --• ◄ ------------- 1------

'
G2 '
''
Group changing ''
signal '
'
Relay
l
-
Figure 7-34 Sttucture of gxoup-chan.,oing relaycirolit for two gxoups.
The second part of the structure consists of two blocks - 'NO contact' and 'NC
contact'. These blocks represent the NO contact and NC contact of the relay used to
s"itch groups G1 and G2, respectively. It can be observed that initially group G2 is live
through the :'<C contact of the relay as sho"n in Figyre 'Z:3.4 · This group-changing
concept is implemented in the circuit of Figure 'Z:32·
Example 7.11: Pneumatically - controlled stamping

de'loice
Control task: Cylinder .4(1.0) extends and brings a job under the stamping cylinder
(2.0). Cylinder B then 1Utends and stamps the job. Cylinder A can return back only
rfter cylinder B has retracted fully. An electro-pneumatic control circuit has to be
eve/oped for realizing the control task. (Same as Example 6.1, Chapter 6 .)
we are aware, multiple-actuator circuits are susceptible to the problem of signal

onflicts. The notational form to represent the given control task in E.xample 11 and the
rouping that will eliminate the possibility of signal conflicts are given in Figyre 7.=35·
electro-pneumatic control circuit is also developed on the similar lines.
Ne:-.1:, divide the electrical power supply into equal number of groups in such a way
at only one group remains live "ith all other groups S\\itched off.
The complete circuit to implement the control task is given in Figyre :z:32 in line
,ith the explanation given above. Initially the supply is in the last group G2. The
equence of actions when push-button PB is pressed is explained below. Relay coil K can
e energised by pressing the start push-button (PB), and the circuit is latched by an NO
ontact of relay Kin branch 2. In the main circuit, group G1 is live through another ::-;o
ontact of relay Kin branch 3, and group G2 is S\\itched off. Coil Y1 is energised and coil
2 is de-energised and hence there is no possibility of signal conflict here. Valve 1.1
hanges its state and cylinder A travels out (A+). Limit s"itch S2 gets actuated thereby
nergising coil Y3. As a result, valve 2.1 S\\itches over and cylinder B travels out (B+ ).
Limit S\\itch S4 gets actuated now.
S1 S2 S4 S3 S1
~ r)r)r) (,
Starr " \ A+ B+ B- A-
G1 G2
Figure 7-35 Notational form of representation of the pneumatically controlled.stamping de,ace.
A(1.0) S1 S2 8(2.0) S3 S4
~ r-----, I I I
l====~I
" ................. '--------- ,

4: 2 2.1 4: 2
Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4
5 5
1 1
1 2 3 4
+
PB I-' K K K
S1 t
31 32
G1
41 42
G2
S4 S2 S3 t
Y1 Y3 Y4 Y2
K . . . .,__, t . . . .,__, t
-
~ A+ 8- A-
2. 3 I 4
Figure 7-36 Electro-pneumatic cittuit for the control task of stamping de,ice of F.xamP.l• Z!J.
The signal from sensor S4 must perform a signal shut-off, and hence its NC contact
included in branch 1 of the circuit. The latched circuit of relay coil K is cleared by the
ctuated limit s"itch S4. In the m ain circuit, group G1 is again disconnected through the
eleased NO contact of relay Kin branch 3, and group G2 is supplied "ith current again
ough the NC contact of relay Kin branch 4 .
Coil Y4 is energised and coil Y3 is de-energised, hence there is no possibility of
ignal conflict here. Valve 2.1 changes its state and cylinder B returns to the rear-end
osition (B - ). Limit s"itch S3 is actuated thereby energising coil Y2. Valve 1. 1 S\\itches
ver, and cylinder A returns to the rear-end position (A - ). The cycle of cylinder actions
n be repeated.
Designfor a Three-group Electro-pneumatic Circuit

In the development of electro-pneumatic circuits "ith three or more cascade groups, it is
necessary to di,ide the power supply into three or more groups in such a way that at any
point of time only one group is live "ith all other groups S\\itched off. A three-group
circuit can be designed using three relays. The general structure of a group-changing
cascade circuit for 'n' groups (i.e., groups G1, G2, ... , Gn) using as many relays as the
number of groups is given in Figyre 7-3z.
Group_1 Group__2 G:oup_n
1n;n.. 1ssna!& La!Ching ......... NOcont.acr ... NO CO.'lt.Kl

ooo:att Relay_1 Re-!a)'_n
I
NOccntac! - GI
P,ececessor Relay G2 .................................. . ............
Gn
T
NCcon1a01 -
Successor Relay
I Relay_ 1
I
'
Figure 7-37 General structure of group~~ cirruits using relays.
The structure as given in Figyre Z:3:Z is divided into a number of identical parts such
as Group_1, Group_ 2, ..., Group_n. NO contacts of Relay_1 to Relay_ n are used to
s"itch group power supply from G1 to Gn, respectively. The Group_ 1 part of the
structure controls the group G1 supply through Relay_1, the Group_2 part controls the
group G2 supply, and so on.
The concept of group-changing circuit is explained by taking the Group_1 part of
the structure given in Figure 7..:3:Z• It consists of the follo"ing blocks: 'Input signals', '::-,o
contact-Predecessor Relay', '::-,c contact-Successor Relay', 'Relay_1', and 'Latching
contact'. The blocks 'Input signals' and 'NO contact-Predecessor Relay' represent all
control contacts in series connection necessary for changing the group from the last
group (say, Gn) to G1. The block 'NO contact-Predecessor Relay' represents the NO
contact of the relay in the predecessor part of the cascade structure. It is used to set the
cascade operation (i.e. G1, G2, ..., Gn) in the correct sequence. That means that a
particular cascade group (part) can be set only if the predecessor part of the cascade
circuit is set. The block 'NC contact-Successor Relay' represents the control contact used
to reset the group immediately after the successor group is set. The blocks 'Relay_ 1' and
'Latching contact' represent the relay and its contact used for obtaining the required
memory function of the cascade operation.
The final part of the structure consists of blocks 'NO contact Relay_1', 'NO contact
Relay_2' etc. These blocks represent the NO contacts of the relays Relay_1, Relay_2 etc.
respectively. These contacts are used to S\\itch the respective groups G1, G2, etc. As is
usual in pneumatic systems, initially the last group should be set. The cascade circuit
then changes the group in the sequence G1, G2, ..., Gn in response to appropriate 'Input
signals'. This group-changing concept is implemented in the circuit of Figyre Z:39·
Example 7.12: Pneumatically controlled drilling

machine a
Control task: 1-t!ork-pieces are to be drilled using a pneumatically controlled drilling
achine given in Figure 6 -22 (gample 6.2 of Chapter 6 ). The work-pieces are
rranged in a gravity feed magazine. These are pushed and clamped by means of a
lamping cylinder .4, drilled by a drilling cylinder B, and ejected by an ejecting
ylinder C. Develop an electro-pneumatic control circuit to implement the given
ontrol task.
SS S2 S4 S3 S1 S6 SS
) r)r)r) r)fi) (.
Start~ A+ B+ 8- A- C+ C-
G1 G2 G3
J1g,,re 7-38 :Sotational form for the control task of the pneumatically controlled drilling machine given in F.'<amlfil
olution
he notational form to represent the control task along \\ith their grouping is given in
Figure ::z:~.
The control circuit for dividing the electrical power supply into three or more
roups is designed in a slightly different way than that for two groups as explained in
e earlier section. Three relays are used to divide the electrical power supply into three
roups. The general cascade structure for three groups using three relays is given in
Figure ::z:3:z.
The complete circuit to implement the control task is given in the self-explanatory
Figure ::z:39.
A(1.0) 8(2.0) C(l.O)
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
111
: ,1 I
III : 1I
I
111
: ,1 I
.. ..... . .... ,......... ' ............

2
YI
~ffi3 Y2 Y3 •
5 3
Y4 YS
~ 3
0 Y6
1 2345 6 7 8 9
•i i i i ssi i
P8 I-'
ss t
Kl 1 1
S4
K2 K3
72
71K11
G1 -.--.--<1►---:sc-,-1--s=2---,,
8l:--t---
K2 Kl
K1 K2 G2 -+-----1---.-+--<1►----<J---l---
91
.-- -' G3-+----+----+----<---►-~-----
S2 S3 I•
K2 Kl Kl
Kl K2 K3
A, 8, C,
~ ~~ 8 A C
2 371 5 4. s. s I , s 91 3
Figure 7-39 Electro-pneumatic circuit for the control task of drilling machine of F.xamRI• 7.12.
In Example 7.12, the number of control groups was kept to a minimum. To ensure
the greatest possible reliability, S\\itching to a new group must take place after every
cylinder movement in a sequence control system similar to solution #3 using the shift-
register method for the problem in Example 6 .1 (Chapter 6). The circuit development for
this method is left as an exercise for the reader. Further, if the control system is being
commissioned for the first time or if there has been a power failure, the control syst em
must be initialized. For the circuit given in Fiwe Z:39, this means that the last relay Ks
must be set initially. For this reason, a set button (say PB2) may be connected in parallel
"ith the latching contact Ks in branch 6 (not shown).
iz.2q Mounting Methods and

Arrangements
The types of mountings available and their possible arrangements on valves are
numerous and varied. Ports/terminals of a valve can be mounted on the valve body
directly or on a base/ plate on which the valve body is mounted. The most common types
are: direct mounting, sub-base mounting, stacking, and manifold mounting.
1. Direct mowiting: In this method, ports are an integral part of valve

body. Direct mowited valves have the advantage oflo\\·er cost.
Ho,vever, a disadvantage of this type of mowiting is that the piping
must be disconnected if the valve is required to be removed for
repair or replacement.
2. Sub-base mowiting: In this method, ports, electrical connections,
or plug-in terminals are an integral part of the valve base or plate
on " 'hich the valve body and solenoid coils are mowited \\ith
scre\\·s. This method has the advantage of permitting the user to
remove or replace the complete valve or coils \\·hen required.
Therefore, there is no need to disconnect or disturb the piping or
\\ires. Sub-base mowiting is of major importance in automated
facilities " 'here minimum do\\'lltime is demanded. The
disadvantages of this method are their bulkiness and, in some
cases, added cost.
3. Stacking: In this method, many valves are mowited adjacent to
each other as a Wlit. Stacking of valves simplifies piping and in
most cases allo\\•s for common air inlets and common exhaust
outlets.
4. l\fanifold mounting: J.\,lanifold mounting is a combination of sub-
base mounting and stacking. This mounting method has the
advantages of both the sub-base method and stacking.
tz;30 Modular Valve Technology

Ultra-modem modular valve technology has emerged for high-density installation of
compact, lightweight solenoid valves with a "ide range of mounting options. These
valves can be mounted on indi,i dual connection plates or on modular sub-bases to
provide an intelligent valve system. In modular valve t echnology, "ith the availability of
the so-called 'valve terminal' or 'valve islands', all the advantages of modular sub-base
mounting systems can be utilised. If required, any of these valves can be replaced at
scheduled maintenance times \\ithout halting manufacturing, thus saving time and
money. Besides, solenoids in the valve terminal can be pre-\\ired to an integrat ed multi-
pin I/0 connector or the Fieldbus system to reduce the "iring costs significantly. A
Fieldbus is a modem industrial digital communication network to link PLCs to the field
de,ices such as actuators and sensors.
iz:"3j 1\-liniaturization, Modularity,

Integration, and Intelligence
On the control level, pneumatics has had to struggle hard for its suf\ival. Earlier,
electrical relays and S\\itches were "idely used due to their many advantages. \Vith the
advent of electronics during 1970s, the employment of pneumatics at the control level
has come down sharply. However, due t o the ability of pneumatics to adapt to and
integrate "ith older as well as newer technologies, including electronics, innovative
ideas of development in control technology have opened up. Now electronics and
pneumatics complement each other well. \Vith this important development, it has been
possible to interface pneumatics "ith actuators/ sensors on the machine level and
computers on the factory level. This has resulted in the development of the state-of-the-
art bus technology and modern valve t erminal technology (explained in the previous
section) capable of reaching to an enormous complexity.
Efforts for continuous improvement and adaptation of components, de,ices and
complete systems continued to meet the demands of the market. Improved
performance, miniaturization of components, and possibility of modular design have led
to further consolidation of pneumatics on the industrial scene. J!-,ficroprocessor-based
control systems are finding many applications in automatic control. r.-Iicroprocessors
can be programmed to perform many of the complex control applications found in
modern industry. r--Iachines "ith the use of components and units including valve
t erminals and integrated PLCs have emerged on the industrial scene.
Questions
1. \\'hat is a signal converter? Explain "ith a suitable ea-..:ample.
2. Ho,v can a control system be di,ided functionall:,-? Explain.
3. \\'hat are the advantages of integrating pneumatic and electrical
technologies in the development of industrial control systems?
4. Briefly ea"\.-plain ho,.- a pneumatic valve can be actuated electrically.
5. Differentiate ben,,een AC solenoids and DC solenoids.
6. Give the symbols to ISO 1219
1. 3/2-DC single solenoid valve (NC type), spring return;
2. 5/ 2-DC double solenoid valve "ith manual override.
7. Explain the functional difference ben,,een an 'NO contact' and an

'NC contact' in a push-button or a relay.
8. Give the symbols for the follo"ing:
1. NO contact, relay
2. NC contact, relay
3. Change-over contact, relay
4. Push-Button station "ith 2 NO + 2 NC
9. Explain briefly the working principle of an electro-magnetic relay.
10. Dra"' the symbol for an electro-magnetic relay \\ith 3 NO + 1 NC.
11. \\-'hat are the n,,o ,vays to implement memory function in electro-
pneumatic circuits?
12. Differentiate 'ON dominant' and 'OFF dominant' latching circuits.
13. \\'hat are the functions of sensors?
14. Differentiate ben,,een analog sensors and digital sensors.
15. Llst out a fe,v applications of sensors.
16. Classify sensors gi,ing one example of each.
17. \\'hat are the disadvantages of contact-type sensors?
18. Explain the working principle of a limit s\\itch.
19. Explain the working principle of a reed S\\itch.
10. Explain the \\·orking principle of inductive-type proximity sensor
giving its block diagram.
21. Explain the ,vorking principle of capacitive-type proximity sensor
giving its block diagram.
12. Explain the working principle of optical-type proximity sensor
gi,ing its block diagram.
13. Draw the symbols for the follo\\ing:
1. Llmit S\\itch
2. Inductive-type proximity sensor
3. Capacitive-type proximity sensor
4. Optical-type proximity sensor
14. Differentiate through-beam sensors and diffuse sensors.

25. Compare inductive, capacitive, and optical type of sensors in
relation to the follo,\ing parameters:
1. Nominal =itching distance
2. Objects that can be sensed
26. Explain the function of an on-delay timer \\ith a suitable circuit.

27. Explain the function of an off-delay timer "ith a suitable circuit.
28. Differentiate ben, een the behal'iours of on-delay timer and off-
0
delay timer l\ith the help of a timing diagram.

29. Dra"' an electrical circuit for the n ,·o-hand safety operation "ith
anti-tie do\\'11 and anti-repeat features for implementing the control
task in question 59, ChaP-t er 5, electro-pneumatically. (Hint: Use
two push-buttons each l\ith n,·o NO contacts, a relay, and an on-
delay timer.)
30 . Explain the function of a pressure =itch.
31. Explain the function of an up-counter.
32. Explain the function of a do\\'11-counter.
33. Give s:,nibols for the follo\\ing:
1. On-delay timer "ith 1 NO + 1 NC
2. Off-delay timer \\ith 1 set of CO contacts
3. Pressure s\\itch \\i th 1 set of CO contacts
4. Up-counter
5. Do\\n-counter
34. Give brief notes on the follo,\ing:

1. l\fodular valve technology
2. l\founting methods of pneumatic valves
35. \ \ 'hat are the advantages of sub-base mounting over direct

mounting of valves?
36. Dra"' the electro-pneumatic circuits for the follo\\ing problems
given in Cha11ter 5:
1. Problem 58
2. Problem 60
3. Problem 61
4. Problem 62
37- Dra"' the electro-pneumatic circuits for the follo\\ing problems

given in Cha11ter 6:
1. Problem9
2. Problem 12
3. Problem 13
4. Problem 14
5. Problem 15
6. Problem 16
8 Interfacing with PLC
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Differentiate between hard-\\ired and programmable control systems.

• Explain the structure of a typical PLC.
• Understand the functional details of PLC system components such as CPU, I/Os, etc.
• Explain various aspects of PLC hardware design.
• Explain various features of PLC software.
• Explain the significance of PLC hardware configuration and project structure.
• Explain the function of simple program elements such as NO and KC contacts, and a
Coil, and program a PLC using these elements.
• Explain the function of program elements such as memory, timers, and counters, and
program a PLC using these elements.
• Draw PLC \\iring diagrams and write ladder programs for the control of single-
actuator pneumatic systems involving logic, memory, time-delay, and counter
functions.
• Draw PLC \\iring diagrams and write ladder programs for the control of multiple-
actuator pneumatic systems.
• Inter-relate the operation of PLC ladder programs "ith the corresponding electro-
pneumatic and pure-pneumatic circuits.
• Explain areas of PLC application.
•;\ Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is essentially a microcomputer, consisting of

hardware and software, designed to control the operation of industrial equipment and
processes. This user-friendly digital computer mainly has three sections: input,
processing, and output sections. The input and output sections of the PLC form an
interface to the outside world. In simple terms, a PLC can be considered as a controller
that 'sees' the inputs in the system and 'energises' the outputs in the system according to
a governing software program. An important advantage of the PLC is that it can be easily
programmed and reprogrammed.
\Vith the advent of new PLCs "ith more capabilities, to govern them new PLC
programming languages "ith varying features have also been brought out by PLC
manufacturers. This makes the learning of PLC programming difficult. This chapter
attempts to explain the hardware and software features of PLCs, somewhat resembling
to those of Siemens PLCs. If one has mastered the basics of operation and programming
of one type of PLC, then adapting t o other PLCs is not a complicated process.
A number of examples are given in this chapter explaining how a PLC can be
employed as an interface between the input and the output devices in a pneumatic
system. The concepts of basic program development in the ladder diagram, a
programming language, are explained in an easy-to-understand manner. There is also a
scope for a comparative study of pure pneumatic, electro-pneumatic, and PLC-based
controls "ith the use of many examples given in Chapters 5, 6, and z respectively.
However this chapter is not intended to be a comprehensive study of PLCs. The
networking concepts of PLCs are also beyond the scope of this book.
+24V - 24V
Input s.ec!ion c::) PB1 PB2 PB1 PB2 □ PC

..:········ ··········· ····;24,,·T········--:.. PLC
Proce-ssir.g- seclion Q
:
:
.
-- --
.: Kl --,,_, K2 --,,_,
-~--~-
Kil :
K1)
.:
:.
Prcgrant
01
:.....:?Y.......................... ......: 5V OC
•
Ou!put seclion c:>
I OV
(a) Relay oor.trol system
,OV
(b) PLC·based control sysiem
Lamp
Ilgure 8-1 Examples of industrial control si~tems and theirdi\'isions.
6d Hard-\\Tired Control Systems

In an industrial environment, the electrical controls of many systems are generally "ired
"ith relays and are well known as relay controls. The wiring of the control elements,
such as sensors, solenoids, etc., through relays defines the hard-"ired control 'program'.
Any modification to the program involves the re\\iring of the circuit. Therefore, a hard-
"ired control system is constructed only after its program has been defined. Hard-"ired
controls are cumbersome and difficult to modify when production requirements change
regularly. Any small bug in the design could be a major problem to correct as it also
requires long hours to re"ire the system.
The basic di,isions of a control system were explained in Section 7-.1. To be more
specific, consider the relay circuit for the control of a lamp using two push-buttons (PBs)
as sho\\n in Figm:e 8 -1(i ), The relay circuit can be divided into three main parts: (1)
input section, (2) processing section, and (3) output section. Here, the input section
consists of push-buttons. In general, the input de,ices include s"itches and sensors, and
they transfer signals to the processing section. The processing section, comprising relay
coils and contacts, determines the relationship between the inputs received and the
outputs required. The processed signals are then transferred to the output section where
the lamp is connected. In general, the output devices include solenoids, lamps, contactor
coils, etc.
B;g Programmable Control Systems

An alternative to the hard-" ired control system is the programmable control system in
which a freely programmable electronic controller, called Programmable Logic
Controller (PLC), substitutes the function of the relay portion of the hard-"ired control.
Figure 8 -1(g). demonstrates the concept of the PLC-based control. The most
important sections of a PLC are: (1) input section, (2) processing section, and (3) output
section. The input section is designed to accept signals from s"itches and sensors
connected to specific input addresses and pass them on to the processor. The processor
receives the input signals, executes the instructions in a software program stored in its
memory in accordance "ith the status of the received input signals, and sends the
processed signals to the output section. The output section is designed to modify the
signals received from the processor to operate the output devices connected to specific
output addresses. The software program to control the process or machine operations is
written by the user in a programming language such as 'ladder diagram' or 'statement
list' which may be included in a PLC-specific programming sofuvare. Here, any change
in the control requirement necessitates only a change in the user program and not the
"iring of the control circuit.
Table 8-iPLCs vs relays

Chara&lnisli& PLC Rday
Co ucroll(_·r ~ill' \•\ ·rr COtup.KI Bu1ky
Co nlpfo x opl·r:uio,,~ l'os~ih lc.· D i(h, uh
l'roj-tr,umnin~ Easy Tiuw H>11:>umi11~
Fk·xibi lit\. Rl·prog r;umni11:t ~imrlc.· lh•wiri111-t d iftin 1lt
Crnnpul<.' I' (ap~)h1lit1(',; Puwerfol ;\1<",t a ,· ;'1 1l:'l hk•
Cc.1'( ,.-ff(•((1\'(•f1(,',;'5. l,c,•.-.s (•Xp<.'1lSi\'c.• i\lut(• (•Xp,e,•o ,;i\'l'
M ;'l11l( ('l"l ;\tl((.• Minimu11l
·1·m uhlc.•,;h1l<1{1 n;.: E~l")'. 1'(.•th1((' '- dm,'1"ltitn(' l)iflin1h
Three important features that differentiate PLC-based controls from relay controls
are: ( 1) the use of addresses of the connected components in writing programs, ( 2) the
need for input and output sections, and (3) the use of a PC for writing programs. The
importance of addresses in \\Titing programs is clear from the PLC-based control syst em
given in Figyre 8-1(b). In the PLC-based control, different voltage levels are used at
different sections of the control system. For example, electrical control elements use
typically 24 V DC, and electronic processing elements use typically 5 V DC as standard
voltages. As a result, the input and output sections are incorporated to modify the
voltages appropriately. Unlike relay controls, in PLC-based controls there is a need to
deal \\ith software programs apart from the hardware.
l\'Iodern-day PLCs are developed into a sophisticated and highly versatile control
syst em component, capable of performing complex math functions and operate at fast
microprocessor speeds. Some leading PLC manufacturers are: .>JIB, Allen Bradley, GE
Fanuc, Honeywell, l\'Iitsubishi, )Iodicon, Omron, Siemens, etc.
~ Comparison of PLCs and Relays

Table 8-1 compares PLCs "ith relays in respect of certain parameters.
18.~ Structure of PLC

A PLC 1s essentially a microcomputer consisting of hardware and software. This
microcomputer is designed to operate in electrically and mechanically harsh
environments. The hardware consists of a box full of mechanical and electronic parts
such as PCBs, !Cs, memory locations, " ires, battery, etc. The software is that part of the
syst em which is used to operate the PLC. The software can further be subdivided into:
firmware and user programs. The firmware is supplied by the PLC manufacturer and is
permanently installed in the PLC memory. It mainly includes the PLC operating system
" ith at least one standard programming language, normally stored in a non-volatile
memory (ROr.f). The user program is the program written by a PLC user in any standard
programming language. It is usually stored in PLCs' high-speed RA11 where it can be
easily modified as per requirement.
I PC or PG
I
PlC ¾
4
- Program
-- m-emcry
! Fin.al con~,OI
etemen1s:
!1t,'lt1t ~·•ices: Ccntactor,
-pustl •bult<JtlS a:'ld - ~ lnpul modules f-+ Centr3l
r.rocessmg uni!
-,. Oulpul ntOdu!e S ~enoid valves.
switches !amps.
etc
Figure 8 -2 System components.
ft;5. PLC System Comp onents

The elaborate structure of the PLC consists of power supply module, central processing
unit (CPU), memory, input modules, output modules, and software (Figyre 8 -2) . The
input modules prepare the signals from PBs/sensors. The images of these signals are
reflected in an area of the memory specifically earmarked for the inputs. The images are
passed onto the CPU for the evaluation of the control logic. Thereafter the CPU
generates the images of the output signals that are reflected in an area of the memory
specifically earmarked for the outputs. These output signals are further prepared by the
output modules and then passed onto the actuators through their respective final
control elements. The simplified flow of the information flow in a PLC is given below:
Input --> !\'iemory --> Program --> !\'iemory --> Output
As stated earlier, the software part of the PLC consists of the user programs and the
operating system. The user program can be written in any standard programming
language and then can be transferred (or downloaded) to the program memory. Highly
complex programs can be written easily by using a graphical programming language if
available in the overall PLC software. Every programm ing language includes a
comprehensive instruction set. The PLC programs usually operate in the v\'indows
environment.
A Programming Device (PG) is a hand-held microcomput er "ith special compact
design, suitable for use in the shop-floor environment. But, the small size of the PG
restricts its display capabilities which, in tum, restrict its use in checking the program or
troubleshooting. A PC can be used to program most of the PLCs, and as such it is
possible to monitor the controlled processes online, providing instant information about
the status of various program elements such as inputs, outputs, memory elements,
timers, counters, etc. Various components of a PLC are further ei..-plained b elow.
Power Supply
The power source provides supply not only for the control system but also for the
external signalling devices. The power supply is necessary to convert 120/ 230 V AC line
voltage to the standard supply voltage of 24 V DC (required for the internal power needs
of the I/ 0 modules) and to 5 V DC operating voltage required for the logic circuits of the
processor. The power supply can be an int egral part of the PLC or a separate
unit/module.
Input/Output (1/0) Section

The input/output (I/0) section consists of input and output modules where the real-
world entities are connected. The input devices include push-buttons (PBs), sensors,
potentiometers, pressure s"itches, etc., and the output devices include contactor coils,
solenoid coils, lamps, etc. The function of an input module is to convert higher voltages
from the input devices to low-level logic voltages that the CPU uses internally for
processing. The function of the output module is to amplify the low-level logic signals
generated by the CPU, and pass these modified signals to the final control elements to
operate the output devices. Another function of the I/0 module is to isolate a PLC from
electrical noises. These disturbing signals could cause problem if they reached the PLC
circuits. As the I/0 modules can process analog or discrete signals, they can be classified
into two types: (1) analog modules and (2) digital modules. Of these two types, digital
modules are mostly preferred because the digital processing allows more certainty and
simplifies control. Digital I/0 modules are available as compact units, each typically
provided "ith 16 inputs or outputs for digital signal processing. Analog I/ 0 modules are
available as compact units, each typically provided \\ith two to eight inputs or outputs
for analog signal processing. The follm,ing sections give more information about analog
and digital I/0 modules.
Analog Input ,l<lodule

The analog input module is used to convert analog signals from analog devices, such as
analog sensors, temperature probes, pressure indicators etc., to equivalent digital values
using analog-to-digital (A/D) converter. Each converted value is stored in the memory
in a digital form, typically as a 16-bit 'word' for internal processing. The analog input
signal is usually a varying voltage in the range of 0-10 V or current in the range of 4-20
mA from an analog de,ice that senses such variables as speed, temperature, pressure,
intensity of light, etc. Typically, an analog 0-10 V or 4-20 mA signal would be
converted into an integer value of 0-32767.
Analog Output,l<lodule
The analog output module converts processed digital values from the CPU into
equivalent analog signals, typically in the range of o-10V or 4-20 mA, to operate analog
output devices using digital-to-analog (D/A) converter. The analog output devices are
used in typical applications like positioning of spindle drive " ith motor control unit,
monitoring of filling level, monitoring of force, controlling temperature, etc.
Digital Input ,11,fodule

The digital input section converts signals (24 0 V/ 120 V AC or 24 V DC) from digital
input devices to 5 V digital signals that the CPU uses internally to execute a user
program.
lnpu1 Error \!O!!age

Sig na1 delay OptO•COupler
Signal to
I->-
signal detection CPU
'------------' ~
Figure 8-3 Block dia..,oram of a digital input.
The functional block diagram of the processing of one input signal in a digital input
module is given in Figure 8-3. This module contains an error voltage recognition facility
that is activated when the input voltage exceeds the specified tolerance limits. A trigger
circuit " ith signal delay makes certain that the momentary interference peaks, and the
signals due to contact bounces are suppressed to obtain fault-free signal detection. An
opto-coupler isolat es the internal (CPU) circuits from the external circuits so that
electrical interference is not able to penetrate the PLC through conductive lines. The
input modules also contain light-emitting diodes (LEDs) which indicate the status of the
input signals.
CPU
I
Signal from -+- Opto-coupler
'-------'
H_____...
Amplifier
__,
~ Short-circuit
'-------'
.
protection -+ Output
s,·gnal
Figure 8-4 Block dia..,aram of a digital output.
Digital Output ,11,fodule

The digital output module converts 5 V digital signals from the CPU to 24 V DC signals
or 120 V/ 240 V AC signals required to operat e the digital output devices. The functional
block diagram of the processing of one CPU signal in a digital output module is given in
Figure 8-4. An opto-coupler isolates the internal (CPU) circuits from the external
circuits. The output signal needs to be amplified so that the final control element of the
corresponding actuator that requires additional current can be directly connected to the
output. The short-circuit monitoring facility is provided to protect the CPU from any
possible short-circuit in the output. The output modules also contain LEDs which
indicate the status of the output signals.
Central Processing Unit (CPL')

The CPU is a high performance microprocessor that executes the user programs. It
makes various 'decisions' to control the operation of the associated equipment or
system. The CPU can also perform various arithmetic and data manipulation functions
"ith the local and remotely located input/output sections. Further, the processor can
perform many communication functions it needs to interface "ith a PC, remote I/Os,
other PLCs, and peripheral de,ices.
~ CPU Memory Areas

Generally, CPUs are designed to have three distinct memory areas. They are: (1) load
memory, (2) work memory, and (3) system memory. Figyre 8-5 shows individual details
of CPU memory areas.
CPU
System Memory lRAl,1)
Loadmemory
,· ►
..• Proc.e$i imageinput f-<··· •-1 r.,put signals
use, program I◄ o,nam:c
(RJ\MI • .... •►I
• ·► ~ ·► Process image cutjX!t Ovtp;.i: 5-0nals
''
''
.•••
' Retenli•te •
',o ► >·► Bil memory
'''
' (FEPROMJ ..'
'''
.
:·► Tlfflers
''
'
''
Work memory .
••
••
'
'' ••··• Coi1nters
'• · ► (RAMI .•
---t· · '\
••
•·►
•
Figure 8-s CPt: memory areas.
LoadMemory
This memory is used to store the entire user program that controls a driven equipment
or process. The load memory can be integrated as a volatile RAl\f and/ or a plug-in type
retentive Flash EPROl\I. The retentive section of the load memory contains programs
required to operate the PLC. These programs enable the PLC to start up when the power
is initially turned on. Using these programs, the PLC also interprets the instructions it
receives from a keyboard or the user section of memory.
fVork .11,femory
This memory contains relevant portions of the user p rograms required for running a
program. A program is executed only in the work memory and system memory areas.
Designed as high-speed RAl\f, the work memory is fully integrated in the CPU.
System Afemory
This memory consists of thousands of locations (bits) capable of storing binary data.
That is, each bit can be in either a 'o' state or a '1' stat e. In PLCs, these locations are
designed in the form of RA)I and are usually organized in terms of 16-bit registers.
These bits can be used individually or in byte-length (8-bit) or word-length (16-bit) or
double-word-length (32-bit) groupings for arithmetic operations. Each location is given
an address to locate it and access the information stored in it.
The system memory consists of the follo\\ing address areas or tables: process image
input (PII), process image output (PIO), bit memory (l>'I), timer (T), counter (C), etc.
Images of inputs and outputs are reflected in the PII and PIO tables, respectively. The
bit memory locations store interim results calculated in the program, which can be
accessed throughout the program for control. Timers and counters are assigned storage
areas in the system memory to store relevant parameters for implementing waiting
times and counting functions, respectively. All these areas can be addressed and used
through program instructions.
8.'n PLC Hard,,,are Design

There are PLC systems available for small, medium, and large control tasks. The data
handling, storage, processing power, and communication capabilities of modern PLCs
are approximately equivalent to desktop computers. The CPU, with its associated
memory areas, makes up the hardware basis for processing the user programs. The
hardware design of a PLC is such that it could "ithstand fy'J)ical industrial environments
as regards to signal levels, heat, humidity, fluctuating power supply, and mechanical
impacts. :Moreover, PLCs are designed to remain unaffected by electrical interference
voltages commonly found in industrial plants.
Depending on how the input and output (I/0) modules are arranged in PLCs, a
distinction can be made between fixed I/0 PLCs and modular PLCs. The fixed I/0 PLC
is a single unit that has integral inputs and outputs along ,vith power supply and the
CPU. The maximum number of inputs and outputs that can be used in a fixed I/0 PLC is
limited by its design. The design aspects of modular PLCs are elaborated in the follo"ing
section.
~~-HModular PLCs
To facilitate the matching of PLC systems to the requirements of inputs, outputs, type
and memory capacity, control system complexity, performance, nenvorking, etc., they
are generally offered as modular systems. A certain number of such modules need to be
combined together in a flexible way depending on the size of the control task. In this
way, it is possible for the user to select modules designed to do specific jobs, and use
them to the best possible advantage. In a modular PLC, compact modules are arranged
on a rack, and they can be easily combined to form an operational PLC syst em of the
required size. A slot number is assigned to each module in a given PLC. In the slot-based
address allocation, a default start address is assigned by the CPU to each I/0 module.
Several PLCs can also be nenvorked for meeting complex requirements. Components of
a typical modular PLC are shown in Figyre 8-6.
.
□ I ~ 1. Power supply module

2. CPU
D
- .
·'' . ©
3. Ne~vorl< module
4 to 11. Signal modules
. · · · ····· · · ··' ---"---"
1 2 3 4 5 10 11
□
/
PC
'
■--· .-..-..-- •
Ilgure 8·6 Components of modular PLC.
In the modular PLCs, several I/ 0 modules (signal modules) are added to the CPU as
per the control requirement.
Note: Features of Siemens and Allen Bradley PLCs based on a few important
paramet ers are given in Appendix 5 for a comparative study.
~ PLC Software
As stated earlier, the software of a PLC system can be divided into two parts: (1)
operating system and (2) user programs. The PLC operating system is the overall
software representing the totality of instructions and declarations necessary to control
the PLC system resources. This operating system provides effective support ranging
from the creation of a project structure to the creation of user programs.
The services of the operating system are usually accessed through a graphical user
interface \\indow. Let us call this "indow as the ':Main' "indow. This ,vindow is usually
used for the management of data and the activation of functions, graphically or
othen,ise. The '?-'Iain' "indow contains all the functions needed to set up a project,
configure the hardware, write and test programs, and more.
B:10 Project Structure

An automation task usually consists of many objects such as PLC stations, modules, and
programs, usually arranged in a hierarchical structure, and these can be structured into
a project. The project contains the entire database for an automation solution. The
':Main' ,vindow helps to create the project structure "ith all objects in the project for the
purpose of storing and arranging data and programs. Creating a project structure is an
essential requirement for working "ith a PLC system. A typical project structure is
shown in Figure 8-::z.
[- '
I Project
I- ' I
I
PLC stations
1
[- J Programs
Blocks
Figure 8-7 Project structure ofan automation task.
B.ti Hardw are Configuration

Before executing PLC programs, it is essential to configure the hardware, especially the
I/ Os, using the commands available through the 'r.fain' " i ndow. This configuration is
the process of declaring the details of modules in the actual system mounted on the rack
to the operating system using a software configuration table. Corresponding to the real
slots in the mounting rack, these modules are to be entered in the relevant slots of the
software configuration table. The operating system can then assign address to each
module inserted in the configuration table. r.fodern PLCs are also capable of configuring
the hardware automatically.
B:ii Us er Pro grams

A user program can be written in any standard PLC programming language like ladder
diagram or statement list. The ladder diagram is a graphical programming language
intended for those who are accustomed to working "ith electrical relay circuits. The
Statement List is the programming language intended for those who prefer
programming in a language similar to the Assembly language. These languages
essentially consists of various program elements or instructions which can be used for
realizing a given control task. Therefore, the knowledge of functions of these
programming elements is essential for writing the user programs.
Large user programs can be structured in the form of smaller self-contained
program blocks or subroutines. These blocks then can be combined into a complete
program by calling them in the main program. At the end, all these blocks have to be
downloaded to the CPU (load memory) of the PLC for execution.
8.!3 Program Scan-Cycle

"While processing a PLC program, the CPU scans and executes the main program
cyclically. A program scan-cycle consists of sequential operations that include input
scan, program scan, and output scan. In the input scan, the CPU updates the process
image input table, and in the output scan, the CPU updates the process image output
table. These process image tables are explained in Section 8.6. During the program scan,
the CPU executes the program. After the completion of each scan cycle, the CPU returns
to the beginning of the next cycle and again repeats the cycle. The time taken to scan one
program cycle is called scan-cycle time.
I◄ Program logic
·I Output coil
I0 volt
+
bit_address output_address
Rung
(
Figure 8-8 Ladderdiag)'am.
8.!4l PLC Ladder Programming in

General
The concepts of PLC programming are explained ,vith the ladder diagram in the
follo,ving sections. This diagram uses symbolic representations of software
programming elements like contacts, coils, memory coils, timers, counters, etc. The
ladder diagram has two vertical sides as shown in Figure 8-8. The left side is assumed to
be associated "ith a positive voltage and the right side ,vith o volt. Between these two
sides are the horizontal rungs for the assumed current flow (or power flow). The
symbols representing various program elements are placed on the rungs in order to
realize the required control task. The program elements fall into some general groups
such as: (1) bit logic operations, (2) timer operations, (3) counter operations, (4)
comparison operations, and (5) arithmetic operations etc.
B~ PLC Bit logic Operations

The ladder programming language allo"-s PLCs to perform different ty'J)es of task,
including Boolean logic, timing, counting, arithmetic, and many special functions. The
bit logic (Boolean) operations are provided in the programming language for the bit-
"ise control of operations. Some important programming elements for cart')'ing out bit
logic operations are: NO contact, :'<C contact, coil, set coil, and reset coil. Each of these
elements can be brought to the selected part of the ladder rung by clicking the program
element from a program element catalogue pro,ided in the program window.
NO Contact, PLC
The representation of a PLC NO contact is given in Figyre 8-~(9).. This contact scans for
the signal state '1' (Ol\') at the specified 'bit_address'. That is, power flows through the
NO contact if the scanned bit address has a signal state '1'. This contact is used for
scanning the signal state of input devices or output devices or other internal program
elements. The function of the NO contact is further illustrated "ith the help of Figures
8-11 and 8 -12.
NC Contact, PLC
The symbol of a PLC NC contact is given in Figyre 8-9.(!;i}. This contact scans for the
signal state 'o' (OFF) at the specified 'bit_address'. That is, power flows through the NC
contact if the scanned bit address has the signal state 'o'. This contact is also used for
scanning the signal state of input devices or output devices or other internal program
elements. The function of the NC contact is further illustrated "ith the help of Figures
8-13 and 8 -g .
bit_address bit_ address

------,v1---
(a) NO program contact (b) NC program contact
Figure 8-9 PLC program contacts.
bit_address
------·---·---------l )~------i
Figure 8-10 PLC coil.
+--~--------- .'
+ - . - -- - - - ... - - - -- - . - - -- . ·- .... . - -- - . - -- -
. ' '
'
PB~
o· Memory ,•
K0' .'
'' ,
PLC .. ,."
·o· ,.,,,' , ,
' ·o·
11 01 , ''
.. '
~-- j f-----p,;,g-,~;.;- -----( }--! . . ''
•· Kl : ,
·o· C
'.'. c::'.::]/
,.
' •'
(8)L ' . .,,' , ·

- • • • • • "";"7' " • • • • • • • • • • • • • • L • • • • • • • • • • •
•
(a1): Wilh PB released (a2): Equivalent relay circuit
"--~--------,'......- - -
PB f E-
'1'
PLC
11 01 ~
H: .,. H .
• K1
' L
C~ L
(b1): With PB ptessed (b2): Equivalent telay ci1cuit
Figure 8 - 11 filustrationshm,ing the PLC program ::-o contact function, using an :,o push-button and a lamp for the
lamp's control through a PLC, and the equivalent relay ciroiits.
Coil, PLC
The representation of a PLC coil is given in Figure 8 - 10 . This programming element acts
as a link between the CPU and an output device that is associated "ith the specified
bit_address. This element is considered to be the terminator of the rung, and hence it is
always placed at the end of the rung. If current (or power) flows into the coil, the
corresponding bit_address is activated. In other words, the CPU provides necessary
energy to drive the addressed output. If there is no current flow into the coil, the
bit_address is deactivated and the addressed output remains de-energised.
B.tij Program Contacts vs

s,,itching Contacts
The NO and NC program elements should not be confused "ith the hardware NO and
NC contacts of the S\\itching devices. Illustrations in Figure 8-11 to 8-14 explain these
inlportant concepts in an easy-to-understand manner. The corresponding relay circuits
are also given for a comparative study.
., - - ~ - - - - - - - - - >- - - - - - - - - - - - -
PB J,. PB
,'
T
PLC ,
, , ·1•
12 02
H,__
1 - --1( H <
,
,· K2
,
,
(a1): With PB released (a2): Equivalent relay circuit
+- - - - - - - - - - - - • ..
+ • • • • • • • • .,. • • • • • • • • • • • •, ,.•: 'r\.•• • • • • • • • • •
PBtP Pat ~ •
,
,'1<2 '\ ',
... . '
'
,
·o .. ,
,
. .' ,·
,..:" ·o·
PLC
·o· .,,- .· ,
,·
,
12 02 ,,
..•
1--l f·················-( }--l ,
, K2:•
,
.
< •
-o~ L ... ' D. , , ,, '°'
.L
'OJ
' ,,· '
- .........
, ·1--•············"···········
(b1): With PB pressed (b2): Equivalent relay circuit
Figure 8-1z illustration shO\ving the PLC program NO oontact function, using an NCpush-button and a lamp for the
lamp's control through a PLC, and the equivalent relay circuits.
Push-button NO Contact vs Program NO Contact

Figure 8-11(a1). shows an NO-type push-button (PB) connected to the input at
address 11 and scanned by a program ::-,o contact. In the initial position when the PB is
not pressed, the scanned bit_address h has a signal state 'o' and hence no po\\·er flows
through the program NO contact and the coil. As a result, the bit_address 01 remains
deactivated. Hence, lamp L connected to the output at address 01 does not S\Vitch on.
The relay circuit equivalent to the PLC system, shown in Figure 8 -11(a1). when the push-
button PB is released, is shown in Figure 8 -11(a2)..
If the PB is now pressed as sho\\'11 in Figure 8 -11(Q1)., the bit_address 11 has signal
state '1' and hence power flows through the NO contact and the coil. As a result, the
bit_address 01 is activated. Hence the lamp L S\\i tches on. The relay circuit equivalent
to the PLC system, sho\\'11 in Figure 8-11(Q1). when the push-button PB is pressed, is
sho"'ll in Figure 8-11(b2)..
Push-button NC Contact vs Program NO Contact

Figure 8 -12(il). shows an NC-type push-button PB connect ed to input address 12 and
scanned by a program NO contact. In the initial position when the PB is not pressed, the
scanned bit_address 12 has a signal state '1' and hence power flows through the program
NO contact and the coil. As a result, the bit_address 02 is activated. Hence, lamp L
connected to the output at address 02 5',itches on. The relay circuit equivalent to the
PLC system, sho\\'11 in Figure 8-12(a1). when the push-button PB is released, is sho\\'11 in
Figure 8 -12(a2)..
•
•
PB P , '
, K1
·o· ,
, ,
,
PLC ,
·o· .. , '1'
...
•'
~ 0 1H ,·
, "
[ ,
,·
.•
<.• K1 • •
'1' ·' L
'._ I
( ~L .. : , I,' ,
,
(a1): With PB released (a2): Equivalent 1elay circuit

+ + ---~----...,_._ _ __
PBt
'1' .. ,·
,
PLC
·r .,
11 01 , ,
,
1--Yt--·--·--------···{ }--1 '
,
Kt
,
' ,·
L Q9• L
•
{bl): Wilh PB pressed {b2J: Equivalent relay circuit
Figure 8-13 illustration shosving the PLC program NCcontact function, using an ::-10 push-button and a lamp for the
lamp's control through a PLC, and the equivalent relay cittuits.
+------------- + - - - - - - - ~ .,- ----
' '
PB PB
'1'
PLC ,.'' , ,
, "O'
'
12 02 , '
!---vt··················[ l··l '

, K2
,
, '
L ~,--, ·'
'
(a1): Wilh PB released (a2): Equivalenl relay circuil
,
,,
+------------- + , , '
PB t , ,,
K2
'
''
''
,
'
, ,
,,
·o· ,, , '1'
,, ,
12 02 , ,,
,,
~------i( H , ,,
, ,,
K2
,
,,
, , ,·
'1' ' L
L
(bl): Wilh PB pressed (b2): Equivalent relay circuil
Figure 8-14 illustration shol,ing the PLC program :{C contact function, using an KCpush-button and a lamp for the
lamp's control through a PLC, and the equivalent relay cittuits.
If the PB is now pressed as shown in Figyre 8 -12(1!1)., bit_address 12 has signal state
'o' and hence power does not flow through the program NO contact and the coil. As a
result, the bit_address 01 is deactivated. Hence, lamp L does not s"itch on, The relay
circuit equivalent to the PLC system, shown in Figure 8-12(fil). when the push-button PB
is pressed, is sho\\n in Figure 8-12(li2)..
It can be observed that the NO contact scans the input for signal state '1' and then
closes regardless of whether the push-button PB contact is an NO or NC contact.
Push-button NO Contact vs Program NC Contact

Figure 8-13.(fil). shows an NO-type push-button PB connected to input address 11 and
scanned by a program NC contact. If the PB is not pressed, the scanned bit_address h
has a signal state 'o' and hence power flows through the program NC contact and the
coil.•>.s a result, bit_address 01 is activated. Hence, lamp L connected to address 01
s"itches on. The relay circuit equivalent to the PLC system, sho"n in Figure 8-13!a1)
when the push-button PB is released, is shown in Figure 8-13.(a2)..
If the PB is now activated as sho,vn in Figyre 8-13.(Q(!, bit_address 11 has signal
state '1'and hence power does not flow through the NC contact and the coil. As a result,
bit_address 0 1 is deactivated. Hence, lamp L does not S\\itch on. The relay circuit
equivalent to the PLC system, sho"n in Figyre 8-13.Cfil). when the push-button PB is
pressed, is shm,n in Figyre 8-13.(Q2)..
Push-button NC Contact vs Program NC Contact

If the PB is not activated as shown in Figyre 8-14.(a1)., bit_address 12 has signal state '1'
and hence power does not flow through the NC contact and the coil. As a result,
bit_address 02 is deactivated. Hence, Lamp L does not S\\itch on. The relay circuit
equivalent to the PLC system, sho\\n in Figure 8-1~.!a1l when the push-button PB is
released, is sho,vn in Figure 8-1,ua2)..
If the PB is now activated as sho,vn in Figure 8-14.Cl!1)., bit_address 12 has signal
state 'o' and hence power flows through the program KC contact and the coil. As a
result, lamp L S\\itches on. The relay circuit equivalent to the PLC system, sho\\n in
Figure 8-14.Cl!1). when the push-button PB is pressed, is shown in Figure 8-1i1,(li2)..
It can be observed that the NC contact scans the input for signal state 'o' and then
closes regardless of whether the push-button PB contact is NO or NC. You may take a
few seconds to compare and clearly understand the functions of the NO and NC contacts
in the ladder programs and equivalent relay circuits.
Note: The representations of the program elements are given in a generalized way
m the follo,dng sections only to highlight their functions. As of now, the actual
representations of program elements are different for different manufacturers. The
comparison of a few important parameters and actual representations of certain selected
program elements of Siemens and Allen Bradley PLCs are given in Appendix 5.
Example 8.1: l\'lanually controlled fonvard and return

motions of a double-acting cylinder
using a PLC
Control task: A double-acting cylinder is used to open or close the control valve of a
ipe. A double-solenoid valve is used as the final control element. Draw a pneumatic
ircuit and a PLC wiring diagram for the implementation of the given control task.
lso give a ladder program to realise the control task.
olution
he pneumatic circuit, the PLC wiring diagram, and the ladder diagram for the control
ask are shown in Figures 8-15.~)., !ll),, and (£}., respectively.
1,0
PB I P82 Assignment list
Pol i;
......... .
'·
11 12 PLC
Po2 12
11 4 : 2 01 02
I ~ izj v2 Y1 01
Y1 Y2
5 D, 3 Y2 02
1
(a) Pneumatic ci1cuit (b) PlC wiring diagram
11 01
1 1 -- ---1 > - - - - - - - - - I 1 -- - l
12 02
2 1 -- - - - 1 >-- - - - - - - - I 1---l
(c) Program inladder diagram
Figure 8-15 Pneumatic circuit, PLC "iring diagram, and ladder program for the control ta.skof ~ e 8.1.
As shown in the "iring diagram of Figure 8-15.iQ), push-button PB1 is used to

ontrol the forward motion, and push-button PB2 is used to control the return motion
f cylinder 1.0. \\>'hen the push-button PB1 is pressed, the signal stat e at address h
hanges to '1' and consequently output address 01 is activated as per the program at
ng 1 of the ladder diagram. Coil Y1 is energised causing the actuation of valve 1.1. The
,linder then extends. By the same logic, the cylinder retracts when the pushbutton PB2
pressed as per the program at rung 2 of the ladder diagram.
8.1~ PLC Logic Operations

Logic operations such as AND and OR involving pneumatic and electrical elements were
explained in Chapters 5 and z, respectively. In PLC-based controls also, the signal states
of bit_addresses of inputs can be logically combined through a series/ parallel/ series-
parallel combination of these bit_addresses as in relay-based controls. The A1~ D
function combines the bit_addresses of inputs and produces an RLO (Result of Logic
Operation) of '1' when all the inputs are scanned for '1'. The OR function combines the
bit_addresses of inputs and produces an RLO of '1' when any one or more of the inputs
are scanned for '1'.
Example 8.2: Logic control of a cylinder using a PLC

Control task: Sheets ofpaper are to be cut using a cutting device. By pressing two
ush-button switches simultaneously, the cutting blade attached to a pneumatic
ylinder is advanced, and the sheet ofpaper is cut. Upon release of any one or both the
ush-button switches, the cutting blade is returned to its start position. Use a single-
olenoid valve as the final control element. Draw a pneumatic circuit and a PLC
iring diagram for the implementation of the given control task. Also give a ladder
rogram to realise the control task.
he pneumatic circuit, PLC "iring diagram, and the ladder program for the control task
f Example 8.2 are given in Figure 8-16. The signal states of push-button S\\itches PB1
d PB2 connected at addresses h and !2 can be combined logically to realise the
esired control function. The series connection of the program NO contacts of the
espective push-buttons in the ladder diagram corresponds to the AND function. Power
ows to the coil through the series connection only when both the push-button S\\itches
e pressed and the corresponding signal states at addresses h and !2 turn to '1' as per
e program at rung 1. Consequently, address 01 turns to '1' and solenoid coil Y gets
nergised. This causes the actuation of valve 1.1 and hence the forward motion of
,linder 1.0. Release of any of the push-buttons causes the return motion of the
+
1.0
PBl PB2 Assignment List
: I
111
PLC P81 11
... . ...... .. 11 12
1.1 4: 2
01 PB2 12
y 01
y
(a) Pneumatic circuil

{bl PLC wiring diagram
r-1111 Ill I~
(c) Program in ladder diagram
Figure 8 -16 Pneumatic circuit, PLC "iring diagram, and ladder program for the control of cutting machine.
Examp le 8.3: .'\.utomatic return motion of a cylinder

using a PLC
Control task: A double-acting cylinder is to e:l.tend and push a work-piece into a
hute when a push-button is pressed manually. The cylinder is to retract automatically
rfter reaching the fully €:!.tended position. Draw the pneumatic circuit and the PLC
•iring diagram for the implementation of the control task. Also give the necessary
rogram in the ladder diagram.
olu tion
he pneumatic circuit, PLC "iring diagram, and the ladder program are shown in
Figure 8 -1z. To obtain the automatic return motion of the cylinder, a limit s"itch (or a
roximity sensor) may be used. \\Then PB1 is pressed, the signal state at address h
hanges to '1' and consequently output address 01 is turned to '1' as per the program at
ng 1. Coil Y 1 is energised causing the actuation of valve 1.1. The cylinder then extends.
Vhen the cylinder reaches the final end position, limit switch S2 is activated
utomatically. The signal state at address I3 changes to '1' and consequently output
ddress 02 is turned to ' 1' as per the program at rung 2. Coil Y 2 is thus energised
ausing the return actuation of the valYe (1.1). The cylinder then retracts automatically.
1.0 S2
Assignrnenl List
PB1 S2 •
111 : I
P81 11
... ....... .. 11 13
1.1 4 : 2 S2 13
01 02
YI. Y2 Y1 01
5 t;. 3 Y1 Y2 Y2 02
1
(a) Pneumatic ci,00:1
{b>PLC wiring <hagram
11 01
13 02
2 ! - - --< ,__ _ _ _ _ __, 1-- - - l
{c) P,ogramin ladder (f agram
Figure 8-17 Pnewnatic circuit; PLC wiring diaccrram:, and ladder program for the semi-automatic operation ofa
double-acting C)fuider.
B.18 PLC Timers

The timers of PLCs are software modules used for the implementation of delay time
ben,·een work operations. :IIemory space is earmarked in the system memory (Section
8. z, Chapter 8) to store the value of the delay time. ~nerally, the follo"ing important
operations are required in a software timer module: (1) starting the timer and (2)
specifying the required time duration. The representations of the timer address vary
from manufacturer to manufacturer and that for Siemens and Allen Bradley PLCs are
given in Appendix 5. Here, address representations T1, T2, T3, etc. are used for
simplicity. The desired time duration can be specified in hours, minutes, seconds, and
milliseconds or in appropriate time bases. To explicitly reset a timer, an RLO of '1' has to
be applied at the 'Reset' input. The number of timers available in a PLC is typically
64/128/ 256/512 or more.
Timer_address
On-delay timer ON OFF
Stan input Output Start input
Delay_time
Reset
Output --;•- i
..-
..
Figure 8-18 PLC on-delay timer.
Time, address
Off-delay limer ON OFF
Stan input Oulpul Stan input I

Oelay_time
Resel
Output I
Figure 8-19 PLC off-delay timer.
PLC On-delay Timer
A functional box representation of an on-delay timer and its behaviour are sho\\n in
Figure 8-18. The timer starts running when power flows to its 'Start input'. The signal
state of the 'Output' changes from 'o' to '1' when programmed time 't' has been elapsed
"ith reference to a change of RLO from 'o' to '1' at the 'Start' input.
PLC Off-delay Timer

A functional box representation of an off-delay timer and its beha,iour are sho\\n in
Figure 8-19. The timer starts running when power flows to its 'Start input'. The signal
state of the 'Output' changes from '1' to 'o' only after programmed time 't' has been
elapsed "ith reference to a change of RLO from '1' to 'o' (OFF) at the 'Start' input.
1.0 S2
I PB1 S2.
• 11 13
•---------,
1.1 4: 2
01 02
Y1 Y2
Y2._____,_
1
(a) Pneumatic circuit (b) PLC wiring diagram
11 01
1
T1
13 On-delay timer 02
2 ~ f-: - -1 Start_input Output 1-------i: 1-----1
1Os_ Delay_time
_ Reset
(c) Program in ladder diagram

Figure 8-::.o Pneumatic circuit, PLC \\iring diagram, and ladder program for the delayed c:,iinderoperation of
F,xample 8,,i.
Example 8.4: Delayed return motion of a cylinder

using a PLC
Control task: A double-acting cylinder is used to press a job. 11-'hen push-button PBt
· pressed, the cylinder is to travel out. This cylinder is to remain in its forward end
osition for 10 s and then to return automatically. Draw the pneumatic circuit and the
1,C wiring diagram for the implementation of the given control task . .4.lso give the
ecessary program in the ladder diagram.
he pneumatic circuit, the PLC "iring diagram, and the program in ladder diagram for
e control task are given in Figyre 8-20. To obtain the delayed return motion of the
,linder, an on-delay timer is used. \Vhen PB1 is pressed, its signal state at address h
hanges to '1' and output address 01 is set. Consequently, coil Y1 is energised causing
e forward actuation of valve 1.1. Cylinder 1.0 then extends. \'<'hen the cylinder reaches
e final end position, limit s"itch S2 is actuated automatically, thus generating an
utput signal. As a result, the signal state of S2 at address l3 changes to '1' and
onsequently starts timer T 1. The signal state of the timer changes to '1' when the
pecified time of 10 s has been elapsed and consequently output address 02 is set. Coil
2 is energised thus causing the return actuation of the valve (1.1). The cylinder retracts
utomatically after the programmed time delay.
B.tg PLC Memory Elements

It is usually required to store intermediate results during a program execution. This can
easily be done in a PLC using bit memory locations (flags) in the system memory
(Section 8.:z). That is, a specified bit memory location can be set (latched) or reset
(unlatched) using set coil [Figure 8-21(al] and reset coil [Figure 8 -21(y)J, respectively.
However, as is usual for more complex functions, both coils can be combined in a box as
shown in Figyres 8 -21(~1 and .(g}. Generally, the follo,dng instructions are required in a
program memory function: (1) setting a memory location and (2) resetting the memory
location. The representations of the address for a memory location vary from
manufacturer to manufacturer and that for Siemens and Allen Bradley PLCs are given in
AJ!J!endix 5. In this book, address representations Jvh, :M2, :M3, etc. for memory
elements are used for simplicity. Depending upon the type of CPUs, the number of bit
memories available in a PLC is ty'J)ically 1024/ 2048/8192 or more.
Binary_.¥.!dress 8inary_add1ess
Resei_sel Set_reset
Oulj)ut Output
Sot
____a_i•-(•~-;"" I (c> Reset_sel box (cl) SeU esel box
(b> Reset ooil
Figure 8-:u PLC memory elements in coil and box representations.
If power flows momentarily or continuously to the set coil, the specified memory
address is set to signal state '1'. If power flows momentarily or continuously to the reset
coil, the corresponding memory address is reset to signal state 'o'. If there is no power in
the set input or the reset input, the memory address remains unaffected. The output of
the memory function can be accessed through NO or KC program element.
Set and reset functions are combined in memory boxes. They can further be divided
into two: (1) memory box with set priority and (2) memory box "ith reset priority. The
functions of a memory box are similar to those of memory coils as explained in the
previous paragraph when the coils are activated one at a time. However the difference
between these two types "ill be e,ident when signals are applied to both the set and
reset inputs simultaneously. In the memory box "ith set priority [figure 8-21(~)], the
associated memory address is set when signal state '1' appears simultaneously at both
the set and reset inputs. In the memory box with reset priority [figure 8 -21(g).], the
associated memory address is reset when signal state '1' appears simultaneously at both
the set and reset inputs. The reader may now compare the dominant ON and dominant
OFF functions of electrical latching circuit (Sections ll9 and 7.18, Chapter z) ,dth the
set priority box and the reset priority box given here.
+
1.0 Sl S2
p I PBl I PB2 SI • I S2 •
11 1
... . . . . . .4;.
~
11 12 13 14
I.I 2
01 02
Y1
.Y2
3 Y1 Y2
1
(a) Pneumabc o rcuil
(b) PLC wiring diagram
'Mf
11 Set_resel Selling and resetting of a Rag (M1} located in

Set Ou!pul system memory with m:>men!ary s,gnals from 11
aM 12, reS!)echvely
12 Res.el
13 01
Tsignal sla<esof ·Mr and 13 (S1 ) set01 (Yl )
2 1---l 1-- - - - - - - l 1-------
14 02
T signal state ol 14 ($2) sels 02 (Y2/
3 I---< 1----------------1 >---I
(CJ Ladder program

Figure 8-22 Pneumaticcirorit, PLC wiring diagram, and ladder program for the cyclic operation of a double-acting
cylinder controlled by a 5/2-doublHolenoid \:alve.
Example 8.5: Continuous back-and-forth motion of a

cylinder using a PLC
ntrol task: H'hen a start push-button is pressed, a double-acting cylinder is to
erform a continuous back-and-forth motion until a stop push-button is pressed. The
ylinder should always stop in the retracted position. •4 5/2- double-solenoid valve is
ed as the final control element. Develop a fully automatic PLC-based control system
nd draw the corresponding ladder program to implement the control task.
he pneumatic circuit, PLC " iring diagram, and ladder program for the cyclic operation
fa double-acting cylinder controlled by a 5/ 2-double-solenoid valve are given in Figure
8-22. Limit S\\itches S1 (at 13) and S2 (at 14) are positioned for actuation at the
etracted and extended positions of the cylinder, respectively. Limit switch S1 is
ctuated in the initial position. The fully automatic cyclic operation of the cylinder can
e obtained simply by using sensor signal S1 controlling solenoid coil Y1 (at 01) through
e program as shown in rung 2 and sensor signal S2 controlling solenoid coil Y2 (at
2) through the program as shown in rung 3. The 'Start' and 'Stop' controls of the cyclic
peration can be implemented by introducing a memory element (flag) "ith address
·111' that is set by PB1 (at h) and reset by PB2 (at 12), respectively, as shown in rung 1.
he state of the memory element (1'h ), scanned through an NO contact, is combined in
eries \\ith the state of sensor S1 (13) as shown in rung 2 to obtain the necessary 'Start'
d 'Stop' controls. This solution is similar to the solutions for the cyclic operation of a
,linder in pure pneumatic controls (Section 5.29, Chapter 5) and in electro-pneumatic
ontrols (Exam~'.2£ Chapter z).
B.,gg Counters, PLC

A count er is special program element capable of performing counting tasks such as
incrementing or decrementing a count value when given a transitional input. According
to the function they perform, there are two basic types of counters: (1) up-counter and
(2) down-counter. An up-counter increments its count value and a down-counter
decrements its count value. 1femory space is earmarked in the system memory for each
counter to store the count value. Generally, the follo" ing important instructions are
required in a counter: (1) specifyi ng an initial count value, (2) setting the counter, and
(3) incrementing or decrementing its count value. The address representations of a
count er vary from manufacturer to manufacturer and that for Siemens and Allen
Bradley PLCs are given in Appendix 5. In this book, count er address representations C1,
C2, C3, etc. are used for simplicity. Depending upon the type of CPUs, the number of
count ers available in a PLC is ty'J)ically 32/ 64/128/ 256/ 512 or more.
Counter_address Counter_address
Up_counter Down_counter
Count _up Output Count_down Output
Set Set
Preset Preset
Reset Reset
(a) Up-counter (bl Down-counter

Figure 8·23 Counters, PLC.
A ty'J)ical up counter [figure 8-23.(,1).J has the follo\\ing inputs : (1) Count_up, (2)
Set, (3) Preset, and (4) Reset. The 'Preset' input is used to specify the preset count value
to the count er. The 'Set' input is used to set the counter " ith the preset value when the
RLO at this input changes from o to 1 (positive edge). The 'Count_up' input is used to
increment the count value of the counter by 1 each time the RLO at this input changes
from o to 1 until an upper limit is reached. The counter is reset if a '1' is present at the
'Reset' input. The status of a counter (output coil) is zero whenever the count value is
zero. The status of a counter is '1' whenever the count value is other than zero. To be
useful in control applications, the count value must be compared to the preset value. In
many PLCs, the comparison function is integrated with the counter . 'When the count
value is equal to the preset value, the counter will stop counting, and the associated coil
"ill be energised to deliver the required control function.
In a down-counter [figyre 8 -23_(2).J, the count value is decremented by 1 when a
transitional input is given to its 'Count_do"n' input until it reaches the lower limit of
zero. Example 8.6 is based on an application that uses a down-counter.
+
1.0 Sl S2
~lll~P PB! P62: SI ~ $2 •
........... I! 12 13 14
1.1 4: 2
Y1 r'71Jl1Trrn Y2
01 02
~l
Y1 Y2
(a) ?neumatic circuit

(b) PLC wiring diagram
M1
11
Seueset
1 f - - i 1 - - - - - - - l Set Output Settiog and rese1Un9 of a flag-1.11 wilh momentary
sgnals from 11 and Cl respecll',ely. NC o: Cl scans
fC< ·o· Stgnal slate of coontei C1
C1
f--l /1-- - - - - - - - - l ~e,set
13 01 '1' S<gnal state-s o1 'M1' ar.d 13 (S1) set 01 lYI)

21-----1 1 - - - - - - - - 1 1-- -- - - i 1---1
02 ·r signal state of l.i ($2) se;s

3 f---l 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 f--i 02 (Y2)
c, Preset .,.a'ile of 10 is {OOC'ed to counier w~n s,gl'lal
14 Down-counter stale of 11 char.ges i::> ·1·. Count ,,aruc is
0.1P dcaementod b;· one unit with c·,'e()' s:gool at '<:ounl-
1
1-------1 Counl down
11 Set
down' input. S1a1usof counter changes 10 wnen·o·
OOYnl va'.ue becomes zero and rese:s !he flag (s~
10 P,ese1 vatuc rung 1)
Reset
Figure 8-04 Pneumatic circuit, PLC wiring dia.,oram, and ladder program for the control task of E.'Wllple 8.6.
Example 8.6: Counting of cyclic operation of a cylinder

using a PLC
ntrol task: l-Vnen a 'Start' push-button is momentarily pressed, a double-acting
ylinder is to perform a continuous back-and-forth motion for a pre-determined
umber of cycles and then to stop automatically. The cylinder should always stop in
the retracted position. A 5/2-double-solenoid valve is used as the final control element.
evelop a PLC control circuit and the corresponding program to implement the
ontrol task to obtain the fully automatic operation of the cylinder. (Use a down-
ounter.)
olution
he complete arrangement and the ladder program for the PLC-based control of the
ontrol task are given in Figure 8-24. The pneumatic circuit, PLC " iring diagram, and
adder program for the preset number of cyclic operations of a double-acting cylinder
ontrolled by a 5/ 2-double-solenoid valve are given in Figure 8-24. Limit S\\itches S1 (at
3) and S2 (at I4) are positioned for actuation at the retracted and extended positions of
e cylinder, respectively. Limit s" itch S1 is actuated in the initial position. The fully
utomatic cyclic operation of the cylinder can be obtained simply by using sensor signal
S1 controlling solenoid coil Y1 (at 01) through the program as shown in rung 2, and
ensor signal S2 controlling solenoid coil Y2 (at 02) through the program as sho"n in
ng 3. As shm,n in rung 1, the 'start' and 'stop' controls of the cyclic operation can be
· plemented by introducing a memory element (flag) ,vith address 'l'.h ' that is set by
B1 (at h) and reset by the NC contact (for scanning the 'o' state) of a dm,n-counter,
espectively. The state of the memory element (l\'11), scanned through an NO contact, is
ombined in series " i th the state of sensor S1 (I3) in rung 2 to obtain the necessary
·start' and 'Stop' controls. This solution is similar to the solutions for the cyclic
peration of a cylinder for a preset number of cycles in pure pneumatic controls
(Example 5.~5, Chapter 5) and in electro-pneumatic controls (E.,rample :z,.9, .Qi,iP!fil:_z)
B.2:1! Multiple-.<\.ctuator Circuits for

PLC-Based Control
Design requirements of multiple-actuator circuits for pure pneumatic controls and
electro-pneumatic controls were given in Chapt ers 6 and :z, respectively. The PLC
programs for the sequence control of multiple-actuators can be written using the same
concept of shift register as is used to eliminate signal conflicts in pure pneumatic and
electro-pneumatic multiple actuator circuits (Chapters 6 and 7) . The basic idea here is to
set memory locations (flags) one after another in such a way that a particular memory
location is set in every step of the sequence "ith all other memory locations reset.•>.s is
typical for pneumatic systems, the last memory location is set and all other memory
locations are reset, initially.
Example 8.7: Sequence control

Control task: Cylinder A brings a job under stamping cylinder B. Cylinder B then
dvances and stamps the job. Cylinder .4 returns to the initial position only after
ylinder B has fully retracted. Cylinders .4 and B are controlled by double solenoid
•alves. Two sensors (S1 and S2) are used to detect cylinder positions. Develop a fully
utomatic PLC control circuit and the corresponding ladder program to implement the
ontrol task.
olution
he complete arrangement for the PLC-based control of the control task and the
orresponding ladder program are given in Figures 8-25 and 8-26, respectively.
•>.s shown in the ladder program of Figure 8-26. PB2 is used to initialise the
rogram. Pressing PB2 causes last memory stage :M4 to set and all other memory stages
,f i, )12, and l\13 to reset. It is to be noted that initially sensors S1 and S3 are activated,
d hence they generate output signals.
A Sl S2 B Sl S4
~⇒:11
I
,~11=1 111 :'.
(a) Positi:>Mi la'iOUI (b) Pneuma:>: cirooi1
$1 S2 s, SJ $1
~ 0 ,(\(\ ( PBl PB2 t SI S2 t53 s,

·sta,~ A • 11 12 13 16
B- B-
(c) Nomlional form
A-
01
' IS
02 03 04
Y1 Y2 Y3
~ Y4
~
(d) PLC wiring diagram
Figure 8-25 .-lrrangement for the PLC-based control of the control task of ExamP.!e 8.7.,
B:22 Area s of PLC .<\.pplicatio n

A PLC is a small but powerful controller that is adapted for use in the automation of
real-world processes. It is a versatile controller that can be used for many different
applications. The demands to be met by PLCs continued t o grow 5ynchronously "ith the
development of automation technology. Their "idespread use in industry is due to the
follo,ving reasons:
1. They are lo\\ -cost, versatile devices l\•hich can be easily

0
commissioned.
2. They are primarily used to substitute such hard\\·are items as
relays, timers, counters, etc.
3. They use the ladder programming language \\•hich is quite simple
and flexible.
4. They can be programmed and reprogrammed easily to accomplish
the necessary control function.
5. They can monitor the " 'Ork-process online, making the
troubleshooting easier.
6. They can be used in applications "·here the cost of developing and
maintaining an automation system using conventional methods is
high relative to the total cost of automation.
7. They are designed for use in harsh ,vorking conditions such as
temperatures ranging from -25 °C to + 60 °C, and humidity of even
up to 95%. They are also immune to severe "ibration and shock.
PLCs are well suited to those automation tasks in which frequent changes to the
control requirement would be expected during their operational life. They can easily be
adapted to applications in automotive, petrochemical and food industries. The
automotive industry is among the largest users of PLCs. )Iodem PLCs have the
follo\\ing capabilities: execution of complex mathematical algorithms, servomotor
control, stepping control, axis control, self-diagnosis, system troubleshooting,
communicating to other PLCs, data acquisition, and storage and report generation.
'Ml '
P81 M4 Sl Yl Pres~ng P81 sets 1.11 and ,esets M4.

Set_reset
I
I
H I-----<
>- 1---1 Se1 Ovl_put
Y1 is activated and cylir,de; A1rave1s
oul (A+). Sense, S1is deactivated and
sensor S2 is activated.
M2
I
1 - - - , - - - - 1 Reset
I
p82
I
I
'M2'
Y3
MI S2 seueset Activation S2 sets 1,12 and ,eselS Ml. Y3 is
I
I
>-I---11 1---1 Sel Oulput achvated and c~inder 8 travels oul (B•). S3
isdeactivated and S4 is activated.
M3
I
1-- - . - - - - - 1 Resei
I
p B2
I
I
'M3'
M2 $4 seu ese1 Aclivation S4 sets M3 and reseis M2. Y4 is
I
1 - --1 1-- - 1 Sel Oulpul aclivated and cylinder 8 retracts {B·). S4 is
I
deaclivated and S3 is activated.
M4
I
1-- - . - - - --1 Reset
I
PB2
I
I
'M4'
Y2
M3 S3 Set_reset Activation S3 sets 1.14 and ,esets M3. Y2 is
I
I
I PB2 I i--~--1 Set Output actrvated and cylinder A retracts (A·). S2 is
deaclivaled and Si is activated.
I
I
Ml
I Reset
I
Figure 8-:,6 Ladder program for F.xample 8.z.

~ ~23 PLC Standards
IEC 1131 standards were developed as an open framework for PLC architecture. In truly
open PLC systems, hardware and software from one manufacturer can be interchanged
"ith those of other manufacturers. The purpose of developing a PLC standard was to
define and standardise the design and functionality of PLCs and the languages required
for programming. These standards were initially approved in 1992, and thereafter have
been re,iewed and modified as the IEC 61131 standards. The current (second) edition
was published in 2003. The PLC standards are defined loosely enough to enable
manufacturers keep their own look-and-feel. However, the core data representations
should be similar.
Part 3 of IEC 61131 deals with programming languages and defines two graphical
and two textual PLC programming language standards. The standard also defines both
graphical and textual sequential function chart elements to organise programs for
sequential and parallel control processing. It is now possible to program PLCs using the
follo,ving languages: (1) IL - Instruction List, (2) ST - Structured Text, (3) LD - Ladder
Diagram, (4) FBD - Function Block Diagram, and (5) SFC - Sequential Function Chart.
Questions
1. Give a brief description of a PLC.
2. \\'hat are the differences between PLC control and relay control?
3. List a fe"' de,ices that ""ould be typical inputs to a PLC.
4. List a fe"' de,ices that a PLC might control.
5. Briefly e.'\.11lain the main function of each of the follo\\ing: (1) CPU,
(2) input module, (3) output module, and (4) memory.
6. List four types of 1/0 modules.
7. \\'hat is the purpose of a programming de\.ice?
8. Explain various areas of CPU memory \\ith a suitable diagram.
9. Ho,v is the memory organised for the purpose of loading and
execution of programs/data?
10. Briefly ea"11lain the structure of a PLC.
11. Describe the usual ,vay of program-scanning in a PLC. \\'hat is
scan-cycle time?
12. \\'hat are the advantages of the modular design of a PLC?
13. \\Trite a short note on the PLC operating system.
14. Ho,v is an automation task structured in the PLC operating system?
15. Ho,v are the user programs structured in a PLC?
16. \\'hat are the advantages of structuring the user programs in a
PLC?
17. Give a fe\\• applications of PLC control.
18. \\'hat is meant by bit logic operation in relation to a PLC?
19. Give the function of the follo\\ing PLC program elements:
1. Coil
2. NO contact
3. NC contact
4. Set coil
5. Reset coil
6. Set_reset box
7. On delay timer
8. Off delay timer
9. Up-counter
10. Do\\n-counter
10. Draw the PLC \\iring diagram and the ladder program for the
follo\\ing problems given in Chapt er 5:
1. Problem 58
2. Problem 59
3. Problem 60
4. Problem 61
5. Problem 62
21. Dra"' the PLC \.\-iring diagram and the ladder program for the
follo\\ing problems given in Chapter 6 :
1. Problem9
2. Problem 12
3. Problem 13
4. Problem 14
5. Problem 15
6. Problem 16
22. Referring to the PLC system in Figm:e 1, interpret the ladder
diagrams from (a) to (e). ,-\'hat is the function of the program in (f)
for the repeated ON/OFF operation of push-button PB1 (11)?
•
PBI ~
I P82 ~
I P83 ~
I PS, ~
I
Jl I\ 12 13 14 PLC
01 02 03 04
Jl
l\ t2 L3 L<
PLC
I i'~
(b) r - v 1 1
o,L__I
i'3l1---l[! 7
II 12 01 II 12
[0 ~
~
I I
(Ci 13
I
'Il• ~H
H
(d)
II
I
I\ 12 L3 11 M2 Ml l1
~
~1 ( s SR
II 1.12
Lu
(0)
L3
Tl t4
H R
(Q I\ Ml 1.12
Qn.c!elay H s SR
11 Ml
R
Figure 1
9 Pnet1matic Application Concepts
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Appreciate various application capabilities of pneumatic actuators.

• Specify the selection and optimization criteria of pneumatic components.
• Describe many ways to amplify thrust obtainable from a cylinder.
• Explain the 'stick-slip' effect.
• Classify work operations.
• Describe typical work flow pattern in industries.
• :Mention the applications of vacuum systems.
• Understand the factors to be considered while designing pneumatic systems.
• Specify the factors for the sizing of pneumatic actuators.
• Specify the factors for the sizing of pneumatic valves .
• \ fter going through the last eight chapters, one may ask: ''What are the t echnical
processes in which pneumatics can be applied?' However, this question cannot be
answered completely as the areas of pneumatic application are very vast. The use of
pneumatics for production rationalisation has resulted in the development of many
pneumatic elements creating new control possibilities. The continuous expansion in the
field of pneumatic applications has led to the solution of many t echnically challenging
problems as well as devising more efficient ways of approaching existing problems.
Pneumatics finds application in various industrial sectors - from automotive
manufacturing to onboard commercial vehicles, from rail applications to printing and
textiles, from food packaging to process industries, from the electronic sector to medical
care, and in thousands of other specialised industries. There are so many issues involved
in these applications that it would be impossible to describe their scope "ith a universal
statement. However, an attempt is made in this chapter to generalise few points of
pneumatic applications to stimulate imagination and provide suggestions for finding
solutions to some typical problems. An important aspect of every solution is that it must
be examined critically and tailored to the real-life situation.
ij;j Introduction
Pneumatic systems and de,ices are increasingly being used in all modern manufacturing
and processing industries to perform a wide array of functions. The ability of pneumatic
devices to do useful work economically and efficiently is responsible for their
"idespread use. The technological demands of the \Vorld \Var II and the expanding
economy thereafter created a favourable environment for the "idespread use of
pneumatics. Today, you just cannot move around " ithout seeing some pneumatic
applications in your surroundings. This has been made possible due to the easy
availability of standard pneumatic components providing solutions for a host of
applications, thus considerably reducing the time for planning, assembling,
commissioning, and maintenance. Individual pneumatic components, typified by
various kinds of versatile pneumatic cylinders and valves, are in fact all-round modular
de,ices which can easily be integrated into a circuit constructed to accomplish a
particular control task.
!,'!achines and equipment powered by the compressed air are adaptable for
operations requiring direct application of force on the work-piece such as in clamping,
riveting, embossing, forming, drawing, cutting, polishing, etc. Pneumatic holding
devices such as power chucks, collets, and mandrels are \\idely used for machining
operations where \\·ork-piece must be held securely and accurately. Pneumatic portable
power tools perform a "ide range of operations such as nut running, screw driving,
grinding, drilling, etc.
\Vith gro"ing demand for automatically controlled plant and machinery, the
potentialities of pneumatics for power as well as control applications are increasingly
being realised and put into practice. The compressed air is especially compatible with
automation. It is commonly used in applications "ith handling functions where work-
pieces are transferred from one section to the next section in completely automated
facilities. Only when an automation task is considered as a whole, is it possible to obtain
a cost-effective solution. The advantages of this approach are in the clearly defined
interfaces and previously defined functions. In this way everything fits together in a
harmonious way, thereby eliminating any overlap.
Automation by air power is certainly not an all-time solution in every instance. Yet,
despite its limitations "ith respect to force, travel, time, and accuracy, this technology is
marked by one highly important advantage, that is its flexibility in applications
extending into every segment of industrial production. Pneumatics is especially suitable
in certain special circumstances. For example, an air device presents no sparks in
explosive atmospheres. Pneumatic equipment instead of electrical controls is used under
wet conditions to avoid electric shock hazard as in some mining operations.
The compressed air may be used alone in a fluid power application, or it may be
used in combination "ith hydraulic components to maximise the advantages of both
forms of fluid power. Pneumatic elements may be used to sense operational status of a
process or plant, and feed this information back to a controller that "ill take necessary
control action. Pneumatics can be used to provide measurements of process or machine
parameters, act on this information, and subsequently display it to an operator. Air
springs can be used as good shock-absorbers as they absorb more energy than
mechanical devices of comparable size. They can be adjusted to varying conditions of
velocity and inertia.
Finally, as a comparison, pneumatics is able to cover very large areas of application,
hydraulics is suitable if high actuating forces are required, and electrical drives are a
better choice for very slo"· motion.
9:2 Selection and Optimisation

Criteria
Given adequate knowledge of various application criteria, pneumatics can be employed
to provide functional, cost-efficient controls and actuating forces for many handling and
machining operations. The most important technical factors to be taken into account
while selecting a pneumatic actuator for optimum performance for a given application
are:
1. type of motion;
2. travel and stroke control;
3. force and thrust control;
4. speed and speed control;
5. feed rate;
6. accuracy.
Type of,tlotion
Classified by the type of motion they perform, pneumatic actuators are available in the
follo,ving categories:
1. For linear motion: Cylinders, feed units, slide units.

2. For angular motion: Rotary actuators, semi-rotary actuators.
3. For continuous rotary motion: Air motors.
4. For intermittent rotary motion: Rotary indexing tables.
Stroke and Stroke Control

?.laximum stroke length is influenced by the cylinder size and piston rod buckling load.
vVith large strokes and cylinder sizes, the air consumption also increases. The standard
ratings for maximum stroke lengths for given piston diamet ers are given in Table 9:1.
Table 9-1 Piston diamet er vs maximum stroke
P iston d i:1. (nu n ) 6 12 16- 2'5 .$'5 - 200 2'50

Max. srl'okc:• (nun) I 00 200 2000 I I 00
In special instances, variation of stroke may necessitate extension of the available

cylinder stroke. Larger stroke is available by employing mechanical components like
lever, rack-and-pinion, or rope and pulley.
Force
A >vide range of forces can be obtained by the use of air cylinders of varying sizes,
operating under various air pressures. Such forces can pro,ide all of the necessary
motions including 'push-pull', 'lift-lower', and 'n,ist-turn' for operating and controlling
machines and equipment. For reasons of economy, pneumatic linear actuators are
restricted in application to a maximum force (thrust) of approximately 50, 000 N
( -5000 kgf). If the air pressure remains constant, varying forces are attainable by
selecting different sizes of cylinder (or piston diameter). However standard cylinder
sizes are graded and hence accurate setting of thrust must be done by the regulation of
working pressure.
The thrust obtainable can be amplified by the use of mechanical power elements
such as a lever or a toggle. A simple lever can be used to give a maximum mechanical
advantage of about 10: 1 although this depends on the final stroke and the space
available. A riveting machine "ith lever to multiply the force exerted by the cylinder is
shown in Figure 9=1.
Plunger
/ LeVer
,0,
( I -'~
Piston
' .,0,1\ I
/
I
I ' I/
I
I
I I
• •
Anvil
• •
,
' Cylinder
Figure 9-1 Small rivet:ing machine,\i th lever.
Adjusting
screw
-+~ : ,.
••
0 Toggle
Frame Plunger
.____, Anvil
Figure er• An application using a toggle,
The well-known and probably the most effective method of producing a large final
force is the toggle. Fiwe ~ shows a toggle press illustrating the most common
arrangement " ith the cylinder thrust on the knuckle joint. The force exerted by the
plunger increases considerably as the toggle levers straighten out. Theoretically, the
force at the bottom of the stroke can be very large, but in practice this force is limited by
friction.
Speed and Speed Control

Piston speeds, if unrestricted, depend on how quickly or slowly the compressed air is
reaching or leaving a cylinder, and the sizes of associated valves and fittings. Operating
speeds of normal linear cylinders can go up to 1.5 m/s. Air motors are capable of
running at speeds of 50,000 rpm or even higher. The piston speed in pneumatic
cylinders is dependent on the opposing force, the operating pressure, the length of pipe,
and the cross-sectional area between the actuator and the final control element . In
addition, the speed is influenced by the end-position cushioning.
Accurate speed control is accomplished by restricting the flow of air leaving a
double-acting cylinder. For slow speeds, the best results are obtained by using a hydro-
pneumatic feed unit. This method is particularly suitable for the feeds for drilling and
milling operations. Using the hydro-pneumatic feed unit, the speed of a pneumatic
linear actuator can be controlled down to about 30 mm/min. At very slow motion of a
conventional cylinder, the piston tends to jerk because of changes between static friction
and sliding friction. This phenomenon is called 'stick-slip' effect. A speed increase can be
obtained by the use of quick-exhaust valves.
9-.3: Classification of,Vork Operations

1lost of the fy-pical work flow patterns in manufacturing and processing industries can
be grouped as
1. receiving,
2. processing,
3. assembling,
4. finishing,
5. packing and despatching.
Parts and supplies come into most plants and they have to be handled properly.
Handling technology deals \\ith the handling of objects in the immediate area of a work-
piece. Air power can be used to lift, move, load, stack, and count. A number of
pneumatic components are available for discharging handling and machining operations
related to various applications in manufacturing and processing industries,
transportation systems, offshore oil and gas development, etc. The basic handling
operations are move and hold. The machining operations include, among others,
drilling, turning, milling, forming, etc. Various methods utilising the compressed air
medium are also devised to solve many measurement problems. These operations are
briefly explained below.
Afove
:Move is a handling operation applied to move components from one machine to
another, or into a specific place for some operation. Some examples of move operations
are:
1. dump hopper "ith pneumatic control;

2. opening and closing ofhea,·y doors;
3. transfer of material from one conveyor to another;
4. diversion of material in gra,ity conveyor or chute;
5. feeding jobs to machining position or to next position;
6. index parts on table under work head.
Hold
Hold is another handling operation used to clamp work-pieces. An air-operated clamp is
very strong, and with its use the overall time of clamping operation is reduced. Another
advantage of this clamp is that it exerts the same amount of force every time. 1\vo
examples of hold operations are:
1. Clamping parts in a fL'\.-ture for drilling operation,

2. Clamping a part in a milling fixture.
Drilling Operation
Drilling and boring operations in metals and non-metals are among the most prominent
applications of pneumatic controls. In these operations the most favourable results \\·ere
achieved during the first trials "ith pneumatic tool feed.
Turning Operation
In turning work, feed motions are performed in two directions only. These are: (1) axial
motion of the work-piece for longitudinal turning and (2) boring or centring of the
work-piece for recessing, parting, or facing. These operations can be carried out "ith air-
hydraulic linear units.
Afilling Operation
In milling operations, the mechanisation of machining table ,vith an air-hydraulic feed
unit is relatively easy and economical.
Fanning Operation
Form is the work operation to get different shapes of \\·ork-pieces by bending, dra\\ing,
crimping, stacking, flattening, stretching, etc. :Many kinds of pneumatic systems can be
designed for various forming operations such as piercing, punching, embossing, folding,
moulding, bending, pressing, flanging, or riveting. In forming operations, speed,
pressure, and energy are the same for every stroke, ensuring uniformity of the output.
Vacuum Systems
There are numerous applications where vacuum is used to perform useful functions.
Details of vacuum devices such as vacuum generator and suction cups are given in
Chapter 4. The industrial applications where vacuum devices are used include materials
handling, clamping, and forming. In materials handling applications, vacuum devices
are used to lift lightweight work-pieces like glass plates, sheet metal, sheets of paper,
ceramic tiles, etc., which have flat and clean surfaces.
Inspection
Pneumatic measurement is an important means of inspection in mass production
systems and gauging of finished products. )Ieasurement of work-pieces can be
mechanised to a high degree through pneumatic length measuring techniques. In
pneumatic measurements, the compressed air is passed through a controlled orifice of
an instrument. Any change in the distance to be measured alters a certain parameter of
the instrument, like pressure in some part of it. Any change in the pressure can be read
easily by using a pressure gauge. Backpressure pneumatic comparator is the forerunner
of all present-day comparators. Pneumatic actuators are employed t o bring measuring
instruments into position on the work to be inspected or locate the work-piece in a test
setup.
9.~ Design of Pneumatic Systems

Industrial pneumatic systems are designed "ith correctly sized power devices, control
valves, and pipes. Undersized components such as pipes and valves cause a significant
increase in the operating costs due to excessive pressure losses resulting from friction.
In contrast, oversized components result in higher initial installation costs. Generally,
designers of pneumatic systems need to make a system analysis for finding the
magnitude of force, the direction of force, the distance through which the force "ill act
(stroke), and the sequence of operations. Other important factors to be taken into
account are: safety, performance and efficiency of operations. Factors such as
temperature, pressure, vibration, shock, moisture, possibility of chemical contact,
exposure to outdoor weather, initial costs, maintenance costs, and any other abnormal
conditions must also be considered while designing a pneumatic system.
A designer may also incorporate built-in emergency stop, anti-repeat, and anti-tie
down features in a machine. Anti-repeat is a machine control design technique that
prevents a machine from performing more than one cycle each time a 'Start' S\\itch is
pressed. Anti-tie do\\n is usually used in conjunction "ith two-hand safety systems. This
design technique prevents a machine from operating if the operator has tied do"n one
of the two s"itches provided in an attempt to operate the machine with one hand. Fail-
safe is another design philosophy that pro,ides for disabling the machine if any of its
critical components fails. Knowledge of relevant standards is also essential for designing
a pneumatic system.
l\'Iany manufacturer of pneumatic components provide specifications and data
sheets for their components, which may be used as a design guide. These commonly
include recommended operating pressures, design details, materials used in the parts,
types of seals, and types of available mounting.
9:5 Selection of Pneumatic Actuators

Selection of a pneumatic cylinder depends on numerous factors most of which are
application-specific. However, some basic considerations apply to most applications.
The pre-requisite is a clear understanding of the load requirement and the nature of the
work to be done. The factors determining the selection of a cylinder are the forces to
overcome and the distance to be travelled. The size of the cylinder should be such that
the force developed by it is able to overcome the load and frictional forces and must
provide adequate acceleration. \\1hile selecting a cylinder, criteria such as the attainable
piston force at a specific operating pressure, permissible piston buckling force and air
consumption are to be taken into account. Thus the necessary forces must be calculated
or estimated. The equation governing the effective thrust in a linear cylinder is given in
chapter ii, and the values of thrusts for single-acting and double-acting cylinders are
given in Table .~,5 and .w, respectively, of Appendix 3.
If there is no speed control or the piston velocity is sufficient to cause shock at the
end of the stroke, cushioning is essential. The cushioning action of a cylinder is
determined by its load, speed and cycle time, and physical design. The mounting style
must be selected according to the equipment motion requirements and load stresses.
The machine design may impose physical limitations regarding the size or mounting
style of a cylinder.
9:::;§ Selection of Pneumatic Valves

Proper sizing of valves is very important in pneumatic systems. If a valve is too small,
excessive pressure drop will occur; if the valve is oversized, it "ill result in high
component costs and more space requirement. The selection of pneumatic valves, used
as the final control elements, is dependent on the size and number of strokes per minute
of the associated cylinders and the permissible pressure drops between the inlet and
outlet valve ports. Pneumatic valves are designed "ith the nominal flow rate as an
important parameter. The nominal flow rate of a pneumatic cylinder can be obtained by
multiplying the air consumption per cycle and the number of strokes per minute. The
nominal flow rate of the selected valve must be sufficient to meet the air consumption
requirement of the cylinder for its satisfactory operation.
The empirical values for standard nominal flow rate provided by manufacturers can
be used as a guide for dimensioning pneumatic valves. The typical values of standard
nominal flow rates are given in Table~- By using these values, it is possible to achieve
cylinder speeds which are sufficient in most practical cases.
Flow factors are generally quoted as a parameter for the selection of a valve, but as a
general guide the port size of the valve should match the port size of the cylinder the
valve has to control. \\'here maximum cylinder speed is required, valves "ith next larger
port size should be considered, giving special attention to the cushioning requirement of
the cylinder.
The selection of other pneumatic valves used in signal processing is mainly decided
by their desired functions in a control circuit. For most applications using trip cam and
I
pilot valves, GS poppet models are suitable. \\'here space is at a premium and the valve
being controlled is fairly small, )[5 models ,vill suffice.
Table 9-2 Standard nominal flow rates for valves

C)'liNdff"' pist,m diamet" A.ppn,x. uomiN11I 1i:u Appn,.", s/1111J41,J uomh,,1/Jlo111
,,,,,,,) (mm) r'lllt (llmin)
lJ1~111 J S .\ fS
I
.?') - w C.s l.r• 10 I )-<II
50 - 1011 c' "i' -.o l '.1") l O I l i(1
, I
IOU 2HU ( 12.0 l 'p 10 ;ouu
'7
c .5.,r; I l:r, to <;0 11(1
•
Courtesy: FESTO.
Questions
1. \\'hat are the reasons for the \\-idespread use of pneumatics in
modern manufacturing and processing industries?
2. \\'hat are the methods of amplii),ing force (thrust) of a given
pneumatic cylinder?
3. \\'hat are the various methods to increase the stroke of a given
cylinder?
4. Briefly e.-...-plain the issues involved in the selection of the follo\\fug
for a given application: (i) pneumatic cylinder, (ii) pneumatic valve.
5. Give examples for pneumatic actuators used for the follo\\fug types
of motion:
1. linear motion
2. Angular motion
3. Continuous rotary motion
4. Intermittent rotary motion
6. Classify various industrial \\'Ork operations. ,-\1iy is pneumatics
best suited for these operations?
7. Name three applications of vacuum de,ices.
8. \\'hat are the essential factors to be taken into account " 'hile
designing a pneumatic system?
9. \\'hat is the harmful effect of using undersized components in a
pneumatic system?
10. \\'hat is the un\\ anted result of using oversized components in a
0
pneumatic system?
11. Name fe"' important considerations that must be taken into
account " 'hile selecting pneumatic actuators.
12. Name fe"' important considerations that must be taken into
account " 'hile selecting pneumatic po\\•er valves.
13. Explain these terms: (i) anti-repeat and (ii) anti-tie do"n \\ith
respect to the designing of a machine's controls.
10 Maintenance, Trot1bleshooting, and Safet)r
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Describe the requirements of general preventive maintenance.

• Describe the general maintenance procedure for pneumatic systems.
• Identify the malfunctions in pneumatic systems.
• Describe the maintenance activities for compressors, air receivers, air-mains, and
FRLs.
• Describe the maintenance activities of pneumatic actuators and valves.
• Describe general troubleshooting procedure for pneumatic systems.
• Identify various faults in pneumatic systems.
• Know various disturbances, causes, and rectifications of faults in pneumatic
cylinders and valves.
• Understand various safety requirements and safety measures in pneumatic systems.
• Know various hazards in pneumatic systems.
• Appreciate various energy saving ideas in pneumatic systems.
F or a technician to efficiently maintain pneumatic equipment, an understanding of

various maintenanC€ practices and procedures is essential apart from a sound
knowledge of pneumatics. This chapter explains various malfunctions in pneumatic
systems and their effects on the system performance.
Through misuse, ageing, and malfunction, the components used in pneumatic
systems can fail in different ways. Adequate safeguards must be provided to prevent
personal injury or damage to equipment in the event of such failures. The causes of
failure of various pneumatic components have been presented in this chapter. A number
of tips for maintaining the components in pneumatic systems are presented to help the
reader develop the skills necessary to perform a successful troubleshooting procedure.
A single rule, relevant to all maintenance procedures in all plants and under all
circumstances, is: Be careful. Carelessness and failure to observe safety precautions are
two things that a maintenanC€ technician cannot afford to live \\ith if he/she wants to
function efficiently.
Energy costs corner a major portion of the total input costs in energy-intensive
manufacturing industries. However, numerous independent studies confirm that the
industry wastes about 30% of the compressed air it generat es. Both from the economic
and the environmental standpoints, it makes sense to minimise energy use and wastage
wherever possible. A section of this chapter highlights the steps needed for substantial
cutting down of energy costs.
[i.ij;jl Introduction
:MaintenanC€ covers a "ide range of acti,ities intended to keep a system and its
components in perfect working condition for efficiently performing their assigned tasks.
In other words, the objective of maintenance is to prolong the safe and efficient
operation of a machine or a system. Let us go into the fine details of what is
maintenance all about.
iJ.9,2 Classification
l\laintenanC€ can be classified into the following nvo categories:
1. Breakdo,vn or corrective maintenance
2. Preventive maintenance
The breakdown maintenance is undertaken after the failure of a component or a

machine. This activity consists of tracing the fault, and repairing and re-commissioning
the machine. It is carried out as and when necessary. On the other hand, preventive
maintenance is undertaken in a planned and systematic way usually as per a schedule or
checklist to ensure smooth and efficient working of all components of a system or
machine. This type of maintenance entails regular servicing of equipment and checks for
correct operation and identification of potential faults of all system components to
prevent a future breakdown of the system or machine. A modern maintenance concept is
Total Productivity ]).faint enance (TP:M) which aims at integrating the activities of all
related departments in such a way that the roles, responsibilities, and care of an asset
are optimised throughout its service to a manufacturing company.
il.0.3_Requirements of Preventive
Maintenance
Preventive maintenance is carried out on the basis of a maintenance schedule at regular
intervals (say daily, weekly, monthly, etc.) or after the completion of already stipulated
hours or cycles of operation by a machine or system. The actual maint enance of a
machine must be decided by its operating cycle, the complexity of its structure, and the
amount of time available to maintain it. An understanding of proper maintenance
procedures and the knack to follow them is a pre-requisite for good maintenance. \\'hen
sophisticated pneumatic systems are installed, it is better to employ qualified
maintenance personnel especially trained in pneumatics.
The 'Instruction )Ianual of Installation, Operation and 1Iaintenance' supplied by
the manufacturer should be carefully studied by the trained maintenance personnel.
This manual can be used for compiling a maint enance checklist. The manufacturer
supplies only general guidelines which cannot be taken as the exact maintenance
schedule for meeting the local requirements of a particular system. Hence, a
maintenance schedule is prepared after initial inspection of each system. It is also
important to lay down the intervals at which inspection and servicing operations are to
be carried out. In case of difficult maintenance jobs, the concerned manufacturer may be
consulted or requested for sparing the services of its trained personnel.
Spares are very important for maintenance duty. Hence, it is a good practice to
stock various spare parts " ith proper inventory control to facilitate fault senicing with
minimum interruption to production.
lto7_4! Definitions of Maintenance

Acti,ities
The meanings of some maintenance-related acti\ities are explained as follows:
1. Inspection: This refers to the maintenance activity that comprises

careful observation/ scrutiny of equipment "ithout dismantling it.
This activity usually includes "isual and operational checks.
2. Ser\icing: This refers to cleaning, disposal of moisture, adjustment,
lubrication, and other maintenance functions of a machine \\i thout
dismantling it.
3. Examination: This refers to the inspection \\ith necessary
dismantling, measurement, and non-destructive tests to obtain
information regarding the condition of the components/ sub-
assemblies of equipment.
4. Overhaul: This refers to the "·ork done \\ith the objective of
repairing or replacing " 'om-out and defective parts of
components/ sub-assemblies of equipment. They need to be
dismantled, partly or completely. The components, \-\ hich are ,vorn
0
out beyond the acceptable llinit, are replaced. The assembly is

follo,ved by functional checks and measurements to ensure its
satisfactory operation.
il.0.5 Preventive Maintenance of
Pneumatic Systems
The systematic maintenance of a pneumatic system is necessary to ensure its long
service life and reliability of its devices and components. Lack of regular maintenance
may result in loss of air and associated pressure drops, premature wear of moving parts,
production shortfalls, and increased do"ntime of pneumatic components. The general
maintenance procedure of a pneumatic system is explained in the follm,ing sub-
sections.
General ,'1,faintenance Procedure

A good maintenance procedure can be summed up in these words: 'Keep it tight, keep it
clean, keep it lubricated, and inspect it frequently and thoroughly' to perform
maintenance and not repair. l\Iore specifically, the general procedure to maintain a
pneumatic system comprises various activities like (1) removal of dust, moisture, etc.
from the system; (2) checking of possible loose bolts and nuts in the system
components; (3) preventing air leakage; (4) reducing frictional losses; (5) ensuring
safety of personnel, etc.
The first procedure in any organised maintenance programme should be the
inspection of equipment and systems to prevent a future occurrence of any serious
trouble. An important cause of failure of pneumatic systems is the presence of dust,
moisture, etc. which must be removed to ensure the proper functioning of the system.
Another frequent cause of failure is loose bolts and connections in the system. Each
connection should be periodically checked for tightness, and the inspection should
include checking of possible loose bolts and nuts on each component/sub-assembly of
the system.
Leakage is another important concern of all compressed air systems, especially the
older ones. Leaks are caused by damaged/corroded pipe-work, faulty seals, faulty pipe
joints, poor quality of fittings and tubes, incorrect installation of airline couplers,
dynamic wear, cuts in tubing, and open drain taps. Air leaks are often ignored as the air
is relatively clean. Although atmospheric air comes free, the compressed air is a costly
medium as the follm,ing assessment suggests. On an average, the electrical power
required to compress 130 normal litres of air per minute (I\'1/min) to a pressure of 7 bar
is found to be about 1 kvV. And, this electrical power "ill go waste through an air leak
equivalent to a 1 mm diameter hole that "ill discharge 130 ::-,J/ min at the pressure of 7
bar. Hence, the power lost by way of even small leaks can be considerable.
Air leakage is a major reason for pressure drops. Leakage can occur but may remain
undetected. The efficient operation of compressed air systems demands the detection
and stoppage of the compressed air leakage. The follo,dng measures can be taken to
prevent air leakage: (1) :Maintain good quality of air in the system - contaminants in the
air system will cause increased leakage and equipment malfunction. (2) Take special
care during the assembly of all fittings and tubings. Use special tube cutters and leakage-
resistant equipment and allow sufficient time for accurate installation. (3) Stop air
consumption during non-operational times - install a 3/2- or 2/ 2-way solenoid valve to
cut off all compressed air supply when it is not needed. (4) Estimate the correct air
pressure for the system - over-pressurisation "ill result in more compressed air leakage
and higher energy costs.
Another important concern is the frictional losses in pneumatic systems. They occur
in all components falling benveen a compressor and actuators. In addition to the cost of
wasted energy in the form of heat, the frictional losses also add to maintenance and
downtime costs by way of frictional wear of precision components in the system.
The safety of personnel and equipment should always be kept in mind while
planning and carrying out routine maintenance of pneumatic and electro-pneumatic
systems. Remember, the maintenance demands are greater when using electro-
pneumatic components.
1Nhen maintaining the same equipment over a period of time, one should be
familiar "ith the equipment and be able to sense a potential trouble. Be observant and
careful! Listen, look, and touch a piece of equipment for which you are responsible for
uncovering any possible problem. Quite often it is necessary to use all our senses to
predict that trouble is on its way.
il.0.6 System Malfunctions
A general account of malfunctions in pneumatic systems and their causes is given below.
Afalfunctions due to Contaminants

Pneumatic systems require the compressed air free of moisture and impurities, such as
dust particles, pipe scales, etc., for reliable operation. Various conditioning devices -
such as filters, dryers, lubricators, etc. - are installed for the removal of unwanted and
harmful contaminants. Lack of maint enance or servicing of these de\i ces may result in
the failure of the system operation.
Rust and scale particles are introduced " ithin the system piping by moisture
resulting from condensation. These free-moving particles combined "ith oil and water
sledge can scratch seals, abrade surfaces of precision parts of valves and cylinders, thus
causing leaks. These particles can also block orifices, thus jamming valve spools.
Further, air passages may become restricted, resulting in reduced airflow and increased
pressure drop. :Moisture can also wash away the lubricant from pneumatic valves,
resulting in faulty operation, corrosive damage to surfaces, and excessive wear. )Ioisture
that is collected in pneumatic cylinders could cause cushions to become ineffective.
li'Ialfunctions due to Improper Jl,lountings

A cylinder, mounted haphazardly, "ill cause an undue strain on the mounting plate,
thus increasing the stress level on the mounting bolts. A piston rod, if not properly
supported or aligned "ith the centreline of a cylinder, "ill exert severe strain on seals
and glands and "ill reduce their working life. Connections and supports that are
subjected to ,ibration should be examined for tightness and strain.
Afalfunctions due to Inadequate Air Supply

:Many a time, pneumatic systems/ machines are added "ithout enlarging the capacity of
existing compressed air supply. Owing to this, malfunctions may occur sporadically, and
the fault-finding may become extremely difficult. For example, sudden pressure drops,
caused by the actuation of additional nearby components, result in variations in piston
force and piston speed for short durations.
Afalfunctions due to Under-lubrication/Over-lubrication

Lubrication of the compressed air may be necessary to provide seal lubrication. It
prevents sticking of mo,i ng parts and helps in controlling wear. Absence of lubrication
or under-lubrication " ill cause the valves and cylinders to jam and the deterioration of
their components due to increased wear, thus t ending to make the whole system unsafe.
Over-lubrication may produce sluggish operation of valves, cylinders, and pneumatic
tools.
il.0.'A Maintenance Tips

The follo"ing maintenance tips constitute general guidelines for mainta1rung the
components of pneumatic systems. The exact maintenance procedure should be
determined only after consultation "ith experts and taking into account the site
conditions.
Afaintenance of Compressors
Compressors should be located in clean accessible areas for inspection and
maintenance. Avoid locations where the air may have high humidity and where " inds
whip up dust, grit, and litter. It should also be possible to dissipate heat quickly from the
compressor area.
Compressors have their own maintenance requirements. Their maintenance must
be carried out in accordance "ith the manufacturer's instructions. However, the
follo,ving general maintenance aspects relating to compressors may be kept in mind.
The essential routine maintenance activities are cleaning, visual inspection, running
checks and ser\icing of filters, lubricators, and cooling facilities.
Intervals for cleaning intake filters are governed by the state of cleanliness of
suction air. At places where air is appreciably contaminated by dust, the inspection of
intake filters may be carried out at least once in a week. Correspondingly, larger
intervals are permissible when the compressor is able to take in clean air.
Oil change for compressor lubrication should be made at the operating hour
intervals specified by the manufacturer. Thus it is advisable to equip each compressor
"ith its own operating hour recorder. !\'!ere guesswork can easily lead to
underestimation of the time a machine has been running, entailing an unnecessary risk
of lubrication failure that might ruin the compressor. The same risk "ill occur on old
compressors when excessive amounts of oil are entrained "ith the discharged air.
Therefore, regular checking of the lube oil level is an important maintenance task.
11odern compressors are fitted with an oil pressure control that automatically trips to
stop the machine in the event of low lube oil pressure.
Air-cooled compressors require adequate supply of sufficiently cool ambient air at
all times. Compressors "ith other types of cooling need regular check of the inlet and
outlet temperatures of their coolant. ),!any compressors are belt-driven and require belt
condition and tension to be checked at regular int ervals.
Afaintenance ofAir Receivers

Condensat e drain from air-receivers and air-coolers should be automatic wherever
possible, but they still need to be inspected regularly to make sure that the complete unit
is working properly. Safety devices on air-receivers, like pressure relief valves, must be
maintained in satisfactory functional order. All special pressure vessel rules pertaining
t o air-receivers must also be observed fully.
A-Iaintenance ofAir-mains
Proper maintenance of air-mains is very important. Regular inspection of air-mains for
leaks should be taken up, preferably after the close of work when there is no interfering
background noise. Screw unions may be replaced "ith welded joints as far as possible to
prevent leakage.•->.ny one of the follo,dng methods may be used for the detection of air
leakage:
1. Application on suspected joints of soapy "·ater or commercially

available leak detecting liquids, such as aerosol sprays, might
reveal the presence of leaks.
2. Build up the pressure to the operating level after closing all
consumer lines. Determine the pressure drop at the air-receiver
over a period of time (at least overnight). This gives an indication of
the air leakage in the system. If more than 10% of the compressed
air produced is lost through leakage, it is high time to locate and
repair leaks in the air main.
3. An ultrasonic leak detection instrument can be used to locate
leakages in pressure or vacuum systems. In the case of air leaks, it
moves from a high-pressure side to a lo"'•pressure side through the
leak site "·here this air expands quickly and creates a turbulent
flo"'· This turbulence has strong ultrasonic components. The
intensity of the ultrasonic signals falls off quickly from the source,
facilitating the detection of the exact spot of the leak. \'acuum leaks
may also be located in a similar ,vay. Ho,vever, in vacuum de,ices
the turbulence \\ill occur \\ithin the vacuum chamber.
3:Caintenance ofAir Service Unit (FRL)

The air service unit consists of filter, regulator, and lubricator. If filters and lubricators
are not taken care of and not cleaned when dirty, the money spent on their installation
goes waste. A properly designed and maintained filter system can eliminat e about 75%
of the potential causes of power system failure. In addition, the life of the system
components is increased considerably. The follm,ing regular maintenance of FRL is of
utmost importance.
Filter
The condensate level must be checked regularly. The condensat e must not exceed the
maximum level marked, othen,ise the condensate could be drawn into the system again.
The drain screw must be opened to drain the accumulated condensate. Another
maintenance acti,i ty is the cleaning of the filter cartridge if it is clogged.
Regulator
Usually this unit requires no regular maintenance, especially during the initial years of
its service life.
Lubricator
The lubricating oil is used up in the process of lubricating the compressed air. Check the
oil level, and top up if necessary.
Polycarbonate Bowls
Polycarbonate bowls, used for filters and lubricators, must be treated "ith some care
especially in an industrial en,ironment. The follo"ing measures need to be taken on
polycarbonate bowls: (1) bowls which on visual inspection shows signs of mechanical
damage, cracking, or hazing should be rejected; (2) bowls which have been
contaminated \\ith paint should not be cleaned, but replaced, and (3) all bowls which
have been in se!"\ice for more than 10 years should be replaced even if they may appear
acceptable by the ,isual inspection .
.\faintenance ofPneumatic Cylinders

There are a number of precautions that must be taken when installing and servicing
pneumatic cylinders that "ill greatly increase their performance and operating
efficiency. Actuators have their own maintenance requirements usually given in the
manufacturer's manual. As a rule, it is not necessary to open the cylinder always for
inspecting its internal condition.
Causes ofCylinder Failure

An important reason for cylinder failure is the presence of dirt which might lodge in
between the piston and the barrel, and may score the barrel and seals. It may make the
piston seal defective by occurrence of excessive leakage through the resulting gap
between the piston and the barrel. Among other causes of the failure of pneumatic
cylinders are: worn-out or damaged seals, and scratches, score marks, pitting, etc., on
the cylinder barrel, piston rod and/or piston rod bearing. Incorrect installation of
cylinders can result in irregular stresses being exerted on them. It can damage cylinder
or distort them. To keep the wear to the minimum, air service equipment should be
fitted immediately upstream of cylinders, as close to them as possible. This will ensure
that no grit particles, moisture, etc., that are injurious to the cylinder, can reach it. \\'hen
used with good quality air and not subjected to any abnormal operating stresses,
cylinders "ill have a normal working life in excess of either five million feet total
movement or five million cycles. The following regular maintenance activities may be
carried out on pneumatic cylinders:
1. Check the cylinder bearings and mountings at regular intervals.

Improper mounting of the cylinder is the most common cause of
damage to \\iper ring, cup packing, and bushings. Replace these
parts if damaged. Also replace scrapper rings and sealing rings, if
required.
2. Cylinder rods should be examined for score marks.
3. Check the support to the piston rod.
4. Check the rod bearings in the cylinder for \\•ear and replace, if
necessary.
5. Use proper lubricants in sufficient quantity.
6. Use clean piping to connect cylinder to the final control element
(valve).
7. Replace the spring in single-acting cylinder, if broken.
Testing of Pneumatic Cylinders

A typical procedure to test a pneumatic cylinder is presented below:
1. Connect the cylinder to a good 5/ 2-DC valve that is connected to the

mains air supply (4 to 6 bar).
2. Operate the valve six times in succession to make the cylinder
reciprocate for its full strokes.
3. Leaving the cylinder in the e.'\.1:ended position, test rear-end cover
and cylinder barrel connection for leaks by using one of the
methods given in an earlier section. Check the cushion sere\\· hole
in a similar fashion. Check "·hether the tie rods are tightened
sufficiently and evenly. Any misalignment can be corrected
accordingly.
4. Check the operating valve to see if air is escaping from the exhaust
port of the front-end cover in a continuous stream. If so, the rear
piston seal may be damaged/incorrectly assembled or there is a
fla,v in the surface finish of the cylinder barrel, in ,vhich case it \\ill
be necessary to strip do\\'11 and examine the cylinder again before
clearing the fault.
5. Operate the valve to fully retract the piston, and check the front-
end-cover in the same way as has been done for the rear-end cover.
During these tests the cylinder should not be cushioning at the
extremes of stroke. Therefore, the cushion sere"' has to be opened
fully.
6. Ha,ing completed the leakage tests, check " 'hether the 'cushioning'
is operating correctly or not.
~:Caintenance ofPnewnatic Valves

Pneumatic valves, in general, will have a working life of 10 million cycles if operated
under normal working conditions. If a valve requires servicing before 5 million cycles,
then check most carefully the installation, environmental conditions and operating
conditions as these might be the cause of its shortened working life. The main cause of
valve failure is the leaking 'O' rings which results from the entry of abrasive particles
into the valve and consequent wearing of the seals. For this reason, it is essential to have
filtered and lubricated air supply to ensure that no dirt particles get into the valve. Use
non-corrosive piping, such as copper or nylon piping, if possible.
To check whether a valve is leaking, remove this valve from the circuit, and connect
the pressure port to a power source and working ports to a cylinder. \Vith air supply
s"itched on, operat e the valve several times. Then check whether the valve is leaking by
partially covering the 'idle' exhaust port "ith a finger to concentrate the leakage if any,
and applying a light film of oil across the small remaining orifice. Observe for any
bubbles which might appear. If any faults are evident on testing, strip the valve and
examine it. Clear the fault, if any. Reassemble the valve, ensuring absolute cleanliness,
and repeat the above t est.
Other probable causes of valve failure are blocked bleed holes and jammed springs.
To detect this failure, connect the valve to the air supply and operate it. The return
movement of the valve must be snappy, and any sluggishness is indicative of the blocked
bleed holes or jammed springs. This can be set right simply by cleaning the bleed holes,
taking care that the very small holes are not enlarged at all. In the case of a valve ,vith an
in-built spring that has become weak, simply remove and replace the latter "ith a new
one. Valves can also be damaged, in particular their operating mechanisms, by incorrect
installation and operation. Excess force on the operating mechanism, for example, could
cause this mechanism to become disturbed. The coil in a solenoid valve; if damaged, it
must be replaced ,vith a new one.
Testing of Pneumatic Valves

A typical procedure to test a pneumatic valve is presented below:
1. The valve body should first be thoroughly degreased \\ith detergent

and then be cleaned in paraffin.
2. Check the valve opening mechanism and base securing holes to see
that the threads are not stripped. E.xamine the bore, bush and valve
seat for pitting, score marks, scratches, etc. It may be necessary to
replace the valve body, if damaged.
3. If '0' rings and gaskets are damaged, they should be removed by
hand and should al\\•ays be replaced \\ith ne\\• seals. Before fitting
replacement seals, thoroughly degrease the piston and examine the
'0' ring grooves for scratches. After fitment of ne"' '0' rings and
gaskets, thoroughly grease all piston rings.
4. The pilot supply holes or small drill holes in the piston, if present,
should be checked to see that they are not clogged up.
If the spring or spring locating pin is rnsted or damaged, extract
this item and fit a replacement, ensuring that the spring locating
pin is square "ith the base. An out-of-square pin "ill cause the
spring to jam. Apply recommended grease liberally to the " 'hole of
the spring before assembly.
m8 Troubleshooting
Preventive maintenance is carried out to keep a pneumatic system in perfect working
condition. However, faults do occur, which have to be traced and corrected with
minimum delay and expense. In high-production industries, downtime can often result
in huge losses. Fault-finding is often performed in a random manner leading to the
replacement of components "ithout proper justification. That is not the quickest way of
getting the faulty system back into production. In many cases, this replacement does
more harm than help. Hence, a good troubleshooting strategy needs to be in place to
detect and rectify faults.
Troubleshooting is largely an art. The chief asset of a trouble-shooter is an
analytical mind "ith enough knowledge about the system. A systematic approach and
anticipation of likely problems are the pre-requisites for a fault-tracing engineer. The
functional diagrams and circuit diagrams are ,irtually indispensable as troubleshooting
aids in all such instances. Accurate troubleshooting lies in determining the section of the
control circuit that contains the defective component and then selecting a proper
component to be checked. This can be accomplished only by an efficient and accurate
circuit analysis "ith the aid of a test equipment, and not by the random checking of
components. The trouble-shoot er should be capable of interpreting the readings of the
t est equipment.
General Troubleshooting Procedure

Fault-finding encompasses a comprehensive component replacement, adjustment, and
checking procedure that would minimise the need for repairs. It is essential to have a
fault-finding strategy, highlighted in Figure 10 - 1, to trace and rectify faults in pneumatic
systems. The procedure given may seem to be oversimplified; however this is the basis
upon which a good troubleshooting practice is founded.
The first step in troubleshooting a machine that has developed trouble is to
understand the operation of the equipment and associated circuits. \Vith complex
circuits, time constraints generally do not permit the trouble-shooter to study the
complete circuits. To avoid wasting of time and to learn quickly how the machine should
operate, it is better to consult the operator of the equipment. )lake use of every available
source of information to shorten the time necessary to find the source of trouble. Once
all the information is collected and evaluated, visualise all possible root causes of the
fault.
The simplest t est to reduce the number of possibilities is then performed to narrow
down the section of the control circuit that contains the defective component. A careful
check of this section and the components involved in it "ill generally lead to the source
of trouble. The malfunction of some control components in the section might have
caused of the fault. The cycle is repeated until the fault is traced and repaired. Look for
simple solutions first. Alter dangerous environment, if any. The most important rule in
troubleshooting a pneumatic system is to modify only one component at a time. If a
component is not found to be functioning properly, repair this component and check its
operation again before changing anything else. Quite frequently several changes made at
the same time may bring in more troubles than were present in the circuit originally.
Collect all information on fault
Analyse and evaluate the information
Localise the fault
Conduct necessary tests
Fault located? No
Yes
Repair the fault
Test operation/function, measurement
Record fault and diagnostics
Analyse fault records
Figure 10--1 Fault-finding strategy.

The final steps are concerned with fault recording and fault analysis to discover any
recurring pattern of faults or any design and application problem or any shortcomings in
the relevant knowledge of maintenance personnel or the need for training, if any. A key
to efficient troubleshooting is good documentation. There is a need to update the
maintenance recording procedure and the corrective action required from time t o time.
Faults in Pneumatic Systems

Faults in pneumatic systems are generally due to the stoppage/slower performance of a
machine (lack of force) or its poor performance (low speed) or erratic operation or due
to many leakages. The more specific reasons for these faults are:
1. misalignment or mechanical jam,

2. po\\•er supply failure,
3. insufficient pressure or lo"' voltage,
4. misted tubing,
5. burned solenoid coils,
6. failure of arc suppression circuits,
7. bend piston rods/ barrel,
8. flo"' restrictions,
9. lack of lubrication,
10. insufficient compressed air delivery.
Erratic operation can arise from sticking valves or due to any mismatch in the total
requirement of the compressed air by the system and the actual compressor delivery
volume. If fault occurs in a pneumatic system, systematic fault tracing is most useful.
Repair becomes much easier by systematic fault tracing, and the repair time is
considerably reduced. A trouble-shoot er should develop the skills necessary to perform a
successful troubleshooting procedure.
ll9,.Q General Malfunctions

The general malfunctions/ disturbances in pneumatic systems, their possible causes and
rectification are listed in Table 10 - 1 .
Table 10-1 General malfunctions in pneumatic systems

DistNrhantn Pouiblt ,amts R«tifiealiON
M.1d1i1w 1<s wurkin,:.. • l l1'Wtrt;.1m tluw r,"\1r1, 1 i(ln '"° ,1ir • l~i( kir~,·r p1p1;
buc 1:- W\\lk<:n1n_i.; 11, .,,..,,·.,u,,n • Jn,;c,)11 loi;.d r,•i:,·u·r:
r-<:fl·.,rm:nln· ,tur t•• • Jn,uli la(:,:d c1,1Upf\•t,,i<
i-luWt•r Opt·r.ttl'*ll • Clw<:k twiq,•d tuh ,:•h lol.'k,:d
, ih< riH·r, .!11\\ lhttt•;ull and rt•f\t•W
Dhturbantts Ptmihlt ""''"us R_tttifitalit1N
• L~1k 1,1 luhri< :,1i,m • l.d iric :,1 .. m:u h m,.,,

• h, .11r-l mr lubr1<:,11M
()1w ,1,1 11:1101 l'• W(•,ekr nin-t: • H t,w H ' ,l!Ul:1111r ,C'( 100 low • R,•.:1(l j11>( !low rt•i,:ul.111,~
111 1wr!(,rln.!f1 ( ,, .:h~• t u • ru! w t " i,wd • R1•- 1W w
, lnw,;r op,,.r,1u11rt • l..1d, ulluhri<..111011 • 1:it .1ir-lmt luhri( .11,1r
• Olll f>f J l 1p_n nwnt • Rl·•al1~n
• O b1t·d in :1dt1.U<.•f p.11h
• Pi,tt,11 ro ,! 1)(•111
• H.1rrt•I ,lrntc·,1 • Rl·p:u r o r rt:pl.11l' .t(u 1.1111r
• K,1k'(I pnt·UmJ t1( (It d t•( lfl(,\) l>Ul'l'lr • Rl·,,•,1:1bli~h po,H•r •11ppli1·:-
• l.irni1 M n",r rnmnl o ul uf pu:-itiuo • ;\ liJU•-1 :ul,I 1i_:.;htl't1 tlw •<•fr-111
• M,,c h.mu .11 j:1m p rt·v.•111 in;: .m :11 H1.1. • n,.J,.i-,· :lw prt",,Ufl• lrom ho1li , :,!,,...
to r fr"m " i"1:r.11 mi,: tlw limit "'\'1t1.· h of thl· .1\ u1:1tor l·•:: l()rl· l kw,n~ cl1<.· 1-~m
Fauh y rrodud, dm· u, • AdjlL"tin.i.: in,:d\llll'-IU llUI cl ali;.:n11x·m • Rl·•ac.l1lM m n h:1n1~m
l.111hy m ,1dww ,),!Ju,1- • J.im,1 :-l·n~vr mo \·n! 0 111 vf 1-i,:-1t 1<Jll • Rl·•:1.d1uq hm11 ~:nsor
nw11t , 01 111i, .,li;:1111w11t <:111,in~ , h urt '-!rukt•,
c,t ,omprn:tnh • E,1!l-..! 01': wn",r ( .n!\111~ .1 , kip1 x•,! • C hlst k .i r ( ,l1ppr(•,-.(1r <m uii
q('I'- II) tlw >l(•ljUl·n<.·t·
• libulfi, ll'IU powa ll• ;1 :-t:un pin,:.: O! • lnal·,1:-t· r rt·:-:-ufl• tv tlw ,1<tua1o r or
,,r,·,. . in;.: .lOIMlvr rq1l.t(t• liw :l< IU,,tl)( with ,1 lar.~l' O!W
• l.(X)it• 1,.11ru<. fi11,n:;:, o r ~I.in,!... • T1.i.:h h·n k,r,,.(· l(•lll"-. fiu in.~" ,>< .1d,1nd~
• Knih r o r ,!.,m .•.~l-J lit111\~:- ,:,r • Rl'pi,l((• o r t l'p,ur d w ,ld(-<.' t 1\'<.• 1>,.trt
ru pt11 t,'1:I r 11)(·:, .mil ho:>l"-
Afalfunctions in Pneumatic Cylinders

The frequently occurring malfunctions/disturbances 1n pneumatic cylinders, their
possible causes, and rectification are listed in Table 10- 2 .
Table 10-2 !lfalfunctions in pneumatic cylinders

DiJturbttntes Possibl~ t11uus R.ttlifiealion
\\;1i1,h \\1h·t· (< llllll-C.(<.•d, .ur • <D1J1.1hlt h 1.1p p.11,kint h k•:1l:in1:, • R<:pl:1<,t; ( ll j' !Ml l:in~
l"\( ,1p1,·, l l':ll of \'(;!\~ hok· • (l)o,1hld .:up 1•,1don~ Ii- k,n:I,(: ~u f • T1;.:ht1,·n <lll' p.,d -.111;.:
\ ' ,1h•1,· 1:- <.ld\·<:U \'d
1\i, ,·~·:1r11,•l tv .,1 mo:,plw,,., .,1 • Cup p .1, kin.~ 1:- ll•:1kin~. • lk pl;1,t· l ll j' jllll k i 11~
!bn,:1• lm, hinf:• • Cup r ,1,kinf! 1, 111011111<•,! iu iii=• • Rt•,·1·r.-,· ( up I'·" kinJ,:
wron,.: w ,1}',
Air 1,•,,( ,1p1,·, ,\l p1,;ton • G ru1.,\'1,• w1i,;. i,; ,!d (:n iv,.,. • Fit ;.t 1ww ~ro11,•m;.;
En,! ll(~il 10!1 l'Ui-hi( ,n ,!(I'-"> • J.i1t Sl·.tl i,ll I lw cu ,;h1onin,t.: p!Ull,t.:d • Fit ;.\ 1ww lip S1,·,ll
nu t n·,1 x ►nd l1•..1k , 1Jol' li..1, h,, t•a tH! t d dw \ \ ' I o n:: • Rt•.111 llw l ip '-!':el
w.~r r<11.m,I.
::>1ni-:l(••;1n1n.s,: crlmJtr p,s1vn • Cc)mpt(•s,;1o n :-1•r1nµ 1:- J ;uU,\J.:(·1.!. • Fu ;,\ n1.:w spr1n.~
tv,! do1::- n(H t(·ttirn cu clw
n )d p11'>icion
.\ (i,.1li1:11mc•III o1 pi,w11> • fo.:«•"ivc• jc•rb • Ali(:n pi,1011 pi,1,,0 rol ..r c ~·foJ1:ti•r l:,,i.ly
p1,;ton ro,! tor <:rlintk·r body • \~1ron,~ o p,:r,1u on • rit=ln 111(· '*j'.'t:t,11 10n
:-.(•t
31alfunctions in Pneumatic Valves

The frequently occurring malfunctions/ disturbances in pneumatic valves, their possible
causes and rectification are listed in Table 10-3 .
Table 10-3 !l'lalfunctions in pneumatic valve

PoJJ/1,/, t'aNUJ R«ll'jih1ti"•
Du : Jt,,n1<ft'<' ,li1t
• ~ ..tt, ! W ,l h • ltr pb~·,· ,!d~:< t*''(• l '*n
• lif,.k, n '-\•,11- • lh•l'l.1t ,. '<'.ii-.
• ( ;r,11,H· f lf!J! ,t1m.1~r,! • U,·pl.t: ,. r:r,(Wr r m,:
\\'./0,111-11\II ,.-1-,· di,, Rq •l.1H· ,ld(, (i, ,· p.ut
• \'.;.',,.,\.: ur ·hr<ll.:t·n ,rrmf: • Jt,·rbr,· ,pnn,;:
l>t'h 'I ivr.11 ion ,,r p.i, k111.i:. • lt,:j'l.,u 1,«.km.~
• h •<\'"'"r w,·.,r • l.uhr,(.\lt·
\ ' ., h:r .,p,,r.,t in;: • l.111:· prt•v,Uft• l ()u IO\\ • N·1 ,,ir11rol p r.·-., urt-
n,nh,UlNn 1.11I, llindi11.i.: ,n(i1m o! ( h,· , ,,\, r 01'1.:r..11in.i.: A l 1i,:1l i\1t,,i,,th·
111,,,: li.m,, m ,hw to m1,.,l1i.:m11,•nt ,ir b ek ,,t
iuh ri, .11,un
• C:omml r lm1.i:.(•r h rok<-11 • lt,·pb: ,. rlim;:,•r
C,,11,,,. f mJ!,!rlnl 1\r R\'pl.lw ..ldt'l. ti•1· l""
• ~I I\ kin,1: 'l'""'I ,!tw U ) ,wrllmi: o f w.,I, • lt,•rl~:o· .!..ttt I u •,, 1,u1
lhir1tnl..,,tll ,oil • Rr t•i.\t,· ,ldt'I.I"<' J"fl
• lir,,k,,n It•~,! todw , ,d • U,•pl.'.t ,. •1~1« 1 i,·,· p.ul
llruk(•1) 1•,1t(\ 1.m h .1, ( una n 1111J.; pi1h. Rq•I.M.,· 1k1t, ti•r i"u
lc•vrr .um, • U,•pl.t1 ,· ,l\'1~'(1u •,. l"r;
C:vth"'1, ,· d;im JJ!<' to , url.k<'' h:; , on<fo,,-.,t,· l . .,.. f''" I.._., iub ri,.m t
• C:u mmini.: d m· to luh ricm(, "11 11..,11
,,,!di! I \'{'•
\'.,!vr p lun;:t·r ,lo,:.., n"t • l ,u ,k (.,, hr..k.·n ' fW' inJ: • ltrp l.ti r .Id~'( ll\'1• J\ Ul
n(urf, h,,k
$1... o l (!, ,·, nut r,;\·(·Nr • bimpy b,~,1rm}-: '1111.\, \· . ,.,,h•,· ,!, ...., 11u t f(•, : • H .1n1.· n h~/..ll <ilJ.: , 1:ri.1, 1.·
11111fom1ly
C:v111t..l r " ""' ur,· 111.. 1..,, :-1:t \(>1) l f1~I ! 'h"'-Hl f t•
• ~p,o1,I 1.,mm,•.:I • ( fl,.,l( w.,lmf rmt:
• :,;,.,,,n,11.·u11n,1 '1,l:l'l.11 \,:nn,>1 ,\\':(\h hn.<tN,· • ( hn k itih,n,: c,·, t h\' 1" 111r,·,I
( 11">1 (0:llr"I ,1,:n.11 ,(111 \' XI • \'-
qJ\•,.,
Ill IIW lll• •rr
I"''~"
Cit•,lfl ( h\' \ .ah ,.
• l>u: n ►II<'( u,d in I h,· , .1ln· '' ' f"<('1.,lly .u t h,·
•~ tlll )\ '\' rllli,: • Cl, .111 cllt' •t·11: h"k
• A h !,"-1,;"'(i \ ( •nt hnk· • :-.•1 ri~lit ,llq.:m1w111
\ '.,h:,, (.ul, *" r.1.... th,· r.u,,! • , \ , m .,1111;! nw.m , 110< ,u,.l.mf pr1,prrl~· • T1~!11,· n cm,
.U)\UI m I • ,t .u r l.,11,w 1l\',I , ,un ~l (,)1i,:h1<•1) lfl J' \ ,111\
• lkui nip< .1111 • Jt\•pl.n ,• ,!,!('( (i\\• J\IU
\\::,.rn u i!'l"::J.: ,11nh.nl 1\m
·111,· p1u· um .111, o mpm o ( • 1:1,., :r .. .1! ,uprl}· ,, ( )l:p l.uw \'o h.,;:<· • ( h,·, k ilw ,•!,.,. H u .,I "'Pl'!~
,,.ln1,.11,I ,.,h r 1, OfF i\h'l.h,11,i,;1! f.1uh j'l< ' '\'Ul in;.: 1ltr.-1m,1(ur(· h.i, k 10 llw "''"\\'
\\ hrn 1h,.. rd(·v,m : input 1-i-ull,n~-tn
,I P '9't' I• .1,1 1, .1tt,I
Distur~1mN Possible ,1,Ns~, R«Iifi,1111·11•
• Burnt OUI (Oil • Rt·n ifr u ult
• Failtin· t:( :.Ul'J'fn:."r
Th;; j)ll(·llnl.1(i( cou q mt i, • ;-..Lrntul <W(.•rrid(.· ,., lrfi in (11(.• 0'.\1 po,,ii ion • R<•pl:i, ,, wil
ON wlwn I lw ,;(,k•no1d • R1.•r ,1ir tie(' 1.·oil
\ ml 1:. •k·•r nl·t~i;,(;li • Chn k :ind t·otrn I m;um :,I
~ .lt·imid h lmH 1()11,idlr • $.u!t•IIOid rhm,:.rr i,; no t ,;t•,11111~ pmp(:rlr <for ,1n•ni•?1•
w d irt
P1,· w m 1• u f :m; .,: • E\ilur,• o! :m , teppr<•,,,ir Jilh•,! wi:liiu dw • Ch•.1n .ind:.\ 1 r1}:h•
,;wndun;.: ( nni,1n, ph•.i:
m uv. fl hN· Of d.un,1.;.:l•d • Sho ll \ iro1i1 tailurr • Clw,:k tht· :.up1•rt·:.1-,(,r
-.w1(<hiu~ <irid \011 • Cui! hi,;ie:dr ll>:<.'(I I v tlw i1.•kn,01\! 'ilnU • Cl 1(•( k 1ht· , llPJ'H·,,o r
• Cuil \'ibr,,:i,,
• 0 \'vr.lw.,cinf o l <111h • Fix <oil hrmly 10 -<1!1•noi,!
• Mi,m:ll<lit«! <111I, :111,I , 1r111 -.( 1'111
• Fix 1.·oil lirml:,

• Fix <-·<nl 1irrnl}·
• l ·w ma1dwli <.uil-- :,n,I ~lnll
31alfunctions in Li1nit Switches and Reed Switches

The frequently occurring malfunctions in limit s'Vitches and reed s'Vitches and their
possible causes and rectifications are listed in Table 10-4 .
Table 10-4 )[alfunctions in limit s'Vitches and reed s"itches

Poniblt t"11usts R«tifi,11tit,n
' rl w ,w1t 1h n w, h:m i, m • Cm1o p,•r.1ti11f: :lw m ll,•r in clw pr.•. • R1•:1d j1M !O in, Im!,, tlw upn.11 in_.:
,1pJ"1:.lN tu Ix· nw ,•m;.: h lll tr.~,·d b.1nd only .r,wd
tlw f.\\'11\' h 1:- nm , han.~ioi:, • Ur,:>kl"n n mt,,n du'" If• ,·1brnt wn ,\n d • l{q •l,w,· n:.1U.1( I S' S\\.'l l \ h
•.•VN nwdlou\1f,d fat i,:.;u,·
• Uut111 o •flf:~H, d iw tu un:-upptl"vwd
$ w11,h , o n1 .1<.·1:- ,m: fowd • l ;:K. ,,f \llh tlp pr,•,;,;n ! ,o!'"nuiJ <,·oil • Li._,. <:0 11 w 11h ,;c1pp r<.•,;,o r
t1.,_:.;(.·tlwr • l..1rp.,· r urf\•m 11.:>w 1hr,:11.1_i.:h t lw • Chn k owrl,,.,,!ul,:.;
<.'(ont,\\'IS
• .Su t~<· , urr('fll , ,IU"<'li hy ,.,., y lrnl.~
11•:uh h .11-,.11 i1 iH•, ouplinf:)
• \\:'r on;.: f <)1U\\'('l 1con • C , ,c-1111,:0 , ortt-<.·dr
• Com.in fa ilur,· • l{q,l,w,· tlw swi1( h
• T lw s w11 \'h 1:- 1,,:is111,:11wd 1<:0C:• f,1t • ,·\dj u q tlw ! •(i:-11 10 0
• Th,· , wit d1 I ' b,,rond tl w r.l fl~ (· of • ,\dju,t dw p 1i:-1t io : 1
m :tf :llr l
JQ,1Q Safety in Pneumatic

Systems
There are many hazards associated " ith pneumatic machines and systems. The energy
contained in the compressed air, the speed and power of pneumatic actuators, and
unexpected loss of pressure on a clamping de,ice are some of the reasons for these
hazards. Usually, the pneumatic systems, despite posing serious dangers, are treated in
a casual way. This attitude may cause harm to employees and damage the equipment.
Hence, every employee should take measures to eliminate or reasonably control
hazards, and follow all the relevant safety standards. There are only a limited number of
standards and regulations for pneumatic systems. Therefore, for all factors affecting
safety, reference must be made to existing general guidance and regulations from other
related engineering fields. It is also necessary to observe all safety procedures when
working \\ith pneumatic systems and implement appropriate legal requirements. The
follo"ing sections describe various safety hazards generally encountered in pneumatic
systems and measures to avoid them.
Safety Hazards
Knowing every hazard in every machine is very difficult. For this reason, it is better to
group them in ways that help the operator recognise different types of hazards
regardless of the machine or system. The follo"ing sub-sections describe different
groups of hazards, where these may occur, and what dangers they pose to the operators.
:Measures have also been suggested to avoid hazards. Some of the hazard groups are:
stored-energy hazards, air-pressure hazards, mechanical hazards, clamping device-
related hazards, air supply-failure hazards, human attitude-related hazards, hazards
related to fault-tracing, explosion hazards, and electrical hazards.
Stored-energy Hazards
Stored-energy hazards occur in a pneumatic system when the confined compressed air
energy is released unexpectedly. The stored energy on an inert machine can be
extremely dangerous. vVherever possible, the air should be isolated at two different
points, remo,ing the air pressure before disconnection is made. Another stored-energy
hazard is the whipping hose or tubing. A severed air hose or tubing can whip around
violently until the air supply is shut off. The reason is the energy stored in a long hose or
tubing "ill be expelled through its open end in a very short time with high velocity and
force, causing a severe whiplash of the hose or tubing. You may be injured by the
whipping hose or tubing, or while scrambling to get out of its way. The hazard due to
severed air hose or tubing may be avoided by using an air fuse.
Air-pressure hazards
vVith air-powered tools, air may be delivered at val'J,ing pressures and flows. If the
pressure and flow exceed the manufacturer's rating, the tool itself could over-speed,
delivering too much torque or other excessive force. This is hazardous due to the
increased possibility of tool or work-piece breakage. Inadequate pressure or flow could
also result in an under-performing tool. This may prompt you to apply excessive force in
your work, possibly causing tool breakage and injury. Adjust your system's air pressure
to the manufacturer's rating. l\'lake sure hoses or tubing are of the correct size and are
not kinked or crushed. Your compressor and receiver must have enough capacity to
deliver air in an amount sufficient to properly operate all attached tools and equipment.
Finally, do not forget to protect your eyes. The compressed air or particles may fly from
pneumatic chipping hammers, rock drills, rotary drills, or sanders, and can cause pain
or lnJury.
•tlechanical Hazards
All mechanical action or motion is hazardous, but in varying degrees. The operator is
subjected to hazards from the mechanical forces developed by powerful, fast-acting
pneumatic devices. These forces, when out of control, have the potential to cause
damage and body injury. Pneumatic pressure must never be used to remove debris from
the work area. The debris "ill become ballistic and have the potential to cause body
injury. Pneumatic pressure can also force debris into confined spaces between two
adjacent moving parts. This "ill cause the parts to lock up and "ill result in equipment
damage. It is possible to avoid body injuries and equipment damages by recognising and
identif),ing dangerous conditions. All safety de,ices should be in place and in good
condition before the pneumatic equipment is put into operation. Safety glasses are
mandatory when operating pneumatic equipment. The operator must haYe a thorough
knowledge of how the pneumatic equipment operates and the task to be accomplished
before the equipment is used.
Clamping Device-related Hazards

The use of a pneumatic clamping device is associated "ith certain hazards. Some causes
of clamping device-related hazards include its inadequate clamping capacity,
inadvertent operation, and unexpected pressure loss in it. A highly hazardous operation
in pneumatic systems is where the operator's hands have to be inserted into the working
area to feed or eject a component. Keep hands clear during clamping operations. Use
judgment when positioning the work-piece, and make sure it is properly positioned
when clamping forces are applied. The control system for pneumatic clamping devices
should be designed and arranged to avoid its inadvertent operation. This can be
achieved by means of control interlocks or by using protective guards. If a movable
guard is provided, then this can be interlocked with the starting of the valve. If guarding
is not possible, the circuit should be designed in such a way that both hands of the
operator should be engaged whilst the parts are moving. On most control systems, the
safety devices and guards are fitted for the protection of personnel. These should never
be manipulated as the safety of personnel may be at risk.
Air Supply Failure Hazards

There is a possibility of danger to personnel and equipment if a machine stops while
under load due to the air supply failure. Fail-safe circuits can be designed in general to
protect the operator and/ or the machine against electrical power supply failure,
compressed air supply failure, overload, carelessness, etc. Generally, they are designed
to return the load to some 'safe' condition should one of these unscheduled events
occurs.
Human-error Hazards
This type of hazard mainly crops up due to the failure to follow the standard procedure
of pneumatic machine operation and adhere to the relevant safety rules. For example,
the operation of a pneumatic machine at more than its rated speed, or ,vithout authority,
unsafe working on moving equipment, failure to use safety and protective devices,
improper attitude of employees, deliberate disobedience of safety rules, and lack of
knowledge and skill may lead to human-error hazards.
Hazards Related to Fault-tracing

In practice, it may be necessary to have the machine or de,ice partially or fully powered-
up to locate a fault. To gain access to the area of defect, it may be necessary to remove
and override the guards. This clearly presents many dangers to trouble-shooters, and,
therefore, they need to exercise great caution while troubleshooting. They must keep
well clear of the path of all actuators, mechanisms and other hazardous moving parts. In
any fault-tracing exercise, personal safety, and safety of others are paramount. \Vork
should be carried out using appro\'ed practices and obsening relevant safety legislation.
Any mo\ing part should be mechanically locked, and trapped air in any section should
be exhausted.
E:tplosion Hazards
Air re<)eivers used downstream of compressors can store huge amount of energy. The
main reason for many of the reported air receiver explosions appeared to be the ignition
of oil carried over from the compressor. This is likely to occur if the compressed air gets
hot enough t o cause spontaneous combustion.
Electrical Hazards
To avoid electrical hazards, it is important in electro-pneumatic systems to ensure that
any metal enclosure containing electrical equipment must be properly grounded. This
prevents a person contacting a metal enclosure from getting electric shock in case the
metal part attains dangerous level of electric potential probably due to an insulation
failure.
General Safety Afeasures

Adequate safety measures must be taken to avoid the risk of personal injury and
equipment damage from your application or system. 1linor problems can become major
issues when they are not addressed. Follo\\ing are some general safety measures that
must be taken in pneumatic systems to avoid accidents:
1. Keep your " 'ork place clean before and after work.
2. Use personal protective devices for all hazardous jobs.
3. Folio"· the standard procedure \\•bile operating a machine.
4· Kno\\• your job thoroughly.
Inspect daily for damaged tubing, fittings, and leaks.
6. Check the interlock system at regular intervals.
7. Repair or replace components that sho"' signs of wear or damage.
8. Clean the spillage of grease, oil, etc., immediately.
9. Never direct the compressed air to\\ ards yourself or anyone else
0
for cleaning.
10. Never use the compressed air for cleaning a\\·ay chips and dust.
Fl)ing particles can be dangerous.
JQ.:-11Energy Saving
The compressed air is often \VTongly assumed to be a cheap or even 'free' source of
power. It is really not. In fact, it is comparatively an expensive medium of energy
transmission, and hence to save running cost and improve efficiency, this medium
should not be wasted unnecessarily. The energy losses may take place due to many
reasons such as air leaks, misuse, excess pressure drops, over-pressurisation, etc. It has
been estimated that a typical factory can save up to about 20% of energy by adopting
certain easy measures. The follm,ing issues may be taken into account from the point of
view of energy sa\ing:
1. Use a well-designed pneumatic system. Estimate the needs of air

accurately. Design the system for minimum pressure drops and
ensure minimum " 'astage of the compressed air.
2. As far as possible, employ compressors "ith energy management
system. These units must be set up in such a ,vay that they are able
to extract cool dry air, free of fumes and dust particles, from
atmosphere. Receivers must be large enough to meet sudden high-
flo\\' demands. Care should be taken to install these compressors in
cool locations.
3. It is ad,isable to condition air through dryers especially for special
applications, such as paint spra)ing and instrumentation. Splitting
the main air supply into different sections and conditioning only
the quantity required for applications can make excellent sa,ings of
energy.
4. Energy saving can be brought about by minimising pressure drops.
This can be achieved by using a larger pipe bore, avoiding
unnecessary fittings and sharp bends. It is to be noted that the
longer and complex the pipe " 'ork, the greater "ill be the pressure
drop.
5. Energy savings can also be achieved by using the ring-main
installation for the distribution nehvork preferably "ith the
installed pipes sloping to each corner. This installation can also be
provided "ith dead leg l\ith ,vater-trap on each corner to collect
and remove ,vater. Take-off points must be connected to the top of
the main pipe to avoid " 'ater pick-up.
6. Avoid shutting dol\'ll the entire system. Use shut-off valves to
isolate a section of the installation for servicing and when not in
use. This is a surprisingly simple and efficient way of preventing
energy loss that is often overlooked.
7. Leakage is a major source of energy loss in compressed air systems.
A typical industrial plant may incur a loss of about 25-30% of the
compressor output through poorly connected pipe joints, fittings,
couplings, etc. It is often more common to find leakage around
fittings and pipings. Fixing the air leaks and introducing planned
maintenance can produce substantial sa,ings. Introduce a leak
prevention scheme by regularly re,ie"ing the system for leaks
using ultra modern ultrasonic leak detection devices.
8. Install FRL unit before each application and pay attention to carry
out its regular maintenance.
9. Fine filters fitted upstream of the point of use "ill reduce cost by
protecting equipment against water droplets and solid particles.
Replacing filter elements regularly can save energy. Use filter \\-ith
senice life indicator for indication of when the filter element must
be replaced as a result of clogging. Use filter \\-ith electrical senice
life indicator for remote visual and audible l\•arning about the time
to replace the filter element. For sensitive applications, it can be
used to automatically turn off a machine or process.
10. A standard 40 µm filter element is perfect for majority of industrial
pneumatic applications. Unnecessary use of a 5 µm filter element
or sub-micron ( <1 µm) coalescing filter element ,~ill increase cost
due to higher pressure drop.
11. Unnecessary increase of pressures \\-ill result in \\"astage of energy,
poor performance and increased costs due to higher \\"ear and air
consumption. Use pressure regulators to reduce the supply
pressure to the optimum level.
12. Using lubricated air that ,,ill reduce the friction and pressure
drops can e.nend the senice life of pneumatic tools and
equipments.
13. Energy saving begins and ends \\ith measurements. Installation of
flo"' meters and differential pressure gauges can identify the
amount of air used and pressure conditions before and after any
improvements. \\'ith these instruments, the problem areas and
deficiencies can be identified.
14. Install final control elements as close as possible to the cylinder to
reduce the amount of the compressed air required for the dead
volumes in pipes or tubes leading to the actuator.
15. Another major reason for the \\•astage of the compressed air is the
indiscriminate use of air jet as a direct po,ver source, just because
it is readily available. Performing air blo,v operations for cleaning
or drying ·without installing energy efficient nozzles consumes
substantially more energy than necessary. \\'here the compressed
air is used directly, selecting correctly sized air nozzles \\ith
appropriate control circuits can minimize the ,vastage. Use a
regulator to ensure the right pressure of the nozzle. Do not abuse
the compressed air. 5',itcli off air tools \\-Uen not in use.
Questions
1. \\.'hat is maintenance? Ho\\• is it classified?
2. \\'hat is the importance of preventive maintenance and what are its
advantages?
3. \\'hat is the first procedure to follo,v in an organised maintenance
of pneumatic equipment or systems?
4. \\'hat are the advantages of employing qualified maintenance
personnel for the maintenance of pneumatic systems?
5. \\'hat is the greatest eause of pneumatic system failure?
6. \\'hat is the importance of instruction manuals supplied by
manufacturers for maintenance personnel?
7. \\'hat safety procedure should be taken while using cleaning
solvents?
8. \\'hat are the factors upon " 'hieh the intervals of maintenance
activities depend on?
9. Ho,v important is the lubrication of pneumatic components?
10. \\'hat is the difference ben,·een inspection and examination?
11. \\'hat do you understand by 'overhauling of equipment'?
12. \\'hat are the usual eauses of failure of pneumatic equipment?
13. Explain briefly the malfunctions eaused by (a) contaminants, (b)
improper mountings, (c) over-lubrication, and (d) under-
lubrieation.
14. \\'rite a brief note on the maintenance of the follo\\ing: (a)
compressors, (b) air receivers, (c) air-mains, and (d) FRL.
15. Explain a method used for the detection of air leakage.
16. \\'hy is it important to earry out regular maintenance on FRL?
17. \\'rite do\\'ll a fe"' maintenance activities that are carried out on
pneumatic cylinders.
18. \\'rite do"n a fe"' maintenance activities that are carried out on
pneumatic valves.
19 . \\'hat is the chief asset of a trouble-shooter?
10. \\'hat is the importance of circuit analysis in trouble-shooting?
2 1. \\'hat is the procedure adopted for troubleshooting a circuit that
has been in existence for a long time?
22. \\'hat is the most important rule in troubleshooting?
23. \\'hat are the most common mistakes do trouble-shooters make?
24. Ho,v important is the determination of a machine's sequence of
operation in troubleshooting process?
25. Explain the importance of a good troubleshooting strategy.
26. Explain the standard fault-finding strategy \\i th the aid of a flo, v
chart.
27. \\'hat are the three basic types of faults in pneumatic systems?
?8. list out a fe, v disturbances or malfunctions in (a) pneumatic valves
and (b) pneumatic actuators, along \\ith their possible causes.
29. \\'hat are the safety precautions that are to be taken for pneumatic
clamping de,ices?
30. \\'hat is the meaning of 'ti,·o-hand safety operation' "ith regard to
hazardous operations?
31. Briefly e.'\.- plain various safety hazards generally encountered in
pneumatic systems.
32. \\Trite five steps that can be taken to save pneumatic energy in a
t ypical industrial en,ironment.
33. \\'hat are the causes of the follo\-\ing in a pneumatic system: (a)
compressed air leakage, (b) sluggish operation of a valve, (c)
presence of arc at =itching contacts, ( d) failure of solenoid coil,
and (e) stoppage of a machine.
34. '\,\,'hen are fail-safe circuits employed in pneumatic systems?
Appendix 1
Graphic Symbols for Pneumatic Components as per ISO 1219

A list of the most important graphic symbols for pneumatic components in accordance
"ith ISO 1219 is given in this appendLx.
Fixed displacement pneumatic motor 1'ith one direction of flow
Fixed displacement pneumatic motor 1'ith two directions of flow
Variable displacement pneumatic motor "ith one direction of

flow
Variable displacement pneumatic motor 1dth two directions of
flow
Semi-rotary actuator
Single-acting cylinder, return stroke by non-specified force

A I A "
u I/ II Single-acting cylinder, return stroke by spring force
I
~ I
Single-acting cylinder, sprung out
II 11 I
: I Double-acting cylinder " i th single-ended piston rod
:I 11
I
: I Double-acting cylinder " i th double-ended piston rod
II 11 : I= Differential cylinder "ith single-ended piston rod

.
,U Double-acting cylinder " ith adjustable cushioning at both ends
I
II : Single-acting telescopic cylinder, return stroke by external force
II I
: Double-acting telescopic cylinder
Pressure intensifier for one type of fluid. For example a
ltl I T: □y yI pneumatic pressure X is transformed into a higher pneumatic
pressure Y
Pressure intensifier for two types of fluid. For example a
ltl I T: ~T I pneumatic pressure X is transformed into a higher hydraulic
pressure Y
X
Pneumatic-hydraulic actuator for transforming a pneumatic
pressure into a substantially equal hydraulic pressure or vice-
versa
2. Energy control and regulation
2.1 Directional control valves
2/ 2-way valve (NC type)
2/ 2-way valve (NO type)
3j 2-way valve (NC type)
3j 2-wayvalve (NO type)
3j 3-way, valve, mid-position closed
1 3
4/ 2-way valve
4/ 3-way valve, mid-position closed

4/ 3-way valve "ith floating neutral position
"·• I 2-wav, valve
5/ 3-way valve, mid-position closed
-<>--
2.2 Non-return valves
Check valve, unloaded
-{Nv- Check valve, spring-loaded
2
Shuttle valve (OR valve)
Quick-exhaust valve
3
1?_ 04 2
Two-pressure valve (AND valve)
; ~ o o , , . / "'::,. •ISi wl-. .a;~abl,

Pressure sequence valve adjustable
;r L..rvLLIJLf-'1-'
I l••••• ••••••••••
Pressure sequence valve, three-way function (non-standardised)
Pressure regulator " i thout vent hole
Pressure regulator \\ith vent hole
....__,,.
2.4 Flow-control valves
Throttle valve "ith constant restriction
Throttle valve \\ith adjustable flow control
Throttle check valve adjustable
3. Energy transmission
[>--- Pressure source
0--- Pressure source (non-standardised)

\ \.'orking line
Control line
--------
E.xhaust line
Fle:dble line
Electric line
Line connection rigid
Line crossover
Exhaust point or vent
lJ Drain "ithout pipe connection
0
'v
Drain "ith pipe connection
Energy tapping point closed
Quick release coupling connected, "ithout mechanically opened

check valve
Quick release coupling connected, "ithout mechanically opened

check valve
Quick release coupling connected, "ith mechanically opened

check valve
~ Quick release coupling uncoupled, line closed by check valve

Rotarv, connection-One-way
.
C) .
Rotarv connection-Two-way
.
Silencer
Air reservoir
Filter
\ liater separator manually operated
Filter \\ith water separator with automatic drain
Filter \\ith water separator "ith automatic drain
Air dryer
Lubricator
Air senice unit-simplified representation
Cooler
~ Pressure gauge
-Q9 Pressure indicator

4. Control mechanisms - l\Iechanical components
_____ 1 ~ -
Detent
Shaft "ith rotary motion in one direction
Shaft "ith rotary motion in either direction
Over-centre device
Hinge joint, simple
Hinge joint "ith extended lever

Appendix 2
Graphic Symbols for Electrical Components

A list of the most important graphic symbols for electric components is given in this
appen dix.
Normally open contact (NO)
Normally closed contact (NC)
Change-over contact
S"itch "i th ::--io contact (not automatically reset)

S"itch "ith XC contact (not automatically reset)
ll'lechanically linked contacts
Normally open contacts, actuated
Pressure s1'i tch
S1dtch "ith XO contact manually actuated by rotating
NC
General manual switch contact
Relay contact
E·· Push-button contact
}· Pull-button contact
1· T"ist s\\itch contact
Roller s"itch contact
Delay to operate
Delay to reset
Proximity S\\itch
Direct current (DC)

Alternating current (AC)
AC or DC
Positive and negative polarity
_l_ Line to earth
rh
_l_
Line to chassis
Cell
T
...L ...L
or 12 V Battery
T T
0----
e-
Supply and return lines
Fuse
Relay coil
Relay coil " ith delayed contact operation, set
Relay coil " ith delayed contact operation, reset
Solenoid coil
i=i= Solenoid actuation

~ Solenoid actuation ,d th manual override
cz:[ Y Double solenoid
cz:[ J\ Single solenoid "ith spring return
L, [>: ~-+-- Solenoid and pilot actuation "ith manual override
'Y' Pneumatic-electric (PE) converter
Resistor
Potentiometer
~ Inductor
J Inductor with core
} Variable inductor
l Capacitor
T
l+ Polarised capacitor
T
Variable capacitor
Diode
Zener diode
~ Light-emitting diode (LED)
--...
--... Photo-transistor
I J:t a Opto-coupler
NPN transistor
PNP transistor
Triac
Thyristor
80 ll'leasuring instruments for current, voltage, resistance, and power
®©
®® .Motors DC and AC
~or$ Transformer
0 Generator
TT Bell
B Buzzer
0 ll'licrophone
Loudspeaker
Lamp steady
.n. Lamp flashing

_J_ ,vires connected
_J_
+ ,vires crossing
Double junction
Conductors in a cable
---)-- Plug and socket
AC relay
Thermal relay
Reed s,dtch (2 "ire)

+
◊ .IL
Reed s"itch (3 "ire)
J _
◊ .IL
JVVV\..
Inductive proximity sensor
_/_
◊ .IL
Capacitive proximity sensor
-I I-
_/_
Optical proximity sensor

Appendix 3
General Information on Pneumatic Actuators
Table .>\3-1 Typical specifications for pneumatic components

I. Pntumatic mc:dium e .H. Com pressed air, filt<:rt-d, lub r icated .
2. N:1turc.· of opc:r.H ion e.~ . double -:1<.:cing. a ir <.:ushiont'd.
5. Opl·rntinJ,! pn:ssur<.: e.g . 0. 1 to1lbar.
4. ( )pt•raring rempernrure e.g. - I 0°C to + ~o0 c .
), Liut·,tr arc uators:
5. I Size Pis ton l'Od diafflCH·r - frorn 1 mm to _; 20 mm .
5.2 •1·11rUSl 2.7 N cu 48000 N (at 6 bar).
5 .> Srroke le ng rh I mm ro 10 rn.
) ,·1 S1x·,·d 5 to I 5000 mrnls.
6. Rotarv ;Ktuaror:
6.1 Siz,: Rotary d rivt- d iarnc.-tt·r - fro m 6 mm co I 00 mm .

6,....') Ton.rm· 0,15 Nm to 150 t\m (at 6 bar).
(), .,. Angle of rm~uion 1-0 f() ,)60°.
64. Speed lip to 50000 rpm (for air motors).

Table A3-2 Standard values of cylinder diameter, maximum stroke length, size, and
rotating angle of rotary actuators
PardRldtr S11nd,m/ .,,,,,,, R.,,,,,,.,
Sr:md :m l t·yl ind t·r d i:tnwkr 10, 12, 16 . 20 , 2) ISO 64 \ 2
( nun)
,;,?, •iO. SO, (,3. XO, 100.125 . lf>O , 200, 2)0 . j20 1$(.)(, 1_\I
St:rntl:mJ ( yl indtr scrok<.· 10, 2) • ./40, )0, XO, 100 , l..?5. 1(,0, 200, 250, ;Jo.
11:n.~t h ( mm} -iOO, ) 00 , . . .• 1000
Scand,ud :-i~<.• of l'Otar \' 6. 8. I 0. 11. l6 . .!'> . 51 . ,10 -

;1nu;1cors ( m m )
Scand,m) l'◊tat i 1)~ ;HlJ.dt· fo1• 9<f. 180;,}. 27 0° Fi:H·d
roc,1rr a(tll.l( ()r :,
.~<>;,} m 27t>° V.1ri:lhk·
Table -~-3 :Materials used for cylinders

MAJeria/ Trade name Part
Hrass - Barrel
Skel - Barrel
X 5 Cr N i 18 9 - Ba rrel
X 20 Cr 1., - Piston rods
Cast iron - ~tounting p:1rts
Ac rylo-n irri le buradiene rubber (KBR) Pt-rhun;ln Seals
Fluroelasconwric rubber (FK~,{) Vicon Heat-resistant seals
Polyurerhane ( P UR ) - Diaphmg m
Table -~-4 Pneumatic cylinder standards

Pneumatic component Standard Remarks
Cylinder ISO 6/431 International
ISO 6432 International
VDwlA 24652 Gern1an
NFE -4900.1. l Frant·t
l JNI 10290 Icalv,
Table A3· 5 Jl,'leasures of thrust and pull of single-acting cylinders
Cylinder bore, mm Minimum pull of1pring, N Thn111, N (at 6 bar)

10
.,
.)
.,
:) I
.,
12 4 59
-, Io·
16 ' . )
20 L1 L65
25 25 258
-~-
' ? 27 4.'\8
40 '9
.) 699
so -/48 1102
6) 67 1760
80 86 2892
I00 99 4583
-
Note: For pressures other than 6 bar, multiply the thrust at 6 bar by the given absolute
-
pressure and divide it by 7.
Table A3-6 ]).feasures of thrust and pull of double-acting cylinders
Cylindwbtirt Pi.tton rod Thr11.1t, N Pull, N
mn, (ind,es) dia mm (inches) (at6 bar) (al 6 bar)
8 5 50 25
JO 4 47 '9
.)
12 6 67 50
16 6 120 1o.,
20 8 188 158
25 10 2Yi 2-/4 6
.\ 2 12 482 4 14
40 16 755 65.➔
4445 (1¾) 16 951 8 10

50 20 ll 78 989
.
( .-; 20 1870 168 1
76.2 (;\) 25 _) -/,)' () 211 1
80 ?_ -) ·,o I5
.) 272 1
100 25 47 11 44 18
125 ')
.) - 7 .) 6 :) 688 1
l 52.4 (6) (I ~ ) 10944 [0260
1(,O 40 I 206.i I 1509
200 40 18849 180';)5
250 50 29452 28274
504.8 (I 2) (2 .\ ) 4.,77 9 4224 0
.\20 6\ 4825/4 -16.\84
.\ 55.6 ( )5) <2¾) 59588 5S0/4 9
Note: For pressures other than 6 bar, multiply the thrust/pull at 6 bar by the given
absolute pressure and divide it by 7.
Table .,\J-7 Air consumption by pneumatic cylinder
-
,.,., ,....,
(I)
10
Ro.I
(2)
.j
Air anu••*•f"""""' ,,, .
/J•,'J,.,. ,{,,.,. ,n 6 lwrJ
(3)
U.llllU') i
Ai r ~ - . ,,,,,,. ,,,,._
,,,,,,,1..
,r"""' _, 6 lwr)
(4)
<l.00l).'j l')
CflltmW dir ifltUIIIIIPli""
( ,,
(NI•• of"""'"' 6 /wrj
U.U( I I llU
11 (, ( U >l.lO"''.} U.000(>'> u.uo 1.1.1

16 (, ( 1.1)1)111 u ,001 2 1 (1 ,( 1() ,"?(>2
10
.?5
•u
I
( IJ)l.)_!211
• •> 12 ( IJ)l)5(,', U,001>- 1 U,( 1101 -

.1() I <, ( l ,l)t)XXII U.Olf' ,9 U,Ul 61'.)
,o .?<• <1.01 r \ U.0 11 55 ( l ,( l ,?')21)
(, $ ,!(I U ,U.! J ,-..! U,OJ')f>.! U,U-i I ,j 1

XO 2, (UH5 19 U.O ~ I "'5 U,(1(,(.9 )
100 2, U.O'> 11J>- U.()')1')1 U, I ( I( ,').!
I .?'> .,_• > . U.085°)11 u.o~or <I.I (,(,} "'

- <•.11u- i u.r'!,>9
160
.?00 '"
.fu U.11 '.NI
U, I il95
U ,,!J J ).! U..i) I O,>
Note:
250
'" <(l ) {f>I u. l19K"' U.( ,"' l Hi
1. Take each figure in columns 3 - 5 and multiply by the stroke in mm to obtain the
total forward stroke, return stroke, and combined air consumption, respectively.
2 . For pressures other than 6 bar, multiply the air consumption value by the given
absolute pressure and divide it by 7.
Table .,\J-8 Technical data for pneumatic muscle

NomiMI diamtttr
Paramtttr
10mm 20 .,,,, 40mm
Maximum p('rmis:-ibl<.' opc.- r:nint-: prc.-ssu n: S bar 6 bar 6 bar
M:1x im um 1x·nnissihlc- opc.• r:ni ng tr<•qu(•1Ky .) H% .\ l-1% 1 Hz
20,;;; of
Maximum <:oncra<:tion NI: 20 7, of:-; L 25'}: o ( NL
i\·(:-1xirm.un l<>rn; :-ic 6 h;1r •100 N 12011 N 4000 N
Pcrmi:-.siblt· lt·m pc:rnlun.· rnn~<: + ) (O +60 °f:

P<:rm iss ihlc.: maxim u m sp<:td I.) rn:'s 2 m i l:, 2 rn/-.
*NL - N ominal length.
Source: FESTO.
Appendix 4
Conversion Tables
Conversion factors for various physical terms may be taken from these tables. For
distinction, the SI units have been capitalised though normally these units are written in
small letters.
Le ng th
cm m km inch ft
I cm 1 0.01 L0- 5 ,) .
0 ,.)'9'7 0.0328 L
Im 100 I 0 .00 I 39 37 .,,_
' 781
Ik 100000 1000 I 39., 70 328 1
2.54 X io- > l 0 .08 .)° .)' .)

0
I inch 2. 54 0 .0 254
I ft 30.4 8 0 .3048 0 .000,104 8 12 l

1 yard= 3ft; 1 nautical mile =1852 m = 1.151 miles.
Area
,,; CfJ1 fr inch2
1 ,,; l 10000 l0.76 1550
1 cm2 0.000 I I 0.00 I 076 0 . 1550

lfr 0.0929 929.0304 l 144
1 im:Jl 0. 00064 5 2 6.4 516 0.006944 I
1 square mile= 2.788 x 10 ft= 640 acres;
1 acre= 43560.17 ft; 1 hectare= 10000 m = 2 .471044 acres.
Volurne
,,,l cm3 I p incl?
1 ,,? I I 000000 1000 ,') ' I 6 1025. 74
1 cm3 I 0 - ,, I 0 .00 I .>.5., lx l<l'l 0.06102
1I (J. 00 I 1000 I 0.0.>5.\ I 6 1.02,) 7•1
IP 0.0285 2 28516.85 28 .5 I 685 I 17 28

1 ind? 1.659 X 10- l 16.58706 0 .0 I 6:, 8706 0.0005 78 7 I
Mass
g kg pound
lg I 0.001 0.002204623
1 kg l ooo l 2.20462 3
1 pound 453.5924 0.4 535924 I
1 metric ton = 1000 kg.
Fo rce
dyne N lb kg/
1 dyne I ,o-j 2.248 X 10-6 1.0197 16 X 10- 6
I Newton I00000 I 0.224808') 0. 1020
I pomul 444822.2 4.448222 I 0.4535924
I kg/ 980665 9 .80665 2.204623 I
Pressure
Pa bar kg/Id atlll psi
1 Pa I I 0 -~ I .02 X Io -~ ').87 X 10 - 6 0.000 1·15
1 bar 100000 I I .02 0.987 1·'1 .50;)77
1 kg/Id ')80(,6.5 0.')80665 I 0.')6784 I I ___, ··4

14-,· .,.,
1 tllm 10 1:) 25 1.0 1:\25 I 03)227 I 1li .69595
1 po11ndlitl (psi) 6894. i 57 0 .06895 O.Oi O.,Oi 0 .06804596 I
1 torr = 1 mm ofHg.
Voltunc flow rare
,,;,, ,,,Jth fr,,,, /rib /Is //h
I ,,,)1, I 3600 2 11 8.88 127 152.~ I 000 5600000
I ,,,)Jb 0 .000277 i-:i I 0 .) 8858 )). ) 1467 0.277777~ 1000
I/rim 0 , OOO·i 7 I 9 l .(,y~m 11 I 60 0 .-17 19·17 ·1 1699.0 1 I
I /rib 7 .8 6 ) X X I O- f, 0 .028) 17 o.O I 6667 I 0 .00786)~ 28., 1685

I //s (J.001 3.<. 2.11~88 127.1.)28 I ) 600
11/h 1. 777H X 10 ().(Hl l 0 .1)1)1))89 0.0 35_; 15 0 ,0001777H I
STP = Standard temperature and pressure {o °C and 1 bar (absolute)}.

NTP = Normal temperature and pressure { 2 0 •c and 1 bar (absolute)}.
Temperature
°C = (F- 32) x 5/9

op = C X 9/5 + 32
OK= -273 oc
Cels ius to Fahrenheit
100 212
95 203
90 194
85 185
So 176
75 167
70 158
65 14-9
6o 14-0
55 131
50 122
45 ll3
40 104
35 95
30 86
25 77
20 68
15 59
10 50
5 41
n ~~
lsiiii ( 0 C) Fcilliinlt"iit (".F)

0
-5
- 10 14
- 15 5
- 20 -4
- 25 -13
- 30 -22
- 35 -31
- 40 -40
- 45 -49
- 50 -58
- 55 -67
- 6o -76
- 65 -Ss
- 70 -94
- 75 - 103
- 80 -112
- 85 - 121
- 90 - 130
- 95 -139
_,.R.
l\fultip les
!Mi •
/1.eca10
becto 102
~ 1o3
µiega106
~ 109
era
~
t - 10- 1
~
10- 2
10- 3
10- 6
~
~
10- 9
12
Appendix 5
Comparative Study of Siemens and .,\lien Bradley PLCs

The fundamental concepts of PLC programming are common to all manufacturers.
But, the PLC programs are never perfectly interchangeable between different
manufacturers because of differences in I/0 addressing, memory organisation and
representations of program elements. The follo,ving table highlights the important
differences between Siemens and Allen Bradley PLCs:
Table .>\5-1 Distinguishing features of Siemens and Allen Bradley PLCs

Pt1rdllldtr S--,PLC Alim Bradley PLC
F..lmi l>' SIMATIC S7 200 PLC - S
SI.\IATIC S7 \00 SI.C ) (HJ
SIMATIC S7 400 Miuolo,!.!iS
.
Pmi.:.r,tmm .
i 11:~ ,oft w:,n· For S7 100 - ~l inowin l{~ l.o,:.;ix )00
For S7 {OO - STEP 7
For S7 ~oo - STl'. P 7
1/0 Addn.•S).11\t.:: forrn:1c Tht· ,!.!l'lkral forrna c for ;1n input Th,· ,!.!l'lkr:d l<1rn):1c for iopuc
addn.:ss. is: ,,nd oue puc addr,:ss is:
I O)'"'- Add«•ss. Hie- Addl'<:SS.
For t'X;111'1plt': I 2.,1 Fi I(' tyrx-: Slot/ Uie
T ll<: f!<:n<:r,tl fnrm:.n for :.111 For <:x~1m1~I<:: 1: 7/tJ for :m
outpul addr<.·S~ i).: iopuc mMn·~:. ;ind 0 :8 /0 ll>r
Q By,,_Add rt.:ss. Bi t - Addr'{•SS. :;,n ouepm addr'<.•s.s
For ('Xampl('; Q j . 5
lnpul mldrt·!I.S rafl,t.::t' (bi1) Ht.Oto 1117 .7 (or 1ntm·> 1:000/ 0 co l:O.n/1)
O utpw :1ddn·s:. rafl,t.:.t· (bi(} QO.O 10Q12 i.7 (or mon·} 0:000.'0 w 0 :<H 7/1 ":,
. .
Bi( mt:morr r.m1.:{· (hie) MO.O co ~1 .?)).7 (or mon:> B ) :000 w B ;:<J<)9
Tim<·!' addr'<:ss !';ult,:<' TO e<>T 255 (vi' mor(') 'J'i;Ol)I) eo T·i:999
Counkr addn·:.s r;m~l' CO coC2 5) (or ,nmd C):000 to C";:999
. . la1li.:.u:1i.:.t·!I.
Pn>~ramrniO!.! . . Laddl·r Dia,i.:.rarn ( l.,\D) b ddl·r Di:1,i.:.r;u11 (I.AD)
Funn io1) Blot'k Dia,-:r.Hn 0:BD}
S1,u<•1n{•nt Lise (STI.)
Table -~-2 Representation symbols of select program elements of Siemens and Allen
Bradley PLCs
, __
xo ..:m ... ,
_,LC
li m.u-~· A,!,if,,..
Allas-A,,l.C
l~i n:,r r , \,!,Ir-.•--
-=ii;-
lI
XC •·•11'1•.,,, li ,1u.ry A,!,!t,·" Um.,rr ,\,!,Ir,'"
~'1- ::v.::
C.•nl "l'.•trt•t rd,1yJ IJuu .n·
. ,A,Mr\'" l:h11,11y ,\,I.If\', ,
' ) I ' ) I
:,.,,t t(•ll d,,td·,rni,: 1d,1f> l~m.uy A,Mr\'" Hui.irf A,l.lr..·, ,
~s) I ,l ) I
ll, '-t: t •• 11,1tl lh >..1,.; y :\ l ,hr" Um,,., A,1,.lr.-,,
••u~l.,t.hrn,i: rd.,r>
R) I , u} I
:-R t,.., li:o,i:y ,\,•:!,t-..,
=!!:t
lt~b ,x ll m.u y A,!.J,,...
,7~,
I•
(Jfl-,!r l.a\ 111)...-r ' I oflWf "l...-f,0,1<! ,-JQN
- $ 0 Di
. l.f'lw()-.Cl):'ly ~ .'-l
~
.,,co•·
ltmti' T4 (l
-s 01- T,mt.-8rt)I! 1o -{oi}-
TV
• ~
Pt~t-1)!
"-=
,,
:s,;,
011.,!.-b y 11111,·r
!,_.,, __
~ ,.;., ,
. .
!Off -
, '
.,
f~C'! ~ ,
.
_s o~ I~ HO
·-;;:~r
-·
-- r•; - l l"'(<'6,l)'! • 0 1-{cs>
,cc ~
~ :
,.
1$3·
1'p ·• · ~"'(t'I
SW
r,:cru
COV"(IJ~
- scu 0>-
-
- "' c•,·~
cw,,,
Pi,-,M: "~,
cu)
ON)-
"'= n
-• \,'I !;(:0 ~
l)<·,...,·n t<)Vllht ~.!00.>."t..('UI ~c,o :-:-7

SW CoJ-t ~ '"I {co}
- scu - o._ C=w csc {o:,)-
-
- R
C'l
- "' o:M6Co ~
~
PtP.Ml
l<C.r
,,"
Appendix 6
Table A6-1 Comparative study of pure pneumatic, electro-pneumatic, and PLC-based

controls on some important parameters
-- -
p..,,..,,
P..w~· r n wdmm
Conu,,J nwiliurn
P11n,.._,,N
( .ump~,·,-.--.! .ur
c..mptt'"''•'" ,1ir
-
P.--it
11. 110 11 . ,. -
l:lnuin q <M '. l)C)
. <1-:ki
...mpr,·"•'I .11r -
PU:-'-1
(ri( 11 ~• l\'oo]U~t·
.._om roh
<.•f ,. U(h 1\(
A,c..u cin.i.: C ylim!di-. tut.u~• C;.<lind, ii-. r"ca,y ,1<1u,1wr,. i· lc C rl111.:!cri-. 1u1.11~• ,l<I U,11"(" ,
d ,·m rn r... ,t(IU,l(" (i. t•t, t»utvt, . •I•.
1:in.1l ,.,,w111l Pnnun,u i<.lllv ,c. :,u.Ct'!I ~1kfa1:.I O!'('r,1(t•,I ,ln<',(11,11,1,I :-::i,Ji:no,:.I utx·1:tH-.l ,l11<x (11,n,1I
d ,·uwn, ,hrnt1111\;1I H11Utol i l)C} (<ll\(10 1 (I )C} \ ,lh'l'" •<>1\1tol 1l)C1 \ ,1,ht·"
\._th t•(
~i.:.:11.1I r1u: • "'m.1: I ·,m.i.: l1,~i1 \·.1.h c•,, <11111•• ( !,m.~ r.•L•r·• (m wr,. ( l!llnt(•r,,, I ·,m.1: pr11.~:r.1m c•l,•1m·111, fe,r
,ld :1: v,1h·1 ,, pa•,,u a• j'f<'!>,tllt' ''' ih lw, l'l(. loi,:i(, 1inw.,l(•l.iy, <<,11111i11.:.: ..i, .•
w l}U\"I\H· , ,.1h •,., d .._ •>f--<:(,)( ll)lh
~i.i.:n,1l r!,•n wnt, 1 1',•nuii.., 1\t'r~y llow III dw lnh1lnt- rl)N.t.:f 1!11v. rn ilw '.'t.ul\ Im · 1• , 1i,:nal 'I.Uc• 1,1 .1llov.
IWl!ll:11 p1,, 1CWll IIIJIIU,11 i" "jl ital pe.,wn !lo v.
='-omuilr c,p,:n l'(·rnut, i·n_.r .. \' ilow th.. l11h1h1ti _.1)1:r;,:y 1luw rn t h_. S..,uh 1i ,r ·ff i 1t=n,1I ,t-1(\' 10 .,!low
•• in
i :'\!0) .-IN !l\'II (
'\'.11:m,1II:; d u'-<.«!
lll•l!ll,11 p1,.ii11,11
lnh,h,c, <.·n <.·r~r 1lu,\ 1:t I llol:
Ill •I m;!I p1,, j I i, KI
Pi·rm,:.. i·11rtJ.Y tlo w 111 ; h_.
. S..,llh 1i ,r , 1t=n,il , u t<.· tu ,di,.,,\
J'l •W\'f !l;m
'ff
• ~<., i·lt·nwnt m ,rm.d l'f"1tu,n nnrm.11 !""" t()fl
. Sni,
!")w_.r !low
l.o.1i.:1t d t•ll\l'nt, Sllu cd,· , .1h •t· .md ~ ri(·, .md p.ir.llld ,on1wtti11n .... r-,11,1lld ( 11rnh m.ttio n o l
t'•orl lln(l<>!h two-rri~-...,, .. v.,Jv.._. of .._ont1•,I t"m..e( t, 1 r-::<>. I'\( : pm~r.un d,·m<,·ni..
·1'n'11('r" O a ,c!d .t:· .111,I oH ,!d.1:· O n d. l.1.r .-n,I 0!1,(!d:1y 1'1ui.:1,11n dnni:n1, m un,d l'I.-:,
p n,·u n}.1ti.. ( 11\Wf, dn 1r1i ,1i dl', rr,.,ni, 11mt·r, vu•.!d.1}._ ,,n.! tolht"r m11,k,
•f\<> NC tn•d
i\l,,m,.,y dnl),•111<• l'mum,1,1i, l.1t.l1 l:lntri,.11 l:1h h ())omia.m1 S.:1tsn.i.: .-m l " -..;•11 m,:.; 111,0 m f i1K·1,
r~ 2- DC dut1h!,·•r 1i"1 OK ,n)d l)<oiui1wu OH: \\ i1h , u1h vr 1,,x.. , h t·t rraoritr
\'ah ,·• ( l(\ l!lhi.lll(t ~ !-D<: .111,.! fl'w: l'f;uritp
Countl'r, l ·p·<•·,untt·r ,tnd

d 11,1hlr -,o k·nrn,! \·.\k_.
t ip -,uum,·r .ind
. l'r11t=r,un d ,-ml'ru, 1n up •n >\.U\hn.~
t,
,!, ,u:ri .,.,~l•n It·r ,n,•ufll .\l 1, J d ,,wr1-, ,,,1r:tt·t 1, •k'<.( f l(,)I ) .111tl J .,wn.,,;unt, nt= fll<Xf_.i
~l'l'('il Hlell f" ! IPmouuc it.illy, IIMll.t.: 110,\
«,ll(l\>I ,-.,h ·,-,
Pm•11111.1ti<.1II:·, 1N11.~ 1!0 \\
« mtlol ~·.1hn
P1wm11.11 i,.1n,.. u,i11i.: 1!,1w \OHi 1,,1
,·.1h, '
Table .<\6-2 Some examples of pure pneumatic controls

,11r,,.,,,
Gr4bK_,.,;..,.--~
PIM ,-,,_,,,K<OlllrOII ,. ;,,,,.._ '"',-..-n<,.,.,.
P,1wt·r n u •,! 111111 ( .<,mprt<'-w-
CueHml n wdium ( '.o ffl l l h' ' Wt l air I>-
~- i' ~
.,, -
A<fll:Uillf!
Crlindt•(S.. w 1.1ty ,l('( U.lt<JI"
d t·m l·n ts I
i:i11.1I <ontrol P1wm1),1: i<.111}· .u 1u.111•d 1lin•1 1ion:11

t• l( ' l l !l'll( <Ol1(rol <DC >,·:1h r ,
l lo,i.;,c , ..)h't'"· I ,n-w-dd ,)y \',th·i·:,..

[d}~
:-in,t.;
~1;:11.1I I'm< r ,;,ini-!
~•INll('llt'
1•rt·:-S-urr :-r ..11ll.· 1\(t •
,._,iH''• \.'(L
~ - .... -~ ... ..... .. ..
'.
~O •~p•· , .1h·,·
l't·rmn,; r nrr~r flo w
r'(,~ilioll
in 1lw nvrm.11
-~
~
lnh1htt, t·,wt.:-=~ liuw in dw nornu i
~(, 1 n\\· qlw po, i1io11
l.t:.~ •t· d l·n-~:m~ ~h u ; 1h· , ._\Iv(• and 1wo-pn·v,urv \\\ h '(•

a -B-
T1nwN
~o f\C: .q pn ,n,,11.'1 :t)' .mt!
1,tt.,!1•1:tr p11,-1m1.11i1 1i11wr,
, ·-- ·-·~
~
.. . .. . . . .. . .,_
-.
.. .., 1·....' B.• '.
P1wm1),1! ic l.1c, h ' '
)km,,ry drnwni,
i S 2-l)C,luuhk• r1 l, i,:; \\ 1h·<;I ..[X)lft
C11un1,·t,
::>1,1:r\6-3 Some examples of electro-pneumatic controls

p,,,_ E/ftt,._,_,,_,,ir """'°"
<;,.po;, ,,,._,.,;.,,,
ri,r•ils -,to,./ 10
-1--
iafS,i••' tb,
p,,,,_.,,irf•11ttHIII
l'<.1\ \ 1,.·r 1\Wd iurn C:um pn·•❖1.·,! air [>-
C•m1rol mt«.lium l?k•<:trin1r u <..::DQ

e- A.._, -
@-
,\,tu,ltu\;.: drmrm~ Crl am!,·r-.. ro1.uy ,K IU,\lOh ~f~,
• I ~
1:in:11 ( 11111r11I
••l,·n w1,1
Sul1•n111ol ,01wr:11,,,I ,lin•t I um.el
1om ro l (IX :) , ·.1h·1•, 4 4
~1~n;il r r1.l(.' t"':-11\1.;
1,: knwni,
l ' i-11\t.; rd ;1p. 1inwr<:. t(~l1Hd:- .
p rt4'~\lf1,: ;.w ,t(hr,. <·H .. ?+( 9~ (
~
l11h1hit- ,•m•r:-: ~ 1l11w in 1lw
1, ·o 1(1*'1,ld
uornul l" '' i' iou
;,,:(: H,llC.1( I
l'1·rm it<- 1.:1w r>;r !low 1n dw norn,.d
!-0511 !Ofl
-r
r -r,
~\'tl1', :in.I p.u;1lll'I 101\m'i. 1io:i.. o l
i ,OJ.;lt 1~1r\ 'l ll l~
1.ont r.il «,11¢:1<1:. AND~ 0~
On-dd ,tr ,inti .,ff.dd .ir dr(mt ,d I I I

' f'iuwh
rk'<.tff11 11,,: 1mwr.. ¢+·( 9 \l
•
El,-c tri( .11 I.th h ( l)o m in.rnf 0~ 0.S ,UK
i--h>mon· d , nwui, .ind d11min.m1 cw1:, i1< ui1, J,
, 2.1x :(!oi,hl1•.,,ol1•1111i1I , ·:il\ 1' Off ~
K_ Electt.C;)'!;)::h
~
.
Al RI
l ·p ,<ou ntt·r .md ,!own•( 11111U1•t
( OlUl((;N
, d t'\'t rif,tiJ ~ _;-~ I
Sp~;~_•,! ( to!H fu l 1'1it'Unl ,U i t ,1lif

ffl
Table .>\6 -4 Some examples of PLC-based controls
G,4/Jit ,,,,,_,~,_, ,f,_,,..,.,s1,,.,,,,,,_
p_,....,,, PLC-NM/ -..I, ..,_,._,,_,,,,,.~itf•11t1•
P,,wn m<x!um, c..mpa·,,nl ,IU [>-
1:1,'( 1(1( ur (,·,,h.1}w ( mr..rl! ((»l!l'O!J e- -

0 - """
C,,mml m,, lmm
,,, , 1.,,,,111);: o:- fo:-t1wnt,

Cyl, n.!~· r<.
n1<,!""· ,:-(~.
,,.1.,ry .,011.) tor--. l.imr,.
~ ' ~ 4' ®
.=m,11 <•:>:Hml dt•11w111
<'v!n,11:d ''!'<'l ,l!l'I.I .l1rn uuf1,1I , 111111111
<D< ; , .,hr, ~ ¾ 4
S1),:11.il 1•ro,;.,:-,, 11),: d o:-: no:-m,
l ·,,n~ prn1:r.,m rlr m,:-m, !•>f '"t:".
tu))r·dd,,y. ,u1,1 n11i-,i,: .,nJ ,>(hrt
01, ,.,c,on,
miJ = H" ,,Soe.•···s" H~
I 2 J .: S9na i:<~f'?
.'1,,111, fo1 ·r ..,.i.:11,11 '1,\( (' (() .,11..w :>t a«·ts.s

N o rn ►.i: r.uu ,,!,•ui,;-m
i'l'•II H !\11w lf
~, .,11, 1<,r ••f , ip·,.,I "-l.\l<' to .,Jt,.w tir. ,W'(:f,,S
NC p1,1,:,.1m do:-m\'nt
!" •"('I l\liw Vi
,. 12 11
.~:,,.., .m,! p,1r.11!,·I <r,un,·, irnt} ,if ., o
~~
I t►;:u , ,p,•t,)I ,,,n~ <rr••~r..tmJ .in,! , ·c. r r..1:r.em d \•ni<;nh -l H I-
l1mer aildte'S.&
Ooce'ay !Nr
Pm.~r.un , !,•nwm , 1n m,.,I, t. y, Swr1 Lt~.✓• 0; ~
' I 1111, , ,. •r n •.i:.r.• m \•I, mt n<••
oll.<!t•l.er, .111,I "dwr m,,J,,..
_,tme
_j Ot-;.11
- 1,'&"10(\• ~fo:$S
M\•JJ)<~~ dnu,..m,
S,111:1~ ,mtl H'W(l111.i: 111, 11~1,(mn, -{sh &:1 R(M(
<1111•_:.:r.1.m d (<nw111, ~
\, 1111 , ,,1!, oi l" •X••'-1;,,.,,t p no,1,ty .m,I
to· w l ptmru\· I
-{•}-1
-
-
5'< 0 Jt:M
Reset
-
C.Ounter » j•.;$$ Ccv.:,e,- aoor~s
-- s,, "Y (Ol.f'IWJ VO",.l'i c:>'Jllter

Cet..rt-v~ O.itpu!--- - Co,m1,oo,,..._
Out;ll,! -
l ·J'·• "l1m,n;: .,n.! .!hWfl<-< u11n11 n;:
C,,,intt.·r.. (rru~r.e_m d~·•" r,,:,1
1•r,,,:t,,,)l rk,un11,;
-- Ptcse1 vav:
- S.!t
-- RtW.
~ • ,a~ J1t
R;; tw;!
Sr« <l \< >c'! l (ul P1wl•m.1t1t.,1ll:,

ffl
Note: In case ofPLC-based controls, additional software instructions such as
comparison.functions, arithmetic.functions, etc. are also available.
Appendix 7
Designation of Pneumatic System Components by Alphabets

A method for designating the pneumatic system components using the number system
was explained in Section 5.23. Another method of designating pneumatic components
using letters is also gaining popularity. In this method, the entire system components
are categorised into four groups: actuators, control valves, input elements and power
supply units. These groups are represent ed by alphabets A, V, S, and Z, respectively.
Table A7--1 presents the examples of designation of components in group. Figure A:z-1
illustrates the method of marking of components "ith alphabets for easy understanding.
Table -~-1 Designation of pneumatic system components by alphabets

afcmnparum1s E:mmpli
enmatic actuators 1A, 2A, etc.
ntrol components (in~lncting 6nal control elements, processing 1Vi, 1V2, 2Vi, 2V2,
ts, speed control elements) 3V1, etc.
put elements (mcluding limit switches) 151, 152, 2S1, 282,
etc.
oZ oZ2= etc.
IA 1$)
l\12 l
r--'°iI
1V 1 I
I 1
IS 1 1S2 1S3
oz
C:- > - - - - - - - - --'
FigureA7-1 illustration of designation of pneumatic S)~tem components by alphabets.
Bibliography
1.Ackermann et al., Programmable logic controllers - Advanced level, Festa

Didactic KG, 1991.
2.American society of tool and manufacturing engineers, r.fichigan, Pneumatic
controls for industrial applications, 1965.
3.Andrew Parr, Hydraulic & pneumatics - A technician's and engineer's guide,
2nd Edition, Butterworth, Heinemann, 1998.
4.Anthony Esposito, Fluid power with applications, 6th Edition, Prentice-Hall of
India, 2003.
5.B. Nedumaran, Industrial safety and risk management, October, 2004.
6.D. Halliday et al., Fundamentals of physics, 6th Edition, John '\-Viley & Sons,
Inc., 2004.
7.D. G. Newton, Fluid power for technicians, Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey,
1971.
8.H. Klinger, Fundamentals of control technology, Festa Didactic, 1988.
9.F. Ebel and S. Nestel, Sensors for handling and processing technology, Festa
Didactic, 1992.
10.Filer and Leinonen, Programmable controllers and designing sequential logic,
Saunders College Publishing, 1992.
11.Fluid power 1 - Instructor's guide, Training Department, Power and Controls
Group, Parker - Hannifin Corporation, Ohio, 1974.
12.Fluid processing essentials in industrial pneumatics, Shavo ::-.orgren (I) Pvt.
Ltd., Bombay, 1970.
13.H. ]\feixner and R. Kobler, 1'faintenance ofpneumatic equipment and systems,
1st Edition, Festo Didactic, 1977.
14.H. l\leixner and E. Sauer, Introduction to electro-pneumatics, Festo Didactic,
1984.
15.H. :Meixner and R. Kobler, Introduction to pneumatics, 2nd Edition, Festo
Didactic, 1977.
16.H. V. Verbruggen, Pneumatics, " ·ww.pneu matica.be.
17.H. Berger, .4utomation with STEP 7 in LAD and FBD - Programmable
controllers Slll:IATTC 57 - 300/400, SIE:\IENS AG, 1998.
18.H. L. Stewart, .4udel's practical guide to fluid power, D B Taraporevala Sons &
Co Pvt. Ltd, Bombay, India.
19.H. L. Stewart, Hydraulic and pneumatic power for production, 3rd Edition,
Industrial Press Inc., :'<ew York, 1970.
20.Hesse, 99 Examples of pneumatic applications, Blue Digest for Automation,
Festo, 2001.
21.Hesse, Grippers and their applications, Blue Digest for Automation, Festo AG
&Co, 1998.
22.Hesse, Rationalisation with handling technology, Blue Digest for Automation,
Festo AG, 1999.
23.H. Jack, .4utomating 1'\<Ianufacturing Systems with PLCs, 1993-2005, Free
Software Foundation, Inc.
24.Ian C. Turner, Fluid power systems, Arnold/Hodder Headline PLC, London,
1996.
25.Industrial pneumatics, Course material, l\HT, ]\fanipal.
26.J. P. Hasebrink and R. Kobler, Fundamentals of pneumatic control
engineering, 3rd Edition, Festo Didactic, 1989.
27.J. R. Hackworth and F. D. Hackworth, Jr., Programmable logic controllers -
Programming methods and applications, Pearson Education, Prentice Hall.
28.K. J. Hulton-Smith, Pneumatics - Book 1, Practical training manual, Sl\lC
Pneumatics, 1983.
29.K Stoll, From the first applications of compressed air and its subsequent
utilisation to the technical systems of today, Festa AG & Co., Esslingen,
1997.
30.N. Rao, ~fanual on low cost automation and innovative pneumatics for
productivity excellence, 2007.
31.)Ianuals for construction set - BP-1/ 8-I & BP-1/ 8-II and BP-l\'15-I, BP-l\'15-II &
BP-1:15-III, Festa Didactic.
32.Pneumatic actuators, Course material, Norgren.
33.P. Croser and J. Thomson, Electro-pneumatics - Basic level, Festa Didactic,
1991.
34.P. Croser and F. Ebel, Pneumatics - Basic level, Festa Didactic, 2000.
35.Pneumatic tips, Festa Elgi Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore.
36.Pneumatics - 2000, Norgren product catalogue.
37.Programming and applications of A.lien Bradley PLCs, Course material of
Apex High-Tech Institute, Bangalore.
38.R. Bliesener et al., Programmable logic controllers - Basic level, Festa
Didactic KG, 1995.
39.R. L. )Iclnt}Te and R. Losse, Industrial motor control fundamentals, 4th
Edition, l\'icGraw-Hill Book Co., 1991.
40.S. R. )Iajumdar, Pneumatic systems-principles and maintenance, 15th
reprint, Tata )IcGraw Hill, 2006.
41.SIEl\'IEI\'S SI)IATIC, 57- 1-Vorking with STEP 7 V5.o Getting Started,
SIEl\IE::-;S AG, 1998.
42.SIE1:IENS SI)IATIC, 57 - Programmable Controller - Quick Start - Primer,
SIEl\'IENS AG, 1996.
43.SIE1:IENS SIM.ATIC, 57 - Statement List (STL) for 57 - 300 and 57 - 400
Programming, Reference ],fanual, SIEl\IE::-;s AG, 1998.
44.SIEJ',:!ENS SIJ',1..>,.TIC, System Software for 57 - 300 and 57 - 400 Program
Design, Programming 1'\,!anual, SIEl\'IENS AG, 1996.
45.S. Hesse, The fluidic muscle in applications, Blue Digest on Automation, Festa
Didactic, 2003.
46.S. S. Rao, Switchgear and protection, Khanna Publishers, 1990.
47.The FPC 400 series FPC 403/FPC 404 programmable controller, System
description, Festa Electronic.
48.T. B. Hardison, Fluid mechanics for technicians, Reston Publishing Company,
Virginia, 1977.
49.Principles ofpneumatics, Trade & Technical Press Ltd., Surrey, 1978.
50.,V. Deppert and K. Stoll, Pneumatics in packaging, Vogel-Buchverlag, 1983.
51.\V. D. \Volansky et al., Fundamentals of fluid power, Houghton lYiifflin
Company, Boston, 1977.
52.The follo"ing power point presentations from IJ!,,fl Norgren website:
Actuat97.ppt, .4irlin97.ppt, Bcirct97.ppt, EngyHE01.ppt, Facthy97.ppt,
FaultF97.ppt, GuideS97.ppt, SwtSen97.ppt, Symb_97.ppt, Valves97.ppt
53.11atter on 'Dew point J!,,feasurement in Compressed Air Systems', written by
Liisa .'\strom, Vaisala Helsinki, Finland.
54.lYiatter on 'Energy sa,ing ideas' by Janine Sherringham retrieved from website.
55.:!,Iatter on 'fluid power info and tips' by Indiana Fluid power retrieved from
website.
56.lYiatter on 'Heatless compressed air dryer' and 'refrigerated air dryer' by
lYiellcon Engineers Pvt. Ltd. retrieved from website.
57.J!,,fatter on 'low pressure air drying' by Air products and chemicals Inc. retrieved
from website.
58.)Iatter on 'Refrigerated compressed air dryers' by ZEKS compressed air
solutions retrieved from website.
59.lYiatter on 'The Adsorption Dryer Process' \\Titten by Donald \',,'hite and Bill
\Veber, Donaldson Company Inc. as part of CAGI Technical Article Program
(TAP).
60.J!,,fatter on Relays retrieved from "http_;_/J.en.wikipedia.orgJ.wiki/.Relay_"
61.11atter on Ultrasonic leak detection retrieved from UE systems website
"http:J/_www.ueg,stems.com»

Pneumatic Controls

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pneumatic Controls

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pneumatic Controls

\"1ilc-y lndia Pvt. Ltd.

Copyright@ 20 08 by \ Viley India P\t. Ud , 4435/7, Amari Road~Daryaganj~ Ne\.,. Delhi-110002.

First Indian Edition: 2008

ISBN: 978-81-265-8004-o (ebk)

Pneumatic Controls is an introductoiy textbook designed to provide basic t echnical

1 Industrial Prime J.\,lovers

3 Com11ressed Air Generation and Contamination Control

5 Pn eumatic Valves and Control Circuits

8 Interfacing ,~ith PLC

Ap.J!endix 1 GraP.h ical Symb ols for Pneumatic Components as

• Specify the basic components of industrial power systems.

T he history of ci,ilisation is filled "ith many examples of how to exploit different

!I Powe, sowc• I !► Co11001sys:.m 1 - - -~ Pnni• mo,e, ~► Load

Figure 1-1Basiccomponents of apowersystem.

~ Power System Functions

fj.:3 Control System Functions

~~41 Mechanisation and Automation

.5 Electrical Po,ver System

Figure 1-2 Basic elements of an electrical power system.

g Fluid Po,ver System

•'Z Hydraulic Po,,,er System

fj.~a Pneumatic Po,ver System

Power source Actuator

Figure 1-3 Basic elements of a hydraulic system.

Figure 1-4 Basic elements of a pneumatic system.

b q Selection of Energy Media

it:10 Comparison of Different

:l•Y Overall Power System

Table 1-1Comparison of different energy systems

hydraulic po,ver system, and (3) pneumatic po"·er system.

18. Name some important basic functions performed by a fluid po,ver

• Define the term pneumatics.

,2.:11 Pneumatics - Definition

Air Power sou rce Actuator

Figure ~·1.\ simplified pneumatics;~tem.

~~Ci Revie,\' of Mechanics

Table 2 - 2 SI units of some basic and derived quantities

Table 2-3 Units in SI system

Kilognun (kg) Newcon (N) Newton (N )

P(kW)=T (Nm)x £u(rad/s) / 1000 = T (Nm)x 2r.n(rps) / 1000

~'n Pascal's Law

1kgf/cm2 = 0.981 bar

Pounds per square inch (psi)

1bar = 14.5 psi

Physical atmosphere (atm)

1atm = 1.013 bar

• at (technical atmosphere); absolute pressure in the technical system of

• compressors to be relatively simple and cheaper,

2:"to Pressure Scales

Absolute pressure - bar(g)

0 bar(a) '---''------'------------'!__ Absolute reference line

It is important to understand the three variables of pressure, volume and temperature,

a,12 Boyle's La,,.

2:-!3 Gay-Lussac's La,,.

;:i:-1~ Charles' La,v

P2 = (7 -1) bar = 6 bar(g)

g.1ij Air Compression Process

In isothermal process of compression, the value of n is 1. In adiabatic process of

2:"t~ Free Air and N onnal Air

;z-;:1cj Fluid Velocity

2 :2 '11 Absolute Humidity and

Absolute hu m idity . ) &.

g.22 Quality of Compressed Air