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Seeley’s
ESSENTIALS OF
Anatomy &
Physiology Chapter 3
Tenth Edition

Cinnamon Vanputte
Cell Structures and Their
Jennifer Regan Functions
Andrew Russo

See separate PowerPoint slides for all figures and tables

Lecture Outline
pre-inserted into PowerPoint without notes.

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Cell Structure Generalized Cell 1

Organelles:
• specialized structures in cells that perform
• specific functions
• Example: nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes
Cytoplasm:
• jelly-like substance that holds organelles
Cell membrane:
• also termed the plasma membrane
• a structure that encloses the cytoplasm
Figure 3.1
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Functions of the Cell Cell Membrane

Smallest units of life The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is the
outermost component of a cell.
Cell metabolism and energy use
It forms a boundary between material in inside
Synthesis of molecules
the cell and the outside.
Communication
Materials inside the cell are intracellular and
Reproduction and inheritance those outside are extracellular.
It acts as a selective barrier.

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1

Cell Membrane Structure
The fluid-mosaic model is the model used to
describe the cell membrane structure.
The membrane contains phospholipids,
cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates.
Phospholipids form a bilayer.
Phospholipids contain 2 regions: polar and
nonpolar.
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The Cell Membrane
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Cell Membrane Passage
Some substances, like O2 and CO2, can pass
directly through the cell membrane’s
phospholipid bilayer.
Some substances must pass through
transmembrane protein channels, such as Na+
through its channels.
The route of transport through the membrane
depends on the size, shape, and charge of the
substance.
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Phospholipid Structure
A phospholipid molecule has a polar head
region that is hydrophilic and a nonpolar tail
region that is hydrophobic.
The polar region is exposed to water around the
membrane.
The nonpolar region is facing the interior of the
membrane.
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Movement through the Cell Membrane
The cell membrane has selective permeability,
which allows only certain substances to pass in
and out of the cell.
Substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and
potassium are found in higher concentrations
inside the cell.
Substances such as sodium, calcium, and
chloride are found in higher concentrations
outside the cell.
Figure 3.2a
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1 Cell Membrane Passage 2
Some substances require carrier molecules to
transport them across the cell membrane, such
as glucose.
Some substances require a vesicular transport
across the membrane.
The vesicle must fuse with the cell membrane
for transport.
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Active Transport and Passive Transport 1 Active Transport and Passive Transport 2

Passive membrane transport does not require
the cell to expend energy.
Active membrane transport does require the
cell to expend energy, usually in the form of ATP.
Passive membrane transport mechanisms
include diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated
diffusion.
Active membrane transport mechanisms include
active transport, secondary active transport,
endocytosis, and exocytosis.

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Diffusion 1 Concentration Gradient

Diffusion generally involves movement of substances in
a solution down a concentration gradient.
A solution is generally composed of two major parts,
solutes and the solvent.
Solutes are substances dissolved in a predominant
liquid or gas, which is called the solvent.
Solutes, such as ions or molecules, tend to move from
an area of higher concentration of a solute to an area
of lower concentration of that same solute in solution.
This movement from high concentration to a low
concentration is diffusion.
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A concentration gradient is the difference in the
concentration of a solute in a solvent between
two points divided by the distance between the
two points.
The concentration gradient is said to be steeper
when the concentration difference is large
and/or the distance is small.
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Diffusion 2 Leak and Gated Channels 1

Lipid soluble substances can diffuse directly

through the phospholipid bilayer.
Water-soluble substances, such as ions, can
diffuse across the cell membrane only by
passing through cell membrane channels.

Figure 3.3
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Leak and Gated Channels 2 Diffusion through the Cell Membrane

Two classes of cell membrane channels include
leak channels and gated channels.
Leak channels constantly allow ions to pass
through.
Gated channels limit the movement of ions
across the membrane by opening and closing.

Figure 3.4
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Leak and Gated Membrane Channels Osmosis 1

Osmosis is the diffusion of water (a solvent)

across a selectively permeable membrane from
a region of higher water concentration to one of
lower water concentration.
Osmosis exerts a pressure, termed osmotic
pressure, which is the force required to prevent
movement of water across cell membrane

Figure 3.5
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Osmotic Pressure and the Cell Hypotonic

Osmotic pressure depends on the difference of
solution concentrations inside a cell relative to
outside the cell.
A cell may be placed in solutions that are either
hypotonic, isotonic, or hypertonic compared to
the cell cytoplasm.
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A hypotonic solution has a lower concentration
of solutes and a higher concentration of water
relative to the cytoplasm of the cell.
The solution has less tone, or osmotic pressure,
than the cell.
Water moves by osmosis into the cell, causing it
to swell.
If the cell swells enough, it can rupture, a
process called lysis.
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Isotonic
A cell immersed in an isotonic solution has the
same solute concentrations inside and outside
the cell.
The cell will neither shrink nor swell.
Hypertonic
The cytoplasm of a cell in a hypertonic solution
has a lower solute concentration and higher
water concentration than the surrounding
solution.
Water moves by osmosis from the cell into the
hypertonic solution, resulting in cell shrinkage,
or crenation.

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Red Blood Cell Changes in Differing
Osmosis 2
Solutions

Figure 3.7
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Carrier-Mediated Transport 1 Carrier-Mediated Transport 2

Some water-soluble, electrically charged or Carrier-mediated transport mechanisms include

large sized particles cannot enter or leave facilitated diffusion and Active transport.
through the cell membrane by diffusion.
Facilitated diffusion does not require ATP for
These substances include amino acids, glucose, energy.
and some polar molecules produced by the cell.
Active transport does require ATP for transport.
Carrier molecules are proteins within the cell
membrane involved in carrier-mediated
transport.

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Facilitated Diffusion 1 Facilitated Diffusion 2

Facilitated diffusion is a carrier-mediated

transport process that moves substances across
the cell membrane from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration
of that substance.
Because movement is with the concentration
gradient, metabolic energy in the form of ATP is
not required.

Figure 3.8
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Active Transport Sodium-Potassium Pump 1

Active transport is a carrier-mediated process, A major example of active transport is the action
requiring ATP, that moves substances across the of the sodium-potassium pump present in cell
cell membrane from regions of lower membranes.
concentration to those of higher concentration
The sodium-potassium pump moves Na+ out of
against a concentration gradient.
cells and K+ into cells.
Active transport processes accumulate
The result is a higher concentration of Na+
necessary substances on one side of the cell
outside cells and a higher concentration of K+
membrane at concentrations many times
inside cells.
greater than those on the other side.

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Sodium-Potassium Pump 2 Secondary Active Transport 1

Secondary active transport uses the energy

provided by a concentration gradient
established by the active transport of one
substance, such as Na+ to transport other
substances.
No additional energy is required above the
energy provided by the initial active transport
pump.

Figure 3.9
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Secondary Active Transport 2 Secondary Active Transport 3

In cotransport, the diffusing substance moves in

the same direction as the initial active
transported substance.
In countertransport, the diffusing substance
moves in a direction opposite to that of the
initial active transported substance.

Figure 3.10
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Endocytosis Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

Endocytosis is a process that that brings
materials into cell using vesicles.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs when a
specific substance binds to the receptor
molecule and is transported into the cell.
Phagocytosis is often used for endocytosis when
solid particles are ingested.
Pinocytosis has much smaller vesicles formed,
and they contain liquid rather than solid
particles. Figure 3.11
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Exocytosis 1 Exocytosis 2

Exocytosis involves the use of membrane-bound

sacs called secretory vesicles that accumulate
materials for release from the cell.
The vesicles move to the cell membrane and
fuse, ultimately releasing the material by
exocytosis.
Examples of exocytosis are the secretion of
digestive enzymes.

Figure 3.12
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General Cell Structure Generalized Cell 2

The interior of a cell is composed of the cytoplasm,

which a jelly-like fluid that surrounds the
organelles.
Organelles are specialized structures that perform
certain functions.
Organelles include the nucleus, ribosomes,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes,
peroxisomes, mitochondria, cytoskeleton,
centrioles, cilia, flagella, and microvilli.
Figure 3.1
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Cell Nucleus 1 Cell Nucleus 2

The nucleus is a large organelle usually located
near the center of the cell.
The nucleus is bounded by a nuclear envelope,
which consists of outer and inner membranes
with a narrow space between them.
The nuclear membrane contains nuclear pores,
through which materials can pass into or out of
the nucleus.
The nuclei of human cells contain 23 pairs of
chromosomes which consist of DNA and
proteins.
During most of a cell’s life, the chromosomes are
loosely coiled and collectively called chromatin.
When a cell prepares to divide, the
chromosomes become tightly coiled and are
visible when viewed with a microscope.

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Cell Nucleus 3 Cell Nucleus 4

Within the nucleus are Nucleoli, which are diffuse

bodies with no surrounding membrane. that are
found within the nucleus
There are usually one to several nucleoli within the
nucleus.
The subunits of ribosomes, a type of cytoplasmic
organelle, are formed within a nucleolus.
These ribosomal components exit the nucleus
through nuclear pores.
Figure 3.13
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Chromosome Structure Ribosomes

Ribosome components are produced in the
nucleolus.
Ribosomes are the organelles where proteins
are produced.
Ribosomes may be attached to other organelles,
such as the endoplasmic reticulum.
Ribosomes that are not attached to any other
organelle are called free ribosomes.
Figure 3.14
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Ribosome Production Endoplasmic Reticulum 1

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of

membranes forming sacs and tubules that
extends from the outer nuclear membrane into
the cytoplasm.
The rough ER is involved in protein synthesis
and is rough due to attached ribosomes.
The smooth ER has no attached ribosomes and
is a site for lipid synthesis, cellular detoxification,
and it stores calcium ions in skeletal muscle
Figure 3.15 cells.
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Endoplasmic Reticulum 2 Golgi Apparatus 1

The Golgi apparatus, also called the Golgi

complex, consists of closely packed stacks of
curved, membrane-bound sacs.
It collects, modifies, packages, and distributes
proteins and lipids manufactured by the ER.
The Golgi apparatus forms vesicles, some of
which are secretory vesicles, lysosomes, and
other vesicles.

Figure 3.16a
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Golgi Apparatus 2 Lysosomes

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Figure 3.13
(b) ©Biophoto Associates/Science Source
Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles
formed from the Golgi apparatus.
They contain a variety of enzymes that function
as intracellular digestive systems.
Vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse with
lysosomes in order to breakdown materials in
the endocytotic vesicles.
One example is white blood cells phagocytizing
bacteria.
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Lysosome Action Peroxisomes

Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound
vesicles containing enzymes that break down
fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2).
Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty acid
and amino acid breakdown and can be toxic to a
cell.
The enzymes in peroxisomes break down
hydrogen.
Figure 3.18
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Mitochondria 1 Mitochondria 2

Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion) are small The material within the inner membrane is the
organelles responsible for producing considerable mitochondrial matrix and contains enzymes and
amounts of ATP by aerobic (with O 2) metabolism. mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA).
They have inner and outer membranes separated Cells with a large energy requirement have more
by a space. mitochondria than cells that require less energy.
The outer membranes have a smooth contour, but
the inner membranes have numerous folds, called
cristae, which project into the interior of the
mitochondria.

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A Mitochondrion The Cytoskeleton 2

The cytoskeleton gives internal framework to the

cell.
It consists of protein structures that support the
cell, hold organelles in place, and enable the cell
to change shape.
These protein structures are microtubules,
microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.

Figure 3.19
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Microtubules Microfilaments
Microtubules are hollow structures formed from Microfilaments are small fibrils formed from
protein subunits. protein subunits that structurally support the
cytoplasm, determining cell shape.
The microtubules perform a variety of roles,
including helping to support the cytoplasm of Some microfilaments are involved with cell
cells, assisting in cell division, and forming movement.
essential components of certain organelles, such
Microfilaments in muscle cells enable the cells to
as cilia and flagella.
shorten, or contract.

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Intermediate Filaments The Cytoskeleton 1

Intermediate filaments are fibrils formed from

protein subunits that are smaller in diameter than
microtubules but larger in diameter than
microfilaments.
They provide mechanical support to the cell.
A specific type of intermediate filament is keratin,
a protein associated with skin cells.

Figure 3.20
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Centrioles Centriole
The centrosome is a specialized area of
cytoplasm close to the nucleus where
microtubule formation occurs.
It contains two centrioles, which are normally
oriented perpendicular to each other.
Each centriole is a small, cylindrical organelle
composed of microtubules.
The centriole is involved in the process of
mitosis.
Figure 3.21
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Cilia Flagella
Cilia project from the surface of certain cells. Flagella have a structure similar to that of cilia
but are much longer, and they usually occur only
They are responsible for the movement of
one per cell.
materials over the top of cells, such as mucus.
Sperm cells each have one flagellum, which
Cilia are cylindrical structures that extend from
propels the sperm cell.
the cell and are composed of microtubules.

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Microvilli Whole Cell Activity

Microvilli are specialized extensions of the cell
membrane that are supported by microfilaments.
They do not actively move as cilia and flagella do.
Microvilli are numerous on cells that have them and
they increase the surface area of those cells.
They are abundant on the surface of cells that line
the intestine, kidney, and other areas in which
absorption is an important function.
A cell’s characteristics are determine by the type
of proteins produced.
The proteins produced are in turn determined
by the genetic information in the nucleus.
Information in DNA provides the cell with a code
for its cellular processes.

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DNA 1 DNA 2

DNA contains the information that directs
protein synthesis; a process called gene
expression.
A DNA molecule consists of nucleotides joined
together to form two nucleotide strands.
The two strands are connected and resemble a
ladder that is twisted around its long axis.
Each nucleotide consists of a 5-carbon sugar, a
phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
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Each nucleotide on one DNA strand has a specific
bonding pattern to another nucleotide on the
opposite strand.
A gene is a sequence of nucleotides that
provides a chemical set of instructions for
making a specific protein.
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Gene Expression Transcription 1

Gene expression, which is protein synthesis,
involves transcription and translation.
Transcription involves copying DNA into
messenger RNA.
Translation involves messenger RNA being used
to produce a protein.
Transcription takes place in the nucleus of the
cell.
DNA determines the structure of mRNA through
transcription.
During transcription, the double strands of a
DNA segment separate, and DNA nucleotides of
the gene pair with RNA nucleotides that form the
mRNA.

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Transcription 2 Transcription 3

DNA contains one of the following organic bases:
thymine, adenine, cytosine, or guanine.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) contains uracil, adenine,
cytosine, or guanine.
DNA nucleotides pair only with specific RNA
nucleotides.
DNA’s thymine pairs with RNA’s adenine.
DNA’s adenine pairs with RNA’s uracil.
DNA’s cytosine pairs with RNA’s guanine
DNA’s guanine pairs with RNA’s cytosine.

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Transcription 4 Translation 1

Translation occurs in the cell cytoplasm after

mRNA has exited the nucleus through the
nuclear pores.
The mRNA attaches to a ribosome.
Codons (3 nucleotide bases) on the mRNA are
read by anticodons (3 nucleotide bases) on
transfer RNA (tRNA).

Figure 3.23
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Translation of mRNA in Protein
Translation 2
Synthesis
Transfer RNA transports specific amino acids
from the cytoplasm to the ribosome-mRNA
complex and initiates formation of the
polypeptide chain.
The process continues until the entire
polypeptide is completely formed.

Figure 3.24
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Overview of Gene Expression The Cell Cycle 1

During growth and development, cell division

occurs to increase the number of cells or replace
damaged or dying ones.
This cell division involves a cell cycle.
The cell cycle includes two major phases: a
nondividing phase, called interphase, and a cell
dividing phase, termed mitosis.

Figure 3.22
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The Cell Cycle 2 The Cell Cycle 3

A cell spends most of its life cycle in interphase
performing its normal functions.
During interphase, the DNA (located in
chromosomes in the cell’s nucleus) is replicated.
The two strands of DNA separate from each
other, and each strand serves as a template for
the production of a new strand of DNA.
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Nucleotides in the DNA of each template strand
pair with new nucleotides that are subsequently
joined by enzymes to form a new strand of DNA.
The sequence of nucleotides in the DNA
template determines the sequence of
nucleotides in the new strand of DNA.
Replication of DNA gives two identical
chromatids joined at a centromere; both form
one chromosome.
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DNA Replication Cell Genetic Content

Each human cell (except sperm and egg)
contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, a total of 46.
The sperm and egg contain 23 chromosomes
total.
One pair of chromosomes are the sex
chromosomes, which consist of two X
chromosomes if the person is a female or an X
and Y chromosome if the person is a male.

Figure 3.25
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Mitosis Prophase
Mitosis involves formation of 2 daughter cells During prophase the chromatin condenses to
from a single parent cell. form visible chromosomes.
Mitosis is divided into four phases: prophase, Microtubules, termed spindle fibers, form to
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. assist in breaking the centromere between the
chromatids and move the chromosomes to
opposite sides of the cell.
The nuclear membrane dissolves.

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Metaphase Anaphase
During metaphase, the chromosomes align near At the beginning of anaphase, the chromatids
the center of the cell. separate and each chromatid is called a
chromosome.
The movement of the chromosomes is regulated
by the attached spindle fibers. Each of the two sets of 46 chromosomes is
moved by the spindle fibers toward the centriole
at one of the poles of the cell.
At the end of anaphase, each set of
chromosomes has reached an opposite pole of
the cell, and the cytoplasm begins to divide.
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Telophase The Cell Cycle

During telophase, the chromosomes in each of the
daughter cells become organized to form two
separate nuclei, one in each newly formed daughter
cell.
The chromosomes begin to unravel and resemble
the genetic material during interphase.
Following telophase, cytoplasm division is
completed, and two separate daughter cells are
produced.
Figure 3.26
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Differentiation Diversity of Cell Types

A sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a
single cell, then a great number of mitotic
divisions occur to give the trillions of cells of the
body.
The process by which cells develop with
specialized structures and functions is called
differentiation.
During differentiation of a cell, some portions of
DNA are active, but others are inactive.
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Apoptosis Cellular Aspects of Aging

Apoptosis, termed programmed cell death, is a There are various causes for cellular aging.
normal process by which cell numbers within • Existence of a cellular clock
various tissues are adjusted and controlled.
• Presence of death genes
In the developing fetus, apoptosis removes extra
• DNA damage
tissue, such as cells between the developing
fingers and toes. • Formation of free radicals

In some adult tissues, apoptosis eliminates • Mitochondrial damage

excess cells to maintain a constant number of
cells within the tissue.
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Tumors
Tumors are abnormal proliferations of cells.
They are due to problems occurring in the cell
cycle.
Some tumors are benign and some are
malignant (cancer).
Malignant tumors can spread by a process,
termed metastasis.

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