Index
adaptive protection 39, 102
alarms processing 269, 274
expert systems 271-2
fingerprinting approach 273-4
hypothesis approach 275
processing methods 270
rules 273
amplitude comparator 174-5
distance protection 173
asymmetric current 13
asymmetrical fault calculations 23
back-up protection 3, 5, 7, 8-9, 117, 186,
252, 301
blocking characteristic
impedance protection 1984
busbar differential protection 168, 266
cabling lists 268
compensation transformer 154, 156-8,
172, 329
computerised protection
adaptive 39
architectures 40
co-ordination 19, 68, 71, 73, 85~, 88-9,
94, 96-9, 102, 109, 111,113-14,
117, 120-3, 125, 128, 137, 142, 144,
186-7, 219, 225,227, 230, 236-7,
242, 252,286, 292, 305,
fuse-fuse 117
overcurrent relays 86, 88-9, 109
Dy transformers 75, 86
fuses 96
recloser-fuse 117
recloser-recloser 120
electronic 111,120, 122
hydraulic 111,120, 122
recloser-relay 122
recloser-sectionaliser 123
time/current devices 117
coverage 190, 194, 212, 318, 337
instantaneous overcurrent units 68-9
transformer differential protection 152
current transformers 5, 26, 51, 60, 72, 92,
149, 170, 226-7, 265, 285, 289
a.c. saturation 52
accuracy classes 58
burden 53
d.c. saturation 59
equivalent circuit 51 2, 60
errors 52, 72, 150
excitation curve 52-4, 56
flux density 56
installation tests 283
knee point 53-4
magnetisation curve 51, 53-4, 56
saturation density 56
saturation point 53
secondary injection test 53, 285-6
selection 53, 92, 154, 304
tests 58
diagrams
a.c. connections 262, 264-5
d.c. connections 262, 265
logic 262, 268
single line 28, 60, 89, 104, 154, 243,
262-3
substation design 261-8
substation layout 263-4
wiring 262, 266, 285
340 Index
differential protection
busbar 152, 168
high impedance 169-70
multiple restraint 168
compensation transformer 154, 156-7,
172
line 164
operating characteristics 164
percentage biased 150
rotating machines 152, 164
transformer 149, 152
coverage 152
magnetisation inrush 153
sensitivity 153, 155, 162
variable percentage characteristic 150,
152, 168
variable tappings 150
directional earth fault relays 131-2
directional overcurrent relays 127, 137,
141,261
connections 138
instantaneous units 137
co-ordination 137
time delay units 141
pick-up setting 141
time dial setting 146
discrimination margin 71-2, 88, 98-9,
104,235
distance protection 173524
amplitude comparator 174-5
arc resistance, effect 179-80, 182, 193
blocking characteristic 198
directional relay 179
earth fault units 196
effect ofinfeeds 188
effective cover 199 200, 208
generator excitation loss detection 219
impedance relay 179
infeed constant 188-9, 199
intertripping 212
permissive over reach 214
permissive under reach 213
under reach 213
lens characteristics 183
maximum load impedance 200
mho relays 200
polygonal relays 202-3
mho relay 181
polarised 182
reach 185
overlap 186, 188-9, 192, 207, 210
overreach 189,214-15, 217-18
phase angle comparator 176-7
phase units 195
polygonal relay 184, 203
power swing blocking unit 199
power system oscillations 196-7
reactance relay 180
fault resistance 180, 182-3, 193
relay characteristic angle 193,201
residual compensation 194, 207, 222,
336
series compensated lines 214
setting 185
tee circuits 215
under reach 213, 217 18
equivalent impedances 26, 301, 312
excitation curves 52, 56
current transformer 51, 53, 55, 59
fault calculations 11, 16, 23, 28
computer 28
interactive program 28
fault currents 7, 11, 23, 59, 139
asymmetrical values 23
mathematical derivation 24
frequency relays 239
settings 240, 242-3,247, 249
frequency variation 240-1,243,250
fuse-fuse co-ordination 117
fuse-links 115, 118
fuses 109, 114-17
classification 115
maximum clearance time 114
minimum melting time 114, 117-18,
123
nominal current 116, 123
nominal voltage 114, 116
notation 117
speed ratio 115
generator protection schemes 251
impedance protection
blocking characteristic 198-9
impedance relays 168, 179, 252
impedances, equivalent 26
industrial plant 225-6
load shedding 239-50
automatic system 240
industrial system protection 225-37
low voltage breakers 227, 236
motors 226
moulded case circuit breakers 225

overcurrent relays 225~5
thermal relays 226
thermal relay-contactor and fuse 225
inertia constant 239-41
infeed constant
distance protection 188-9
intertripping
distance protection 212, 214
load shedding 239
automatic system 240 2
frequency relays 239
setting 240, 242-3,247, 249
frequency variation 240-1,243,250
modelling parameters 241
voltage variation 242
low voltage breakers 227, 236
maintenance criteria 291
mho relay 181-2, 201
motor
locked rotor current 226, 230
service factor 230
motor protection 252
low voltage breakers 226, 253
thermal relays 226
moulded case circuit breakers 225
negative sequence relays
co-ordination 96
numerical protection 39-42
digital logic 39, 41, 99
logic schemes 100
principles 99
performance tests 293
setting parameters 291
operator 'a' 263
overcurrent relays 63
ANSI/IEEE constants 72, 73
co-ordination requirements 73
minimum short-circuit level 73
pick-up values 75
thermal limits 73
definite current 63
definite time 66
definite time/current 66
IEC constants 72, 73
instantaneous units 67
coverage 68
distribution circuits 68
Index 341
selectivity 6 5 ~ 8 , 72, 88
transformers 63, 67-8, 71, 73
inverse time 66 7, 79
negative-sequence units 96
setting 66
software techniques 98
time/current curves 66
IEC/UK 73-4
IEEE/US 75
typical 74
time delay units 97, 141
co-ordination criteria 117
pick-up setting 141
time dial setting 142
voltage control units 97
periodic maintenance 290
pilot differential protection 164, 166
polygonal relay 183,202
power system oscillations 196, 198
distance protection 193
pre-commissioning tests 185
primary injection test 189
protection
computerised 39
adaptive 39
architectures 42
differential 149-70
busbar 168
distance 173-222
generator 251
industrial systems 225-7
line 261
motor 252
overcurrent 63
selectivity 63
transformer 258
protection equipment 283
installation 283
testing 283
factory 285
pre-commissioning 285
primary injection 289
secondary injection 286
protection zones 5
reactances
synchronous machines 22
recloser-fuse co-ordination 117
recloser-recloser co-ordination 120
recloser-relay co-ordination 122
recloser-sectionaliserco-ordination 123
342 Index

reclosers networks 22-3, 28

co-ordination 117-23
installing 113
operating sequence 111
relay re-set time 122
relay circuit supplies 43
relays
attracted armature 33
co-ordination requirements 73
computerised 33
cup 35
directional overcurrent 127
identification code 252
impedance 179
induction 35
mho 181
moveable coil 34
overcurrent 63, 66, 70, 97-8, 127
polygonal 184,202-3
reactance 180
shaded pole 36
solenoid 33
thermal 32, 226-7, 252
wattmetric 36-7
residual compensation
distance protection 194, 207, 222, 336
secondary injection test 285-6
sectionalisers 109, 113
selectivity 5, 67, 88, 96, 237
sequence
components 19, 26, 28
currents 22
impedances 22-3, 26, 28
voltages 27, 32
series compensated lines
distance protection 214
software techniques 98
symmetrical components 19, 22 3, 26
synchronous machines 14, 22
reactance values 16, 22
tests
factory 285
pre-commissioning 285
primary injection 289
secondary injection 285 6
thermal limits 73
thermal relays 226
thermal relay-contactors 225
transformers
differential protection 152-64
inrush current 68
overcurrent protection 186
protection schemes 154, 258
thermal capacity 74
voltage transformers
capacitor type 47
equivalent circuit 45
inductive 47
burden 47
equivalent circuit 45
error limits 47, 49
errors 46
flux density 45
magnetic impedance 51