ATLAS OF ORE MINERALS p. picot and z. johan‘The authors are grateful to P, Ramdobr from the University of Heidel berg, L. Cabri from the Canmet in Ottawa, J. Geffray from the Com: Imissariat@ Energie Atomique and E. A. Perseil rom the Musée d'His toire Naturelle in Paris, who have generously provided some rare specimens We wish to thank Mrs. J. Guilloux for the translation, The authors are particularly grateful to D. H. Watkinson from the Carleton Univer: sity in Ottawa, who considerably improved the English version of the manuseript Allright reserved No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, stored ina retrieval system or transmitted by any means, electronic, mechanical, photo: copying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of both publishers. Co-published by © Bureau de recherches géologiques et minidres, 8.P. 6009 - 45060 Orléans Cedex (France) 4 © Elsevier scientific publishing Co, P.O. Box 330-1000 AH - Amsterdam (Netherlands)‘The authors are grateful to P, Ramdobr from the University of Heidel berg, L. Cabri from the Canmet in Ottawa, J. Geffray from the Com: Imissariat@ Energie Atomique and E. A. Perseil rom the Musée d'His toire Naturelle in Paris, who have generously provided some rare specimens We wish to thank Mrs. J. Guilloux for the translation, The authors are particularly grateful to D. H. Watkinson from the Carleton Univer: sity in Ottawa, who considerably improved the English version of the manuseript Allright reserved No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, stored ina retrieval system or transmitted by any means, electronic, mechanical, photo: copying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of both publishers. Co-published by © Bureau de recherches géologiques et minidres, 8.P. 6009 - 45060 Orléans Cedex (France) 4 © Elsevier scientific publishing Co, P.O. Box 330-1000 AH - Amsterdam (Netherlands)« | have omitted all those things which | have not myself seen, or have not read or heard of from per- sons upon whom | can rely. That which | have neither seen, nor care- fully considered after reading or hea- ring of, | have not written about ». Agricola (De Re Metallica) 196547Foreword This book is written for metallogenists and students. It is intended for experts and thus is basically meant to be practical disregarding not only the theoretical aspects of phenomena related to reflectance but also details on microscopic techniques. The writers’ intention is neither to replace nor to perfect comprehensive works such as the text of P. Ramdohr (The ore mine- rals and their intergrowths, 1980) or the tables of W. Uytenbogaardt and E.A.J. Burke (Tables for Microscopic Identification of ore minerals, 1971). The brief bibliography which this book contains may come as a surprise to the reader. Our concern was to group homogeneous data based solely on personal observations and measurements, avoiding compilation of inconsistent information. This book was made possible because of the reference collection of polished sections of the Bureau de recherches géologiques et miniéres (BRGM), which is, to our knowledge, one of the richest collections in the world. Every mineral studied has been carefully checked by X-ray or by electron microprobe Being confronted every day with problems related to the determination and study of metallic minerals, we wanted this book to present as far as possible our own approach while realizing that nothing can replace years of experience in this field. Part one of the book is devoted to the importance of metallographic methods in the study of, and prospecting for minerals, and to the use of these methods with a description of the apparatus used. Tables of commonly used characteristics help to determine species by progressively reducing the possibilities through successive elimination.Part two is a detailed monograph of 369 minerals arranged in alphabetical order. Emphasis has been placed on the importance of chromatic phenomena under crossed nicols in determining metallic mineral species and therefore many color photographs are included. So far as we know, this is the first serious attempt of this kind. The reflectance values accompanying the description of most species have been measured under identical operating conditions. It is the writers’ hope that this book will seem easy enough for beginners, sufficiently elaborate for experts and finally, clear and appealing enough to be used by all. Our goal will be achieved if this work leads to a wider use of metallographic methods in Earth Sciences. Ore petrologists in English-speaking countries are very fortunate that books on metallic minerals are being made available by translation; this com- prehensive study by Paul Picot and Zdenek Johan will certainly be a valuable addition to personal librairies and direct use not only to the elucidation of metallic mineral assemblages in general, but particularly to some less-well- known continental associations. D. H. WATKINSON Professor of Geology Carleton University, OttawaPrinciples and Interest of a Metallographic Study Metallographic study is to metallogeny as petro- graphy is to geology. Its goal is to identify the diffe- rent mineral species of an ore specimen, to examine their mutual relationships and to study their evolution in time and space. The first important microscopic study of metallic minerals was carried out by W. Campbell in 1906. He studied samples of ore from Sudbury (Canada). For this, he merely applied the existing microscopic method used for metals, to ure minerals. This method was developed by Osmond in 1890 and is known as « reflected light microscopy ». Metallic minerals are strongly absorbent, generally ‘opaque in thin section and consequently impossible to study by transmitted light and microscopic techni- ques used in petrography. Therefore, they must be examined in reflected light, by preparing polished sec- tions which are then examined with a metallographic microscope. The latter is not very different from an ordinary petro- graphic microscope, presumably well known to the reader. It is similarly equipped with two nicols (or polarizing plates) permitting observations in plane polarized light or under crossed nicols. It differs mainly in its side-illuminating system (opaque illumi- nator), conducting light from the light source through a system of condensing lenses and diaphragms and, with a prism (or a semi-transparent glass plate) per- pendicular, to the polished surface. The light beam is partly absorbed, partly reflected by the mineral and passes back through the objective, the prism and ocular, to the observer's eye. We shall not go into detail concerning metallographic microscope equip- ment : the reader should consult the appropriate lite- rature. Optical phenomena in reflected light are nevertheless much more complex than in transmitted light. Thus, for example, extinction phenomena under crossed nicols or pleochroism do not have the same meaning in reflected light as in transmitted light. Hence, it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to obtain optical constants, For instance, the measurement of indices of refraction, so simple in transmitted light, requires, in reflected light, reflectance measurements in air and in oil immersion followed by rather complex calcula tions. In this connection, it should be pointed out that reflectance is one of the rare optical constants that can be calculated without much difficulty. There is very sensitive equipment with photo-electric cells or photo-multipliers for measurement of reflectance. Visual estimation can also be used but this subjective determination is a function of the quality of polishing (as are physical measurements), and the influence of surrounding minerals must be taken into account, Determination may also be distorted by the color of the mineral.Since the determination of metallic minerals in reflec- ted light cannot be based upon optical constants, as is the case for transparent minerals, metallographic study is far more difficult and subjective, depending to a large extent, on the observer's experience. This experience is evidently acquired only through days or even months of work. The question then is the follo- wing : is the effort devoted to learning this method worth while? In other words, except for personal satisfaction that may be felt in roughly determining a mineral association, what is the interest of a metallo- graphic study? First, the determination of mineral species forming an assemblage and the examination of their mutual rela- tions may be made. Detailed knowledge of the com- Position of a mineral deposit is the very foundation of methodical research on which genetic hypotheses can be built and from which practical results may be established, There is no doubt that most mineralization processes result from an assemblage of phenomena which, usually, are not directly perceivable for they may not only be sequential but also superimposed; a later event may partly destroy the traces of earlier proces- ses. Obviously, to reconstruct the stages of forma- tion of mineralization, when nature gives us only the resultant deposit, it is indispensable to know the che- mical and physical characteristics of the different phases. This is possible only through microscopic study of metallic minerals and the establishment of paragenesis, that is, of mineral associations resulting from the same genetic process. The role of metallography in the genetic study of ore, deposits is thus of prime importance. Mineral species whose presence is established, give, through their major chemical composition, information on the che- mical character of a given mineralization event. Besi- des, a metallographic study provides information that could not be obtained by any chemical analysis. Ore microscopy permits the study of relationships bet- ween mineral phases and determination of their order of crystallization. As has already been suggested, mine- ralization seldom originates from a single process but involves several processes whose succession may be 0 defined and may eventually be linked to geological events, such as tectonic processes. In this case, early crystallized minerals are brecciated and consolidated by later material. This permits the reconstruction of the chronology of genetic processes. Furthermore, by determining the chemical composition of minerals, the chemical evolution in time and space of succes- sive parageneses, may be established. From a theoretical point of view, such an approach is extremely important for revealing horizontal or vert cal zoning whose presence may lead to practical application. A well-known example concerns chal- copyrite, pyrrhotite and pyrite mineralization worked for copper : because of strong vertical zoning at great depths, the assemblage may change to pyrrhotite and pyrite whose economic value is essentially zero. A metallographic study is also an important part of the study of deposits for it shows the location of « trace minerals ». While major elements are impor- tant, the source of elements may be elucidated by the recognition of trace minerals whose size does not exceed tons of microns and which may be overlooked in a rapid study. We know that there is some doubt about the signifi- cance of minor mineral species because in a given deposit any chemical element may be found in trace amounts. This is, where trace elements and trace minerals are confused. In order that an element be ‘expressed mineralogically, a definite concentration is required and specific conditions must be fulfilled. When an element is expressed mineralogically, can- not be considered as an accidental phenomenon. Numerous studies and more than twenty years expe- rience in this field have convinced us of this fact. For instance, we cannot speak of coincidence, when we systematically find tellurides finely disseminated in volcano-sedimentary deposits. Neither can it be acci- dental that the nature of these tellurides changes with the chemical composition of lavas with which the deposits are obviously associated. Neither can we speak of coincidence when small cas- rite crystals are systematically found in sphalerite from these types of deposits. Because of trace minerals, a metallogenic source may be establishedMetallographic study may also disclose the presence of peculiar textures and structures due to well- determined physico-chemical processes whose exis- tence furnishes implicit information on the conditions of their formation. Textures resulting from the break down of solid solution, leading to the formation of two or more immiscible phases is an example of this. As this phenomenon is closely related to temperature (and sometimes also to pressure), the presence of such textures may enable the minimum temperature of deposition to be determined. The same may hold true for textures resulting from simultaneous crystallization of two phases. Metallographic study also gives information on the relative stability or instability of the phases. We may often observe textures formed by metasomatic repla cement, which may have proceeded along some crystallographic orientation, physical anisotropic plane, interface or perhaps, free from any environ- mental constraint. The existence of zones in certain minerals proving that chemical variation has occurred during crystalli- zation, is also important. Similarly, the plastic distor- tion of minerals may be attributed either to syntecto- nic crystallization or subsequent deformation. All things considered, these observations convey information about the texture of the minerals. The study of textures also has considerable practical inte- rest for ore-processing. In most deposits, the grain size is so fine that it is impossible to estimate the degree of crushing requi- red to properly separate the different constituents. The study of grain size of minerals and the way they are intergrown permits the evaluation of « separation mesh »; that is, the grain size necessary to obtain optimum separation of the different constituents. In other respects, metallographic study is a means of controlling the efficiency of the separation proce- dure. For instance, a quick microscopic study of a flotation concentrate gives information on its purity or on the reasons why a process has failed Furthermore, the location of precious elements or undesirable elements can only be shown by using a microscope. It is desirable, for example, to know the nature of silver in a lead deposit; whether itis present in the galena structure or expressed as secondary argentite resulting from the alteration enrichment, or ‘as primary ruby silver mineralization, etc. These affect mineral dressing and sometimes the economic value of the ore Therefore, this method of investigation should be rather universal since it is the first step in the recogni- tion and interpretation of a deposit or a metalliferous province, and is used in the final phase of mining and mineral processing of ore deposits. It is difficult to understand why mining companies resort to metallo- graphy only after the final phase of mineral dressing, depriving themselves of many interesting theoretical and practical data. Many companies often do without metallography {and many other techniques) for questionable econo- mic reasons, although time and money would be saved if a detailed mineralogical study of the minerali- zation were done Finally, while it may be unfortunate not to have infor- mation concerning the mineralogy of many old mines, itis even more frustrating to see that even now mines are opened, mined and then disappear without lea- ving any trace of their operation and that no one has had the idea, initiative or curiosity to study their mine- ralogical problems more closely Metallographic analysis may reveal, on a small scale, the genesis of the deposit. If we fail to recognize it or if we disregard it, we deny ourselves information and data which may contribute to a better understanding of the deposit and possibly to a more productive deposit.The Preparation of polished sections (by D. Guéant) As arule, the methods used in metallography, may be applied to polishing metallic minerals. Polishing laps on which sections are progressively ground, then polished, are used in this method Early techniques involved grinding specimens with abrasive papers without first embedding them. They were polished either with alumina, cerium oxide or chromic oxide on old-fashioned lapidary laps, in which the plate -we do not know why- was mounted vertically. Polishing was generally done on cloth or baize laps. This method had many disadvantages. First, since the specimens were neither embedded nor consolidated, fragments tended to break loose during the different stages and scratched the surface. Then, progressively, samples were mounted in gum lac, sealing wax or in rhodopass. Due to the length of the final phase, the polishing cloth had a tendency to penetrate the soft minerals, thus developing relief on harder minerals. This resulted in surfaces of very high relief and a mediocre polish which masked the inte- resting fine inclusions of trace minerals. To remedy this situation and to avoid developing relief, polishing on lime-tree wood was attempted and this gave good results. Other attempts were made on soft metals such as tin and lead. In this field, the Germans obtai- ned an amazing perfection of polishing. Now, the laboratories of the University of Heidelberg employ a method of polishing on lead disks (Depierreux’s auto matic machine, opposite photo)The minerals thus treated have a very uniform surface without relief, breaking or scratching. This method has the disadvantage of taking too long, especially since the lead disks must frequently be resurfaced For this reason, automatic and complex equipment is, very expensive and difficult to keep in good condi- tion. Finally, the resulting polished sections are almost too perfect because, with this method, we are deprived of a very good criterion of determination, the relative hardness of minerals with respect to each other. In order to obtain a polished surface without relief and without the inconvenience of having to set up the lead lap periodically, we polish on aluminium (a method recommended by A.J. Hallimond) which has the advantage of lead laps without its defects. The method that we use may be summed up as fol- lows. 1st step : EMBEDDING THE SPECIMEN, The specimen is cut with a circular diamond saw (Boart Diamond), then put in a drying oven to elimi- nate all traces of water. It is then placed in a steel or plastic ring with an inner diameter of 4 om resting on a glass plate. A thin film of silicon grease is placed between the plate and the ring to ensure a tight con- tact. An adequate quantity of Stratyl A116 varnish to which has been added a small quantity of catalyst XB and hardener Y3 for polymerization, is poured on the ring and sample. A few hours later when the varnish is completely dry, the mounting is removed. This ope- ration is particularly easy because the polymerization of Stratyl is accompanied by shrinking. If the sample is porous, a superficial consolidation is undertaken with Araldite AY103 which polymerizes when hot with only one catalyst. To do so, the speci- men which is already embedded in Stratyl is impre- gnated with Araldite and placed in a warming oven at 14 60 or 70 °C until solid. 2nd step : GRINDING For this operation, either emery or carborundum pow- der is used. In the first case, emery with Mecaprex carborundum stuck on the disk of a semi-automatic Mecapol machine is used (this machine is equipped with a sample-holder with a capacity of 6 polished sections) Abrasives with grain sizes of 120, 240, 400, 600 mesh are used successively, at the rate of a few minutes per abrasive. In the second case, the section is ground manually on a glass plate with carborundum powder with similar grain sizes to the preceeding ones. The first rather brief stage of grinding is followed by @ second longer stage (about 1 hour) during which 1000 carborundum is employed (6 microns). For this, a special automatic machine designed and construc: ted at BRGM is used. This machine consists of a moving disk with a reciprocating glass plate and a rotating sample-holder with a capacity of 8 polished sections (e.g. figure below). Once this step is over, the polished section is ready for polishing.3rd step : POLISHING A set of small Struers semi-automatic machines (opposite photo) capable of simultaneously polishing four sections is used. Aluminum paper or a very fine textured Lam Plan Matic is stuck on the machine laps. Polishing time is as follows — two periods of fifteen minutes with a 6-micron dia- mond powder on aluminum paper ; — two periods of fifteen minutes with a 3-micron dia- mond powder on aluminum paper; — two periods of fifteen minutes with a 1-micron dia- mond powder on aluminum paper; — and 2 30-minute final polish with a 1/4-micron dia- mond powder on a Lam Plan Matic cloth. A Struers Stellapol machine, in which polished sec- tions are free and thus can be more numerous, is used for the final step. The rotating lap gives each speci- men a motion, whose path is traced by a perforated cover defining a three-pointed star. After each polis- hing step, the sections are ultrasonically cleaned, The diamond powders are kept in suspension in silicon oil mixed with a few drops of alcohol. As a rule, polishing is then finished. However, in order to remove the last scratches, and to give the minerals some relief (so their relative hard- ness can be appreciated), the polishing stage is gene- rally followed by a very short polish with chromic oxide on soft Winter felt. Chromic oxide is obtained by rapidly heating ammonium dichromate and is puri- fied by heating several hours in an electric oven. Alu- mina (corundum powder) is recommended for very soft minerals or some metals such as Bi, Ag, Sb, Au, As. 15Practical application of the method The polished section is placed on the stage of the microscope and is first observed in plane-polarized light, that is by interposing one polarizer (nicol) in the path of the light beam. Once this first stage is com- pleted, observation in polarized light is performed by inserting two nicols at 90° (or with two slightly uncrossed nicols) PLANE-POLARIZED LIGHT : A. COLOR OF THE MINERAL : what strikes the obser- ver at first, is the color of the mineral. It may be strongly colored as is the case with most copper minerals (sulfides, selenides, tellurides). Most com- monly, however, metallic minerals are either indis- tinetly colored or colorless (white or grey with pale cream or bluish shades) The color of a mineral may seem different according to the minerals it is associated with. For instance, wittichenite seems greyish brown adjacent to chal- Copyrite, distinctly white to bornite and greyish brown with purple tints to emplectite or bismuthinite. Pyrite, usually pale yellowish white, seems greenish grey with native gold. Thus, association should be taken into account before attributing any particular shade to a mineral. Colored minerals are given in the table on p. 35. In oil immersion the color intensity generally increases. In extreme cases (strongly colo- red minerals, such as covellite) the variation of color produced by immersion is striking (from blue to pur- plish red). B. PLEOCHROISM : it is the property of certain mine- rals of exhibiting variation of color (together with variation of the reflectance during rotation of the stage of the microscope). Some minerals show very striking pleochroism such as covellite, molybdenite, graphite, chalcophanite, mackinawite, etc. Most minerals, however, exhibit relatively faint to distinct and sometimes very low pleochroism. C. SHAPE OF THE MINERAL : most metallic minerals seem xenomorphic in polished section; that is they have no definite form. Yet, some species, generally the hardest minerals or those showing the highest melting temperature, have a tendency to develop with their own crystallographic habits (or idiomorphi- cally). Such is the case with pyrite, arsenopyrite, sperrylite, magnetite, eskolaite, native osmium, cas- siterite, chromite, quartz (see Plates : textures; pho- tos 1, 2, 3) This criterion of determination is very important. Moreover, the euhedral character accentuates the substitution tendency of the other minerals of the Paragenesis. This is particularly interesting when studying @ succession of crystallization of minerals Also, some minerals formed at low temperature show a colloform texture with a colloidal aspect (although, in its present state, the mineral is usually crystalline) These aggregates are in concentric layers and are often convex or spherulitic with an opal-like texture Examples are : « Schalenblende », melnicovite, pitch blende, psilomelane, goethite, etc. (see photos 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) 7Finally, skeletal textures may sometimes be noted because the crystal did not develop completely. It then shows an euhedral tendency but is closely asso- ciated with other minerals thus simulating replace- ment. This is particularly the case of magnetite in numerous mafic volcanic rocks and, sometimes, of sphalerite or pyrite in volcano-sedimentary deposits. In some cases, this type of texture is due to rapid crystallization in a cooled or abruptly supersaturated environment (see photos 12, 13, 14, 15) D. ZONING : zonal texture related to variation in com- position is particularly visible in the case of euhedral minerals such as magnetite, arsenopyrite, skutteru- dite and especially bravoite, villamaninite and carbo- nates. This can be emphasized by acid etching though this test is not normally recommended. Howe- ver, for instance, etching with nitric acid brings out the zonal texture of skutterudite and gersdorffite ullmannite By destroying some zones in preference to others, superficial alteration often intensifies zoning which ‘was not originally visible such as in galena and skut- terudite. As for anisotropic minerals, such as arse- Nopyrite and léllingite, zoning is always more clearly visible under crossed nicols (see photos 18, 19, 20). E, REFLECTANCE (R.) : in practice, it is the subjective impression of brilliance that is noted when examining a mineral. Theoretically, it is the ratio of the intensity of the light reflected by a mineral to the intensity of the incident light. Reflectance depends on the index of refraction and the coefficient of absorption of the mineral In the case of metals and of minerals with metallic lustre, most of the light is reflected and the reflec- tance is close to 100 %. On the other hand, in the case of gangue minerals, which are transparent in thin section, most light penetrates and is absorbed by the mineral, and therefore only a small part of it is reflected. The reflectance is closer to 0 and every transparent mineral in thin section seems very dark in polished section, Reflectance has always been considered as the fun- 18 damental criterion in the determination of metallic mineral. Many authors have disregarded other criteria and based their determination solely upon reflectance values. They counted on the fact that reflectance was the only useful physical constant in this field. Indeed, for a long time, reflectance values have been measu red and quantified by means of a photo-electric cell or an electron photo-multiplier. Nevertheless, the results depend on many factors, such as the quality of polis- hing and most of all the mineral orientation. For aniso- tropic minerals which, by definition, are pleochroic, reflectance varies considerably with the grain under examination. In lead sulfosalts which have more or less the same optical characteristics and reflectance, itis absolutely impossible to base determination upon, this criterion only. Because of their pleochroism, the reflectance values of the different species of sulfo- salts overlap each other. It is preferable to use other criteria and, especially, polarization tints which are far more distinctive. However, reflectance may be very useful, if it is con- sidered as one of the factors employed in determina- tion and not as the sole criterion of identification. It is thus not recommended to rely on a meaningless and fictitious absolute value but on a relative value by reference to very common species. Concerning the lead sulfosalts, minerals which are often associated with galena, meneghinite is easily distinguished from other species because its maximum reflectance is slightly higher than galena in strongly anisotropic grains. All other lead sulfantimonides have a reflec- tance slightly lower than galena. Mackinawite exsolution in chalcopyrite is another example. Nickeliferous and cobaltiferous varieties occur. The nickeliferous variety has a maximum reflectance slightly lower than chalcopyrite whereas it is slightly higher than chalcopyrite in the cobaltife rous variety. When studying an unknown mineral, we must try to find in the paragenesis a known mineral as a standard and roughly establish the reflectance of the unknown, In polished section, the assemblage is seldom so complex that it is impossible to distinguish at least one mineral. For very high reflectances, for instance, comparison can be made with pyrite, for high values with galena, for intermediate values with tetrahedrite-tennantite or hematite, and for low values with sphalerite or magnetite.To facilitate identification, we have tried to classify as many metallic or submetallic minerals as possible according to their reflectance value. To do so, reflec- ted light intensity was measured with a photo- multiplier, using carborundum as a standard (SiC- a standard recommended by the I.M.A. Commission for ore microscopy) with a reflectance value in air very close to 20 %. This has led to the table of metallic minerals in order of decreasing reflectance, from native silver (84 %) to fluorite (4 %) (p. 28). These measurements were made in white light. ‘The same measurements may be made in monochro- matic light. Reflectance is obtained for the different wavelengths of the visible spectrum (from 400 to 700 nm} and a curve of the reflectance values for the mineral under observation may be drawn in terms of the wavelength. This method gives a curve characte- rizing a species and remaining constant whatever the condition of the mineral surface may be. This curve conveys a very good idea of the color of the mineral. A bluish mineral will have a maximum of about 400 nm, a creamish or pinkish mineral, a maximum. of 700 nm. For most of the species described, reflec- tance values between 420 and 700 nanometres are given. For anisotropic minerals, two reflectance values (minimum and maximum), obtained from the most pleochroic grains are given. Measurements were made with 16 or 44/0.65X objectives and a prism illuminator. With a 44X objective, compensa- tion for obliquity is obtained by the formula Ri + Ri 2 As for the reflectances measured in white light, the minerals have been classified in order of their decrea- sing reflectance, the basic value being 540 nm (p. 30) The main objection to this method is the length of the measurement which explains why it is seldom used. But, it is widely used for the theoretical study of reflection phenomena. The measurement method in white light may be easily used for the determination of metallic minerals. To do so, when measuring the SiC standard with a reflectance of 20 %, the galva- nometer of the apparatus is fixed at 20, thus directly obtaining the value for the mineral. However, it should be pointed out that the photo-multipliers used are not sensitive to the same tints as the eye (wave- lengths). They are particularly more sensitive to blue while the eye is more sensitive to yellow. Thus, the results may sometimes seem aberrant. Let us take for example the germaniferous metallic minerals, briartite and renierite. If observed visually, renierite ranging from orange-yellow to bronze, is unquestionably more reflectant than briartite which is greyish. Neverthe- less, when measuring reflectances, the photo- multiplier gives a somewhat higher value for briartite When making use of the reflectance table, it is thus advisable to compare metallic minerals with more or less the same tints. Fortunately (from this point of view only) most metallic minerals are white or grey and their indistinct shades do not alter the results. F. HARDNESS : with a little experience, it is possible to estimate the relative hardness of minerals. Two species of similar hardness show very fine boundaries because there is no difference of relief between the two minerals. However, when one mineral is harder than another neighbouring mineral, polishing wears ‘the soft mineral more and the harder mineral stands up in relief. Hence, the boundary between the two minerals seems coarse and the contours thicker and, more blurred. This aspect of hardness is often ‘employed for the identification of metallic minerals. A good example of this is to distinguish cubanite from pyrrhotite, two minerals often associated with chal: copyrite. Both are brownish and have more or less the same reflectance, but the hardness of cubanite is similar to chalcopyrite and the boundaries between the two are very indistinct. Pyrrhotite is harder and stands out somewhat in relief. Compared to chal- copyrite, it shows much coarser contours. A useful way to determine the relative hardness of two minerals is to follow one of the polishing scrat- 19ches which are unfortunately always present. The scratch often affects only one of the two minerals or ‘one mineral more than the other, or else is larger in ‘one of the two. Very soft minerals such as argentite or stromeyerite are always quite markedly scratched. In the case of very large grains, scratching with a mounted steel needle is recommended. A microhardness tester is used for small grains. This device is a microscope where one of the objectives is replaced by a diamond octahedron oriented down- ward. A shutter-release applies the load of the dia- mond (whose fall is absorbed by a shock-absorber) on the grain previously centered with a normal objective and @ crosshair ocular. The diamond leaves a square indentation on the section. From a series of tables, the measurement of the diagonal of the square gives the hardness of the mineral, known as Vickers hardness*. This device is often used to differentiate pyrite from pentlandite in micro-surfaces of serpenti- nized peridotites. With this method, determination is easy : the harder pyrite shows tiny and indistinct indentations. Pentlandite, which is softer, gives dee- per and almost perfect indentations. G. CLEAVAGE : it is a good aid to mineral identifica- tion. Some minerals have numerous and perfect clea- vages which may cause pits during polishing when they overlap. These pits, in the form of black aligned triangles on the polished section, are excellent criteria of determination, especially for galena and more rarely for altaite, wolframite, franklinite and jacobsite Some minerals, such as molybdenite, graphite, valle- rite, etc., show mica-like cleavages. And finally, a cleavage may be typical within one group of metallic minerals. For instance, in the argen- topyrite group, sternbergite shows a perfect clea- vage which is not found in argentopyrite. * It should be recalled that MOHS scale of hardness was establis: hed as follows : Talc : 1, Gypsum : 2, Calcite : 3, Fluorite = 4, Ape. the £8, Orthoclase : 6, Quart: 7, Topas: 8, Corundum : 8, Die ‘mond : 1 The calculation of MOHS hardness from VICKERS hardness may be writen ae follows ee Dyy = 0.770 (My = 0.7 VAD. OBSERVATION UNDER CROSSED NICOLS : ‘A. POLARIZATION COLORS : we consider them to be by far the best criteria for determination, Indeed, owing to their highly distinct and colored tints, con: trasting with the weak tints observed in plane- polarized light, we are sometimes able to determine very small inclusions of few microns in diameter, A typical example is the determination of tiny inclusions of tellurides in chalcopyrite or bornite generally asso- ciated with volcanic rocks; initially because of their small size, these inclusions were problematic for us. Some were anisotropic, either orange-red or blue, others were isotropic and some lighter than others. We then realized that the grains polarizing orange-red had the same colors as hessite. Further investigation in plane-polarized light corroborates, by comparison with chalcopyrite, the similarity to the reflectance of hessite. With this approach, melonite (blue aniso- tropy), altaite (light isotropic) and coloradoite (darker isotropic grains) were discovered. Of course, had we merely tried to determine the reflectance of these metallic minerals, we would never have been able to distinguish them ‘exactly. This method is also interesting in that, it allows us to study the same mineral with perfectly crossed nicols or with slightly uncrossed nicols resulting in the appearance of brighter and often more colored tints. Indeed, all mineral species do not show their most characteristic colors with perfectly crossed nicols. Mawsonite, for example, shows tints ranging from yellow to very bright green, only if the nicols are uncrossed. Similarly, millerite shows tints ranging from bright yellow to blue, only with slightly uncros- sed nicols. In conclusion, it should be pointed out that polariza- tion colors sometimes depend on the objective used. For instance, with a low-power objective (5.6X), eucairite polarizes in violet-blue to green, whereas with a medium-power objective (16X) it ranges from brick-red to green. Polarization tints shown in the description of the various minerals correspond tothose obtained with a 16X objective, which is by far the most commonly used objective. They correspond to 15X and 12.5X oil immersion objectives which merely intensify colors without changing their tints. B. INTENSITY OF ANISOTROPISM : it is completely independent of the concept of colors. Highly aniso- tropic minerals may have a colored anisotropism (covellite) or be completely colorless (chalcophanite) Weakly anisotropic minerals often have little chroma- tic effect, but this is not always the case. For ins- tance, braunite polarizes very weakly and with no tint. On the other hand gallite, with as weak an aniso- tropism, polarizes in tints ranging from reddish to greenish colors (with uncrossed nicols), Although independent of the color, anisotropic intensity cannot be dissociated from it. The intensity and anisotropism of colors may indeed be determined by sight. C. TWINNING : as is the case for transparent mine- rals, we may distinguish contact and interpenetrant twins. The former are by far the most common. Most are polysynthetic and are seen in polished section as alternate lamellae similar to plagioclase lameliae in thin section. They either may be only in one (diapho- rite), or in several directions (rathite, bournonite, par- kerite); they may show parallel orientation (baumhaue rite) or be wedge-shaped (ramdohrite). Sometimes, they are more or less twisted related to mineral defor- mation, as in stibnite and bismuthinite. Interpenetrant twins are not as common but are highly characteristic. Generally, four-fold interpene- trant twins are pseudohexagonal. They are found especially in marcasite, argentopyrite, picotpaulite and stibiopalladinite. Certain types of contact twins of six orthorhombic crystals show highly spectacular six-pointed star tex- tures in polished section, as in safflorite and, to a les ser degree, léllingite. A table of the various types of twinning and of the commonly twinned minerals is given on p. 38. Photos 21, 22, 23, 24, 25. D. INTERNAL REFLECTIONS : this is a very good cri- terion of identification, at least for minerals, whose reflectances fall between galena and gangue. The presence of internal reflection is due to the fact that for some minerals, a fraction of incident light penetra- tes the crystal and is reflected by the cleavage or twin planes. Colored phenomena very different from pola- rization colors result because these phenomena occur below the surface of the section. They are generally red (hematite, ruby silvers, etc.), brown (sphalerite, cassiterite), yellow (greenockite) and even green {manganosite, eskolaite) or colorless (gangue mine: rals). Variation in the abundance of internal reflections is also an identification factor. Realgar, getchellite, proustite and smithite have extensive internal refle: tions. They are rare in pyrargyrite, polybasite, miargy- rite, rarer in hematite, lead sulfarsenides and more so in lead sulfantimonides (semseyite, plagionite). A list of the various tints of internal reflection is pre- sented (p. 38). E. LIGHT ETCHING : this phenomenon is usually observed under crossed nicols because of the high intensity of light used to study anisotropism of metal- lic minerals. It appears as small luminous points cor- responding to small holes which rapidly become abundant. This corrosion which affects some silver minerals such as argentite, argyrodite, canfieldite and polybasite, is similar to the phenomenon of darkening of silver salts on photographic film, Although this etching alters the surface of the mineral, it is, howe- ver, an excellent criterion for identifying silver spe- cies. It is obviously accentuated by using an arc lamp (see p. 35). Light etching leads on naturally to two other types of corrosion — Natural corrosion, or tarnishing in air, = Artificial corrosion, that is, corrosion by etching reagents Tarnishing cannot be avoided and polished surfaces must be frequently repolished. But this phenomenon is very useful because it facilitates the identification 212 of arsenic which becomes oxidized within one or two days and of dyscrasite and aurostibite which tarnish more slowly. Koutekite is a remarkable example. Within a short space of time, it changes into a very strongly aniso- tropic red phase with an optical behaviour similar to rickardite. Though the nature of this alteration has not yet been explained, it permits koutekite to be rea dily identified. We are reluctant to use reagent corrosion because it spoils the polished section. In some ambiguous cases, this method becomes necessary, especially for distinguishing between varieties of potassic and barytic psilomelane using hydrogen peroxide. It is also efficient in showing the difference between platinum and palladium with a solution of chromic acid and hydrochloric acid, and in distinguishing among the tellurides coloradoite and petzite by nitric acid etching. The destructive but more efficient X-ray diffraction is recommended in other cases. OTHER DETERMINATIVE CRITERIA These criteria are not based on the optical characte- ristics of the mineral but on the knowledge of its associated minerals. They may either be closely asso- ciated such as exsolution textures or replacement textures, or more loosely associated and involve mineral associations and paragenesis. EXSOLUTION : this is the result of the crystallization ‘of components of a solid solution following supersa- turation or unmixing below a certain temperature cal- led the exsolution temperature. In exsolution textures a minor mineral is, generally, included in the more abundant mineral called the host These exsolution textures are very characteristic and may occur — as blebs : the minor mineral occurs as small round inclusions of variable size such as the exsolution of chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite or stannite in sphalerite, — as lamellae : exsolution of ilmenite in magnetite, cubanite in chalcopyrite and chalcopyrite in bor- nite, — flame-like textures : exsolution of pentlandite in pyrrhotite and of mackinawite in chalcopyrite, — star-shaped textures : four-pointed star very similar to myrmekitic texture such as stars of spha- lerite and stannite in chalcopyrite, —myrmekitic textures : association of arsenic antimony-stibarsen. We have drawn up a table of the main types of natural exsolutions (p. 39). A reference to this table may be useful Sometimes, finer exsolution of a second mineral may be found in the exsolution of a first mineral. For ins tance, small exsolution blebs of mackinawite or cuba- nite may be found in chalcopyrite (see photos 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31). REPLACEMENT : the substitution of one mineral by one or several minerals corresponding to phenomena different from exsolution but resulting in similar tex- tures. For instance, the replacement of magnetite by hematite or manganosite by hausmannite occurs as lamellae related to the cleavage of the replaced mine ral. Similarly, bornite may be replaced by chalcopy- rite. Generally, however, replacement textures are not as regular as are exsolution textures. The replacement of bornite by chalcocite or digenite may lead to myrmekitic textures, and the replacement of sphalerite by chalcopyrite to blebs. Nevertheless, replacements are rather irregular and quite distinct from exsolution phenomena. Some minerals have the tendency to develop dendri- tic textures in the gangue and often show an axial zone made up of a mineral or metal surrounded by encrustations of another mineral. This is common in many cobalt-nickel arsenides which develop dendri- tes with an axial zone often formed of native bismuth or sometimes of silver minerals. The latter often occur as rows of small cubic crystals incompatible with their own habit. Thus they seem to have repla- ced pre-existing cubic crystals of native silver (see photos 35-54).MINERAL ASSOCIATIONS — PARAGENESES : in ore deposits, metallic elements have strong affinities for each other; for example, nickel and chromium are often found in the same deposit. This is so for cobalt, nickel, bismuth and silver; lead, zinc and silver; sil- ver, zinc and antimony; tungsten, tin and molybde- um, etc. Minerals containing these various elements show, of course, the same affinities. This feature is very important and helps the observer in determining the various minerals of a paragenesis If the identification of a metallic mineral within an association proves to be difficult, the determination of adjacent minerals, within the ‘same paragenesis, will tie this paragenesis to typical mineral associa- tions. Within these associations, a mineral may be found which can help to determine the mineral under observation. We have attempted to draw up a list, as complete as, possible, of the characteristic mineral associations found in most ore deposits and a list of the correspon- ding metals. Within those associations and especially in polished section, it is obvious that some minerals will be rarer than others and sometimes non-existent. A few examples restricted to principal worldwide and French deposits are included.Common parageneses 1. Ni, Cr, Cu, Pt: Ni : pentlandite, heazlewoodite, millerite, mackina- wite, awaruite, bravoite, violarite, parkerite 1: chromite. Cu : chalcopyrite, cubanite, mackinawite, valleriite. Pt: all the platinum-group minerals. OTHER MINERALS : ilmenite, pyrrhotite, magnetite, molybdenite. Exemples : Kambalda (Australia Reet (South Africa), Ponte Leccia, Rutal lorilsk (USSR), Merensky Matra (Corsica, France) 2. Ti, Fe: Fe : magnetite, hematite, spinels. Ti: ilmenite, titanohematite, ulvite, rutile, hogbomite. Examples : Bushveld complex (South Africa}, Wadi Kamal (Saudi Arabia}, Larvik (Norway) 3. Co, Ni, Bi, Ag, As, U: Co-Ni : Co-Ni arsenides and sulfarsenides, mil- lerite Bi : bismuthinite, bismuth, emplectite, wittichenite, Bi-bearing tetrahedrite-tennantite. Ag : pyrargyrite, proustite, polybasite, pearceite, ste- phanite, miargyrite, argentopyrite, dyscrasite, native silver: As : arsenic, arsenolamprite, paxite, novakite, koute- kite, léllingite, lautite. U : pitchblende. Examples : Jachymov and Cerny DSi (Czechoslovaki (Canada), Bou Azzer (Morocco), Sainte-Marie-aux-Mines 24 France), Les Chalanches ilsére, France) 4. Se, U, Co, Ni, Ag (often with Au, Sb and Hg, sometimes with Te) These are deposits of selenides resembling the precee ding group. However, Co and Ni generally form sulfi des and selenides, with Ag as a selenide. One may identify : 1-U: uraninite Co-Ni : bravoite or linneite. Se : umangite, klockmannite, Se-melonite OTHER MINERALS : molybdenite, native gold 2-U: pichblende Se : all the selenides. Co and Ni : in the form of selenides (bornhardtite, trogtalite, etc.) OTHER MINERALS : group minerals native gold, rarely platinum- Examples : Bukov, Petrovice and Pfedbotice (Czechoslovakia) ‘Trogtal (Germany), Martin Lake (Canada), Umango and Cacheuta (Argentina), Chaméane (Puy-de-Déme, France) 5. Sn, Nb-Ta, Ti, Mo, Bi Sn : cassiterite. Nb-Ta : columbo-tantalite, tapiolite, microlite Ti: ilmenite, rutile. Mo : molybdenite. Bi : bismuthinite, bismuth. OTHER MINERALS : lollingite, arsenopyrite, wolfra: mite, scheelite, Examples : Mina Fabulosa (Bolivia), Bustarviejo (Spain), Mon: tebras (Creuse, France).6. Sn, W, Cu, As, Bi: Sn : cassiterite, stannite, stannoidite, mawsonite, késterite. W : wolframite Cu : chalcopyrite and stannite As : arsenopyrite Bi: bismuthinite, bismuth, emplectite. OTHER MINERALS : scheelite, molybdenite, occasio nally Co-Ni minerals. Examples : Cornwall (UK), Mt.Lyell (Australia), Vauiry (Haute Vienne, France) 7. Cu, As, Sn, Mo In comparison with the previous group, As occurs as enargite and there is no cassiterite. Cu : enargite, luzonite, stannite, stannoidite, mawso- nite, colusite. Sn : stannite, stannoidite, mawsonite, colusite. As : enargite, luzonite. Mo : molybdenite. OTHER MINERALS : pyrite is often prevalent. Examples : Butte (USA), Chizeuil (Sa6ne-et-Loire, France) Some bolivian and peruvian deposits belong to this group, 8. Sn, Cu, Fe, Bi, Co-Ni (In, e but exists) : This group differs from the previous ones by the absence of stannite and the abundance of bornite Sn ; cassiterite. Cu : bornite, chalcopyrite Fe : magnetite, hematite Bi: bismuthinite, aikinite, wittichenite, emplectite, cosalite. Co-Ni : cobaltite, alloclasite, safflorite. In : roquesite OTHER MINERALS : sphalerite, chromite, molybde- nite, traces of scheelite Examples : Mt.Pleasant (Canada), Charrier(Alier, France), Les Clochettes (Hautes-Alpes, France) 9. Sn, Ag, Pb, Sb, Bi: Sn : cassiterite, stannite, rhodostannite. Ag : sulfosalts of silver, argyrodite, canfieldite, ando- rite, aramayoite, hocartite Sb, Pb : cylindrite, franckeite, teallite, lead sulfosalts, chalcostibite. Bi : bismuthinite, bismuth. Examples : Poopo (Bolivial, Pirquitas (Argentina), Juicani et Hualgayoc (Peru). 10. W, As, Au, Bi, Te, Mo: W : wolframite, scheelite is rarer. As : arsenopyrite, ldllingite. ‘Au : gold, maldonite. Bi : bismuthinite, bismuth. Te : tetradymite, tellurobismutite. OTHER MINERAL SPECIES : often jamesonite or bou- langerite. Examples : Panasquiera (Portugal), Scoufour - Bonnac (Cantal, France), Salsigne (Aude, France) 11. W, Cu, Fe, Bi, Mo, Te: W : scheelite, wolframite is rare. Cu : chalcopyrite. Fe : magnetite. Bi : galenobismutite, bismuth, Te : tetradymite, Mo : molybdenite. Examples : Mezraeh (Iran), Costabonne (Pyrénées-Orientales, France12. Te, Au, Sb: Au : Native gold and gold tellurides. Te : all the tellurides, especially calaverite, altaite, krennerite, sylvanite, hessite, petzite, stiitzite, colo. radoite, tellurobismutite, nagyagite, etc. Sb : nagyagite, stibnite. Examples : Kalgoorlie (Australia), Nagyag (Rumania). 13. Sb, Pb, Hg, Au, Ag Sb : stibnite and lead sulfantimonides, berthierite, gudmundite. Pb : lead sulfantimonides, especially zinkenite, plagio- nite, faldppite, semseyite. Hg : cinnabar, metacinnabar, livingstonite, Au : native gold Ag : silver sulfosalts, especially miargyrite and freies- lebenite. OTHER MINERAL SPECIES : frequently arsenopyrite. Sometimes but rarely, inclusions of ullmannite in stib- nite, bournonite, rare jordanite. For lead sulfantimoni- des : Pribram (Czechoslovakia), Freiberg (Germany), Sala (Sweden), Colquechaca and Huanuni (Bolivia), Les Cougnasses (Hautes-Alpes, France). 14. As, Pb, TI, Hg, Sb As : realgar, orpiment, Pb : lead sulfarsenides (rathite, baumhauerite, selig- mannite, ete.). TI : lorandite, vrbaite, raguinite, pierrotite, picotpau- lite, Hg : cinnabar, vrbaite. Sb : stibnite Exomples : Allchar (Yugoslavia), Binn (Switzerland), Jas Roux (Hautes-Aipes, France). 15. Ge, Ga, Cu: Ge : germanite, renierite, briartite. ‘2 Ga : gallite. Cu : bornite, tennantite, betechtinite, chalcocite, chalcopyrite, OTHER MINERAL SPECIES : sphalerite, galena Examples : Tsumeb (Namibia), Kipushi (Zaire) 16. Mn, Fe: Fe : goethite, hematite, lepidocrocite. Mn : manganese oxides. A few unusual parageneses are mentioned, particu- larly : 17. Pb, Bi, Se, Cu: Bi : bismuthinite, cosalite, weibullite, wittite. Pb : cosalite, weibullite, wittite. Se : weibullite, wittite, laitakarite. Cu : chalcopyrite. Examples : Falun (Sweden), Kuusamo (Finland) 18. Mn, Fe, Pb, Zn: Mn : Mn-oxides. Zn : chalcophanite, franklinite, zincite Pb : magnetoplumbite, plumboferrite Examples: Franklin (USA), Lingban (Sweden). 19. W, Sb, Hg: W : scheelite. Sb : stibnite. Hb : cinnabar. Examples : Badajos (Spain), La Lucette (Mayenne, France). 20. W, Mn: W : scheelite. Mn : various manganese oxides, particularly braunite, pyrolusite, psilomelanes. Example ; Le Haut Poirot (Haut-Rhin, France)In all the above parageneses, the classical associa- tions of Pb, Zn and Cu, namely galena, sphalerite and chalcopyrite have been intentionally omitted. These are ubiquitous and may be found, as are iron sulfides (pyrite, marcasite, pyrrhotite) and even iron sulfarse- nides (arsenopyrite), in almost every paragenesis. We have thus chosen to deal with them at the end of this, chapter. 21. Cu: It may be associated with : Ni: 1. chalcopyrite, cubanite, mackinawite, pyrrho- tite, pentlandite, magnetite. 2. chalcopyrite, sphalerite, millerite, linneite, ullmannite, gersdorffite. Example : Gedre (Hautes-Pyrénées, France). Te : 1. chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, tetradymite, altaite, petzite, coloradoite. 2. bornite, hessite, melonite, altaite, coloradoite. Examples : Milanoa (Madagascar), Poli (Cameroons), Saint Véran (Hautes-Alpes, France), Linguizetta (Corsica, Francel, Sn and Bi : 1. bornite, cassiterite, aikinite, bismuthinite, roquesite (see no. 8). wittichenite, molybdenite, 2. chalcopyrite, cassiterite, stannite, stannoidite, mawsonite (see no. 6). 3. enargite, stannoidite, molybdenite (see no. 7). colusite, 4, chalcopyrite, cassiterite, cuprobis- mutite, annivite. Example : Baicolliou (Switzerland) Mo : chalcopyrite, molybdenite, magnetite. Pb-Zn : galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, bournonite, tetrahedrite-tennantite. Ge : chalcopyrite, tennantite, germanite, renierite. Examples Dikulushi (Zaire), Bancairoun (Alpes-Maritimes, France). ‘As : native copper, domeykite, algodonite, whit- neyite, native silver, koutekite. Examples ; Mohawk Mine (USA), Talmessi (Iran), Daluis (Alpes-Maritimes, France) Finally, in the zone of oxidation and cementation, native copper is associated with cuprite, tenorite, delafossite, goethite, chalcocite, covellite. 22. Pb-Zn Notable associations are with : Sb : galena, sphalerite, lead sulfantimonides (espe- cially jordanite, geocronite and gratonite) Examples France) Jabal Hallout (Tunisia), Ambernac (Deux-Sevres, As : galena, sphalerite, lead sulfarsenides (especially jordanite, geochronite and gratonite) Example : Ambernac (Deux Sevres, France). Bi (sometimes some Sn) : galena, sphalerite, tetrady- mite, cosalite, bismuthinite, native bismuth, cassite- rite, schapbachite. Example : Vialas (Lozére, France} Ag : silver sulfosalts and especially pyrargyrite proustite, polybasite, pearceite, miargyrite, freiesie- benite, sometimes argyrodite and canfieldite, dyscra- site, arsenopyrite. Sometimes some cassiterite, Examples : Freiberg (Germany), Fournial (Cantal, France). 7Ni: galena, sphalerite, ullmannite, gersdorffite, brei- thauptite, nickeline. Exomple France). Hospice de France, Pierrefitte (Hautes-Pyrénées, cu: frequent with chalcopyrite, bournonite, tetrahedrite-tennantite, 23. Fe - sulfides and sul! Arsenopyrite, pyrite, pyrrhotite 1- Arsenopyrite is associated with many parage neses and is often one of the main species It occurs with — Tungsten, gold and bismuth : see no. 10. — Lead sulfantimonides. Example : Pont-Vieux (Puy-de-Déme, France) : see no. 13. — Stibnite : see no. 13. — Galena, sphalerite and often silver minerals see no. 22. — Cassiterite, wolframite, chalcopyrite and stan- nite : see no. 6. Pyrrhotite (often associated with magnetite) occurs with = Galena and sphalerite. (Hautes-Pyrénées, France). — Nickel and copper minerals : see no. 1 — Scheelite, bismuth minerals, and molybdenite » see no. 11. Pyrite is associated without exception with all parageneses. However, in some cases, it forms large concentrations and is generally associated with chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, pyrrhotite, magnetite, cubanite with possibly a few telluri- des. Example : Pierrefitte Characteristics of the minerals TABLE OF REFLECTANCES (white light) Silver 85 |Stibarsen 64 | Syivanite (48) €0 | Tetradymite 56 | Arsenopyrite 52 Moschellandsbergite 77 |Dyscrasite 63,5 | Pararammelsbergite 60 | Gudmundite 54 | Marcasite 52146) Antimony 74 | Platinum 63 | Osmium 59| Skutterudite (Co) _ 54 Sperrylite 52 Gold 72 | Tellurobismut 63 | Iron 59| Leitakarite 53,5 | Arsenic 52 Bismuth 68,5 | Aurostibite 62|Rammelsbergite 88 Lallingite 53,5 | Pyrite 51 Allargentum 68 | Aigodonite 62 | Melonite 58|Heazlewoodite 53 | « Domeykite 51 Tellurium 67 |Krennerite 62 | Kitkaite 58 | Saftiorite 53|Nickeline 50,5 (45) Altaite 67 |Calaverite 62 | Cohenite 57 | Millerite 53 (48) | Cobaltite 50 Iridium 65 |Awaruite 61 | Skutterudite (Ni) 57 | Paraguanajyatite 53,5 | Parkerite 49,8 28 Palladium 64 |Stumptlite 61 | Geversite 57| Stibiopaliadinite 52.5|Maucherite 49,5 (39)Oosterboschite Breithauptite BDomeykite Guangjustite Clausthalite Alloctasite Pentlandite Paxite Oregonite Bismuthinite Weibullte Ferroselite Hastite Stibnite Galenobismutite Arsenolamprite Lindstrémita Hauchecornite Pavonite Ikurolite Ulimannite Aiki Wittite Gersdorftite Drysdalite Teallite Cosalite Bornhardtite Schirmerite Tyrrellite Chaleopyrite Kobeliite Meneghinite Braggite Galena Koutekite Bravoite Jamesonite Semsoyite Zinkenite Kutinaite Carrollite Mackinawite Molybdenite 49143) 49 49 49 48,5 48.5 49137) 48 48 48 47130) 47 a7 47 47 47 47 46,5 46,5 46 46 46 (26) 45,5 45,5 45, 45 45 45 44,5 43,5 43 43 43 43-35 42,5 42,5 4215 42,5 42 a2 42 42 (24+ 4209) TABLE OF REFLECTANCES Tungstenite 42 (20) Berthierite 41,5 (30) Laurite 415 Twinnite 41 Nagyagite 41 Cuprobismutite 41 Owyhecite ai Fuléppite 40,5 Hessite 40,5 Emplectite 40,5 Chalcostibite 40 Ponroseite 40 Trogtalite 40 Fizelyite 40 [Geocronite 39,5 Jordanite 39,5 Livingstonite 39,5 (33) Petzite 39,5 Freieslebenite 39,5 Ramdohrite 39 JAramayoite 39 Rathite 39 Pyrthotite 39 ‘Cubanite 39 Violarite 39 Stutzite 39 Diaphori 39 Andori 39 Franckeita 38 Baumhaverite 38 Dufrenoysite 37 Eucairite 36,5 Coloradoite 36,5 Bournonite 36 Sartorite 36 Cylindrite 36 Gratonite 36 Miargyrite 36 Naumannite 36 Hakite 35 Pyroiusite 35 ‘Selenium 35123) Argentopyrite 35 ‘Sternbergite 34,5 Pierrotite 34 Wi henite 34 (white light) 34 33,5 Seligmannite 33 Klockmannite 33(151 Jelpaite 33 Hollandite 33 Aguilarite 33 Crednerite 32,5121) Botochtinite 32,5 Freibergite 32 Argontite 32 Samsonite 315 Kermesite 31,5 Chaleocite 31,5 Lorandite 31 Stromeyerite 31 ‘Schwazito 31 Lautite 31 Polybasite 31 Pyrargyrite 31 Smithite 31 Tetrahedrite 31 Pearceite 30,5 Vebaite 30 Fischesserit 30 Proustite 30 Stephanite 30 Tenorite 29,5422) Bukovite 29,5 Getchellite 29 Tennantite 29 Annivite 29 Hematite 29 Xanthoconite 29 Tiemannite 29 Lazarevicite 23 Hutchinsonite 28,5 Colusite 28,5 Stannite 28 Enargite 28 Cinnabar 28 Raguinite 28 Sulvanite 27.5 Luzonite 27,6 Villamaninite 27, Cuprite 524 27 Berzelianite 27 Mawsonite 27 Famatinite 27 Psilomelane 27 Chalcophanite 26 (9.5) Briartite 26 ‘Orpiment 26 Rhodostannite 26 Onofrite 26 Ronierite 25,5 Romanechite 25,5 Plumboferrite 25,5 Stannoidite 25 Argyrodite 25 Indite 25 Permingeatite 25 [canfieldite 24,5 Magnetoplumbite 24,5 Metacinnabar 24 Maghemite 24 Rutile 23,5 Coveltite 23:18) Hauerite 23 Alabandite 23 Hocartite 23 Heterogenite 23 (174 Bornite 23 Delafossite 22 Djerfisherite 22 Roquesite 22 Rasvumite 22117) Digenite 22 Bixbyite 21,5 Realgar 24 Magnetite 24 Germanite 21 Eskolaite 20,5 Gallite 20 Manganite 20414) lImenite 19,5 Hausmannite 19,5 Braunite 19,5 Jacobsite 19 Piattnerite 19 Lepidecrocite 19 (9) Greenockite 18,5 Franklinite 18 Ferberite 18 Tapiolite 18 Marokite 18 Goethits 18-15 Sphalerite Ww Wurtzite 17 Rickardite 17 Davidite 17 Perovskite 17 Columbo-tantalite 16,5 Valleriite 1619) Hibnerite 16 Umangite 16 Karelianite 16 Corvusite 1618) Hetaeroiite 16 Kentrolite 16 Graphite 1616) Ubvite 18,5 Goikial 15 Thorianite 16 Pitchblende 15 Montroseite 15 Manganosite 13,5 Cassiterite 13 Chromit 12,5 Gaudefroyite 12 Pyromorphite 12 Zincite 11,5 Titanite 11.5 Cerussite 11,5 (8,5) Pyrochlore W Ludwigite 1 Scheelite "W Zircon 10 livaite 9,5 Siderite 9,5 (6) Spinel 8 Barite 7 Tourmaline 6 Calcite 61a) Quartz 5 Fluorite 3TABLE OF REFLECTANCES {monochromatic light) Retlectance (2 Rellectance (°e) Mineral 540 nm] 420 nm| 600 am] 700 nm Mineral 540 nm | 420 nm | 600 nm | 700 nm |max | min fnax| in |main| max] min max] min | max] min] max|min|max] min Siver ar|—|7|—|ea|—|as|— Heaziewoodite 57 |— 40 | —|58 = Moschellandsbergite 74|—| 63|—|79|—|86|— ron. 57 |—| 52|—| se |—|62]— Antimony 72| 70| 73| 71| 71 | 63] 70| 68 Osmium 57 | 54 | 70| 66| 93 | 53| 49| 60 Inchon 7 |—|68|—|72|—|75|— Nigghite 5745 | 55 |51| 62 |44| 67/36 ‘Allargentum 71 |69 | 68| 66| 72 | 71) 75| 74 Maldonite 56 |—| a9 | —|57|—|59|— Altaite 70|—| 66 | —| 66 | —| 60 | — Tetradymite 56| 53 54 | 61 | 57] 53/57| 59 Tellurium 68 | 67 | 69 | 58 | 68 |56| 63 | 52 Novakite 56 |51| 50 | 45| 57| 51|57|51 Palladium ee |— | 62|—| 69 |—|73 |— Sperrylte 55|—|8|—|s5]—|s3|— Merenskyite 68 |66 | 60/59/69 Jes | 71 | 69 Milente 55|s3| 32| 35] 58| 56/61 | se Hedleyte 67 | 66 | 68 | 67 | 68 | 67 |69 |e9 Geuniingite 55/52 st | 53] 86| 63|56| 52 Kotulskite 67) 60] 41 | a1|69 [61 | 72 | 64 Chinosattiorte 5552 | 55 | 52] 54 | 50|52| a9 Indosmine 66 | 6a] 64] 63| 65] 63 | 66| 62 Paraguanayuatite 5551 | 53 | 48] 84 | 50/50 a6 Stibarsen 66 | 62| 68] 65| 65| 60| 66) 60 Gudmundite 55]50] 53 | 46] 65 | 51| 63] 53 Calaverite 66 | 61| 57] 51| 68| 64/71/66 Marcasite 5549 47 | 42] 63 | 49| 51 | 26 Whitneyite 64 | —| 53] —| 80|—| es | — Skutterudite sa]—|68|—]s3|—|53) — Awaruite 6s | —| 61] —| 65! —| 68|— Pyrite s4|—| 40] —| 5] —| 57] — Tellurantimony 64 | 64| 59] 57/65 | 65] 65] 65, Lotingite 5453 | 50 | 56] 54 | 51| 53] 49 Bismuth 64 | 63| 61] 61] 67 |65| 71 |70 Sattlorte 5a] 53 | 53 | 56| 54 | 52| 5a| 50 Platinurn 63 | —| se|—| 66] —| 68|— Stisiopaliadinite 5452 | 43 | 22| 56|55| 58/61 Gola 63 | —| 26|—|74]—| 84 |— Mattagamite 54 aa | 60|51| 54 48) 57| 49 AAigodonite 63 | —| 55] —| 65 |—|6s |— Beta-Domeykite 53] 50 | 49 | 47 | 52 | 48) 49] 46 Stumptite 63 | s9| a9 a6] 67 | 62] 71 es Arsenic 53| 47 | 57 [52/53] 47/ 53| a7 Aurostibite 62 | —| 65] —| 63 |—|63 |— Lattakanite 53| 45 | sa ]a7 | 62| 44) 50| a2 Krennente 62 | 60| 55| 50] 63} 61| 65 Jes Alpha-Domeykite s2|—|as]—|s3|—| sa] — Tellurobismutte 62 | 60| 61 | 9] 64 |61| 68 Jes Godiewskite 52 |50 | 36 |33 | 53 | 53| s6| 57 Dyserasite 61 /60| 57| 56| 62 | 61| 64 |ee Fronbergite 52|50] 56 |55 | 54] 51| 58| 56 Syivanite 61 [51] 55] 41] 62 | 51 | 63 [55 Arsenopyrite 52|50| 53 |49|51|51| 50/51 Chloanthite 60 | —| 63 | —|s8 | —|57 |— Cannizzarite 52 |49 | 52 |50 | 50| a8] a3| a7 Pararammelsbergite 60 | 59] 59| 59] 60 | 58] 61 |58 Nickeline 52 |47 | 47 |40 | 58 | 58| 63 | 63 Melonite 60 | 58| 54 | 64 |63 | 61 | 67 Jes Hastite 52/47 | 49 | 46 | 55 | a8] 59) 51 Joseite 60 | 56 58 | 57 [61 |56] 61 |s6 Oosterboschite 52 |46 | 48 | 40 | 51 | 46) 52| 49 Goversite 159 | —| 59 | —|57 | —| sa |— Clausthalte 51|—|.0|—|42|—| 47|— Michenerite 68 | —|56|— |60 | —|62| — Genkinite 51 |51 | 44 | 43 | 5452] 57|57 Cohenite 58 | 56 | 55 | 63/60 |58|64 |e2 Glaucodot 51 | 50] 52 |4a| 51 |51| 50| 52 Rammelsbergite 58 | 56 | 5a | 54/58 |56|57 |55 Mauchente 51 [as [45/46 | 53 | 51) 59| 57 Sudburyite 58 |56 | 45 | 4a|63 [60 |68 |e Allociasite 51 [49] 50/47 | 51 | 4) 4947 10 Kitkaite 58 |52 | 42 | 47|61 | 56|65 Jeo Ferroselite 51 46 | 47 [aa | 55 | 48/58 |50Reflectance (%) Reectance |) Mineral 40.nm 420 am] 600.nm] 700 am Mineral 540 nm | 420 am | 600 nm | 700 nm |nax| min mx mina rin| max] min max min |main| amin |ma|min Platarsite 50] —|50] —|49|—|a7| — Linnie aa —] aa] —| a5 |—| 48] — Cobattite so|—J]4s|—| 63] —| 55] — Cosalite 44] 41] 49 | 46) 43 | 40 | 43) 40 Tristedtite 50|—] 44 | —| 53] —] 55] — Chaleostbite 44| 37/44 | 38 | 40 35 | 38 | 99 Parkerte 50| 46 | 47 |4s | 51 | 47] 5a | 50 Kutinaite aa|—] aa] —]ar|—/41|— Arsenolampite 5048 | 57 |43} a7 |43| 45 | 44 Koutekite 43] 40| 50] 51| 40/38) 41/94 Bismuthinte 50 |38 | 50 | 40 | ae | 37] 45 |96 Nagvagite 43] 39] 48 | 4341 |37| 36 |34 Lead 49|—| 48 |—| 51] —| 50] — Braggite 43] 42] a1 | 41 |43| a2] 40 |42 Pentiandite 43| —} 95 |—| 52] —| 5] — Hodrushite 43] 37] 40| 36 | 43} 36] 43| 36 Makinenite 49| 47 | 27 |30 | 55] 50] 60| 53 Semseyite 43) 36) 47| 38} 42 35] 37] 30 Galenobismutite 49 46| 51 | 48] 7] 45] 47 | 45 Galena 42| —|50|—| a1] —]42/— Ikunoite 49] 45| 49] 46 a9] 45] 48 4 Carole 42| —} a1 | —a2]—| 45] — Paxite 4g| 44| 48 | 46 | 49/43] 2a 42 Violate a2|—| 40) —|aa|—| 47] — Breithaupite 43] 41 | 49 | 45] 56] 49] 63| 58 Witte 42) 40] 45 | a3 | 41 | 38] 40] 97 Bormhardite as] —]43|—| 50 —| 5a] — Jordanita 42 39] 46 | 42) 41 | 39| 38 | 34 Oregonite ae|—| 43 |—| 51|—| 57] — ‘Aramayoite 42 39] 48 |40| a1 |e | 38/3 Copper as|—|38|—| 7|—|e5|— Benavidesite 42] 39| 42 |40| 41 |aa|38/ 36 Hauchecorate 4a| 4539 |37| 51 |4e] 5a |51 Freieslebenite 42| 37] a8 | 39] 41 | 36) 38] 34 Pavorite 48 44 | 50 | 46| 47 | 42| a6 42 Zinkenite 42| 38] 4a | 39 | 40 | 26] 26] 32 Westervelate 48| 43] 49 | 46| 48|4a| a9 | a6 Twinnite 42} 35] 45 | 38| 40 | 39) a7] 31 Stbnite 48| 33] 54 | 34] 44/31 | a0]31 Plagionite 42| 94 43 | 4] 40 | 33} 36 | 29 Tyrelite a7|—| aa |—| 48 |—|50]— Trogtalite 41] —| 42] —|43 | —/ 48] — Aikinite 47] 46| 46 | 45| a6 |a5| a4 43 Penroserte 41] —| 39] —|42 | —[aa|— Tealite 47| 43] 49 | 4a] 45| 42 | 43 | 40 stutzte 41] 41| a3 | 41] 39 | 41] 36| 41 Schirmerite 47| 4247 | a3] 4641] 45| 41 Hessite 41] 38] a3 | 41) 42 | 8) <3] 98 Wetbulite 47| 40} 51 | 43] 4438] 42| 36 Diaphorte 41/37] aa | 41] 39 | 36| 37] 34 Hammarite 47| 38] 47 | 40] 26] 39] 44 | 37 Cuprobismutte 41 | 37]39/ 92] a2|37| 41] 35 Ulimannite «6| —|51 | —|45|—]40|— Cubanite 4136] 28 | 24] 42 | 39] 45| a3 Siegenite as|—|44|—| a8 |—|s2|— Ramdohte 41| 36 43 | 99] 20 | 35| 36] 22 Petrovicite 46] 45) 45 | a4] a6 as] 45 |as Berthierte 41] 1 | a3 | 32] 9 | 32| 38] 32 Schapbachite 46| 44] 47 | 45] a5 ]aa]45| 41 Laurite 40] —| 45 | —|28 | —|36| — Kobetite 46 | 42| 50 | 4a] aa |40| 42/39 Geoeronite 40| 39| aa | 43] 39 | 38| 36| 35 Meneghinite 48 | 40] a5 | 39] 44 |39| 40| 37 Boulangerte 40| 38 | 42 | 40] 40 |37| 37| 35 Gersdortite 45| —|.47 | —]as|—| 47] — Andorite 40| 36 | 42 | 39] 38 | 35] 37| 39 Polydymite 45| —|42]—|48|—| 5a] — Baumhaverite 40| 36 | 43 | 40| 38 |24| 94) 90 Cooparite 45]41| 45 | 42| 44|40| 42] 38 Outtenoysite 40| 36] 42 | 38] 37|4] 33/20 Lndstromite 45] 41] 48] 42| 45] 40] 44/39 Jamesonite 40| 34 a2 | 37] 38) 93] a5] 31 Cuprostibite 45] 99 | 59 | 55] 46 | 42| 5 65 Faloppite 40 |32| 42 | 34] 39] 30] 34| 26 Frelyte 45] 38| 47 | 41| 43/37] 38) a3 Livingstonite 40 |30| 43 | 33] 38 |29| 34 | 27 Owyheeite 45| 38 48| a1] 43 |37| 39] 35 Porapierrotite 40 | 29] 42 | 31] 38 | 20 | 34]27 Mackinawite 45| 22| 37 | 21| 47 |23| 49] 25 Miargyrite 4027 | 44 | 32] 38 |26| 93] 24 Molybdenite 45l2it5s/ 22145 | 20144120 Talnakhite 391—l17]—l42!—la3]— anReflectance (%) Reflectance (0) Mineral 40 nm] 420 nm] 600 am] 700 am Mineral 540 nm | 420 nm | 600 nm ] 700 0m Inax] min ax mina min|max| min max| min] max] min ax|min|max| min Sartore 39] 35| 43| 38| 36] 92| 22| 29 Polybasite 32] —| 24] —| 30] —| 28] — athe 39] 34] 42| 98| 37]32| 26) 28 Vaesite 32|—| 34| —| 32|—| a] — Perea 38|—| 44] —| 37|—| 37] — Schwazite 32|—| 32| —|32]—|27|— Franckerte 38| 96] 41| 40) 37] 25] 35] 33 Betechtiite 32| 92] 3¢| 95] 32| 32| 31] 32 Evcairite 37| a7 | 35] 35) 26] 36] 34/39 Latte 32|31] 38| 35 | 30| 28| 29/26 Emplectite 37| 38 | 32 |30| 39|37| 36/36 Duranusite 32|30| 39| 37|31|2a| 29| 27 Noumannite 3736] 41] 97| 36] 33| 34] 31 vba 3230] 45| 42 | 23] 28| 28 | 26 Smithte 37|35| 43 40] 3¢ |32| 31/30 Proust 3230] 39| 37) 30| 27| 28] 25 Pyrthotite 37| 38] 30] 28] 40| 38] 42 | 39 Coronadite 32| 26 | 36 | 29| 30|25|28 | 24 Chabourneite 37} 31| 40] 32] 34] a0] a1 | 26 Raguinite 32] 28} 30 | 24) 38| 26| 42 | 27 Orysdalite 37| 22| 38| 18] 35| 21| a8 | 20 Kermesite 32 24 | 40 | 30] 30|23| 29] 24 Kiockmannite 37| 16| 43| 17] 35] 14] a1] 19 Giraudite 32| ~ }32| —|32|—|31|- Bravoite 36|—| 36] —] 38] —| a1] — Greigite 31|—| 29] —| 32] —|36|— Chalcopyrite 36| 35] 18] 16] 20] 39] 42 | a1 Sulvanite 31|—} 28|—|31|—|31]— Bournonite 36| 34] 38} 37| 35] 33| 92 [a1 Loutte 31| 30} 36 | 35| 31 |30| 32 |32 Crtindeite 36| 32] 38] 34) 35|31| 34 | 29 Samsonite 3130} 37 |35| 28 | 28] 26 |26 Crookesite 36| 31| 37| 33] 37| 32| 39 | 33 Getchelite 31 |28 | 37 |34| 28 | 26| 26 |24 Stembergite 36| 24 | 30] 18] 38| 27| a9 | 29 Stromeyerte 31 |28 | a1 |32 | 29 ]27| 28 |28 Tungstenite 36| 18] 48] 23] 35| 18] 94/18 Sabatirite 31 |28 | 33 |31 | 27] 25] 22 |21 Coloradoie 35|—| 36] —]37| —| 34/— Hematite 31 |27 | 3431 | 29 25| 26 [23 Krutaite 3s|—| 36]—}33]—|31|— Picotpauiite 31 |24 | 30 | 24] 33 |25| 38 |29 Gratonite 35|34| 37 | 36] 34 ]3a| 33/32 Pyroluste 21/19/30 |19|30| 18] 28 |12 Wittichenite 35|33| 36 | 34] 35 ]33| 34/31 Lazarevicte 30 |—|22|— | 32 |—|z8|— Perotie 35|31| 33| 35] 23 |30| 30| 27 Colusite 30 |— | 23 |— |32|—|26|— Eskebornite 35| 29] 29| 24] 36 |31| 39} 29 Tiemannite 30|—|3e|—|25|—|28|— Argentopyrite 35| 27 | 30| 22] 36 ]29| 38 | 32 Fischessente 30 | —} 33 |— 32 |—| a8] — ohare 35| 24] 36 | 28] 35 |23| 3a] 22 Pearceite 30 | — } 29 |— | 28 |— | 26] — Seligmannite 24] 32| 34 | 35] 93 ]31 | 29| 29 Gettroyite 30] - Jig |—|3a]—|57|—- Pyrargyaite 34 28 41 | 35] 31 |26| 28] 23 Diureite 30]30| 35 |34| 28 |27| 26| 24 Selenium 34| 24 38| 27] 34 |25] 32] 25 Hutehinsonite 30 | 23] 37 |32| 28 |26| 27 |25, Crednerte 34| 24 | 30| 27] 33 |23| a0 |22 hodostannite 30 | 23]30 |29| 31 ]29] 30/29 Freiberaite 33|—35|—]1|—|29]— Lorandite 30 | 27 | 31 |29| 27 |25| 24] 23 Hakite 33|—} 32 |—]34|—|s3 | — Tenorite }20 | 20} 30 |22 | 23 }19| 28] 19 Tetrahedtite 33|—|31|—}22|—|30|— Cinnabar 29 | 28} 36 | 34 | 20 |27 | 27| 26 Weissite 33|—|37|—|30|—|27]— Routhierite 29 | 28] 32 |31| 27 |26| 25|25 Jalpate 3331 | 36 | 34] 32 |28| 20 [28 Bukovite 29 | 28} 29 |23| 28 |26| 25] 22 ‘Acanthite 3331] 36 | 33 31 |28| 20 | 29 Stephanite 29 | 28 |32 |31| 28 | 26| 27] 27 Hollandite 33 |28| 37 |31] 31 [26 |22 |25 Stannite [29 | 27} 22 |20| 28 |29| 27] 26 Patronite 33| 20} 30 | 20] 30 |19| 31 |19 idaite 29 | 26] 18 |15| 32 | 32] 34] 25 Aguilante 32|—|33|—|30|—|20]— Chalcothalita 29 | 25] 31 | 28| 28 | 25] 27| 25 32 Chalcocite 32|—I37|—130|—|27|— Tennantite 28 |—131 | —l26 | —l23 |=Reflectance (%) Retlectance (0) Mineral 540 nm | 420 nm] 600 nm] 700 am Mineral 540 nm | 420 nm | 600 nm | 700 nm ma | min | max rnin max in| max] min !max| min max | min}max | min Brartite 28|—|24]—|27|—]21|— Manganite 22/17) 28 | 16 }21 | 16) 20] 16 Mokinstryite 28|24|31|25|27|23] 26 |23 NisAsbolane 22/18] 25 | 18 | 22 14 Chalcophanite 2a|10]37 |11|26] 9] 24] 9 Covelite 22| 7) 30|16]19 24 Indie 27|—|27 | —|26|—| 24] — Bornite 2i|—|13|—]26 = Chameanite 27| — |27| —|2a| —|23] - Eskolaite 21|—|24|—|20 - Luzonite 27 | 24| 28 | 28| 29 | 26] 30 |29 Germanite ai|—]21|—|23 a Xanthoconite 27 | 24| 96 | 32) 25} 21] 23 | 20 Braunite 21| 20] 24 | 23 | 20 18 Orpiment 27 | 2037 | 28| 26 |19] 25 | 19 Magnetite 20} —|22|—] 21 7 Cupnte 26 |—|32|—|24]—]23|— Realgar 20|—]23|—|19 - Berzeliante 26|—|27 |—|21]—|16| — Greenockite 20}—]21|—| 18 = Metacinnabar 26 |—|28 |—| 25]—|25|— Piattnerite 20| 20 20 | 22| 19 15 Permingeatite 26 |26|31 |30] 26 }24| 29| 28 mente 20| 18] 21 | 19| 20 19 Enargite 26 |25|29 |27 | 27 |26| 30] 29 Lithiophorite 20] 10] 31 | 14| 19 3 Fenierite 26/24/19 | 19] 31|29| 36] 34 Graphite 20] 7] 19] 8/22 8 Heterogenite 26| 16] 30| 16| 25] 17) 24] 16 Gall r9|—|22|—| 19 - Co-Asbolane 26| 13| 30] 16] 28] 13| 21| 12 Frankiinite 19} —] 19] —| 17] —]a6) — Canticle 25| —| 29|—]25|—| 25] — Ferberite 19| 16] 19] 16| 19] 16] 18) 15 Argyrodite 25| —|29|—|25|—| 25] — Tapiolite 19] 16] 16|15| 19] 16] 18] 15 Haverte 28| —| 26|—| 23 |—| 22] — Llacobsite te} —]r9|—|17|—]16| — Plumboterrite 25 | 28| 29|27| 2a | 24] 22| 21 Marokite 18] 16/22 /19| 19| 16/17) 15 Hocartita 25 | 24] 27|26| 25 |25| 24 | 24 Hausmannita we} 16/21/18] 17] 15] 17) 12 Famatinite 25 | 24| 25 | 24| 27 |25] 29 | 27 Hetaerolte 18] 15] 24] 18| 18] 14/17] 13 Stannoidite 25 | 23] 21|19|29| 27| 34 | 33 Rickardite 18| 13] 35 | 27| 20|26| 36 | sa Magnetoplumbite 25 | 23| 28 |25| 23 |22| 22 | 21 Todorokite re] 10] 2a] 13] 16] 9| 15] 9 Athabascaite 25 | 18] 25 |20| 25] 16| 22 | 12 unite 17] —}17|—] 19] —} 18] — Bxbyte 2a|—|2a|—|23|—|22|— Davidite v7} —}19]—| 17] —] 17] — Kosterite 2a | 23] 28 |24| 24 | 23|25 | 24 Perovskite 17] —}1a|—| 16] —|16] — Pirquitasite 24| 23] 26 |2a| 23/23] 21 |21 Karaliante a7|—Jra}—| re} —|2r]— Rutile 24| 21] 26 |23| 23| 20| 22] 19 Columbo-tantaite 17] 16] 18} 17] 16] 15] 16] 15 Rasvumite 2a | tal 24 |16| 25| 18] 27 ]20 Woltramite 17} 18] 19} 16] 17 | 15] 17] 15 Villamaninite 23|—|27|—| 24) —|s1]— Montroseite 17] 45] 1a] 16 17/15] 20] 17 Dyerischente 23] —|1@|—| 28] —|26] — Hubnerite v7}1a} 19} 16) 18/14) 16/13 Alabandite 2a] —|2a|—| 22|—|21]— Lepidecrocite 17] 11] 20 | 13] 16| 11] 15] 10 Qvensetite 23] 21] 31 |27| 22|20| 21]19 Wortzte hes} —} 19} —| 16 | —| 16 | — Mawsorite 2a] 21] 13 | 10] 27| 28| 31 ]a5, Sphalerite pes|—| 18 |—| 16|—| 16] — Delatossite 2a] 19] 22 | 19] 23| 19| 25|22 Umangite j165] 14] 23 | 23] 16| 15] 19 | 30 Karmiokite 2a 17} 25 | 19] 22| 16| 23] 16 Uraninite 16] —] 17 |—| 16] —} 16 | — Birnessite 23| 10] 28 | 11| 22/10] 20] 9 Valente 16|10] 10]11| 19 10]22| 10 Wakabayashilte 22|—| 28} —| 22]—| 21|— Thorianite hs5|—]17|—]15|—Jra}— Digenite 22| —| 28] —| 19|—} 17] — Kentrolte hs6]13| 18 | 1a] 15 fia] 14} rz Roquesite 2222126126 | 22 1221 23/23 Convusite iss! elzoltolial alia! 6Reflectance (| Mineral 540 nm | 420.nm | 600 nm | 700 nm ax] min] max |i | max min |x| min Goethite 4.5] 13] 18 [17 | 14] 12 {13 | 12 Manganosite 14) —J1a|—|13]— 14] — Brunogeierite 13] —]15}—|13]-J13 Gaudetroyite N2s}10] 15] ]12] 9f12] 9 Chromite 12|—]13]—]12]—|12]— Brannerite a2|—]as|—|12]—]a|— Zincite a2 }r2}as|aa]r2]as faa fay Cassiterite ra far }xa [a2 ]r2]ar faz }a Scheele Nis} —Ja7|—]rr|—| 12] — Zircon av far }ia [an [aa fra faz fa Ludwigte tf afis|rofi| sian] 7 Argutite ufa fra} farf—fa]— Pyrochiore Hos} —] 11] —| 10} —] 10 |] — Titanite 1o|—]11|—| 10] —]10 | — waite 10] 7] 10| 9]10] 6}ro] 5 The reflectance of the following ore minerals descri- bed in the systematic section of the book could not be measured due to their minute size and consequently do not appear in this table : berryite, coffinite, braggite, fluorite, guanajuatite, gustavite, herzenbergite, hégbomite, irarsite, maghe- mite, malachite, meinicovite, moncheite, ramsdellite, romanechite, sederholmite, smythite, vulcanite, pyrostilpnite The reflectance of the following gangue minerals is not given, too : azurite, barite, calcite, pyromorphite, siderite.LIST OF THE MOST DISTINCTLY COLORED MINERALS IN PLANE-POLARIZED REFLECTED LIGHT STRONGLY COLORED MINERALS Predominantly blue : coveliite. Predominantly purple : germanite, bornite (tar- nished), umangite. Predominantly yellow : native gold, chalcopyrite, vulcanite. Predominantly red : native copper, rickardite (pin- kish red), koutekite (etched), idaite. COLORED MINERALS Predominantly blue : athabascaite, digenite, ber- zelianite, sabatierite. Predominantly brown : pytthotite, eskebornite, enargite, stannoidite, cubanite, cooperite, delafos- site, geffroyite. Predominantly pink : famatinite (purplish), brei- thauptite (purplish), raguinite (pinkish), cuprostibite, niggliite (bluish), rohaite (pinkish). Predominantly orange-yellow : renierite, luzonite, mawsonite, colusite, nickeline, genkinite. Predominantly cream : bismuth (tarnished). SLIGHTLY COLORED MINERALS : (often by compari- son with adjacent minerals). Predominantly bluish : pyrargyrite, proustite, samsonite, koutekite, kutinaite. Predominantly greenish : stannite, tetrahedrite- tennantite. Predominantly brownish : hocartite, argyrodite, canfieldite, native selenium, tenorite, hauchecornite, Pirquitasite, hakite. Predominantly cream : linneite, bravoite, pentlan- dite, penroseite, bornhardtite, tyrrellite, trogtalite, sti biopalladinite, betechtinite, melnicovite. Predominantly yellowish : millerite, makinenite, heazlewoodite, lazarevicite, sulvanite. Predominantly purplish : villamaninite. FAINTLY COLORED MINERALS Weakly bluish : cuprite. Weakly pink : cobaltite, maucherite, mattagamite (purplish), kotulskite (pinkish), chalcothallite. Weakly yellowish : pyrite. Weakly greenish : bournonite, argentite. Weakly brownish : ilmenite, berthierite, selig- mannite. Weakly orange : ferroselite, hastite. MINERALS SHOWING A STRONG TENDENCY TO DEVELOP EUHEDRA eskolaite, sperrylite, native osmium, laurite, skutteru- dite, cobaltite, gersdorffite, ullmannite, safflorite, 161- lingite, pararammelsbergite, arsenopyrite, glaucodot, bornhardtite, tristedtite, tyrrellite, ferroselite, has- tite, krutaite, gudmundite, pyrite, magnetite, hema- tite, chromite, cassiterite, wolframite, melonite. MINERALS FREQUENTLY SHOWING COLLOFORM TEXTURE psilomelane, sphalerite, cassiterite («wood tin»), melnicovite, goethite, pitchblende, tenorite, delafos- site, jordanite, marcasite, heterogenite, lithiophorite, asbolanes, native arsenic, allemontite, galena (rare). MINERALS FREQUENTLY SHOWING ZONING 1. COLORED ZONING : bravoite, villamaninite, kru- taite. 2. ZONING VISIBLE UNDER CROSSED NICOLS : saf- florite, léllingite, arsenopyrite, wolframite. 3. ZONING VISIBLE BY CHEMICAL ETCHING, SELECTIVE ALTERATION OR REPLACEMENT : skut- terudite, gersdorffite, galena, bornhardtite, trogtalite, magnetite. LIGHT-ETCHED MINERALS 1. RAPIDLY : polybasite, pearceite, argentite, jal- paite, argyrodite, canfieldite. 2. SLOWLY : stromeyerite, stephanite, 35MINERALS TARNISHING OR OXIDIZING IN AIR 1. RAPIDLY : arsenic, bornite, talnakhite. 2. MODERATELY : dyscrasite, aurostibite, novakite, koutekite, paxite, maldonite, native bismuth, native copper, berthierite, alabandite MINERALS SHOWING ONE OR SEVERAL CLEAVAGES PERFECT CLEAVAGE : arsenolamprite, bismuthinite, eskebornite, covellite, drysdallite, franckeite, gra” phite, klockmannite, molybdenite, sternbergite, tellu- robismutite, tetradymite, tungstenite, valleriite, chal- cothallite, rohaite IMPERFECT CLEAVAGE : altaite, athabascaite, barite, bukovite, crednerite, fluorite, franklinite, galena, getchellite, hauerite, hollandite, ikunolite, la takarite, livingstonite, lorandite, manganite, nagya- gite, orpiment, patronite, pentlandite, pyrolusite, Paraguangjuatite, quenselite, raguinite, siderite, smi thite, stibnite, teallite, native tellurium, wakabayas! lite, zincite. DISTINCT CLEAVAGE : aramayoite, argentopyrite, boulangerite, chalcocite, corvusite, digenite, gers dorffite, hausmannite, jacobsite, jamesonite, kobel- lite, krennerite, magnetoplumbite, manganosite, plumboferrite, realgar, selenium, semseyite, sulva- nite, ullmannite, weibullite, wittite, cohenite. MINERALS SHOWING POLISHING PECULIARITIES (TRIANGULAR PITS) Galena (consistent triangular pits) Altaite (rare pits). Also : pentlandite, wolframite, lorandite, franklinite, jacobsite, barite, tourmaline, clausthalite (rare). ISOTROPIC (AND WEAKLY ANISOTROPIC*) MINERALS BLUE COLOR : digenite, berzelianite PURPLISH COLOR : germanite (purplish red), villama- 36 ninite (purplish brown-grey). PINK COLOR : fischesserite. RED COLOR : native copper, whitneyite. YELLOW COLOR : native gold. CREAM COLOR : linneite, bravoite, melnicovite, pent- landite, colusite, trogtalite, penroseite, born hardtite", tristedtite, tyrreliite, sulvanite, geffroyite (brown-cream) WHITE COLOR : skutterudite, gersdorffite*, ullman- nite, clausthalite, galena, sperrylite, geversite, native iridium, laurite, maldonite, kutinaite (bluish), aurosti- bite, irarsite, platarsite, Yellow-white : kite. Creamy-white : native platinum, native palla- dium, awaruite, altaite. Pink-white : cobaltite* pyrite*, native silver, a domey- GREY-WHITE COLOR : hauerite, indite, tetrahedrite- tennantite, metacinnabar, tiemannite, coloradoite, petzite, hakite (brownish grey white), chameanite, krutaite (bluish), giraudite. GREY COLOR : pitchblende, uraninite, spinels, pyrochlore, perovskite, franklinite, eskolaite*, chro- mite, davidite, brunogeierite. Lighter grey : alabandite, greenockite, sphalerite, wurtzite. Brown-grey : magnetite, ulvite, jacobsite. Bluish grey : maghemite, eskolaite*. POLARIZATION COLORS (U.N. = UNCROSSED NICOLS) PURPLE : marokite (purple to grass-green), stannite (bluish), paxite (to blue), teallite, argentite (bluish grey with a purplish tint), glaucodot (U.N.), nauman- nite (on weakly anisotropic grains), petrovicite (pur. plish to dark green : U.N.), mattagamite, herzenber- gite (purplish green : U.N.) BLUE : arsenolamprite, cubanite, melonite, kitkaite, plattnerite (midnight-biue), stromeyerite (bright), nic:keline (green-blue), fuléppite (to green-blue), chalcos- tibite, hutchinsonite, lorandite, goethite, corvusite, vrbaite, hauchecornite, godlevskite, chabourneite, polybasite (green-biue), kotulskite. With other shades : bournonite (blue to green), lollingite (blue to brown-yellow : U.N.), arsenopyrite (dark purple-blue], rhodostannite (bluish), rammels: bergite (purplish blue), safflorite (blue to yellow- brown : U.N.1, seligmannite (blue to yellow - green), miargyrite (bluish white), jordanite (bluish to greenish and purplish), eskebornite (blue-grey with a purplish tint], crookesite (dark green-blue), geocronite (blue- grey). GREEN : aikinite, bismuth, bismuthinite (yellow- green), breithauptite, delafossite, emplectite, idaite (yellow-green), luzonite, marcasite, meneghinite, patronite, pearceite, crednerite, tapiolite, mawsonite, (green to bright yellow), kermesite (green to blue and purplish), berthierite (light green), cinnabar, cuprite {green to blue), marokite (grass-green to purple), Also : cuprobismutite (greenish), boulangerite {greenish grey), galenobismutite (dark green), jame- sonite (greenish grey), owyheeite (greenish grey), selenium (light green), samsonite (dark green), lazare- vicite (greenish). YELLOW : millerite (yellow to blue : U.N.), makinenite {yellow to blue : U.N.}, mawsonite (yellow to green U.N) Also : athabascaite (orange-yellow), graphite (yellow to orange-yellow), valleriite (orange-yellow}, braggite (brownish yellow), pyrolusite (brownish yel- low), famatinite (green-yellow), lindstrémite (yellow- green), klockmannite (yellowish white), stumpflite (yellowish), arsenic (brownish yellow), rohaite (yello- wish orange). ORANGE : covellite, ilvaite, rickardite (orange to bright yellow), hastite, ferroselite (orange-brown), hessite (red-orange), iridosmine, raguinite (orange pink), karelianite (brownish orange), gudmundite {orange to bluish), nigglite Many other minerals have orange brown tints : allemontite, antimony, ludwigite, pararammelsber- gite, B domeykite, stibiopalladinite, andorite (orange- brown to greenish), aramayoite, stutzite, RED : osmium, umangite (orange-red), cuprostibite, permingeatite (purple-red), eucairite (red to green), sederholmite (red to green), gallite (dark reddish), pla- gionite (brick-red with other shades : bluish, green, etc.), frohbergite, pirquitasite (brick-red to light green). PINK : heazlewoodite (dark pink to green), alloclasite (purplish pink : U.N.), molybdenite (pink-white), stumpflite (soft pink with arc lamp), koutekite (orange-pink). Also : semseyite and stibnite showing pinkish shades in addition to bluish white or bluish grey tints. Sternbergite (purple-pink with other red-brown and greenish grey tints) BROWN : Mainly yellow-brown tints : argentopyrite, cosalite (brown to yellow-brown), diaphorite, franc. keite, freiestebenite (yellow-brown to blue-grey), iku nolite, laitakarite, renierite, stephanite (yellow-brown to greenish), wolframite, calaverite, tellurantimony, sudburyite (pinkish brown), moncheite (brown- yellow to pinkish brown), Orange-brown : chalcocite, stitzite, nagyagite, schapbachite (pink-brown with an orange tint) Pink-brown : guanajuatite. Reddish brown : sternbergite (with greenish tints and purple-pink shades, hocartite (dark reddish brown). Green-brown : tellurobismutite, chalcothallite (orange-brown : U.N.) Brown (standard) : pyrrhotite, dyscrasite (grey- brown), maucherite (dark brown), novakite, wittiche- nite, wittite, cosalite (brown to yellow-brown), stan noidite, asbolane (light brown), gratonite (brownish), sabatierite (brown to blue-grey) GREY ; ilmenite, paraguanajuatite, kobellite, magne- toplumbite, manganite, weibullite, parkerite (yellow- grey), hollandite. Brown-grey : hetaerolite, pierrotite, piumbofer- rite, pyrargyrite, sylvanite (light brown-grey), tetrady mite, zinkenite, briartite (brown-grey to greenish), benavidesite (bluish grey : U.N.), genkinite aGreenish grey : baumhauerite, ramdohrite, hema- tite, krennerite, rathite, sartorite, twinnite. Blue-grey : geocronite (blue-grey to brown-grey), oosterboschite, quenselite. Yellow-grey : algodonite, cylindrite. Light grey : tellurium, romanechite. WHITE : almost always with very strong anisotropism chalcophanite, lithiophorite, lepidocrocite, mackina- wite, heterogenite (grey-white with a bluish tint), asbolanes, tenorite, picotpaulite (grey-white), hollan- dite (grey-white), hausmannite (grey-white), livings- tonite (bluish white), parkerite (grey-white with a yel- low tint), tungstenite (yellowish white). A few minerals have multicolored tints = enargite (orange, yellow, blue, green, reddish, etc.) — lautite (blue, orange-brown, purplish pink, etc.) — betechtinite (pink-red, bluish, greenish, etc.) INTERNAL REFLECTIONS BLUE : azurite. GREEN : malachite, manganosite (emerald), eskolaite (emerald), alabandite (yellow-green), greenockite (yellow-green), gallium-bearing sphalerites. YELLOW : greenockite, orpiment, xanthogonite (brownish yellow), sphalerite, cassiterite, wurtzite goethite, wakabayashilite BROWN : sphalerite, cassiterite, rutile, wurtzite, galaxite, (a variety of spinel), titanite, pyrochlore, perovskite (orange-brown), chromite (red-brown), columbo-tantalite (red-brown), Kentrolite (red-brown), uraninite (rare), brunogeierite, argutite. RED : they are the most frequent internal reflections. They may be : A. Extensive : cinnabar, cuprite, getchellite, real- gar (orange-red), lorandite, smithite, zincite, routhie- 3 rite. 8. Very abundant : hutchinsonite, kermesite, proustite-pyrargyrite, vrbaite, hibnerite, goethite, kentrolite, laffittite. C. Abundant : lepidocrocite, livingstonite, quen- selite, samsonite. D. Very frequent miargyrite, sphalerite. E. Frequent : columbo-tantalite, fuléppite, hema- tite, pierrotite, baumhauerite, sartorite, rathite, para- pierrotite, chabourneite, polybasite, pearceite, pirqui- tasite. F. Less frequent : tennantite, dufrenoysite, ram- dohrite, fizelyite, franklinite, hetaerolite, manganite, plumboferrite, ferberite, plagionite G. Occasional : semseyite, boulangerite, thori nite. H. Rare : jacobsite, magnetoplumbite, stibnite. hauerite, hausmannite, COLORLESS : sphalerite, cassiterite, rutile, scheelite, titanite, argutite, zircon, gangue minerals. TWINNING SIX-POINTED STAR TWINS arsenopyrite, jordanite (rare) safflorite, lolli CROSS-SHAPED TWINS : bixbyite FOUR-FOLD INTERPENETRANT TWINS : argentopy- rite, picotpaulite, marcasite, dyscrasite, stibiopalladi- nite, geocronite, godlevskite, cubanite, SERRATED TWINS : native arsenic, andorite (rare). SINUOUS TWINS : stibnite, bismuthinite, crednerite, getchellite, orpiment, livingstonite, cinnabar, franc: keite, nagyagite, pyrrhotite, bukovite, chalcostibite, chalcothallite. WEDGE-SHAPED POLYSYNTHETIC TWINS : ram- dohrite, fizelyite, andorite, crednerite, bismuth, umangite, cuprostibite, rohaite. ORTHOGONAL POLYSYNTHETIC TWINS : bourno- nite (parallel parquet-like lamellae), seligmannite (parallel lamellae), stannite (often very thin),palladium-trogtalite (microcline-like twins), ooster- boschite, bornite, chalcopyrite, famatinite (abun: dant), eucairite, kdsterite. POLYSYNTHETIC TWINS, GENERALLY IN ONE DIRECTION ONLY : alloclasite, aramayoite, argentite, baumhauerite (abundant), briartite, chalcocite, di phorite (abundant), pirquitasite, gallite, geocronite, Paraguanajuatite, gudmundite, hocartite, jalpaite, jamesonite, benavidesite, kobellite, lautite, lazarevi- cite (very thin), luzonite (abundant), marcasite, meta- cinnabar, nagyagite (complex), naumannite, paxite, permingeatite, rammelsbergite (abundant), sartorite, stephanite, sylvanite (very abundant), tetradymite, wittite (long and very thin), renierite, twinnite. POLYSYNTHETIC TWINS, OFTEN IN SEVERAL DIRECTIONS {non-orthogonal) : allemontite, anti- mony, arsenic, bismuth, cuprobismutite (rare), haus- mannite, tenorite, hematite, hessite, ilmenite, hollan- dite, rathite (very abundant), rutile, tapiolite, uman- gite, millerite, routhierite, westerveldite, calcite. SIMPLE OR VERY WEAKLY LAMELLAR TWINS : cas- siterite, ferroselite, hastite, renierite, gudmundite, roquesite, marcasite. COMPLEX TWINS : cobaltite, rhodostannite (cheque- red aspect), arsenopyrite (hourglass-shaped), gers- dorffite. EXAMPLES OF EXSOLUTION TEXTURES BLEBS : pyrrhotite in sphalerite, chalcopyrite in spha- lerite, stannite in sphalerite, sphalerite in stannite, chalcopyrite in stannite, stannoidite in stannite, galena in tetrahedrite-tennantite, renierite in germa- nite, briartite in germanite, polybasite in galena, pyrargyrite in galena, freieslebenite in galena, tetradymite in galena, bournonite in galena, dyscra- site in galena, tetrahedrite-tennantite in’ galena, pyrthotite in alabandite, ilmenite in hematite, hema- tite in ilmenite. LAMELLAE : chalcopyrite in bornite, chalcocite in bornite, wittichenite in bornite, gallite in sphalerite, millerite in chalcopyrite, millerite in linneite, stannite in hocartite, cubanite in chalcopyrite, monoclinic pyrthotite in hexagonal pyrrhotite (curved lamellae), hausmannite in zincite, ilmenite in magnetite, spinel in magnetite, hematite in chromite, ilmenite in chro: mite, hematite in cassiterite, schapbachite in galena (curved lamellae), ilmenite in ulvite, allargentum in sil- ver. FLAME-LIKE TYPE : mackinawite in chalcopyrite, mackinawite in pentlandite, pentlandite in pyrrhotite MYRMEKITIC TYPE : stibarsen-arsenic, stibarsen- antimony, nickeline-breithauptite, tellurobismutite- tetradymite, magnetite-ulvite, tantalite-uraninite roquesite-stannite, chalcopyrite-jalpaite, realgar- stibnite STAR-SHAPED TYPE : stannite in chalcopyrite. sphalerite in chalcopyrite,DETERMINATION TABLE OF THE MAIN Pb-, Bi-, Cu-, and Ag- (Sn-) SULFIDES AND SULFOSALTS ‘niso- | Retlee internal ina Color |Fheg | Habit | AMES. | Polarization colors | nternal | Ting Remark Aikinite write | > Rather | Green to groen-brown strong Lindstrémite | white | > 6 Very” | Green-brown 'Anisotropism yellower bright ‘than bismathinite Pavonite wite | >6 | Fibrous | Rather | Yetiow-brown to bluish PPolysynthetc strong | grey iamelice Cosalte write | > | Fibrous [Medium | Bark brown to yellow brown Gatenobismutite | white | > 6 Rather | Greenish to brownish weak Weibulite white | >6 | Fibrous | Rather | Greyish strong Witte white | >G | Fibrous | Rather | Brown-grey to brown Thin [Looks lke cosalite + strong wine Bismuthinte | white | >G Very" | Yellow-green to Sinuous bight | ignt green ‘wins Kobetite wnite | #6 | Fibrous | Rather | Dork grey to light grey Atew strong lameliae Emplectite Yelow.| <6 | Fibrous | Strong | Distinctly green tints white Cuprobismutite | Creamy |

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