12 THERMAL STABILITY |: TRANSISTOR BIASING 12-0. INTRODUCTION A tor in a common-emitter amplifier can be 3 in many different ways, but each has 3 dif- ferent effect on the thermal stability of the operating point, Once an operating point has been chosen, the is how can it be maintained in the face of re increase, so that distortion or thermal way will not occur, The stability of different will be examined, and methods of compensa- n will be discussed. prob 12-1, FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THERMAL INSTABILITY It was shown that the collector current for a common-emitter amplifier is given by the equation: Ip=Bly + (6 + Igo. (12-1) Note: 8 = hep, I¢g = Iqgo- ‘This equation contains three variables, all dependent upon temperature. (a) It has already been shown that 6 is strongly dependent upon temperature, no matter whether germanium or silicon is being considered, as shown by Fig. 12-1(a). (b) Fig, 12-1(b) indicates how the base Current, Ip, increases with temperature if Vpp is held constant, which Tepresents a ” 8 100°C 100 2s" “~~ 710-100 Ig. mA (0) mA 100°C 25°C o4 02 RE O1V 02V 03Vv Fig. 12-1. (a) Variation of p with temperature for typical germanium transistor. (b) Input characteristics for typical germanium transistor in CE circuit at various temperatures. decrease in de input resistance. The effect, is the same for both germanium and silicon, the curves shifting to the left at the rate of 2.5 mV/°C for constant Io. In silicon tran- sistor amplifiers, this effect is dominant over the increase in leakage current Igg- (c) The increase in leakage current has been indicated as a doubling of Igg for every 10°C increase in temperature, for either silicon or germanium. However, the fact that Igo is very much smaller to start with in silicon than it is with germanium makes a silicon transistor amplifier much more immune to temperature change due to this effect. 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WINN Bese Moy ys in havge UEFA Toye nelly elie 80 Ny yg want . hy My Ady hy My 4 ay) WA Canishans LY) hay Scanned with CamScanners the derivative of Ic, with respect to Consider the CE shown in Fig. 1 amplifier using fixed bias fa) Vigp asa separate supply. Since Ig = Bly + (8 + 1)lgg then dl, Fes 8 +1. ‘co (By differential calculus) (12-3) Iff = 100, then S = 101, which means Ig changes 101 times as much as any change in Igg- This says that I, i8 very dependent upon Igo and hence upon temperature. ‘This is true no matter whether a silicon or germanium transistor is being used, alghough in a silicon it may not be as troublesome, depending upon the size of the transistor and its application, since Igg is as little as one-thousandth the leakage of a germanium transistor. However, a silicon transistor is just as dependent upon temperature as a germanium as far as the increase in I is concerned and (b) THERMAL STABILITY 1: TRANSISTOR BIASING must be stabilized fro) m this ' the stabilizing of a transister -wnePeint. § t ‘ansistor against i in Ico also stabilizes it adequately as te oo" changes in f and Ip, are cones B are concemed (which be very troublesome in a silicon transistor) i. is important to check the stability figure, & Fig. 12-3. (a) CE amplifier with fixed bias. (b) Alternative way of drawing the CE amplifier showing \ ofa transistor amplifier, no matter whether it is germanium or silicon. The fact that S is very large in a fixed-bias circuit indicates poor thermal stability. It is our object. to examine ways to reduce Sa smaller value for S indicating a greater stabil- ity, with S = 1 being the smallest and most stable possible. 12-4, COMMON-BASE STABILITY Consider for a moment the equation for Ig in acommon-base circuit: Ic = alg + Igg- (12-4) + dlc hen S= gyal. (12-5) Hence, the common-base circuit is not in need of bias stabilization. Scanned with CamScanner‘THERMAL STABILITY I: TRANSISTOR BIASING 198 5, COLLECTOR-TO-BASE BIAS Vo @ . that I, ~ 2 will also decrease. This will ‘One of the ways to automatically reduce I, BUR, swith increase in temperature is to obtain the bias voltage from the collector of the tran- sistor instead of from the collector supply voltage. This is illustrated in Fig, 12-4. (e) Yee VY 0 ay ev Fie 12-4 (a) CE amplifier with collector to base bias. (6) Showing the shift in Q point due to an increase in temperature. Veear If the collector current tends to increase due to an increase in temperature or because the transistor has been replaced by one with higher 8, the greater dc voltage drop across will result in a lower average value from collector to emitter, Vogg’s with the result tend to compensate for the original increase in Ig. Note, however, that it takes an increase in Ig to provide the decrease in Ip, so that the two will never compensate exactly. The new stability factor S for this circuit can be shown to be se. (12-6) L 1+ RL +R, which is obviously smaller than f + 1 for the fixed bias circuit. Example 121. Determine the bias resistors R, for fixed bias in Fig. 12-3(a) and collector-to- base bias in Fig. 12-4(a), and compare the stability factors S for the two circuits. Given: Voc = 12 V, Ry, = 880 ohms, Ip = 0.3 mA, 65100, Vong = 6 V (in Fig. 12:4(b)). Solution, For the fixed bias circuit, Neo __12V 3 ma 740K ohms. For the collector-to-base bias circuit, R _Mceq__6v BT, 08mA 20 K ohms. The stability factor S for fixed bias = 6 + 1= 100+1= 101. For collector-to-base bias: ge—8t1_ 100+ BR,» 100x330 it RL+R, 330 + 20,000 101 38.2. ‘This will make a considerably more stable circuit as far as variations in the Q point are Scanned with CamScanner196 THERMAL STABILITY 1: TRANSISTOR BIASING concemed due to temperature causing Ioq to change. However, how effective is this bias circuit in resisting changes in the operating point due to 6 Variation arising from the use of different transistors? It can be shown that if BR, >>Rg, then Ig is relatively insensitive to changes in . Checking for the second case (collector-to- base bias) in Example 12-1, GR, = 100 x 330 = 33 K ohms (12-7) Rg = 20 K ohms. Thus BRy, is not quite twice Rg, so that the circuit is not completely insensitive to f varia- tions. (A factor of 10 would be good, but is not always practical.) However, compared with fixed bias, where = 40 K ohms, the second method of bias- ingis twice as independent of f as is the first circuit, where BR, = 33 K ohms < 40 K ohms. 12-6. DISADVANTAGES OF COLLECTOR-TO-BASE BIAS ‘There are two drawbacks associated with collector-to-base bias. First, since Ry has been decreased from 40 K ohms to 20 K ohms, a change in temperature which would increase Ip at a given Vag would be much more success- sit with R, = 20K ohms than when Rp = 40 K ohms. That is, if the input resistance to the transistor decreases with an increase in temper- ature, the resulting increase in base current will be larger if 20 K ohms is in series with the applied bias voltage than if 40 K ohms is in series. This increase in Iq will tend to offset the required decrease in Ip brought about by collector-to-base biasing. In a silicon tran- sistor circuit, this will be particularly true, and not much overall increase in stability may result. ‘The second drawback can be partially overcome. The fact that Rp is connected to the collector means that the ac signal present at the output will be fed back out of phase ‘with the input; this is called negative feedback. ‘Thus, the input will be reduced, decreasing the output. If Rg is split into two the signal can be taken to ground to reduce this effect by means of a capacitor, small in reactance Ry compared with pf as shown in Fig. 12-5. nv 9 Vcc. a, ng $F Fig. 12-5.. Collector-to-base bias with capacitor Gp to revtuce negative feedback. ‘This still provides de bias stabilization. How- ever, the result is a decrease in both the input and output ac impedances, since a 10 K ohm resistor has effectively been placed in parallel with the base-emitter junction and a 10 K ohm resistor from collector to emitter. 12-7. EMITTER BIAS Consider the stability factor S of the collector- base bias circuit: Bei i Ry + Rg If Ry, is very small, as in a transformer coupled output load, $ is not reduced very much. For example, say Ry = 10 ohms (de resistance of primary of output transformer) Scanned with CamScannerTHERMAL STABILITY I: TRANSISTOR BIASING 197 and Ry = 20 K ohms. ‘Then, 10041 101 S*T) ox” F100 10 + 20,000 20,000 101 _ = 1.05 ~ 86 If it can be arranged so that, when the col- Jector current increases, the forward bias across the base-emitter junction is made to de- crease automatically, then I, will be reduced and will serve to stabilize the de operating point. This is accomplished by placing a resistor in the emitter lead, as shown in Fig. 12-6. Since Ig is small then Ip ~ Ig. Let us obtain an expression for the base bias current, with V, = 0. Writing an equation around the input loop (see Fig. 12-7): Fig. 12-6. Emitter bias due to Re in the emitter lead. Fig. 12-7. Emitter bias circuit redrawn for analysis of the input loop. Vop ~IpRp + Var + Ven (12-8) If Vgp << Vp, then: =IgRp + Var *1gR,- (129) Van ~ToRe a2) B Rg If ly ~ Ig, then: . For a constant Vip (may be equal to Voc), Von = IpRp + Vag * IR, (12-10) an increase in Ip (for any reason) will reduce . Tp, serving to offset the increase in I,. tgRg = Vpp ~ Var —toRe- q21) a ic Scanned with CamScanner198 THERMAL STABILITY The stability factor for this new circuit is: (12-13) Rg Note that from the second form, if pis R, very small, 5? <<, 5 z say to atl. 1X FT pe0 “ge 1 (good Rg thermal stability), and if 5” is very large, Rp . Rg 1x Eoteti thermal 5 (poor RB ). To make 5” small, either R, . or Ry small, or both. How- © choice of Ry is somewhat restricted bias current Ig. (A circuit restriction will be con- of the stabilizing effect ng 2 100-ohm resistor in ‘er lead as in the following example. Exemcle 122 Determine the bias resistor Rp iz Fig. 12-8/a) to provide a base bias current the characteristic curves in -8(b). Also calculate the stability 3(2). ¢= 100. Solution. Draw the de load line: G) ig = 0, vee 12Vv. ‘TRANSISTOR BIASING (a) ig. 12-8. (a) CE amplifier with emitter bias resistor, ke for elinple 12-2. (6) Transistor characteristic curves with de load lines. Vv, cc (2) Vog = ig = go CE C7 RU+R, - 12 = 12Vv 083K+01K 043K = 28 mA. For Ip = 0.3 mA, at Q: Teg = 18 mA, Vogg = 4.25 V. Note: Since the de load line is not as steep now, a bias of 0.3 mA no longer provides a Q point in the center of the char- acteristics, and a lower value would be better, say 0.25 mA or 0.2 mA. This is one of the drawbacks of emitter bias. To operate at the same quiescent point, the value of Vog would have to be increased if Rp is kept constant, or Scanned with CamScannerTHERMAL STABILITY I: TRANSISTOR BIASING 199 efficiency is the price one pay: creased stabil own before that: 's for ‘BB Vaz - TcR,- =12-0.2-18% 10°? x 0.1% 103 = FB 02 184 10" 4 01% 108 0.2% 10% ~12-0.2-1.8 _10¥ 10? = 83 K ohms, =— 100-1 y+ 1007 100 00 = 22,000 72 i0K 7 331K This is not 2 great reduction in S, from 101 . but this is due to the relatively large tio of Ry/R B, OiK to ze = 220. Fig. 12-9 indicates the dependence of $ upon Ba. The curves are drawn for different values of 2, since the worst case of S= 6+ 1is when Rp/R, is very large. ‘The curvés confirm that for 2 of 100 there is little reduction in S when Rg/R, is as much as 230, To increase the stability of the above circuit would require the increasing of R, to 200 or 200 ohms. But this would decrease the ‘ficiency tremendously. The fact is that Ry is too large to decrease the ratio Ry/R, simply by increasing R,. The how can the same bias current of Ip be supplied and eduction in Rg vath the same value of Voc? Before answering this question let us see why the reduction of S is devendent upon 2 low value of Rg. When the the forward bias from base to emitter it effec- tively increases the de input resistance. This will only decrease Ip if this resistance is comparable to the total r the base, namely Rg. for example, 2 change in input resistance ohms will not materially change Ip, and e effect of R, on Ig is small. Rg is 40 K ohm Fig.12-9. Curves showing how the stability factor S depends upon Rp/P, for various values of 2. 12-8. VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIAS WITH EMITTER BIAS. In the example above, Ry had to be 33 K ohms with Vpp = Voc = 12'V. If in some way Van Scanned with CamScanner200 THERMAL STABILITY 1: TRANSISTOR BIASING. were rec, Ry alto could be rece R,Ry x Ponsider the voltage divider ci ane Yao = Xe a ge divider circuit in Fig. Ry RFR, pp ~ “CO” Ry + Ky Fcc and (aa s-— Ga Be (12.18) Obviously, Vpp Will be less than Veg, 50 that ean be less (than Rg), and so will Ry'/R,, lucing S further. ‘The selection of Ry and R. fora required Consider only the bias circuit Ry, Ry, Vog aS —_ bias current is not an easy matter and is best shown in Fig. 12-11. illustrated by a numerical example. Fig. 12-10. CE amplifier with voltage divider R, bids due fo Ry and Ro, and emitter bias due to Ry rea (o) (e) | II Pilko s “Thevenin equivalent Fig. 12-11. (a) Voltage divider bias due to Ry, Ba, Voce (b) Bias cireut redrawn without common ground, (c) Thevenin equivalent circuit for voltage divider bias. ‘The final Thevenin equivalent circuit (looking Example 123. Determine the values of R, and back from B ~ G) consists of Ry’ and Vpp, Ry in Fig, 12-10 to provide a base bias current where Ig = 0.8 mA, so as to locate the operating Scanned with CamScannerTHEIL STABILITY 1 TRANBIGTOR BIABING point at Ing = 18 MA, Vopg = 4.25 V, the same as the conditions in Fig. 12.8(6) in Example 12-2. Make the stability factor 8°10 ($= 100). Solution. In the base circuit, using the equiv- alent bias circuit, Fig. 12-11(c): Yep Pe IgRp’ - Vee = IgR, - 3 + Vpp 70-3X 10% x Ry’ 40.2 +18x 10° x 0.1 x 103 =0.3X 109 x Ry’ +2. Thisis as far as one can go without choosing a value for Rp’. Since R, has been chosen as 0.1 K ohm, the selection of Rp’ will deter- mine the stability factor S. When Ry’ has been selected, the required bias resistors can be determined. R From the curve of 8 against =” for 6 = 100 (Fig. 12-9), a reduction of § from 101 to 10 R, would be accomplished by making? ~10. “Ry =10R, = 10x 0.1K=1K=R,’ 2 Vpp = 0.3X 1073 x 1x 103 +2 =03+2=23V. Now, +i Re Ry BR +R, 274 Ves ~ Yoo * R RR, R, +R, “(Ry +Ry)1K=R,Rp and (R,+R,)2.3 =12R,, Thus: 1K = and 2.3=12% gr From the second equation: 23R, +2.3R,=12R, 201 23K, = 9.7, Ry“ 4.2h,. Substituting in the first equation: (4.2K, + Hy) 1K = 42M % Ry 52K, 1K = 4.2R, 7 Ry. 262K =4IR, 24. = 4.2% 1.24 K = 6.2K ohms. The actual value of S is: b+ ___100+1 89 fh, y+ 10020 G 1th oR 0.141 1 -101__ 101, T+91~ 10.17 10 ‘This would be a very stable circuit against temperature variations. However, the effect of Ry = 1.24 K ohms and R, = 5.2 K ohms is to provide an effective loading of 1 K ohm in parallel with the ac input and may load the input source since the input resistance to the transistor is usually about 1 K ohm. The loading would be even greater if more bias stabilization were required (smaller S). The reason for this state of affairs (high loading with, S = 10 instead of 2 or 3) is the small value of Ry. The value of Ry’ could be made larger, say 2 K ohms, if R, were in- creased to 200 ohms with S remaining at 10, but with Ry = 330 ohms this would make for an inefficient circuit, since R, would be almost equal to R, , and there would be an almost equal amount of de power lost in each. In a voltage amplifier with Rp = 5 K ‘ohms, or 10 K ohms, an S of 3 could easily be achieved without loading the input through using higher values for R, and Ry. However, Scanned with CamScanner‘THERMAL STABILITY 202 where bias stabilization is important, such as low load resistance values in power amplifiers it can always be accomplished by using the voltage divider cireuit with Ry and Ry. The extra stabilization could not be accomplished to the same degree by using R, and only one resistor Rp, as used in the circuit of Fig. 12-8(a). 12-9, EMITTER BYPASS CAPACITOR The stabilization due to the addition of R, has come about due to the action of de negative feedback. In order to avoid degenerative ac feedback, R, must be bypassed by a large capacitor C,, as shown in Fig. 12-12(c). This is much larger than in a tube circuit; often 50 to 100 uF is necessary. This will be covered in detail in the discussion of frequency response characteristics in Chapter 15. 12-10. SUMMARY OF STABILIZATION CIRCUITS Fig. 12-12 is a summary of the stabilized cir- cuits, all of which have a bias Ty = 0.3 mA. ‘The S factors are shown for comparison, as are the loading effects of the biasing resistors. Various combinations of the circuits are pos- sible. For example, in the second circuit, more flexibility in obtaining the bias point can result from adding a resistor from base to ground. Also, an emitter resistor could be added to the second diagram (using collector- to-base biasing) to increase the stability further. 12-11. ADDITIONAL STABILITY FACTORS It was mentioned that there are two other factors that contribute t6 thermal instability, variation in Ig (Vpg) and 6 with temperature: Stabilities due to these quantities are measured by S' and 8" respectively: 1: TRANSISTOR BIASING S 8 amps (12-16) “By+k,* 7 +1 volts © » tle Id constant, 8* = GE, Ico and Vag held constant, 1,8 & (12-17) where 6, is at temperature T, and 8» is at temperature T. It can be seen that the methods covered for R, reducing $ (by making me small) also serve to reduce S". However, S’ is minimized by using alarge value of Re or R, (as well as making Ssmall). Thus, in all cases, the largest practi- cal value of R, should be used, but a com- promise will be necessary in selecting Rp. In general, reducing S will improve thermal stability due to all effects. ‘The total change in collector current as a function of all three stability factors is: Alg = SAlgg + S'AVgp + S”AB. (12:18) Due to the smaller dependence on Igg for asilicon transistor, manufacturers specify the average range of operation for a germanium transistor as -65°C to +75°C and for a silicon transistor as -65°C to +175°C. ‘This does not mean the transistors will automatically operate successfully in any cir- cuit over is range. The circuits must be stabilized for this operation, but a germanium transistor would not be used at ambient temperatures exceeding +75°C even if ade- quately stabilized. In a silicon transistor, thé increase in col- lector current over a given temperature range is due primarily to Vpp (S') and not Igg (S). Scanned with CamScanner~—— ‘THERMAL STABILITY I: TRANSISTOR BIASING (a) (b) se10r Swart trout tootea S382 by 40 K ohms, BY10 ohms, Ovtout loaded by 10K onms, ( 203 Noe 12 Input ioaded S= a trout 8 Input loaded = oily Input loaded 5 inp Agee by 33 K ohms, by 1K ohm, aia BAe Ay “Rtg ‘Fig. 12-12, Summary of the stabilized CE amplifier circuits: (0) Unstabilized — fixed bias. (0) Collector-to-base bias. (c) Emitter and fixed bias. (d) Emitter and voltage divider bias. However, reducing S will reduce S' and make it stable against variations in Vpp due to temperature change. In a germanium transistor the effect of Igg has the dominant influence on the collector current. 12-12, BIAS COMPENSATION All of the previous circuits used some type of negative feedback to stabilize the operating Point. It is also possible to use diodes and Scanned with CamScanner204 ‘THERMAL STABILITY |: TRANSISTOR BIASING thermistors to compensate for variations in current, although a mixture of negative feedback and compensation is often used. See Fig. 12-18, (@) (o) x C, }—o Fig 12-13. Methods of bias compensation: (@) Use of a reverse-biased diode across the base- enitter junction, (b) Use of a thermistor to reduce forward bias with an increase in temperature. Bias stabilization is also provided by R, and C, . In Fig, 12-13(a), a diode of the same material as the transistor is reverse biased by the base-emitter junction voltage, allowing leakage current I, to flow through the diode D. If an increase in temperature occurs, causing Ipg to increase in the transistor, the leakage current through D will also increase, decreasing the base current Ig (I is approxi- mately constant). This is the required action to keep Ip near constant. Note that this compensation does not need a change in Ig to effect the change in Ip. It is dependent erature, so theoretically I, only upon temp and Ig and Igg can track almost squats ‘an remain essentially constan’ . . In Fig. 12-13(b), @ thermistor, Her» which has a negative temperature coet™iecei placed in parallel with Ry, and resins values are selected so that correc! Diss | applied at normal temperature. An increase in temperature will decrease forward bias, reducing Iy and Ig. 12-13, SUMMARY (1) The variation in a transistor’s de collector current with temperature in a CE amplifier depends upon B, Ip and Igg, all of which increase with temperature. (2) The resulting increase in collector current and shift in operating point may cause clip- ping and distortion of the applied signal, or it may cause thermal runaway. (3) The stability factor S is defined as the rate of change of collector current I,, with respect to the leakage current Igg, with both Band Ip held constant. This instability factor indicates how much change there is in Ig for a given change in Igg and depends upon the bias circuit used. (4) The stability factor S for a CE circuit using fixed bias is # + 1 for either a silicon or germanium transistor. (5) A common-base circuit has S = 1, which is the most stable possible. (6) Stabilization methods involve the reduc- tion of forward bias with temperature increase, to reduce Ig and hence I, by some means of negative feedback, in various bias circuits. (1) Collector-to-base bias employs a resistor Rg connected from collector to base and pro- + vides bias stabilization with $ = mR RL+Rp Scanned with CamScannerp THERMAL STABILITY 1: TRANSISTOR BIASING (8) Collector-to-base bias may not provide much overall increase in stability in a silicon transistor circuit since the reduced value of Rg Will allow a larger increase in Ip with temperature than with fixed bias. (@) Emitter bias consists of the addition of a resistor R, in the emitter lead, bypassed by a Iarge capacitor C,. . ge 41 s i IRR, (20) Maximum reduction of $ with emitter bias is accomplished by the use of the minimum R value of [> that is practical. e (11) Voltage divider bias with emitter bias ‘will permit the selection of any operating point, with any desired value of S, but usually with increased loading. (12) Additional stability factors are S’ and S", which indicate the dependence of I, upon Ig and 6, respectively. (13) In a silicon transistor, the effect of I,(S') is predominant over Icq (S), but the reduction of $ will serve to reduce both S' and S”. (14) Bias compensation involves the use of diodes or thermistors to compensate for the variations in current instead of using a nega- tive feedback method. QUESTIONS Q12-1. What three factors contribute to thermal instability? Which one has the least 205 effect in silicon transistors? Why? Q12-2. What do you understand by the term, “thermal instability"? Explain in your own words. | Q12-3. What is the underlying principle of Providing thermal stabilization by means of bias circuit modifications? How does this differ from the compensation techniques using a diode or thermistor? Q12-4. What is the definition of the stability factor, S? Why would it seem more reason- able to call this an instability factor? Which circuit has the highest S factor? Which one the lowest? Q12-5. Describe how a CE amplifier with collector-to-base bias provides thermal stabili- zation when s temperature rise tries to increase the average collector current. Q12-6. What are the disadvantages of collector- to-base bias? Can they be overcome? | Q12-7. Sketch a CE amplifier employing a PNP transistor and a resistor in the emitter lead, similar to Fig. 12-7. Describe the stabil- izing action of R, as a temperature increase takes place. What part does the ratio Rg F_ Play in the stabilization? Q12-8. What is a drawback of emitter bias? What modification should be made if an emitter bias resistor is added to an unstabil- ized amplifier? Q12-9. What essentially is gained by the use of a voltage divider bias in the base (Fig. 12-10) compared with a single base bias resistor (Fig. 12-8)? Q12-10. In selecting the components Ry and R, in Fig. 12-10, with a given R,, what deci- sion must be made to complete the selection? Scanned with CamScanner206 THERMAL STABILITY I: TRANSISTOR BIASING Q1211. Ifa CE amplifier has a voltae divider base bias circuit, how will the loading on the input compare with a single resistor bins circuit if both have the same value of emitter resistor and base bias current? (See Fig. 12-12.) Q12-12. What two equations indicate that a reduction in S also serves to increase thermal stability agsinst variations in Vaz and 8? Does this mean Ry/R, should be made as small as possible in all cases? Explain. 12-13. What is the total change in collector current dependent upon as the temperature changes? PROBLEMS P12-1. A 2N404A germanium transistor has an Togo (igg) of 5 #A at an ambient temper- ature of 25°C. Assuming its 8 (hyg) is 50 and that its base-emitter bias voltage in the CE connection is 0.2 V, use the curves in Fig. 12-1 to determine the collector current (a) a temperature of 25°C. (b) 2 temperature of 100°C. (Use Igo at 95°C.) P12-2. A silicon transistor is to be used in a CE amplifier circuit like that in Fig. 12-3(a), with Vog = 20 V and R, = 800 ohms. Using the given collector characteristics, determine: (a) The de (and ac) load line. {b) The value of Ry, to provide a base bias current of 80 nA. (c) The operating point: Vop, Io- (d) The value of hpp at the @ point: le hpp= ie PBT, {e) The stability factor of the circuit, S. (f) ‘The new value of Rx if collector-to- base bias is to be used to provide the same operating point asin (b). (See Fig. 12-4(a).) (g) The new stability factor of the circuit, with collector-to-base bias. {h) Whether or not this type of bias makes Ig relatively insensitive to changes in B. Is iFany better than fixed bias? By how much? (i) The values of resistors and bypass capa: citor, Cg, in Fig. 12-5 if the lowest fre- quency to be handled is 10 Hz. “Typical collectoiycharacterstios TConmonaemiteer eveuit, bose input ‘ao. Case temperature (Te) = 25°C | CI EES Sr rir nn a) Collector-to-emittor volts (Vcg) Characteristics of the silicon transistor for P12-2 through 5. P12-3, If the same transistor as in P12-2is to be used with emitter bias as in Fig, 12-6 with Veg = 20 V and R,, = 800 ohms, what would have to be the value of R, to give approx: imately the same base and collector currents as in PL2-2(c) and to provide: (a) An $ factor of 100? (Use 6 = hrg from P12-2(d).) (b) The same S factor as with collector-to- base bias, in P12-2(g)? Scanned with CamScanner‘THERMAL STABILITY I: TRANSISTOR BIASING 207 What do you conclude regarding an emitter resistor to provide good thermal stability for this transistor, load, and operating point (I = B80 HA)? P12-4, If R, = 200 ohms is used in the ampli- fier of Fig. 12-8 with Ry = 800 ohms, V., = 20 V and the above transistor, determine: (a) The de load line. (b) The value of Ry to provide a base bias current of 80 uA. (c) The value of the stability factor, S. Does this substantiate the results of P1237 P12-5. The amplifier of P12-4 is to be modi- fied so that a voltage divider circuit will be used to bias the base as in Fig. 12-10, instead of using a single resistor, Ry. If Ry = 800 ohms, Veg = 20 V, R, = 200 ohms, calculate: (a) The value of Ry’ to provide an S factor of 20. Use Eq. 12-15 and the value of 6 (hpp) from P12-2(d). (b) The values of Ry and Ry to provi base bias of 80 uA. (©) The additional loading on the input signal due to Ry and Ry. (2) ‘The value of bypass capacitor, C,, to Provide Xq,< 0.1 R, at the lowest fe- quency, 100 Hz in this case. P12-6. Repeat P12-2 using a germanium §K3014 power transistor with Vog = 30 V, Ry, =6 ohms, base bias Iy = 10154, P12-7. Repeat P12-4 using a germanium $K3014 power transistor with Vo, = 30 V, Ry = 6 ohms, R,= 1 ohm, I= {0 mA. P28, Repeat P12-5 using the SK3014 ty Sistor with Veo = 30 V, Ry = 6 ohms, R, ohm, 1, =10mA. (Omit Part (d); R, is usually left unbypassed in power amplifiers to Teduce distortion.) P12-9. Calculate the percent second harmonic distortion and the output power in assuming a 20 mA p-p signal current into the base for: (a) Problem P12-6. (b) Problem P12-8. P12-10. A silicon transistor is used in the cir- cuit of Fig. 12-10 with R, = 800 ohms, Veo = 20 V, R, = 200 ohms, Ry = Ry lIRy = 4.4 ohms. The characteristics of the tran- sistor at 25°C and 100°C are given in the following table: 25°C: Igg = 100A, 6 = 100, Vap= 0.6 V. 100°C: Ipg = 2 HA, 6 = 160, Vog = 0.41 V. (a) Calculate the stability factor S at 25°C. (b) Calculate S' at 25°C using Eq. 12-16. (c) Calculate S" at 100°C using Eq. 12-17 if the quiescent collector current is 10 mA. (d) Determine the total change in collector current when the temperature increases from 25°C to 100°C, using Eq. 12-18. (Note that both S' and AV, are negative.) What is the new value of collector current? s , 125 ma wie 4 . “2d ma 2 ' \ Rs -15 ma + 5 hl. | », tro a K 4 |e = 5m ° L_| | 0-10-20 0 a Veervats Characteristics of the SK8014 power transistor. Scanned with CamScannerON TURMALAT AVANTE TUPIANMTEEPOI TAMING Qo) Assume now tliat a german tiny temnvnlation te muibatttuitedt for Chie allleon tranalatar, Ube ohartotortaties at 2b"O and ATN'C ai given ti tho followin table ADO! Tog = LOA = LO, Ugg, = O88 Ve AD 'UE Nyy 7 OL MA, HA LOO, Vyyye OAV Datormine tho ehnnge ln vollector current ns the fomporatties inerwanue from 86°C to TSC iC the collector evrivnt at 2 ne taalo 10 mA, What ean you vonehide opiteding the upper tomparatune af open Hon of aailivon tranaator compared with & germnantiiny (ranalstor for the wame change in colloetor einen t? (f) What would the change In collestor current have been in exeh eae Ir noither colroult fie tts bius polit thornually atablttret? Phat ts, UC fixedt Daw yeere wanedd whe Uy = 200 K olune, Scanned with CamScanner