Solved Question Paper

Anuran Bordoloi | MBA 2nd Semester

Behavioural Science
Date: 14/05/2020

Unit I:
Q1. Discuss the relation between Culture and Personality with Relevant examples
Ans.
One great example of the way culture can influence personality is to look at
cultures that are more individualistic and those that are more collectivistic. People
in individualistic cultures tend to be more often idiocentric, or interested in their
own ways. Those in collectivist cultures tend to be more often allocentric, which
is when they focus their attention on others instead.
Individuals who are more idiocentric may be more likely to display the following
characteristics to their personalities:
• Emotional distance
• Competitiveness
• Self-reliance
• Higher self-esteem
Individuals who are more allocentric, on the other hand, may be more likely to
display other characteristics, such as:
• Sociability
• Empathy
• A lower self-esteem
• Ease of embarrassment
Even within a collectivistic or individualistic cultural or ethnic group, there can be
differences in personalities.
Q2. Give a brief overview of the Hofstede's Framework.
Ans.
The Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory, developed by Geert Hofstede, is a
framework used to understand the differences in culture across countries and to
discern the ways that business is done across different cultures. In other words, the
framework is used to distinguish between different national cultures, the
dimensions of culture, and their impact on a business setting.

Hofstede identified six categories that define culture:

1. Power Distance Index
2. Collectivism vs. Individualism
3. Uncertainty Avoidance Index
4. Femininity vs. Masculinity
5. Short-Term vs. Long-Term Orientation
6. Restraint vs. Indulgence
Q3. Discus the four dimensions of Hofstede's Framework.
Ans.
Power Distance Index
The power distance index considers the extent to which inequality and power are
tolerated. In this dimension, inequality and power are viewed from the viewpoint
of the followers – the lower level.
• High power distance index indicates that a culture accepts inequity and
power differences, encourages bureaucracy and shows high respect for rank
and authority.
• Low power distance index indicates that a culture encourages organizational
structures that are flat, decentralized decision-making responsibility,
participative style of management, and places emphasis on power
distribution.
Individualism vs. Collectivism
The individualism vs. collectivism dimension considers the degree to which
societies are integrated into groups and their perceived obligation and dependence
on groups.
• Individualism indicates that there is greater importance on attaining personal
goals. A person’s self-image in this category is defined as “I.”
• Collectivism indicates that there is greater importance on the goals and well-
being of the group. A person’s self-image in this category is defined as
“We”.
Uncertainty Avoidance Index
The uncertainty avoidance index considers the extent to which uncertainty and
ambiguity are tolerated. This dimension considers how unknown situations and
unexpected events are dealt with.
• High uncertainty avoidance index indicates a low tolerance for uncertainty,
ambiguity, and risk-taking. The unknown is minimized through strict rules,
regulations, etc.
 • Low uncertainty avoidance index indicates a high tolerance for uncertainty,
ambiguity, and risk-taking. The unknown is more openly accepted, and there
are lax rules, regulations, etc.
Masculinity vs. Femininity
The masculinity vs. femininity dimension is also referred to as “tough vs. tender,”
and considers the preference of society for achievement, attitude towards sexuality
equality, behavior, etc.
• Masculinity comes with the following characteristics: distinct gender roles,
assertive, and concentrated on material achievements and wealth-building.
• Femininity comes with the following characteristics: fluid gender roles,
modest, nurturing, and concerned with the quality of life.
Long-Term Orientation vs. Short-Term Orientation
The long-term orientation vs. short-term orientation dimension considers the extent
to which society views its time horizon.
• Long-term orientation shows focus on the future and involves delaying
short-term success or gratification in order to achieve long-term success.
Long-term orientation emphasizes persistence, perseverance, and long-term
growth.
• Short-term orientation shows focus on the near future, involves delivering
short-term success or gratification and places a stronger emphasis on the
present than the future. Short-term orientation emphasizes quick results and
respect for tradition.
Indulgence vs. Restraint
The indulgence vs. restraint dimension considers the extent and tendency for a
society to fulfill its desires. In other words, this dimension revolves around how
societies can control their impulses and desires.
• Indulgence indicates that a society allows relatively free gratification related
to enjoying life and having fun.
• Restraint indicates that a society suppresses gratification of needs and
regulates it through social norms.
Q4. What is the cultural iceberg?
Ans.

Icebergs peak over the water, revealing just a small portion of their total mass.
Culture is similar in that people at first just see a small portion of a person's culture
based on things such as clothing, appearance, speech, grooming, greeting rituals,
music, arts, or dances. However, these observations comprise just a fraction of a
person's culture. Just like with a physical iceberg, a cultural iceberg contains
essential characteristics beneath the surface.
Individuals may be able to see and describe certain aspects of culture by simple
observation. However, they can develop a better understanding of deeply rooted
ideas by studying formative factors, reflecting on their own core values and
analyzing observed core values of members of the culture. Simultaneously, they
can be open to the idea that individual values may differ.
Unit II:
Q1. Define Attitude.
Ans.
An attitude is a positive; negative or mixed evaluation of an object that is
expressed at some level of intensity. It is an expression of a favorable or
unfavorable evaluation of a person, place, thing or event. These are fundamental
determinants of our perceptions of, and actions toward all aspects of our social
environment. Attitudes involve a complex organization of evaluative beliefs,
feelings, and tendencies toward certain actions.
Attitude is the manner, disposition, feeling and position with regard to a person or
thing, tendency or orientation especially in the mind.
According to Gordon Allport, “An attitude is a mental and neural state of
readiness, organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence
upon the individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is
related.”
Frank Freeman said, “An attitude is a dispositional readiness to respond to certain
institutions, persons or objects in a consistent manner which has been learned and
has become one’s typical mode of response.”

Q2. What is the ABC theory of attitude or what are the different components of
attitudes?
Ans.
The ABC Model of Attitudes
There are three main components of an attitude:
1. Cognitive component
2. Affective component
3. Behavioural component
As you can see, the easy way to recall these components is to use the letters
ABC.
Cognitive component
Cognitive component involves the belief or knowledge of the person.
This base knowledge is usually objective and without any emotional element.
For example, a person might know that McDonald’s is a fast food restaurant that
operates in 1,000’s of locations throughout the world. As you can see, this is
simply base information/knowledge without any particular viewpoint in regards to
McDonald’s.
Affective component
The affective component of an attitude relates to some form of judgment or
positive/negative evaluation of the object, person, task or brand. A good way to
remember this component is from the word ‘affection’ – but consider that the view
can be positive or negative.
Using our McDonald’s example again, the same person as above may consider that
McDonald’s food is convenient and provides good value for money. This is the
affective component of an attitude, as it suggests some form of evaluation.
Contrast this against another person who may dislike the taste of McDonald’s view
and generally dislike their facilities.
Behavioural component
The third component of an attitude is the behavioural component. As suggested by
the name, this is the person’s behavior relative to the subject of the overall attitude.
Using a McDonald’s example yet again, there are some people who would
frequently visit McDonald’s, others who go occasionally, and others who would
never go to McDonald’s. Obviously the behavioral component is interrelated to the
effective and cognitive aspects of the person’s attitude.

Q3. Write short notes on:

a. Process of cognitive dissonance.

Cognitive dissonance refers to a situation involving conflicting

attitudes, beliefs or behaviors. This produces a feeling of mental
 discomfort leading to an alteration in one of the attitudes, beliefs or
behaviors to reduce the discomfort and restore balance.
For example, when people smoke (behavior) and they know that
smoking causes cancer (cognition), they are in a state of cognitive
dissonance.
What causes cognitive dissonance?
1. Forced Compliance Behavior,
2. Decision Making,
3. Effort.

b. Process of persuasion.

Persuasion is really a pretty simple process with four basic parts. First,
it begins with a person (the source or persuader) who wants something
that he or she doesn’t have already. Persuasion is goal-directed; so all
persuaders have goals that they seek, which is the second part in the
process of persuasion. Third, persuasion actually works or occurs
through messages, which are directed to the audience to help achieve
the persuader’s goal. Fourth, persuasion is always aimed at
an audience, which is made up of those people who can help the
persuader accomplish his or her goal.

Persuasion is a process, which means it goes through steps.

First, the persuader must identify a goal, want or desire. Some goals
don’t require the cooperation of others.

Second, we have to identify the right audience; the groups of people

who can help us achieve our goal. It has to be a group that we can
speak with or write to (we have to be able to get our message to
them). They must also have what it takes to obtain our goal. They may
have information, or money, or power. But for persuasion to be
successful the audience has to be able to grant our wish.

Third, we have to make up a message. For simple and easy requests,

just asking might be enough. For other goals, we will have to
convince the audience, persuade them, or give them reasons to do
 what we want. It is important not to just tell them why we want them
to do something.

Fourth, the message has to be conveyed to the audience. In

interpersonal relations, this simply means meeting (or calling, or
mailing) the other person. Other messages, like advertisements,
require more elaborate preparation and distribution arrangements. But
persuasion can’t be successful if the messages do not reach its
intended audience.

Q4. What is the relationship between attitudes and values? Give examples.
Ans.
Values are about how we have learned to think about how things ought to be,
or people ought to behave, especially in terms of qualities such as honesty,
integrity, openness, etc.
Attitudes are the established ways of responding to people and situations that
we have learned based on the beliefs, values, and assumptions we hold.
Similarities between Values and Attitudes
1. Values and attitudes are two important variables influencing the cognitive
process and behavior.
2. They are learned and acquired essentially from the same sources.
3. They endure and are resistant to change.
4. They have a reciprocal influence and are used interchangeably.

Dissimilarities between Values and Attitudes

Values Attitudes
Values help to guide our behavior. Attitudes are the response that is a result of
our values.

Values decide what we think as for Attitudes are our likes and dislike of
right, wrong, good, or unjust. things, people, and objects.

Values are more or less permanent in Attitudes are changeable with favorable
nature. experiences.

They represent a single belief that, They represent several beliefs focused on a
guides actions and judgment across specific object or situation.
objects and situations.

They derived from social and These are personal experiences.

cultural mores.

Q5. What are the two types of values? Give examples.

Ans.
Two types of values are;
1. Terminal Values.
2. Instrumental Values.
Terminal Values are most desirable to humans and Instrumental values are
views of how human desires should be achieved.
Terminal Values
These are values that we think are most important or most desirable.
These refer to desirable end-states of existence, the goals a person would like to
achieve during his or her lifetime.
They include happiness, self-respect, recognition, inner harmony, leading a
prosperous life, and professional excellence.
Instrumental Values
Instrumental values deal with views on acceptable modes of conductor means of
achieving the terminal values.
These include being honest, sincere, ethical, and being ambitious. These values are
more focused on personality traits and character.
There are many typologies of values. One of the most established surveys to assess
individual values is the Rokeach Value Survey.
This survey lists 18 terminal and 18 instrumental values in alphabetical order.
They are given below:

Terminal Values Instrumental Values

A comfortable life (a prosperous life) Ambitious (hardworking)

An exciting life (a stimulating, active Broadminded (open-minded)

life)

A sense of accomplishment (lasting Capable (competent, efficient)

contribution)

A world of peace (free of war and Cheerful ( lighthearted, joyful)

conflict)

A world of beauty (the beauty of Clean (neat, tidy)

nature and the arts)

Equality (brotherhood, equal Courageous (standing up for your

opportunity for all) beliefs)

Family security (taking care of loved Forgiving (willing to pardon)

ones)
Freedom (independence, free choice) Helpful (working for the welfare of
others)

Happiness ( contentedness) Honest (sincere, truthful)

Inner harmony (freedom from inner Imaginative (daring, creative)

conflict)

Mature love (sexual and spiritual Independent (self-reliant, self-sufficient)

intimacy)

National security (protection from Intellectual (intelligent, reflective)

attack)

Pleasure (an enjoyable, leisurely life) Logical (consistent, rational)

Salvation (saved, eternal) Loving (affectionate, tender)

Self-respect(self-esteem) Obedient (dutiful, respectful)

Social recognition (respect, Polite (courteous, well-mannered)

admiration)

A true friend (close companionship) Responsible (dependable, reliable)

Wisdom ( a mature understanding of Self-controlled (restrained, self-

life) disciplined)

Q6. Is there any difference in the value system between men and women? What is
your opinion?
Ans.
Unit III:
Q1. Define Power.
Ans.
Power is the ability to influence other people. It refers to the capacity to affect the
behaviour of the subordinate with the control of resources. It is an exchange
relationship that occurs in transactions between an agent and a target. The agent is
the person who uses the power and target is the receipt of the attempt to use power.
Q2. What are the different types of Power?
Ans.
Sources (Base) of Power
According to French and Raven, a manager drives power from five sources :
Reward, Coercive, Legitimate, Referent and Expert power.
Reward Power
It is based on the agent's/manager's ability to control rewards the target/employee
wants. The common, e.g., of it are managers control rewards of salary increases,
bonuses and promotions. This power is based on old saying that 'wealth is power'.
Coercive Power
It is opposite of reward power. It is based on a manager's ability to cause an
unpleasant experience for its people. In organizational situation, it may be in the
form of action for or threat for dismissal, suspension, or demotion, for the people
working in organization.
Legitimate Power
It is based on position and mutual agreement. Both the agent and target agree that
the agent has the right to influence the employees. It is in the form of authority
which is delegated to the positions of organizational members.
Referent Power
It is an elusive power that is based on interpersonal attraction. Charismatic
individuals are often thought to have referent power. Here, people take somebody
as ideal and behave accordingly upto a certain stage.
Expert Power
It exists when the agent has information or knowledge that the target needs. It is
based on the proverb, "knowledge in power". Three conditions to be fulfilled are :
(1) The target must trust that the information given by the agent is accurate and
correct.
(2) The information should be relevant and useful to the target.
(3) The target must consider the agent as an expert.
Q3. What are the different types of Power tactics?
Ans.
• Rational persuasion. A tactic that is used to try and convince someone with
a valid reason, rational logic, or realistic facts.
• Inspirational appeals. A tactic that builds enthusiasm by appealing to
emotions, ideas and/or values.
• Consultation. A tactic that focuses on getting others to participate in the
planning process, making decisions, and encourage changes.
• Ingratiation. A tactic that emphasizes on getting someone in a good mood
prior to making a request. It includes being friendly, helpful, and using
praise or flattery.
• Personal appeals. A tactic that refers to friendship and loyalty while
making a request.
• Exchange. A tactic that suggests that making express or implied promises
and trading favours.
• Coalition tactics. Refers to a tactic that prescribes getting others to support
your effort to persuade someone.
• Pressure. A tactic that focuses on demanding compliance or using
intimidation or threats.
• Legitimating tactics. This tactic suggests that basing a request on one’s
authority or right, organizational rules or policies, or express or implied
support from superiors, is a best.

Q4. Define Politics.

Ans.
Politics are informal, unofficial, and sometimes behind-the-scenes efforts to sell
ideas, influence an organization, increase power, or achieve other targeted
objectives.
Politics refers to intentional behaviors that are designed to enhance or protect a
person’s influence and self-interest used professionally, these behaviors may help
attain a well-earned promotion, sell higher management on the merits of a proposal
that will expand one’s responsibilities and resources, or gain personal visibility.
Functions of politics are; overcoming personal inadequacies, coping with change,
channelizing personal contacts, and substituting for formal authority.
Overcoming Personnel Inadequacies
There are several inadequacies in personnel and consequently, mismatches occur
between people and positions in organizations. Even in the best-managed
companies, mismatches arise among managers who are learning, lacking needed
training and skills, overqualified, or lacking resources needed to accomplish their
assigned tasks.
Organizational politics provide a mechanism for circumventing those inadequacies
and getting the job done.
Cope with Change
Changes in the environment and technology of an organization often come more
quickly than an organization can restructure. Even in organizations known for
detailed planning, unanticipated events occur.
To meet unanticipated problems, people and resources must be moved into place
quickly before minor problems and move ambitious, problem-solving managers
into the crisis.
Channel Personnel Contacts
In larger organizations, it is, largely impossible to know the persons in every
important position. Yet managers need to influence the individuals throughout the
organization. The political network can provide the necessary access.
Substitute for Formal Authority
When a person’s formal authority breaks-down or fails to apply to a situation,
political actions can be used to prevent a loss of influence.
Managers may use political behavior to maintain operations and achieve task
continuity in circumstances where the failure of formal authority may otherwise
cause problems. Henry Mintzberg identified some functional roles in
organizational politics.

Q5. Discuss the causes of political behaviour in organizations.

Ans.

Individual Factors
Researchers have identified certain personality traits, needs, and other factors that
are likely to be related to political behavior.
▪ Employees who are high self-monitor, possess an internal locus of control,
and have a high need for power are more likely to engage in political
behavior.
▪ The high self-monitor is more sensitive to social cues and is more likely to
be skilled in political behavior than the low self-monitor.
▪ Individuals with an internal locus of control are more prone to take a
proactive stance and attempt to manipulate situations in their favor.
 ▪ The Machiavellian personality is comfortable using politics as a means to
further his/her self-interest.
An individual’s investment in the organization’s perceived alternatives and
expectations of success will influence the tendency to pursue illegitimate means of
political action.
▪ The more that a person has invested and the more a person has to lose, the
less likely he/she is to use illegitimate means.
▪ The more alternative job opportunities an individual has, a prominent
reputation, or influential contacts outside the organization, the more likely
he/she will risk illegitimate political actions.
▪ A low expectation of success in using illegitimate means diminishes the
probability of its use.
Organizational Factors
Political activity is probably more a function of the organization’s characteristics
than of individual difference variables.
When an organization’s resources are declining, when the existing pattern of
resources is changing, and when there is an opportunity for promotions, politics is
more likely to surface.
1. Cultures characterized by low trust, role ambiguity, unclear performance
evaluation systems, zero-sum reward allocation practices,
democratic decision making, high pressures for performance, and self-
serving senior managers will create breeding grounds for politicking.
2. When organizations downsize to improve efficiency, people may engage in
political actions to safeguard what they have.
3. Promotion decisions have consistently been found to be one of the most
political in organizations.
4. The less trust there is within the organization, the higher the level of political
behavior and the more likely it will be illegitimate.
5. Role ambiguity means that the prescribed behaviors of the employee are not
clear.
 ▪ There are fewer limits to the scope and functions of the employee’s
political actions.
▪ The greater the role ambiguity, the more one can engage in political
activity with little chance of it being visible.
6. Subjective criteria in the appraisal process; Subjective performance criteria
create ambiguity.
▪ Single outcome measures encourage doing whatever is necessary to
“look good.”
▪ The more time that elapses between an action and its appraisal, the
more unlikely that the employee will be held accountable for his/her
political behaviors.
7. The zero-sum approach treats the reward “pie” as fixed so that any gain one
person or group achieve has to come at the expense of another person or
group. If I win, you must lose!
8. Making organizations less autocratic by asking managers to behave more
democratically is not necessarily embraced by all individual managers.
▪ Sharing their power with others runs directly against some managers’
desires.
▪ The result is that managers, especially those who began their careers
in the 1950s and 1960s* may use the required committees,
conferences, and group meetings in a superficial.
9. The more pressure that employees feel to perform well, the more likely they
are to engage in politicking.
▪ If a person perceives that his or her entire career is riding on the next
“whatever,” there is motivation to do whatever is necessary to make
sure the outcome is favorable.
10.When employees see top management successfully engaging in political
behavior, a climate is created that supports politicking.
Q6. Define conflict.
Ans.
A conflict is a clash of interest. The basis of conflict may vary but, it is always a
part of society. Basis of conflict may be personal, racial, class, caste, political and
international. Conflict in groups often follows a specific course. Routine group
interaction is first disrupted by an initial conflict, often caused by differences
of opinion, disagreements between members, or scarcity of resources. At this point,
the group is no longer united, and may split into coalitions. This period of conflict
escalation in some cases gives way to a conflict resolution stage, after which the
group can eventually return to routine group interaction.

Q7. What are the different sources of conflict?

Ans.
• Size Up Goals and Perceptions
Conflicting goals can create problems when an employee is asked by two different
managers to achieve goals that contradict one another. Similarly, employees can be
confused by business goals that don't always apply equally to all clients.
Unbeknownst to employees, some clients may be entitled to extra special
treatment.
The cure: Clear communication.
Conflicting perceptions spring from myriad causes, including customer
complaints, office politics and the office grapevine. And the perception isn't the
bad part; how employees process it is. You can't stop people from talking any more
than you can read people's minds. But you can stay alert to changes in your office
climate and tapping your most trusted sources for insights.
The cure: Proactive behavior.
• Size Up Policies and Pressures
Conflicting policies can create unrest in the workplace when employees are
unaware that they've been enacted, or – sometimes worse – don't have a clue as to
why policies have been adopted. Even “peaceful protests” of company policies can
have reverberating effects.
The cure: Swift communication and ongoing review of policies and procedures.
Conflicting pressures, like conflicting goals, can send mixed signals. The level of
urgency usually rises with conflicting pressures, which often involve tasks of a
more time-sensitive nature.
The cure: Better communication and, perhaps, new deadlines.
• Size Up Resources and Roles
Conflict over resources is bound to happen in a small business, where things like
equipment, supplies and especially money may be stretched to the limit.
Employees should not see favoritism in these conflicts, but they must see a
company's priorities.
The cure: Proper planning and communication.
Conflicting roles, like conflicting perceptions, can trigger hurt feelings, power
struggles and retaliatory moves when employees take ownership of a new role on
their own or are asked to by a manager. For example, if you regularly ask one
employee in particular to fill in for you in your absence, he may be confused by
which role – boss, subordinate or both – you want him to assume first.
The cure: Clear communication, maybe followed by an explicit office memo.
• Size Up Styles and Values
Conflicting styles can be one of the more vexing workplace conflicts to resolve,
unless people ultimately – and peacefully – “agree to disagree.” You can no more
expect a sassy, high-charging marketing manager to change his style than your
reserved and soft-spoken accountant to alter his.
The cure: Tolerance, patience and the realization that everyone brings different
skills and talents to your small business.
Conflicting values brew workplace trouble particularly when business values
conflict with personal values. You're not always going to be on the same page with
your employees personally, but it's imperative that there is no question about your
“higher” business values, such as honesty, ethical behavior and professional
conduct.
The cure: Communication and consistency.
• Communication Matters
It's probably no surprise that poor communication lies at the root of most
workplace conflict. This realization doesn't always make conflict easier to resolve,
but opening a dialogue by establishing some common ground ought to get you
started. So should staying committed to finding a solution, especially when a fast
or easy answer seems elusive.

Q8. How can conflict be managed?

Ans.
Accept conflict. Remember that conflict is natural and happens in every ongoing
relationship. Since conflict is unavoidable we must learn to manage it. Conflict is a
sign of a need for change and an opportunity for growth, new understanding, and
improved communication. Conflict can not be resolved unless it is addressed with
the appropriate individual(s).
Be a calming agent. Regardless of whether you are being a sounding board for a
friend or you are dealing with your own conflict, your response to the conflict can
escalate or decrease the intensity of the problem. To be calming, provide an
objective or neutral point of view. Help plan how you are going to work with the
other party to achieve resolution.
Listen actively. Work through how you feel, what the specific problem is and
what impact it is having on you. Use I -based statements to help do this (see
formula below).
• I feel (strongest feeling)
• When you (objective description of the behavior)
• Because (specific impact or consequences)
• I would like (what you want the person to do in the future to prevent the
problem)
Analyze the conflict. This will help clarify the specific problem. Some questions
that you may ask are:
 • What triggered the conflict?
• Who are you angry with?
• What are you not getting that you want?
• What are you afraid of losing?
• Is your conflict/anger accurate or over exaggerated?
• How can your conflict be resolved?
Model neutral language. When people are in conflict they use inflammatory
language such as profanity, name calling, and exaggerations that escalate the
conflict. Restate inflammatory language in a more objective way to help make the
information less emotionally laden and more useful for future discussions.
Separate the person from the problem. View the problem as a specific behavior
or set of circumstances rather than attributing negative feelings to the whole
person. This approach makes the problem more manageable and hopeful than
deciding you “can’t stand” this person any longer.
Work together. This requires that each person stop placing blame and take
ownership of the problem. Make a commitment to work together and listen to each
other to solve the conflict.
Agree to disagree. Each person has a unique point of view and rarely agrees on
every detail. Being right is not what is important. When managing conflict, seeking
the “truth” can trap you rather than set you free. For example, consider the
differing testimony of witnesses that all see the same car accident. Truth is relative
to the person’s point of view.
Focus on the future. In conflict we tend to remember every single thing that ever
bothered us about that person. People in conflict need to vent about the past but
they often dwell on the past. Often the best way to take ownership of the problem
is to recognize that regardless of the past, you need to create a plan to address the
present conflict and those that may arise in the future.
“Move past positions.” A position is the desired outcome of a conflict. Often the
position is “I need a new roommate” or “This person is impossible to live with.”
Positions are not negotiable and result in impasse. To resolve conflict, each person
has to “move past positions.”
Share your interests. To solve interpersonal conflict, all parties must talk about
their interests or the WHYs behind their positions. They must share their true
interests and work together to find a solution that satisfies those interests. Common
interests for students are to sleep, study, entertain and relax in a comfortable
atmosphere. Often their interests are more intangible such as respect, belonging,
friendship, and fun. When individuals have differing lifestyles, values, and
schedules the need to discuss their differences is critical in managing conflict. You
must develop a balanced plan of give and take that satisfies everyone’s interests.
Be creative. Finding a resolution to the problem that satisfies everyone requires
creativity and hard work. Be careful not to give in simply to avoid conflict or
maintain harmony. Agreements reached too early usually do not last. Generate silly
options to begin thinking “outside of the box” of original positions.
Be specific. When problem solving be very specific. For example if you are using
a roommate agreement to facilitate the discussion make sure that everyone fully
understands each point that is written down. Clarify ambiguous terms that each
person may interpret differently.
Maintain confidentiality. Encourage others who are in conflict to deal directly
with the person they are in conflict with. Avoiding the conflict and venting to
others tends to escalate the conflict and fuels the rumor mill. If rumors are already
part of the conflict, encourage them to work out a plan to put an end to the gossip.
Do your part to quell rumors.

Unit IV:
Q1. Define stress.
Ans.
Stress is the body's reaction to any change that requires an adjustment or response.
The body reacts to these changes with physical, mental, and emotional responses.
Stress is a normal part of life. You can experience stress from your environment,
your body, and your thoughts. Even positive life changes such as a promotion, a
mortgage, or the birth of a child produce stress.
Q2. What is the nature of stress?
Ans.
Some important points relating to the nature of stress is:
1. Stress is a Neutral Word:
Stress is not bad in itself. But when stress is created by undesirable outcomes, it
becomes Distress. On the other hand, if it is created by desirable and successful
effects it is called Eustress. Eustress is a healthy, positive and developmental stress
response. It is primarily the Distress form of stress which requires examination and
steps to cope with it; because distress is generally associated with heart disease,
alcoholism, drug abuse, marital problems, absenteeism etc.
2. Stress is Associated with Constraints and Demand:
Constraints prevent an individual from doing what he or she desires. If a person
wants to buy something, but he does not have the necessary cash, it is a constraint.
Demands refer to the loss of something desired. If a person wants to go and watch
a movie, but he is unable to do so because of pressing official work, it amounts to a
demand. Both Constraints and Demands can lead to potential stress.
3. Two Conditions are Necessary for Potential Stress to Become Actual Stress:
There must be:
(i) Uncertainty over the outcome, and
(ii) Outcome must be important.
Stress is usually very high when there is uncertainty over the outcome and the
outcome is very significant. Both these conditions are necessary. If there is no
uncertainty but the outcome is significant, there will not be any stress. On the other
hand, if there is uncertainty, but the outcome is not significant, there will again be
no stress.
4. Stress is not Simply Anxiety:
Stress may be accompanied by anxiety, but the two are not synonymous. Anxiety
is psychological and emotional whereas stress operates in the physiological sphere
also along with psychological sphere.
5. Stress should also be Differentiated from Nervous Tension:
Nervous tension may be a result of stress. Stress is a subconscious action. Even
unconscious people have exhibited stress, whereas nervous tension is a conscious
action. People may “bottle up” their emotions and not reveal them through nervous
tension.
6. The Term “Burnout” is also Closely Associated with Stress:
Some researchers contend that burnout is a type of stress, but others treat it
differently. Burnout is closely associated with helping professions like nursing,
education and social work, it is characterised by emotional exhaustion,
depersonalization and diminished personal accomplishments. Even though
technically, burnout is different from stress, these are generally used
interchangeably.

Q3. What are the causes of stress?

Ans.
Common external causes of stress include:
• Major life changes
• Work or school
• Relationship difficulties
• Financial problems
• Being too busy
• Children and family
Common internal causes of stress include:
• Pessimism
• Inability to accept uncertainty
• Rigid thinking, lack of flexibility
• Negative self-talk
 • Unrealistic expectations / perfectionism
• All-or-nothing attitude

Q4. Define the term Stressors.

Ans.
A stressor is a chemical or biological agent, environmental condition, external
stimulus or an event seen as causing stress to an organism. Psychologically
speaking, a stressor can be events or environments that individuals might consider
demanding, challenging, and/or threatening individual safety.
Stressors can cause physical, chemical and mental responses internally. Physical
stressors produce mechanical stresses on skin, bones, ligaments, tendons, muscles
and nerves that cause tissue deformation and (in extreme cases) tissue failure.
Chemical stresses also produce biomechanical responses associated
with metabolism and tissue repair. Physical stressors may produce pain and impair
work performance. Chronic pain and impairment requiring medical attention may
result from extreme physical stressors or if there is not sufficient recovery time
between successive exposures. A recent study shows that physical office clutter
could be an example of physical stressors in a workplace setting.

Q5. What is meant by Eustress?

Ans.
Eustress means beneficial stress—either psychological, physical (e.g. exercise), or
biochemical/radiological (hormesis).
The term was coined by endocrinologist Hans Selye, consisting of
the Greek prefix eu- meaning "good", and stress, literally meaning "good stress".
It is the positive cognitive response to stress that is healthy, or gives one a feeling
of fulfilment or other positive feelings. Selye created the term as a subgroup
of stress to differentiate the wide variety of stressors and manifestations of stress.
Eustress is not defined by the stressor type, but rather how one perceives that
stressor (e.g. a negative threat versus a positive challenge). Eustress refers to a
positive response one has to a stressor, which can depend on one's current feelings
of control, desirability, location, and timing of the stressor. Potential indicators of
eustress may include responding to a stressor with a sense of meaning, hope,
or vigor. Eustress has also been positively correlated with life
satisfaction and well-being.

Q6. What is meant by distress?

Ans.
Distress is an aversive state in which a person is unable to completely adapt
to stressors and their resulting stress and shows maladaptive behaviors.[1] It can be
evident in the presence of various phenomena, such as inappropriate social
interaction (e.g., aggression, passivity, or withdrawal).
Distress is the opposite of eustress, a positive stress that motivates people.

Q7. Can stress have positive results? Justify your answer.

Ans.
It boosts brainpower
Low-level of stress helps in the production of brain chemicals called neurotrophins
and strengthens the connection between neurons in the brain. In fact, this can be
the primary mechanism by which exercising (a physical stressor) helps boost
productivity and concentration. Short-term psychological stressors can have a
similar effect, as well.
It can increase short-term immunity
When your body responds to stress, it prepares itself for the possibility of what is
to come. The way our body does it is by producing extra interleukins, a chemical
that help regulate the immune system, providing at least a temporary defensive
mechanism.
It can make you stronger
Dealing with manageable stressful situations can make such situations in the future
easier to handle. Repeated exposure to stressful events makes your body develop
both physical and psychological sense of control.
Makes you creative
We feel stressed when we move onto a new path because we are afraid of the
unknown. Stress pushes you to change, to fight, to grow and to adapt. All life
events, even good ones, cause a certain degree of stress. For example, getting a
new job is a positive change, much like getting married, falling in love, getting a
raise, winning a tennis match and so on. Stress often accompanies a breakthrough
in creativity.
It motivates you to succeed
Eustress can be the thing you need to get your job done at work. Think about a
deadline staring you in the face. It’s going to encourage your behavior to manage
the situation effectively and more productively. Success can be achieved in the
workplace, in sports, or in a creative endeavor if it's driven by pressure.
It can enhance child development
Pregnant women often worry that their anxiety will negatively affect their unborn
babies. And it sure can if it's constant. But if the stress levels are moderate, they
can in fact be good for the child. A study found that children of most women who
reported mild to moderate stress levels during pregnancy actually showed greater
motor and developmental skills by age two than those of mothers who were
unstressed.

Q8. What are the consequences / effects of stress?

Ans.

Common effects of stress

On your
On your body On your mood
behavior

Headache Anxiety Overeating or

undereating

Muscle tension Restlessness Angry outbursts

or pain

Chest pain Lack of motivation Drug or alcohol

or focus misuse

Fatigue Feeling Tobacco use

overwhelmed

Change in sex Irritability or anger Social

drive withdrawal

Stomach upset Sadness or Exercising less

depression often
 Common effects of stress

On your
On your body On your mood
behavior

Sleep
problems

Q9. Suggest measures of managing stress.

Ans.
• Keep a positive attitude.
• Accept that there are events that you cannot control.
• Be assertive instead of aggressive. Assert your feelings, opinions, or beliefs
instead of becoming angry, defensive, or passive.
• Learn and practice relaxation techniques; try meditation, yoga, or tai-chi
for stress management.
• Exercise regularly. Your body can fight stress better when it is fit.
• Eat healthy, well-balanced meals.
• Learn to manage your time more effectively.
• Set limits appropriately and learn to say no to requests that would create
excessive stress in your life.
• Make time for hobbies, interests, and relaxation.
• Get enough rest and sleep. Your body needs time to recover from stressful
events.
• Don't rely on alcohol, drugs, or compulsive behaviors to reduce stress.
• Seek out social support. Spend enough time with those you enjoy.
• Seek treatment with a psychologist or other mental health professional
trained in stress management or biofeedback techniques to learn healthy
ways of dealing with the stress in your life.