Angiosperms
Their thick cell walls
a plant that has flowers and produces seeds
enclosed within a carpel. The angiosperms
are a large group and include herbaceous
plants, shrubs, grasses, and most trees.
Apical meristem
the growth region in plants found within the
root tips and the tips of the new shoots and
leaves. Apical meristem is one of three types
of meristem, or tissue which can
differentiate into different cell types.
Meristem is the tissue in which growth
occurs in plants.
Axillary bud
a bud that grows from the axil of a leaf and
may develop into a branch or a flower
cluster.
Basal angiosperms
broad group of the most primitive flowering
plants. They do not belong to either the
monocots or eudicots but were for a long
time lumped together with the eudicots into
a well-known group called the dicots. The
basal angiosperms are mostly woody plants
that produce seeds and flowers.
Bulbs
are structurally short stem with fleshy leaves
or leaf bases that function as food storage
organs during dormancy.
Circular bordered pits Bordered pits are
cavities in the lignified cell walls of xylem
conduits (vessels and tracheids) that are
essential components in the water‐transport
system of higher plants. The pit membrane,
which lies in the center of each pit, allows
water to pass between xylem conduits but
limits the spread of embolism and vascular
pathogens in the xylem.
Collenchyma cells are elongated cells with
irregularly thick cell walls that provide
support and structure.
are composed of the compounds cellulose
and pectin. These cells are often found under
the epidermis, or the outer layer of cells in
young stems and leaf veins.
Companion cell
is a specialized parenchyma cell and is
found within the phloem of flowering plants.
Each companion cell is usually closely
associated with a sieve element. Its function
is uncertain, though it appears to regulate the
activity of the adjacent sieve element and to
take part in loading and unloading sugar into
the sieve element.
Corm/s
is a short, vertical, swollen underground
plant stem that serves as a storage organ that
some plants use to survive winter or other
adverse conditions such as summer drought
and heat. A corm consists of one or more
internodes with at least one growing point,
generally with protective leaves modified
into skins or tunics.
Cortex
are tissues of unspecialized cells lying
between the epidermis (surface cells) and
vascular, or conducting, tissues of stems and
roots.
Cuticle
is the protective, hydrophobic, waxy
covering produced by the epidermal cells of
leaves, young shoots and all other aerial
plant organs. The cuticle minimizes water
loss and effectively reduce pathogen entry
due to its waxy secretion.
Epidermis
is the outermost, protoderm-derived layer of
cells covering the stem, root, leaf, flower,
fruit, and seed parts of a plant. The
epidermis serves several functions: it
protects against water loss, regulates gas
exchange, secretes metabolic compounds,
and (especially in roots) absorbs water and
mineral nutrients.
Eudicots
An angiosperm having two cotyledons in the
seed, leaves with a network of veins
radiating from a central main vein, flower
parts in multiples of four or five, and a ring
of vascular cambium in the stem.  node to node.
Fibers
are greatly elongated cells whose long,
tapering ends interlock, thus providing
maximum support to a plant. They often
occur in bundles or strands and can be found
almost anywhere in the plant body,
including the stem, the roots, and the
vascular bundles in leaves.
Ground Meristem  always present in metaphloem as opposed to
the basic primary tissue of the growing tip of
a stem or root, excluding the epidermis and
vascular bundles, which gives rise to the
cortex, rays, and pith.
Meristem that develops into all other plant
tissues apart from vascular and dermal
tissues is called a ground meristem. Non-
vascular, non-dermal tissues are referred to
as the ground tissue.
Guard cells
 are cells surrounding each stoma. They help
to regulate the rate of transpiration by
opening and closing the stomata. To
understand how they function, study the
following figures. As you look at the figures,
keep in mind that an increase in solute
concentration lowers the water potential of
the solution, and that water moves from a
region with higher water potential to a
region of lower water potential.
Nodes  the flowering plants, or angiosperms.
are the points on a stem where the buds,
leaves, and branching twigs originate. They
are crucial spots on the plant where
important healing, structural support, and
biological processes take place.
Internodes
 are the sections of stem between nodes. If
the nodes are the crucial “organs” of the
plant, the internodes are the blood vessels
carrying water, hormones, and food from
Metaphloem
 is component of the primary phloem that
develops often following the differentiation
of the protophloem. May be differentiated
from the protophloem in terms of cellular
components and morphology. For instance,
the sieve elements of the metaxylem are
relatively longer, conspicuous, and with a
wider lumen. The companion cells are
those in protophloem that are often absent.
Metaxylem 
The part of the primary xylem that is last to
develop from the procambium, and
characterized by weblike or pitted surfaces
and broader tracheary elements than the
protoxylem. Metaxylem has more tracheary
elements than the protoxylem. Furthermore,
the lumen of tracheary elements of the
metaxylem is larger than that of the
protoxylem. This makes the metaxylem
more efficient in conduction than the
protoxylem. The metaxylem also has few
fibers, which are lacking in protoxylem. It is
not capable of stretch (unlike protoxylem).
However, it is not subjected to strain or
stress.
Monocot
Monocots, or monocotyledons, are a class of
Monocots are named for and recognized by
the single cotyledon , or seed leaf, within the
seed, this means they could have three, six
or nine petals, or they could have sepals that
make up their flowers. They also have
adventitious roots. These are roots that can
grow from almost any part of the plant that
comes into contact with the soil, such as the
stem. Also, if you look closely at the leaves
of a monocotyledon plant, you will see that
the veins of the leaves are parallel.
Parenchyma
A type of plant cell and tissue, constituting
all soft parts of a plant. They are active
metabolically and usually remain alive after
they mature. Subtypes of this cell include:
chlorenchyma cells, glandular cells, and
transfer cells. Some parenchyma cells
function by dying at maturity. Phloem is
under this type of tissue. 
Perforation
A large hole digested through a particular
site of the primary wall during the final
stages of cell differentiation. Often, it
removes the entire end wall. Because
perforations are wide and completely lack
primary walls, they cause a little friction.  It is the result of cell division in the shoot
Phloem
A type of vascular plant tissue which
distributes sugars and minerals throughout
the plant. Phloem cells are living; they pick
up sugar from areas wherein it is abundant
and transport it to areas where sugar is
needed. Its two types of conducting cells are
called sieve cells and sieve tube members.  in plants. Primarily, the vascular tissues
Phyllotaxy
It is the arrangement of leaves on the stem.
It is important in positioning leaves so that
they do not shade each other.  the epidermal tissues known as the
Pith, or medulla, is a tissue in the stems of
vascular plants. Pith is composed of soft,
spongy parenchyma cells, which store and
transport nutrients throughout the plant. In
eudicotyledons, pith is located in the center
of the stem. In monocotyledons, it extends
also into flowering stems and roots. The pith
is encircled by a ring of xylem; the xylem, in
turn, is encircled by a ring of phloem.
Pits 
In the secondary wall, low depressions of
plasmodesmata-rich areas develop as wall
deposition continues, and become narrow
pits.  These pits function so as the nutrients
can pass through the cell's lignified and
waterproof secondary walls. In other words,
it is the area where the secondary wall is
absent. 
Pit membrane
The set of primary walls and middle lamella
between pit pairs. It offers slight resistance. 
Pit pair 
When the pits of adjacent sclerenchyma
cells meet, the two pits are called a pit pair.
Primary growth is referred to as the
increase in length of the shoot and the root.
apical meristem. Subsequent cell elongation
also contributes to primary growth. The
growth of shoots and roots during primary
growth enables plants to continuously seek
water (roots) or sunlight (shoots).
Primary tissues – are the vascular,
epidermal, ground and meristematic tissues
composes of the xylem and phloem that
maintains the water balance and sugar
balance in plants as well as the transport of
fluid and nutrients internally. Consequently,
epidermis is the protoderm-derived layer in
which it surrounds the stem, root, leaf,
flower/fruit and seed parts of a plant. It also
contains a waxy cuticle that acts as a
protective barrier against mechanical injury,
water loss, and infection. Various modified
epidermal cells regulate transpiration,
increase water absorption, and secrete
substances. On the other hand, ground
tissues are all the existing tissues in plants
except the dermal and vascular. It is
responsible for the storage of the
carbohydrates that are produced by plants
and usually lies between the vascular and
dermal tissues. Specifically, the major cells
of the ground tissue are parenchyma cells,
which function in photosynthesis and
nutrient storage. They have thin walls, many
chloroplasts, and large central vacuoles, and
they form the mass of most leaves, stems,
and roots. Another cell of the ground
substance is the sclerenchyma cell.
Sclerenchyma cells are hollow with strong
walls, and they help strengthen the ground
tissue. Lastly, Meristems are classified by
their location in the plant as Apical which is
located at the root and shoot tips, Lateral
that are found in the vascular cambium and
in the cork cambium and intercalary which
can found at internodes and between the
places at which leaves and leaf bases are
attached. The function of meristematic
tissues can be divided into two. The primary
meristematic tissues aid plants in increasing
their length or vertical growth. Meanwhile,
the secondary meristematic tissues aid plants
in increasing the girth of its stems, roots or
branches that provide much support as they
mature.
Protoderm – is one of the three primary
meristem layers that is composed of
meristematic cells from which the dermal
system of plants develops and gives rise to
the epidermis.  
Protophloem – is the first formed part of
the phloem of vascular bundles. It is
developed from the procambium, one of the
primary meristems and develops only in
primary vascular bundles. They are also
composed narrow thin-walled cells and it
achieves maturation first before the
elongation of the surrounding tissue.
Protoxylem - the first-formed xylem
developing from procambium and consisting
of narrow cells with annular, spiral, or
scalariform wall thickenings.  It matures
much before the plant organs has completed
their elongation.
Provascular tissues – are the cells in the
primary plant body that later differentiate
into xylem, phloem or the vascular
cambium. It is also designated as
procambium which produces the elements of
vascular bundles.
Rhizomes – is a type of plant stem situated
either at the soil surface or underground that
contains nodes from which roots and shoots
originate. Rhizomes are unique in that they
grow perpendicular, permitting new lateral
shoots and adventitious roots at intervals to
grow up out of the ground. Consequently,
when each piece of a rhizome is separated
and planted again, it can produce a new
plant.
Sclereids
 a reduced form of sclerenchyma cells with
highly thickened, lignified cellular walls that
form small bundles of durable layers of
tissue in most plants.
Sclerenchyma
support tissue composed of any of various
kinds of hard woody cells. Mature
sclerenchyma cells are usually dead cells
that have heavily thickened secondary walls
containing lignin.
Sieve areas
an area in the wall of a sieve-tube element,
sieve cell, or parenchyma cell in which are
clustered pores through which cytoplasmic
connections pass to adjoining cells and
which in sieve-tube elements are typically
most highly developed on the end walls
between adjacent elements where they
constitute sieve plates

Sieve cells
 an elongated cell whose walls contain
perforations that are arranged in
circumscribed areas and that afford
communication with similar adjacent cells.
Sieve plates
 a perforated wall between the sieve
elements in vascular plants. They are the
outer end wall of a sieve-tube element, and
contains many pores through which nutrients
are transported.
Sieve pores
one of the pores or openings through the
sieve-plate permitting communication
between contiguous sieve-cells.
Sieve tube
 a tube consisting of an end-to-end series of
thin-walled living plant cells characteristic
of the phloem and held to function chiefly in
translocation of organic solutes
Sieve tube members
The sieve tube members are living cells
(which do not contain a nucleus) that are
responsible for transporting carbohydrates
throughout the plant. It is associated with
companion cells, which are cells that
combine with sieve tubes to create the sieve
element-companion cell complex.
Stoma 
also called a stomate, is a pore, found in the
epidermis of leaves, stems, and other organs,
that facilitates gas exchange.
Tracheary elements (TEs) are cells in the
xylem that are highly specialized for
transporting water and solutes up the plant.
Tracheids are elongated cells in the xylem
of vascular plants that serve in the transport
of water and mineral salts. 
Trichomes serve a variety of functions,
depending on their location. As root hairs
(and as leaf hairs in epiphytes), trichomes
absorb water and minerals. As leaf hairs,
they reflect radiation, lower plant
temperature, and reduce water loss. They
also provide defense against insects.
Tubers are enlarged structures in some plant
species used as storage organs for nutrients
A vascular bundle is a part of the transport
system in vascular plants. The transport
itself happens in vascular tissue, which
exists in two forms: xylem and phloem
A vessel element or vessel member
(trachea) is one of the cell types found in
xylem, the water conducting tissue of plants.
Vessel elements (tracheae) are typically
found in flowering plants (angiosperms) but
absent from most gymnosperms such as
conifers.
Xylem is one of the two types of transport
tissue in vascular plants. The basic function
of xylem is to transport water from roots to
stems and leaves, but it also transports
nutrients.
 1. The body of an herb contains just three growth with no set size and any number of
basic parts. What are they?  organs. Which parts of our body grow
The roots, leaves, and the stem continuously like plants? Hair and nails.
Which parts of a plant have fixed size such
2. Stems of the first land plants functioned that no matter how well we take care of the
primarily as transport and support structures. plants those organs do not become larger?
Modern stems have these functions also, Stoma. What is the name of plants that live
plus several more. Describe the additional for just 1 year? Annuals. For just 2 years?
functions. Biennials. 
Stems produce leaves and hold them in the
sunlight; they can store sugars and
nutrients during winter, such as the sugary 7. What are the important differences
sap of maples; can be a means of survival, between parenchyma, collenchyma, and
as bulbs and corms remain alive when sclerenchyma cells?
above-ground leaves die; and finally, a Parenchyma: Thin primary walls.
means of dispersal, spreading as runners Typically alive at maturity. Many
or vines, or pieces breaking off and being functions. 
carried to new areas where they sprout and
grow into new plants.  Collenchyma: Unevenly thickened primary
walls. Typically alive at maturity. Provide
3. Over the years, several different names plastic support.
have been used for the flowering plants.  
Here they are called the Magnoliophyta Sclerenchyma: Primary walls plus
division, but they are known informally as secondary walls. Many dead at maturity.
angiosperms. There are about 297,000 Provide elastic support and some
species of flowering plants. (tracheary elements) are involved in water
transport. 
4. Early angiosperms diversified into several
groups that are now known as basal
angiosperms,  8. Examine Figure 5‐6A and 5‐6B. Why do
eudicots, and monocots. Name three most parenchyma cells shown in Figure 5‐
examples of plants within each line of 6A lack nuclei, whereas most shown in
evolution.  Figure 5‐6B do have nuclei?
Basal angiosperms: waterlilies, magnolias,  In the geranium for Figure 5‐6A, did the
laurels real cells lack nuclei, or did something
Eudicots: roses, asters, maples happen to the nuclei as the tissue was sliced
Monocots: grasses, lilies, cattails  to make the microscope slide?
The nuclei are present, however these
5. An herb has only a primary plant body. cells in (A) were large and the section
That means (slice) was cut so thin, causing most nuclei
it has roots, stems, and leaves, but it never to be cut away during the slide
becomes woody and covered with bark.  preparation. 

6. In general, animals have determine 9. What is the special name of

growth with a fixed size and number of photosynthetic parenchyma cells?
organs, whereas plants have intermediate Chlorenchyma cells
Which organelle is especially abundant in
these? Chloroplasts  up the stem. Parenchyma cells are needed
How does wall thinness affect carbon
dioxide and light? Thin walls allow light
and carbon dioxide to pass through the
chloroplasts  collenchyma, and the stem becomes rigid
10. It was previously stated that parenchyma
cells are relatively inexpensive to build.
What does that mean? How does this relate
to most leaves being soft?
Most parenchyma cell walls are only 80 to
100 nm thick, with just 5 to 10 layers of
cellulose microfibrils. Each molecule
incorporated into a wall polymer cannot be
used for other functions such as
generating ATP or synthesizing proteins.
Most leaves are soft, composed almost
entirely of parenchyma, and are therefore
not very expensive metabolically. After
several weeks of photosynthesis, they
replace the sugar used in their
construction, and all photosynthesis after
that point is net gain for the plant.
11. Like clay, walls of collenchyma exhibits
plasticity. Does that mean it can or cannot be
stretched? If a tissue is supported by
collenchyma, can it still grow?
Plasticity is the ability to be deformed by
pressure or tension and to retain the new
shape even if the pressure or tension
ceases. Collenchyma is present in
elongating shoot tips that must be long and
flexible, such as those of vining plants.
Even so, the tips can still grow and
elongate because collenchyma can be
stretched.
12. How does collenchyma support a tissue?
Would it work if the tissue did not have
parenchyma also? What happens if the tissue
is not turgid (does not have enough water)?
Collenchyma provides support to the plant.
If a vine or other collenchyma-rich tissue
is cut off from its water supply, it wilts and
droops; the collenchyma is unable to hold
in the inner tissues for support. In stems,
the tendency for parenchyma to expand is
counterbalanced by the resistance of the
but able to grow.
13. Collenchyma is plastic, but
sclerenchyma is elastic. What does “elastic”
mean? If you stretch or deform an elastic
object, will it keep its new shape or snap
back to its original shape? As an organ
grows, its shape changes, but after it has
achieved its mature size and shape, what
kind of things would deform it? Should a
mature organ have plastic properties or
elastic ones (e.g., if a heavy load of snow
bends a branch down, should the branch
stay in its bent shape when the snow melts
or should it go back to the shape it grew to
before the snow)? 
Elasticity: plants can be deformed, but
they return to their original size and shape
when the pressure or tension is released.
Deforming forces such as wind, animals,
or snow are usually detrimental to an
organ’s size and shape. 
14. What are the two types of mechanical,
non conducting sclerenchyma (hint: Table 5‐
3)? Sclereids and fibers Which tends to be
flexible and useful in wood? Fibers Which
tends to be brittle and inflexible, useful in
“pits” and “stones” that protect seeds?
Sclereids
15. Fibers and sclereids have secondary
walls that are so thick and tough that the cell
cannot grow. If that is true, how do fibers
and sclereids grow to their mature size and
shape? Like all cells, sclereids and fibers
develop from cells produced by cell
division.
Do they have a secondary wall even when
they are young? When newly formed, they
are small and have only a primary wall—
they are parenchyma cells.  the stem? it is just below its leaves. What
16. Imagine a leaf of a palm tree. When it is
fully grown, it must have sclerenchyma to
support its size and weight. Do you think it
has any sclerenchyma when it is tiny and
just starting to grow? No. it would not have
any sclerenchyma cells when it is still just
starting to grow as sclerenchyma will
prohibit its growth. Would you expect that it
might have collenchyma when it is medium
sized and still growing? Yes. It might have
collenchyma cells, as these cells can still
expand due to its plastic property.   Rhizomes- this type of shoot is
17. Technically, the stem is an axis, whereas
the
shoot is the stem plus any leaves, flowers,
buds that might be present.
18. The point where a leaf is attached to a
stem is called a node. Just above this point is
an axillary bud.
19. Figure 5‐13A shows two types of buds.
What are the two types and how do they
differ? Terminal buds and axillary buds.
Terminal buds develop at the apex of the
stem, while axillary buds are lateral buds
that grow in the axil of a leaf. 
20. After a leaf falls off a stem, it leaves a
leaf scar just below the axillary bud.
21. What is phyllotaxy? 
Phyllotaxy is the arrangement of leaves on
the stem. It is important in positioning
leaves so that they do not shade each
other. 
Corn and irises have two rows of leaves.
This is known as distichous phyllotaxy.
22. When you look at a head of cabbage or
lettuce, what are you seeing? The nodes of
the cabbage are packs very closely Where is
about when you look at an onion? The
structure of the onion is similar to a strap
leaves with spherical heads of greenish-
white flowers. What are you seeing and
where is the onion’s stem? The onion has
fleshy leaves and short vertical stems that
are located under the leaves.
23. Describe each of the following types of
specialized shoots. Be certain to account for
modifications of the leaves, internodes, and
orientation of growth: stolon, rhizome,
tuber, bulb, corm, and tendril. 
fleshy horizontal stem. This stem
allows the plant to extend on the
ground
 Tuber- this is also a horizontal stem
similar to rhizome shoot. However,
this grows for a short period only
and it stores nutrients.
 Bulb- this form of the shoot is
short, It has fleshy leaves and thick
shoots. Some plants with bulb are
garlic,onions and daffodils.
 Corm- this type of shoot will have a
vertical stem. It has thick stem with
papery leaves.
 Tendril- this is a thread-like plant
without leaves. It mostly stores
stems that have huge amount of
parenchyma in the vascular tissues.
Each provides a plant with a selective
advantage. What is the adaptive value of
each type of specialized shoot?
24. Many scientific words are also ordinary
English words. If you read that a plant has a
bulb or tuber, can you always be certain
exactly what the botanical structure is?
Each plants have different forms of bulbs
with different structure. Therefore, you
cannot always be certain about the
botanical structure.
25. What is the outermost surface of an
herbaceous stem? Epidermis
The outer walls of this layer are encrusted
with a chem‐ ical made up of fatty substance
that makes the wall impermeable to water.
What is the name of the sub‐ stance? Cutin
and what is the name of the layer? Cuticle
26. A stoma allows carbon dioxide to pass
through the epi‐ dermis. What is the name of
the two cells that control the opening and
closing of a stoma? Guard cells
What is the name of the hole itself that
carbon dioxide passes through? Stomatal
opening
27. What is the technical term for a plant
hair? Trichomes
Plant hairs make it difficult for animals to do
certain things. Name three activities that are
more difficult for an animal because of a
hairy leaf. Animals mostly found it
extremely difficult for landing on the
plants, animals cannot walk on the plants
because of the hairy leaves and lastly the
animals found it extremely hard to chew or
bite the plant.
28. What is the name of the region of cells
between a stem’s epidermis and its set of
vascular bundles? The cortex is the
outermost layer of the tissues that is just
below the epidemic of root and stem. This
region of the cell is found between a set of
vascular bundles. This is usually a compact
parenchyma tissue, but in some aquatic
angiosperms that live submerged in lakes or
oceans, this region has what type of special
modification? The cortex region of the
plants in aquatic angiosperms will have a
large comical air chambers. These plants
in aquaria can provide buoyancy because
the plant stems have a stronger tendency to
float within any support of sclerenchyma
cells. Therefore, this is a special kind of
modification from the normal plant stem.
Would you hypothesize that this region is
especially thick or thin in desert plants such
as cacti or plants that have succulent water
storage tissues (may you must think about
this yourself, as the answer is not in the
text). 
29. All flowering plants have two types of
vascular tissues, xylem, which conducts
water and minerals, and phloem, which
distributes sugars and minerals. Are vascular
systems of plants similar to or different from
those of animals?
Explain the similarity or differences. The
vascular tissues of plants and animals are
different in functions. It is because animals
have vessels for conduction.
30. As a young xylem cell matures into a
tracheary element,
it first must enter Cell cycle arrest and stop .
It is initially a small dividing  cell. But after
it reaches its full size and shape, it deposits
a    wall that deposits a parenchyma cell
wall. The xylem cell primary wall  and its
protoplasm dies,degenerates leaving a
hollow and tubular  wall.
31. List the five types of secondary wall
deposition that can occur in tracheary
elements. Which two types are most
characteristic of protoxylem? Annular and
Helical Thickening What is the selective
advantage of vessel elements over tracheids?
1. Helical thickening
2. Annular thickening
3. Reticulate thickening 
4. Circular Bordered pit
5. Scalariform thickening 
32. Consider tracheary elements with
annular thickening (annular secondary
walls) and those with pitted walls. Which is
weaker? The Annular thickening is
weaker   ally shorter, but 1 mm is an easy number to
Which has a large percentage of its primary
wall free of secondary wall and available for
water movement? The Annular thickening
will have a large percentage of primary
wall free from secondary wall and even
presented for water movement.
Is one always more selectively advantageous
than the other? Under all conditions?
Explain. Both annular thickening and
pitted walls does not have any selective
advantages compared to others. It’s
because the annular thickening is weaker
compared to the pitted walls. Even though
Annular thickening permits water
movement.
33. Tracheids obtain water from below them
and pass it on to those above. As water
passes into or out of a tracheid, it passes
through a. The set of primary walls and
middle lamella in the    pits is called a pit
membrane.       elements? Non-angiosperms do not have
            
34. If each tracheid is 1 mm long, how many
pit-pairs and pit membranes will a water
molecule pass through a plant 1 m tall?
1,000 pit membrane Is this a significant
amount of friction? It is significant because
it determines the amount of pit membrane.
35. What is a perforation in a vessel
element? It is the large hole in each vessel
element.
How does it reduce friction as water passes
from one vessel element to another?
Perforations greatly reduce friction as
water moves easily through a set of vessels
than through a set of tracheids. When a
water molecule arrives at the end of a vessel,
how does it pass into another vessel (this is
ask‐ ing about vessels, not vessel elements)?
Water molecules are passed through its
sidewalls that have pits for laurel transfer.
In Question 34, tracheids were assumed to
be 1 mm long. If we assume that vessel
elements are also 1 mm long (they are usu‐
work with), how many vessel elements are
there in an average vessel of American
beech (Table 5‐7, the lengths in the table are
in centimeters)? 3,020 vessel elements.  The
plant in Question 34 was said to be 1 m tall.
Would an average vessel of American beech
even fit into a plant this tall? It cannot fit
into the tall plant.  If a plant 1 m tall had
vessels 1 m long, how many pit membranes
would a water molecule need to pass
through as it traveled from root to shoot tip?
1,000 millimeters.
Is this more or less than the answer for
Question 34? It is more than the other
answers.
36. Which evolved more recently, tracheids
or vessel ele‐ ments? Vessel elements
evolved more recently. Do nonangiosperms
such as conifers and ferns have vessel
vessel elements. Do flowering plants
(angiosperms) have tracheids? Vessel
elements? Angiosperms do not contain
tracheids but they have vessel elements.
37. Like xylem, phloem has two types of
conducting cells, sieve cells and sieve tube
members. The term“sieve element” refers to
either one. Do these die like tracheary
elements or do they need to remain alive in
order to conduct? 
38. What is the name of the holes that
interconnect conducting cells in phloem?
Sieve pores. and what are groups of these
holes called? Sieve areas
39. Sieve tube members differ from sieve
cells by having very large sieve pores on
their end walls, much larger than the ones on
their side walls. What is the name of these
end-wall sieve areas with big sieve pores? 
The end-wall sieve areas with big sieve
pores are called sieve plates. Sieve plates
are mostly located on the overlapping
adjacent end walls. As sieve-tube members
differentiate, they lose their nucleus,
ribosomes, vacuoles, and dictyosomes.
They are not dead, however, and remain
metabolically active.
40. Sieve elements (both sieve cells and
sieve tube members) lose their nuclei during
development, but they must remain alive.
What is the name of the cell associated with
sieve cells? Cells that are associated with
sieve cells are albuminous cells. The one
associated with sieve tube members? Cells
that are associated with sieve tube
members are called companion cells.  primary plant body, and the phloem is
41. During differentiation of a young cell
into a sieve tube member, what are some
changes that occur in the cell wall and the
cytoplasm? The amount of cytoplasm
within the pore increases, and rapid bulk
movement from cell to cell becomes
possible. Sieve pores of adjacent cells must
be aligned if phloem sap is to pass through.
How long do most sieve tube members live
after they become mature? Companion cells
supports sieve tube members throughout its
lifetime. Therefore, as long as there are
companion cells, sieve tube members live
42. Describe plasmodesmata, pits,
perforations, and sieve pores.
Plasmodesmata: A plasmodesma (singular)
is a channel through the cell wall that
allows molecules and substances to move
back and forth as needed. It can be thought
of as a tunnel through a castle wall, or the
entrance to a castle. Certain materials can
pass through freely as needed.
Pits: Pits are the characteristic depressions
on the cell walls of plant cells. They act as
the channels for the transport of water and
minerals between adjacent cells.
Perforations: 
Sieve pores: One of the pores or openings
through the sieve-plate permitting
communication between contiguous sieve-
cells. 
Which connect living cells? Sieve pores
Which connect non‐ living cells? Pits and
Perforations
Which occur in secondary walls?
Plasmodesmata can occur in the secondary
wall.
43. All vascular bundles are Collateral .
That is, each contains both xylem and
phloem. The xylem of a vascular bundle is
Primary xylem because it is part of the
Primary phloem.
44. Stems grow longer by creating new cells
at their tips, in
regions known as Apical meristem  . Below
this region, in the subapical meristem, the
very first primary xylem to appear is called 
Protoxylem , and cells that differentiate into
xylem a little later, after they have grown
larger, are called Metaxylem  .
45. In the apical and subapical region, there
are cells that will later give rise to epidermis
and other tissues, but they are not yet mature
enough to call them epidermis, and so on.
What are the terms for the following cells?
a. Epidermal cells that are still meristematic
-  Protoderm 
b. Young cells of xylem and phloem-
Provascular tissues
c. Young cells of pith and cortex- Ground
meristem 
46. Describe the arrangement of tissues seen
in a stem cross-section; consider monocots
separately from the other angiosperms. In
the stem cross-section of angiosperm, the
xylem mostly consists of certain rows of
vessels. These rows are altered with rows of  If it begins blooming when it is 10 years
xylem parhenchyma. However, the phloem old, how many sets of flowers? The plant
mainly includes companion cell and sieve will have the same number of flowers.
tube members. Even they are huge When you are 70 years old, you will still
schlerenchyma cap in phloem fibers. Also, depend on your digestive system to supply
another stem termed as monocot stem have you with energy for another 30 years, but
more arrangement that is complex in how old is that set of organs? same age
nature. It is because these stems have huge In a 70-year-old tree, how old are the cells
bundles that are located in the cortex and of the leaves that supply it with energy? The
ground tissues. The xylems are enclosed cells of the leaves will be 70 years old for it
with the phloem. With this manner of is the current age of the tree.
arrangement, the primary xylems will be
larger compared to the primary phloem.  Is
the arrangement different in a stolon than in
a rhizome, tuber, or corm? The
arrangement will be different in a stolon as
compared to corm, tuber or rhizome as few
of the stolons are dicot in the plants. Even
the plant itself cannot make up with only
stolons.

47. Look at Figure 5‐42. The top three rows

are labeled “Pri‐ mary growth” because
these are found in the primary plant body,
the body of an herb. The third row of the
figure has five boxes with the five types of
mature tissue found in the primary plant
body. What are the five tissues?

1. Pith
2. Cortex
3. Primary xylem
4. Epidermis
5. Primary Phloem 

48. If you live to be 100 years old, how

many sets of organs will you have during
your lifetime? Heart, Liver, Lungs, Kidney
and brain
 How many hearts, stomachs, and livers?
One of each organ is present in the human
body.
If a plant lives to be 100 years old, how
many sets of leaves will it probably have?
The plant will have the same number of
leaves at the age of 100 years old.