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    ae Cae Caer rae Cras PART V The Globe Encompassed, 1500-1750 Transformations in Europe, 1500-1750 The Atlantic System and Africa, 1550-1800 Between Europe and China, 1500-1750 East Asia in Global Perspective ‘The Diversity of American Colonial Societies, 1530-1770 he decades between 1500 and 1750 witnessed a tre- ‘mendous expansion of commercial, cultural, and biologi- cal exchanges around the world. New long-distance sea routes linked Europe with sub-Saharan Africa and the already established maritime networks of the Indian ‘Ocean and East Asia. Spanish and Portuguese voyages ended the isolation of the Americas and created new webs of exchange in the Atlantic and Pacific. (Overland expansion of Muslim, Russian, and Chinese empires also 422, ‘These expanding contacts had major demographic and cul- tural consequences. Domesticated animals and crops from the Old ‘World transformed agriculture in the Americas, while Amer- indian foods such as the potato became staples of the Old World diet. European diseases, mean- while, devastated the Amerin- dian population, facilitating the establishment of large Spanish, Portuguese, French, and British colonial empires. Europeans intro- duced enslaved Africans to relieve the labor shortage. Europe itself underwent significant change. The Protestant Reformation broke the hegemony of the Catholic Church and led to a long period of warfare. Nevertheless, Europe's population increased, its cities grew richer, and its economies gained strength. ‘The new colonial empires created by European powers in Africa, Asia, and the Americas contrib- uted significantly to this mounting prosperity. While Spain, France, and England continued to domi- nate the continent, they faced stiff competition in distant markets from the Dutch, who had achieved independence and who introduced innovative economic institutions. DITIONIS NAVTLC ‘A Map of the World, ca. 1695 After Ferdinand Magellan, the next explorer to circumnavigate the world was Sir Fran- cis Dreke (ca. 1540—1596). Departing with five ships in 1577, Drake nonetheless completed the majority of his voyage in 2 single ship, the Golden Hind, returning to England in 1680. This hand-colored engraving by Jodocus Hondius shows his route. Supported by Queen Elizabeth and other investors, Drake raided Spanish ships and colonial ports and returned with great riches, Unlike Magellan, he traveled fer northward before crossing the Pacific, harboring for several weeks near San Francisco Bay and making friendly contact with the native peoples there. Drake later played a decisive role in England's victory against the Spanish Armada in 1588. timysicous In Asia andl Affiea, unlike the Frenchy and English expanded Empire in the Middle East and the Americas, the most important _these profitable connections, but in establishment of the Safavid Empire changes owed more to internal 1750 Europeans were still primar- in Iran and the Mughal Empire in forces than to European actions. —_ ily amaritime force. Asiansand —_South Asia. In northern Eurasia, ‘The Portuguese seized control of Africans generally retained control Russia and China acquired vast new some important trading ports and of their lands and participated territories and populations, while a networks in the Indian Ocean and freely in overseas trade. new national government in Japan pioneered new contacts with China he Islamic world saw the dra- promoted economic development and Japan. In time, the Dutch, matic expansion of the Ottoman _ and resisted foreign influence. @ 423 17 Transformations in Europe, 1500-1750 CHAPTER OUTLINE 17-1 Culture and Ideas 17-la Early Reformation ‘7-1b The Counter-Reformation and the Politics of Religion Tc Local Religion, Traditional Culture, and Witch-Hunts 17-ld The Scientific Revolution W7-le The Early Enlightenment 17-2b Peasants and Laborers 17-2¢ Women and the Family 11-3 Polit ical Innovations 17-3a State Development 17-3b The Monarchies of England and France 17-3c Warfare and Diplomacy 17-3d Paying the Piper 17-4 Conclusion > ENVIRONMENT & TECHNOLOGY Mapping the World > DIVERSITY & DOMINANCE Commercial Expansion and Risk nthe late sixteenth century Dutch cities grew rich from long- distance trade routes that linked them to traditional markets of the Baltic and Mediterranean and to the newly opened markets of South Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Prosperity allowed the households of Dutch merchants, ship owners, and even artisans to consume luxuries with an extravagance previ- ously limited to the nobility. These newly rich commoners built substantial houses, wore rich clothing, and developed a taste for the exotic goods of distant lands, By the 1570s tulips had been introduced from the Ottoman lands and were avidly collected by Dutch enthusiasts. Scarce and expensive, owning tulips became a sign of sophistication and wealth. The collectors and botanists who originally pur- chased tulips were joined by thousands of eager consumers who recognized potential profit in a rare commodity. After prices surged upward in the 1620s they then accelerated in the 1630s, as.a speculative market developed and ownership of tulip bulbs became a form of investment. Confident that prices would con- tinue upward, individuals and partnerships paid extravagant amounts for bulbs, believing that they would profit from future resale. Between December 1636 nd February 1637, for example, one of the most popular tulip varieties in value, becoming a speculative “bubble.” At the peak of this frenzy the rarest bulbs sold for three times the annual income ofa skilled carpenter. Then, in February 1637, the tulip market crashed as panicked investors rushed to unload their bulbs. If some had been made rich in this extraordinary trade, many of, those who entered the market at the height of Tulipmania and paid peak prices were financially ruined. creased twelve times ‘A The End ofthe Tulip Bubble The growth of Europe's economy accelerated with the development of commodity and stock markets. While crucial 10 capital formation and investment, these ealy markets created the conitions fr speculative bubbles. Seventeenti-century Holland expetienced one ofthe mast unusual when tulip prices surged to unsustainable levels and then crashed, In this panting an officer protects an exceptional tulip while his ‘men trample less valuable tulips nan attempt to maintain prices by reducing the umber of plants avaiable forsale, Te nas Ac tan While speculative bubbles roiled European economies throughout the early modern period, Europe steadily grew richer and more powerful. The voyages onexploration and (GGhiqUeStS of distant lands in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries (see Chapter 16) had initiated a dramatic commercial expansion. Greater opportunities and accumulating wealth contributed to the growth of iaiilifietiiriig and to the introduction of com- mercial and financial innovations such as stock markets, commercial insurance, and expanded property right protections, This was also an era of dramatic social and cultural change, as cities grew in power relative to the countryside and wealthy merchants, inves- tors, and manufacturers grew in power relative to Europe's hereditary nobility. During this period Europe also developed powerfiland efficient armies and govern- ments that established states elsewhere in the world feared, envied, and sometimes imi- tated. The global balance of power was shifting slowly in Europe's favor. At the beginning of this era, the Ottomans threatened Europe, but by 1750, as the remaining chapters of 426 CHAPTER 17 Transformations in Europe, 1500-1750 papacy The cenval aminise {tation ofthe roman Catholic CChureh, of whicn the pope is theese ‘onsissance (European) ‘A perid of intense artiste and ‘intlletual activity, said to bo a tebith” of classic Greco Roman culture. Usualy ded inna an liaan Renaissance, from roughly te mike to midciteenth cantry. and 2 Northern trans-Apine Fensissenca, from roughly {he eat ingenth 1 ear seventeenth century. Part V detail, Buropeans had brought much of the world under thetr control, No single nation was responsible for this success. Early in this period the Dutch eclipsed the pio- neering Portuguese and Spanish; then in the eighteenth century the English and French, bested the Dutch. This was also a period of dynamic cultural change: At the beginning of this era a single Chistian tradition dominated western Europe. By its end secular political insti- tutions and economic interests had grown stronger, while Catholic and new Protes- tant churches were weakened by religious wars, Equally influential was the challenge to Christianity’s long domination of European intellectual life posed by the’ Scientific Rovolition and the first stages of the Enlightenment, ‘The years from 1500 to 1750 were not simply an age of progress for Europe. For many, the ferocious competition of European armies, merchants, and ideas was a wrenching experience. The growth of powerful nation-states extracted a terrible price in death and destruction, and the Reformation brought widespread religious persecution and religious warfare as well as greater individual choice in religion. Women’s fortunes remained closely tied to their social class, and few gained equality with men. The expanding econ- omy benefited members of the emerging merchant elite and their political allies, but in an era of rising prices Europe’s urban and rural poor struggled to survive. @ -1 Culture and Ideas ‘did the interplay of traditional beliefs and revolutionary ideas influence the cultural history of early modern Europe? During the Reformation, theological controversies shattered the religious unity of the Latin Church and contributed to long and violent wars. While the influence of classical ideas from Greco-Roman antiquity increased among better-educated Europeans during the Renaissance (see Chapter 14), bold thinkers began to challenge the authority of both established religion and the Greco-Roman past. Emphasizing the careful observation of the physical universe and a reliance nce, they introduced new ideas about the motion of the planets and the natural world, encouraging others to challenge traditional social and political systems. Once in place, these new ideas would influence revolutionary political and social movements in the period after 1750. The transformative impact of these challenges to long-standing religious and intellectual beliefs was :multiplied by the technology of the printing press and expanded European literacy. 17a Early Reformation In 1500 the papacy; the central government of Latin Ghiistianity, held an unrivaled position as, Europe's preeminent religious and intellectual authority, even though lax clerical standards and. corruption were endemic. Recovered from a period when competing popes supported by rival secular rulers disputed control of the church, popes now exercised greater power, which was funded by larger donations and by income from the church’s enormous real estate holdings. The construction of fifty-four new churches and other buildings in Rome demonstrated the church's wealth and power and showcased the artistic Renafssance then under way. The church leadership intended the size and splendor of the magnificent new Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome to glorify God, display the skill of Renaissance artists and builders, and enhance the standing ofthe papacy, but the vast expense ofits construction and rich decoration also caused scandal. gates teat aeeretpeetocemetioeeoenals caertoeaas temas ates isonoeme st apemeant sms tomeeetiencinperaaanenenapnk 1741 Culture and ideas 427 Cir ekha [7 fae. roitics,czonomy, and Caiture Environment and Technology Warfare 1500 15008 Spain's golden century 1526-1671 Ottoman attack on Hepsbua Empire 1819 Protestant Reformation begins 1540-1058 German Wars of Religion 1540s Scientific Revolution begins 11962-1596 French Wars of Raicion 1545 Catholic Reformation begins 1596-1648 Netherands Revolt Late 1500s Wict-tunts increase 1890s Dutch coveop teats Lite tee Age begins 1000 1600sHotanes gokien century 1600 Growng depletion of forests 1618-1048 Thy Years War 1611 Fret stock exchange but 1609 Gale's astronomical telescope 1642-1649 English Chil Wer inarstersam 1696-1637 Tulp bubble 1682 Canal ou Mii completed 1652-1678 Anglo-Dutch Wers inNethetands 1667-1097 Wars of Louis XIV 1682-1697 Ottoman wars ‘700 1700s The Enightenment bogins 1701-1714 War of the Spanish Succession 1719-1720 Mississippi Company 1750 Enaish mine neatty§ milion bubble in France tons of coal year 1720 South Sea Company bubble 1755 Lisbon earthquake in England The skillful overseer of the design andl financing of Saint Peter’s Basilica was PopellsX Indulgences The oriveness (©1513-1521), a member ofthe wealthy Medici (MED-ih-chee)familiof Florence, famous for he Punishment cue foc past its patronage ofthe arts. Pope Leo's artistic taste was superb and his personal life free from scan- $5, gmedbythe Catal dal, ute was morea man of action than a spiritual leader. Duringhis papacy the church aggres- {q's piocs at Movin Lathos's sively raised funds through the sale of indlgences-a forgiveness of the punishment duc for protest aganst tne seo! pasteles Sdulgences i often seen 38 ‘A young professor of sacred scripture, Martini Lather (1483-1546), saw this practice and _"0vchng of he Protestant other excessesas intolerably corrupt, Asthe result ofa powerful religious experience, Luther had ***™™#H forsaken money and marriage for a monastic life of prayer, self-denial, and study. In his religious ‘quest, he found personal consolation in a passage in Saint Paul’s Epistle stating that salvation resulted from religious faith, not from "doing certain things.” That passage led Luther to object to the way preachers emphasized giving money to thechurch more than they emphasized faith. He wrote to Pope Leo to complain of this abuse and chal lenged the preachers toa debate on the theology of indulgences. “This theological dispute was also a contest between two strong.willed men. Largely ignoring the theological objections, Pope Leo regarded Luther'sleter asa challenge to papal power and moved to silence him. During a debate in 1519, a papal representative led Luther into open disagreement with church doctrines, for which the papacy > Martin Luther (1483-1546) This portrait of Martin Luthor was paintod by Lucas Cranach in 1529. Asa young professor of sacred scripture, Luther rejected essential teachings end practices of the Catholic Church. His rupture withthe pope andthe church hierarchy helped ignite the Protestant Reformation and ed to ong perio of religious war in Europe, wun aun 428 CHAPTER 17 Transformations in Europe, 1500-1750 Protestant Reformation Faligjous reform movemant begun within the Latin CCvistan Church io 1519, resulted i the “protesters” forming several now Chrison denominations, ncluding the Lutheran and Reformed (Churches and the Chureh of England, Catholic Reformation Foligious reform movernont wth he Latin Cristian CChutch, begun in sponse to the Protestant Raferma- tion. Commenly called he Counter Reformation, it ‘lanfied Catholic theology and reformed canca ning nd scilne condemned him. Blocked in his effort to reform the church from within, Luther burned the papal ‘bull(@ocament) of condemnation, rejected the pope's authority, and began the movement known, as the Protestant Reformation: ‘Accusing those whom he called “Romanists” (Roman Catholics) of relying on “good works.” Luther insisted that the only way to salvation was through faith in Jesus Christ. He further declared that Christian belie should be based on the word of God in the Bible and on Christian tradition, aot onthe authority of the pope. Luther’s effective use of the printing’ Be to spread his ideas won him the support of powerful Germans, who responded to his nationalist portrayal of an Italian pope seeking to beautify Rome with German funds. Luther's denunciation of the ostentation and corruption of the church led others to call fora return to what they saw as uncorrupted Christian practices and belies. Jol Calvin (1509-1564), a well-educated Frenchman who left the study of law for theology after experiencing a religious conversion, became one of the most influential Protestant leaders. Although Calvin agreed with Luther's emphasis on faith over works, he denied that human faith alone could merit salvation, Salvation, Calvin believed, was a gift God gave to those He “peedestinied.” Calvin also went far- ther than Luther in curtailing the power of the clerical hierarchy and in simplifying religious rituals. Calvinist congregations elected their own governing committees and created regional and national synods (councils) to regulate doctrinal issues. Calvinist also displayed simplicity in personal dress, life, and worship, avoiding ostentatious living while stripping churches of statues, ‘most musical instruments, stained-glass windows, incense, and vestments. ‘The Reformers appealed to genuine religious sentiments, but their successes and failures ‘were also influenced by local political and economic conditions. It was no coincidence that the German-born Luther had his greatest success among German speakers and linguistically related ‘Scandinavians. Nor was it surprising that peasants and urban laborers sometimes defied their ‘masters by adopting a different faith. Protestants were no more inclined than Roman Catholics to question male dominance in the church and the family, but most Protestants rejected the ‘medieval tradition of celibate priests and nuns and advocated Christian marriage for all adults. 17-10 The Counter-Reformation and the Politics of Religion Shaken by the intensity of the Protestant attack, the Catholic Church initiated a campaign of internal reforms. An influential church council met in Trent in northern Italy in 1545. Disrupted by political events and an outbreak of typhus, the council was relocated to Bologna in 1547, but a dispute between the pope and Charles V (1500-1558), the Holy Roman Emperor, made progress dificult. On the insistence of the Emperor, the council reassembled in Trent in 1551 ‘but lasted less than seven months. ‘The final sessions met between January 1562 and December 1563, Despite these interruptions, the council distinguished Catholic doctrines from what its ‘members saw as Protestant “errors” and reaffirmed the supremacy ofthe pope: Italso reaffirmed traditional teaching, including salvation through both faith and good works, the importance of| oral confession and penance, and the authority of ecclesiastical authorities in interpreting Scrip- tures. Bishops allied with the pope dominated the couneil and limited efforts to reform practices that Luther had condemned as corrupt. Seeking to address unpopular practices condemned by Protestants, the council called fo bishops to reside in their dioceses and for dioceses to maintain a theological seminary to train priests ‘The creation in 1540 of a new religious order, the Society of Jesus of "Jesuits" by Spanish nobleman Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) was among the most important events of the Catholic Reformation (also called the Counter-Reformation). Well-educated Jesuits helped stem the Prot- estant tide by their teaching and preaching (see Map 171), and they gained converts through ‘missions in Asia, Africa, and the Americas (see Chapters 18 and 21). Given the complexity and intensity stirred by the Protestant Reformation, itis not surprising that both sides persecuted and sometimes executed those with differing views. Hitler “wars of ‘eligion” would continue in parts of western Europe until 1648. The rulers of Spain and France ‘were the chief defenders of the Catholic tradition against these Protestant challenges. ‘Charles both HolyRomian Emperor and King of Spain, and his son, King Philip of'Spai (15271588, were the key political and military architects ofthe Counter-Reformation. To con- front the Protestant threat in northern Europe, Charles V dialed back his campaign against the Ottoman Empire and North African Muslim states in the Mediterrancan and sent large armies to central Europe and the low countries. As a result, Spain’s enormous windfall of Western DILNYTLY 430 CHAPTER 17 Transformations in Europe, 1500-1750 witeh-hunts The out of Deople suspected of witch ‘raft, especialy in northern Europe in the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Hemisphere bullion (Gee Chapters 16 and 18) went to subsidize this new military commitment rather than to develop its economy. Philip II continued his father's policies to their disastrous, ends: the destruction of the Spanish Armada in 1588 and the recognition of effective Dutch independence in 1609. In France the Calvinist opponents ofthe Valois dynasty gained the military advantage in the but, in the interest of national unity, their leader Prince Henry of Navarre ultimately accepted the Catholic faith when he ruled as Henry IV of France. In [pursuit oftheir objective ofa union of church and state, Henry IV, his son King Louis XIII, and his grandson King Louis XIV supported the Catholic Church. Ultimately, Louis XIV revoked the Bdict of Nantes (nahnt) by whieh his grandfather had granted religious freedom to his Protestant ‘supporters in 1598. ‘In England King Henry VII (15091547) had initially been a strong defender ofthe papacy against Lutheran criticism. But when Henry failed to obtain a papal annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, who had not furnished him with a male her, he challenged the papa ‘y's authority over the English church. Despite the pope's opposition, the English archbishop of ‘Canterbury annulled Henry's marriage in 1533 and then Parliament made the king head of an autonomous Church of England. Like many Protestant rulers, Henry used this controversy to strengthen his authority and {fatten his pocketbook by closing monasteries and convents and seizing their lands. He gave some land to his powerful allies and used profits from selling other land to pay for his new navy. While the king’s power had grown at the expense of the Catholic Church, religious belief and practice ‘were changing also. The new Anglican Church distanced itself from Catholic ritual and theol- ‘ogy. but English Puritans (Calvinists who wanted to “purify” the church of all Catholic practices and belies) sought more. In 1603 they petitioned the first Stuart king, James I, to weaken the hierarchy by eliminating bishops. 174 Local Religion, Traditional Culture, and Witch-Hunts Jn both the Protestant north and the Catholic south the institutions that enforced religious “orthodoxy were strongest in urban places and weakest in villages and small towns. In these set- tings, local religion commonly blended the rituals and beliefs of the established churches with, local folk customs, pre-Christian beliefs, ancient curing practices, love magic, and the casting of spells. The vigor ofthese local religious traditions ebbed and flowed in response to the strength ‘of national and regional religious institutions as well as to the experience of economic disloca- tions, famine, and epidemic. The widespread witch-hunts that Protestants and Catholics under- tookin early modern Europe were linked to this widespread belief in white and black magic. Yet, these beliefs and fears would not have had such deadly consequences if many educated and powerful city dwellers did not believe in the Devil’s power to affect society broadly. Prevailing European ideas about the natural world blended two distinct traditions. One was an enduring belief in magic and spirits passed down orally from pre-Christian times ‘The second was the biblical teachings of the Christian and Jewish Scriptures, broadcast by traditional religious authorities and supplemented by growing numbers of religious texts and ‘commentaries published in French, English, and German languages as well asin traditional Latin, For most Europeans, Christian teachings about miracles, saints, and devils coincided ‘easily with beliefs about magic, sorcery, and witchcraft rooted in the distant past. It was widely assumed that some men and women possessed special powers derived from ‘occult knowledge or, in some cases, from a compact with the Devil. In its benign version, it ‘was asstumed that these practitioners could heal the sick, cause love to flourish, or guarantee ‘g00d fortune. They could also solve disputes with masters or employers or punish enemies. The malevolent version was practiced by witches and warlocks who could cause infertility, illness, ‘or death of loved ones and neighbors, cause crops or businesses to fal, or even provoke epidem- ics or droughts, sometimes in association with the Devil. While some theologians and jurists ‘questioned the intellectual and religious underpinnings of these assumptions before the mid- sixteenth century, many European civil and ecclesiastical courts would continue to arrest and ‘punish witches until the last decades of the seventeenth century. ‘The attribution of human triumphs and tragedies to supernatural causes persisted among, Europeans long after the end of the witch hysteria, When an earthquake destroyed much of Lisbon, Portugal's capital city, in November 1755, for example, both educated and uneducated 7A Culture and Ideas 431 4 Death of Three Women Accused of Witcheraft This sinteonth-centuy woodeut shows the execution by bring alive of tae women accused of witcheratt in Dotober 155 in Dernaburg, Gormany. Gwineisurencon people saw the event as a punishment sent by God. A Jesuit stated that it was “scandalous to pretend that the earthquake was just a natural event.” An English Protestant leader agreed, comparing Lisbon’ fate with that of Sodom, the city that God destroyed because of the sinfulness of its citizens, according to the Hebrew Bible. The extraordinary fear of witches that swept across Europe in the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was powerful testimony to the endurance of these beliefs among com- :moners and the governing class alike. The initial wave of mass witch-hunts began in Protestant regions of Germany in the last decades of the sixteenth century. They continued, and in some areas accelerated, during the period of the Catholic Counter Reformation. Before this hysteria ‘ended, Catholic and Protestant authorities had collectively tried approximately 100,000 people and execiite60,000—some three-fourths of them women—for practicing witchcraft. The scale of these trials and the numbers of executions could not have happened without the active par ticipation of rulers and judicial authorities. In German city-states like Wasrzburg and Bamberg, for example, local princes condoned and promoted the trials, thus contributing to hundreds of deaths, including scores of children, in the 1620s and 1630s. ‘Trial records make it clear that both the accusers and the accused believed that it was pos sible for angry, jealous, and evil individuals to use black magic in concert with the Devil to cause injury to others. Many, infact, appear to have willingly admitted to having occult powers and even to consorting with the Devil, but some educated Europeans of this period wondered if these individuals were mentally unbalanced or simply old and senile. Clearly the common use of judicial torture by religious and secular authorities explains why so many of the accused witches confessed. ‘While the trials and executions transcended both national and religious boundaries, there ‘were significant differences in regional and national practice, even among nations with similar religious traditions. While England's population was roughly five times larger than Scotland's, roughly three times as many witches were executed by the Scots, 120 in the two-year period 1661-1662 alone. The relatively strong Catholic states of France and Spain also had low numbers, of executions relative to the German states. In Spain the Inquisition limited arrests of suspected. witches based solely on accusations as early as 1526. The judges of the Parlement of Paris man- dated appeals of convictions for witchcraft and began to overturn many before the wave of executions crested in northern Europe in the 1620s. Similarly, the more egalitarian and less centralized government of Holland also limited trials and executions. The death toll was high- fest in German states like Wairzburg and Bamberg, which executed 900 and 600, respectively, between 1626 and 1631. Sweden hosted one ofthe last mass campaigns of extirpation, executing, seventy-one convicted witches on a single day in 1675. Even in Orthodox Russi, far from the center of this hysteria, ninety-nine were accused of witchcraft and ten were burned at the stake between 1622 and 1700. 432. CHAPTER 17 Transformations in Europe, 1500-1750 ‘Scientific Revolution The intellectual movement in Europa, italy associated with planetary motion and other aspects of physics, thar by the seventeenth century had lig the groundwork or modern While no single reason can explain the rise in witchcraft accusations and executions in carly modern Europe, itis important to recall that these events coincided with a period of rising social tensions, growing rural poverty, and environmental crises. They also coincided with the ‘mass violence of the wars of the Reformation period. While far from being a bizarre aberration, Witch-hunts also reflected the tension between popular beliefs and practices and the ambitions “of aggressive new religious and political institutions. The Reformation’s focus on the Devil—the ‘enemy of God—as the source of evil and the Catholic Counter-Reformation’s effort to enforce ‘orthodoxy on recalcitrant rural populations helped to propel the brutal persecutions of this period. In the eighteenth century the era of witchcraft persecutions effectively came to an end ‘The underlying beliefs were no longer credible among increasingly skeptical judges and rulers influenced by the eras new ideas, while central governments were stronger and less willing to allow popular passions to sway the local administration of justice. 171d The Scientific Revolution Europe's intellectual environment proved to be as tumultuous and unstable as its religious inst- tutions and political organization inthe early modern period. At the beginning ofthe period the ‘writings of classic antiquity and the Bible were the most trusted guides to the natural world. The ‘greatest authority on physics was Aristotle (384-322 BCE), a Greck philosopher who taught that the surface of the earth was composed of two heavy elements, earth and water. The atmosphere ‘was made up of two lighter elements air and fire, which floated above the ground. Higher still ‘were the sun, moon, planets. and stars. which, according to Aristotelian physics, were so light, and pure that they floated in crystalline spheres. This division between the ponderous, heavy ‘earth and airy, celestial bodies accorded perfectly with the orthodox insistence that all heavenly bodies revolved around the earth. Beginning in the sixteenth century, however, European understandings ofthe natural world ‘were transformed by a new form of scientific inquiry that emphasized experimentation, careful observation, and mathematical calculations. While this period is often called the Scientific Revolution, many ofthe most influential intellectuals were committed Christians (both Catholic and Protestant) who sought to use science to reinforce religious beliefs. Nevertheless, as this ‘movement gained momentum, and as the convincing results ofthe experimental method accu- ‘mulated, European intellectual life became more and more secular and independent. ‘Nichiolas Copernicus (1473-1543), a Polish monk and mathematician, helped initiate the new era when he proposed that the sun, not the earth, as taught by both religious and classical authorities, was the center ofthe universe (see Chapter 14) To escape anticipated controversies ‘with church authorities. Copernicus delayed the publication of his heliocentric (sun-centered) theory until the end of his if. Once disseminated, his assertion that the sun, not the earth, was atthe center of the universe began a revolution in the way human beings understood the struc ture of the heavens. ‘Other astronomers, including the Danish Iyeho Bralhe (1546-1601) and his German assistant Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), strengthened and improved on Copernicus's model, showing that planets actually move in elliptical not circular, orbits. The most brilliant of the Copernicans was the lalian Galileo Galile (gal-uh-LAY-oh gal-uh-LAY-ce) (1564-1642) In 1609 Galileo built a {telescope through which he could look more closely at the heavens, thus confirming empirically the speculations of other astronomers. ‘At first, those supporting the heliocentric universe faced formidable resistance because they directly challenged the intellectual synthesis of classical and biblical authorities. Many intellec~ tual and religious leaders sought to suppress the new ideas. Most Protestant leaders, following the lead of Martin Luther, condemned the heliocentric universe as contrary to the Bible. Catholic authorities did not react immediately, but, when they did act, they proved more effective in sup- pressing the new scientific discoveries ‘Copernicus died before his book was classified as heretical by Catholic authorities in 1616 and placed on the index of prohibited books. Despite this condemnation, his discoveries helped lead to amore accurate calendar issued in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII and still used today. Galileo's ‘empirical demonstration of the heliocentric theory led ultimately to a confrontation with the ‘Inquisition, Galileo argued that the Bible was an inspired text, but, when science had established a ‘demonstrable fact, religious authorities should reinterpret the Bible to coincide with the evidence, sinceit could not be God's intention to mislead. Despite the controversial nature of his opinions, 17-1 Culture and ideas 433 hhe continued to publish, pressing for a reliance on physical evidence and accurate measure ‘ment. Ordered before the Inquisition in 1633, Galileo was confined and shown the instruments of torture. Under intense pressure, Galileo agreed to recite and then sign a formal renunciation of his research. An apparent victory for tradition, this action put the Catholic Church in untenable ‘opposition toa key early achievement of the new science. Despite opposition from religious and secular authorities, printed books spread the new scientific ideas across Europe. Among the most influential intellectuals was French philosopher and mathematician René Descastes (1595-1650), who furthered the development of physics and. calculus when he demonstrated the usefulness of algebra to geometry. After hearing of Galileo’ condemnation by the Inquisition in 1633, however, Descartes decided to delay publishing a potentially controversial work on optics and astronomy: In England, another intelle=tual, Rober Boyle (1627-1691), advocated tirelessly for the usefulness of the experimental method. One of the founders of modern chemistry, he developed an effective vacuum pump and demonstrated that air was necessary forthe transmission of sound. He was also among the frst to publish the details of experiments, including his failures. Boyle along with others became an enthusiastic missionary of mechanical science and played a key role in the 1662 founding of the Royal Society to promote science. Its motto is"Nullius in Verba’ or “Nothing in Words,” a demand that science should be based on experiments alone. ‘Another Englishman, mathematician Isaac Newton (16421727), began his work in optics and mathematics, building on the work of Boyle and Descartes. He later carried Galileo's dem: oonstration that the heavens and earth share a common physics to its logical conclusion by for ‘mulating mathematical laws that governed all physical objects. His Law of Gravity and his role in developing the calculus made him the most famous and influential man of his era, serving as, president ofthe Royal Society from 1703 until his death. Aslateas 1700 most religious and intellectual leaders continued to view the new science with suspicion or hostility because it challenged long-established ways of thought. Yet most of the principal pioneers ofthe Scientific Revolution, including the Catholics Galileo and Descartes as well as the Protestant Boyle, were convinced that scientific discoveries and revealed religion could be reconciled. However, by showing thatthe Aristoteliansand biblical writers held ideas about the natural world that were unsupportable in the face of scientific discovery, these pioneers opened. the door to others who used reason and logic to challenge a broader range of unquestioned tradi tions and superstitions. The world of ideas was forever changed. ileo Galilei R Galileo was summoned to Rome by the Inqustion to defend his scien- tfc conclusion thatthe sun, nat ‘the eart, was the canta ofthe universe, He was interrogated for 18 days by Church autor tis, despite his fragile health, Following this ordeal he was ‘thveatened with torture and then sentenced to prison, Under ‘duress Galileo abjured the esl of his scant esearch and was confined to house rest unt his death in 1842 eesti on 434 CHAPTER 17 Transformations in Europe, 1600-1750 Cee (Section Review © Gutraged by corrupt church practices, reformers lke Luther and Calvin challenged papal authority and traditional Catholic theology. * In response to the Protestant reformers, the Catholic, Church launched # Counter-Reformation. © Both Protestants and Catholics, seeking to enforce orthodoxy, sanctioned widespread witch-hunts ‘© Tho thinkers ofthe Sciontfic Revolution challenged traditional biblicel and Aristotelian conceptions of the 174e The Early Enlightenment [Advances in scientific thought inspired some to question the reasonableness of everything from agricultural methods to Jaws, religion, and social hierarchies. They believed that they could apply the scientific method to analyze economics. politics, and social organization in order to devise the best policies. This enthusiasm for an open and critical examina- tion of human society energized a movement known as the Enlightenment. Like the Seientifie Revolution, this move- ‘ment was the work of a few “enlightened’ individuals, who often faced bitter opposition from the politcal and religious cosmos. © The advances in science prompted Enlightenment thinkers to question many conventional id practices, Enlightenment philosophical movement in ‘igntsenthecentury Europe ‘tha fostered the belief that ‘one could form society by ‘discovering ational ws that ‘governed socal behavior and ‘wore ust as scientfic as the las of physics. establishments. Leading Enlightenment thinkers became accustomed to having their books burned or banned, and ‘many spent long periods in exile to escape persecution. Influences besides the Scientific Revolution affected the Enlightenment. The religious warfare and intolerance assoct- ated with the struggle between Catholicism and Protestant- ism undermined the moral authority of religion for many, and the efforts of church authorities to impugn the breakthroughs of science also pushed European intellectuals in a secular direction. ‘The popular bigotry manifested in the brutal treatment of suspected witches also shocked many thoughtful people. Leading French thinker Frangois-Marie d’Arouet, better known by his pen name Voltaire (1694-1778), declared: "No opinion is worth burning your neighbor for.” Although many circumstances shaped “enlightened” thinking, new scientific methods and discoveries provided the clearest model for changing European society. Accused of defamation bya powerful French aristocrat, Voltaire fled to England, where he met many leading scientists as well as intellectual luminaries like Alexander Pope and Jonathan Swift. When he returned to France, he became a leading advocate for Newtonian physics in opposition to his country- ‘man Descartes. In his publications Voltaire linked the prestige ofthe newily ascendant scientific ‘method with his generation's mounting political and social concerns in these terms: “It would be very peculiar that all nature, all the planets, should obey eternal laws” but a human being, “in contempt of these laws, could act ashe pleased solely according to his caprice.” English poet made similar point in verse: “Nature and Nature's laws lay hidden in night; / God said, “Let Newton be’ and all was light.” ‘The Enlightenment was more a frame of mind than a coherent movement, Individuals who embraced it drew inspiration from different sources and promoted different agendas. Its propo- nents were clearer about what they disliked than about what changes were necessary. Some ideal- ists thought an “enlightened” society could function with the mechanical orderliness of planets spinning in their orbits, ut most reformers focused on smaller, less ambitious objectives. Nearly all were optimistic thata lest in the long ran—their discoveries would improve human beliefs and institutions. This faith in progress would help foster the political and social revolutions that transformed the Atlantic world after 1750, as Chapter 23 recounts While thy European monarchs selectively endorsed new ideas. Monarchs, ambitious to increase their power, found anticlerical intellectuals useful allies against church power and wealth. More predictably. monarchs and their reforming advisers discovered in the Enlightenment’s demand for more rational and predictable policies justification forthe expansion of royal authority and the impo- sition of more efficient tax systems. Europe in 1750 was a place where political and religious divisions, growing literacy, and the printing press made it possible for these controversial and. exciting new ideas to thrive despite opposition from ancient and powerful is and 672 Social and Economic Life Phere were large and important differences in the social structures of the major European. nations, but there were many shared characteristics as well. European society was dominated bya small number of noble families who enjoyed privileged access to high offices in the church, government, and military and, in mostcases, exemption from taxation. Below them wasa much larger class of prosperous commoners that included many clergy, bureaucrats, professionals, and 172 Social and Economic Lite 435 4 The Fishwite, 1672. Women were essential partners in most Dutch family businesses. This scene bby Dutch artist Adiaen van Ostade shows a woman proparng fish for retal sala, Theft 72010 military officers as well as merchants, some artisans, and rural landowners. The Vast nd women ry poor, Lal ney Laborer > i a mploymer The poorest ‘members of society lived truly desperate lives, surviving only through guile, begging, or crime. Women remained subordinated to men. Some social mobility did occur, however, particularly in the middle. The principal engine of social change was an economy stimulated by long-distance trade and by access to the gold and silver of the Americas. Because cities enjoyed the benefits of this expansion disproportionally, they were the principal arenas of new opportunity and social mobility 17-2a lurope’s cities grew in response to expanding trade and rising commercial profits. In 1500 Pais was the only northern European city with aver 100,000 inhabitants. By 1700 both Paris and London had populations over 500,000, and eleven other European cities contained over 100,000 people. i r manu fi both within Europe and overseas. The French called the urban class that dominated these activities the ourgeoisie (boor-2wah-ZEB) (burghers, town dwellers). Members of the bourgeoisie devoted Jong houss to their businesses and poured much oftheir profits back into them or into new ven: tures. Even so, most had enough money to live comfortably in large houses, and some had ser vvants, In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries wealthier consumers could buy exotic luxuries Republic was the most egalitarian European country in the early modcrn period. Whileit retained" Swell wnoso wo a nobility, wealthy commoners dominated its economy and politics. Manufactarers and crfts- (aoncereowmrarce yd tiog men turned outa great varity of goods in their factories and workshops. "The highly successful promeone 436 CHAPTER 17 Transformations in Europe, 1500-1750 joint-stock company A business, often backed by 2 government charter, that sold shares to indviouas 0 raise money forts wading feterpises and to spread the "ists and prefs) among many rvestors stock exchange Aplace ‘nee shares ina company or business enterprise ae bought and sold ‘gentry The cass of andhold- ha famties i Englanc below the aisooracy. textile industry concentrated on the profitable weaving, finishing, and printing of cloth, leaving spinning to low-paid workers elsewhere. Along with fine woolens and linens, the Dutch also ‘made cheaper textiles for mass markets. Factories in Holland refined West Indian sugar, brewed beer made from Baltic grain, cut Virginian tobacco, and made imitations of Chinese ceramics (Gee Environment & Technology: East Asian Porcelain in Chapter 21) Free from the censorship and religious persecution imposed by political and religious authorities elsewhere, Hallands intellectuals were active in the Scientific Revolution and early Enlightenment, and its printers published books in many languages, including manuals with the latest advances in machinery, ‘metallurgy, agriculture, and other technical areas. For a small nation that lacked timber and other natural resources, this was a remarkable achievement. ‘With a population of 200,000 in 1700, Amsterdam was Holland's largest city and Buirope’s tnajor port: The Dutch developed huge commercial fleets that dominated sea trade in Europe and overseas. Around 1600 they introduced new ship designs, including the fluit or “flybost,” a large-capacity cargo ship that was inexpensive to build and required only a small crew. As their trade with distant markets developed they introduced another successful type of merchant ship, the heavily aemed"East indiamat,” that helped the Dutch establish their supremacy inthe Indian ‘Ocean, supplanting Portugal (see Chapter 16). By one estimate, the Dutch conducted more than half ofall the oceangoing commercial shipping in the world in the seventeenth century (for details, see Chapters 20 and 21). Dutch improvements in mapmaking supported these distant ‘commercial connections (see Environment & Technology: Mapping the World) Seventeenth-century Dutch banks had such a reputation for security that wealthy individuals and governments from all aver western Europe entrusted them with their money. Dutch banks in turn invested these funds in real estate, loaned money to factory owners and governments, and provided capital for commercial ‘operations overseas. Individuals seeking higher returns than those provided by banks could purchase shares in a a sixteenth-century forerunner of the modern corporation. Individuals ‘bought and sold shares in specialized financial markets called stele exchanges, an Italian innova- tion transferred tothe cities ofnorthwestern Europe the sixteenth century The lively Amsterdam Exchange, begun as an outdoor market around 1530, moved into impressive new quarters in 161 remained Europe's greatest stock market inthe seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. ‘The Dutch government played a dizect role in this process by pioneering the creation of like the Dutch East and West India Companies, which were granted monopolies for trade with the East and West Indies (see Diversity & Dominance: ‘Commercial Expansion and Risk). France and England soon chartered monopoly trading ‘companies oftheir own. These companies then sold shares to individuals to raise large sums for ‘overseas enterprises while spreading the risks (and profits) among many investors (ee Chapter 19). this same era insurance companies were developed to insurelong distance voyages against loss: by 1700, purchasing insurance had become standard commercial pract ‘Governments also sought to promote trade by investing in infrastructure, The Dutch built ‘numerous canals to speed transport, lower costs, and drain the lowlands for agriculture. Other {governments financed canals as well, including systems of locks to raise barges up over hills. ‘One of the most important was the 150-mile (240-kilometer) Canal du Midi built by the French government between 1661 and 1682 to link the Atlantic and the Mediterrancan. ‘After 1650 the Dutch faced growing competition from the Eaglish, who were developing their ‘own close association between business and government. With government suppor, the English ‘merchant fleet doubled between 1660 and 1700, and foreign trade rose by 50 percent. Asa result, state revenue from customs duties tripled, supporting the growth ofthe navy: In a series of wars (0652-1678) the English government used this new naval might to break Dutes dominance in ‘overseas trade and to extend England's colonial empire. ‘Some successful members the bourgeoisie in England and France chose to use their wealth to raise their social status. By retiring from their businesses and buying country estates, they could become members of the gentry. They loaned money to impoverished peasants and ‘members of the nobility and in time increased thei land ownership. Some sought aristocratic husbands for their daughters. The old nobility found such alliances attractive because ofthe large

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