Volume 28 No. 1 April 2007

Volume 28 No.
1 April 2007
BHEL JOURNAL CONTENTS Page
Volume 28 No. 1 April 2007 LAMINAR HEAT TRANSFER AND PRESSURE

DROP IN THE AXIAL CIRCULAR DUCTS OF
THE ROTOR OF AN ELECTRICAL MACHINE 1
ALUMINIUM TRIHYDRATE (ATH) —

A VERSATILE MATERIAL 12
Editorial Advisory Committee APPLICATIONS OF HIGH POWER LASERS

IN MATERIAL PROCESSING 20
C.P. Singh CONTROL & DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES OF

K. Ravikumar 500 MW TURBO GENERATORS 31
K.V. Muthukrishnan
S.K. Goyal IMPROVED THYRISTOR TURN-OFF
CHARACTERISTICS THROUGH
SELECTIVE EMITTER DOPING 43
INNOVATIONS — FROM BHEL 55
Editor : R.K. Bhattacharya RECENT MAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS OF BHEL

(during September'06-March'07) 61
Associate Editor : Alok Mathur
BHEL JOURNAL is published quarterly.

All correspondence and enquiries are to be
addressed to:
Mr. R.K. Bhattacharya
Editor, BHEL Journal
Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited
BHEL House, Siri Fort,
New Delhi-110 049
4
The statements and views expressed in this 1 3 Cover Photographs
2
Journal are entirely those of the authors, and
not necessarily that of the Organisation. 1. Singrauli STPS, equipped with BHEL's first indigenously
built 500 MW set
Contents may be referred to or reproduced 2. 290 MW Almatti Dam HEP
partially with due acknowledgements.
3. 4x15 MW Kurichu HEP, Bhutan
Copyright reserved. 4. 2x77 MW Captive Power Plant at Hindustan Zinc Ltd.
LAMINAR HEAT TRANSFER AND PRESSURE DROP
IN THE AXIAL CIRCULAR DUCTS OF THE
ROTOR OF AN ELECTRICAL MACHINE
N. Gunabushanam
SYNOPSIS and their variation with rotational Grashof number

and aspect ratio are reported. The influence of rotation
Experimental results have been obtained on pressure on hydraulic friction factor is studied.
drop and heat transfer for laminar flow of air in an
axially cooled rough circular duct of a rotor of an
electrical machine, with circumferential variation of
heat flux. The entry conditions, and the range of Key Words:
parameters covered, simulate the real conditions more
closely than in the work reported in literature. The local Laminar Flow; Rotating Circular Ducts; Heat
and mean heat transfer characteristics are evaluated Transfer; Pressure Drop.
NON DIMENSIONAL GROUPS

Ac - Acceleration ratio = HΩ2/g
Grg - Grashof number = gβd3Δt/γ2
Grr - Rotational Grashof number = AcGrg
J - Rotational Reynolds number = 2Ω a2/γ
Nub - Bulk Nusselt number = q/πK(Tw-Tb)
Num - Mean Nusselt number = q/πK(Tw-Tm)
Pr - Prandtl number = γ/α
Rag - Gravitational Rayleigh number = Grg.Pr
Rar - Rotational Rayleigh number = HΩ2βτa4/αγ = Grr. Pr.
Re - Pipe flow Reynolds number = Wmd/γ
ε - Eccentricity Parameter = a/H
aR - Aspect Ratio = L/d
BHEL JOURNAL, April 2007 1

NOMENCLATURE
a - Radius of circular duct
Cf - Friction factor in rotating tube
Cfo - Friction factor in stationary tube
d - Hydraulic diameter of the duct
g - Acceleration due to gravity
H - Radius of rotation of pipe axis
L - Length of test section
K - Thermal conductivity
p - Pseudo pressure
q - Heat transfer rate per unit length
T - Temperature
Tb - Bulk Temperature
Tm - Mean temperatures
Tw - Wall temperature
ΔT - (Tw - Tb) Temperature difference
Wm - Mean axial velocity
α - Thermal diffusivity
β - Coefficient of volumetric expansion
γ - Kinematic viscosity
ρ - Density
τ - Axial temperature gradient
Ω - Angular velocity
1. INTRODUCTION ducts and stationary ducts. The density gradients in

the fluid resulting from the temperature difference
Cooling passages are often used in the rotors of large give rise to buoyancy forces, which further influence
high performance electrical machines to allow for the flow field. For larger angular velocities, these
increased electrical and magnetic loadings. In some buoyancy effects must be taken into account in the
of these designs, a major portion of a typical rotor calculation of temperatures and design of fan
cooling circuit involves flow channels which are capacities for optimum machines.
parallel to, but displaced from the rotor axis. In such
a geometry, the presence of centripetal and Coriolis Most investigations reported in the literature are
acceleration forces may cause secondary flow to concerned with laminar flow in parallel rotating
occur in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the passages. A few concern the theoretical analysis for
rotating channel, leading to considerable differences developed flow, with very weak secondary flows and
in fluid friction and heat transfer between rotating extremely low Reynolds numbers. Morris [1], Mori

and Nakayama [2] have studied the case of fully the walls of the ducts and in the air passage along
developed laminar and turbulent flows. The authors the rotor length to measure the temperatures and are
assumed a gross secondary flow consistent with high brought out through slip rings. Two sets of ducts
rotational speeds and derived heat transfer and were chosen for the purpose of checking the
pressure drop for a variety of Prandtl numbers. They consistency. Pressure taps are made in the axial ducts
also showed that the influence of Coriolis forces was and they are brought out through a 36 port rotating
significant. Nakayama [3] considered the fully scanivalve. The pressure tap can be changed by
developed turbulent flow using the boundary layer means of a 90 psi compressed air supply to the
concept. Humphreys, Morris and Barrow [4] scanivalve, through a solenoid operated control
presented the results of an experimental investigation valve. Complete details of the test set-up are shown
using air as the working fluid in the entry region by in Fig. 2. The heating elements are embedded in the
forcing air through a radial rotating pipe and a bend, conductor slots of the rotor and brought out
thereby introducing considerable inlet swirl. Hence through power slip rings. The rotor surface is
the results may not be directly useful to axially insulated uniformly with fibre-glass tape and asbestos
cooled electrical motors. Le Feuvre [5] has also powder. Heat flux meters are mounted on the
presented results of an experimental programme insulated rotor surface, along with the thermocouples,
where this type of cooling system is used in the rotor to measure surface losses. The ends of the rotor are
of an electrical motor, but for a limited range of provided with 5.0 mm thick glass textolite insulators
parameters. However, he did not investigate the and a 1.0 mm thick layer of asbestos powder to
pressure drop aspect of the rotating ducts. Generally, minimize end losses. Embedded thermocouples
improved heat transfer was noted with increase in measure the end losses across the textolite thermal
rotational speed and, although reliable quantitative insulators, whose thermal conductivity is known. A
predictions were not possible, qualitative agreement d.c. motor drives the rotor whose speed is measured
with the analytical work was observed. digitally by a magnetic pick-up. The air is directly
drawn from the atmosphere into the rotor axial
In the present work, experimental measurements of ducts through an inlet nozzle. The flow rate is
pressure drop and heat transfer in the axial circular measured by pitot probes and hot wire anemometers
ducts formed by the assembly of rotor laminations at around 50 locations, at a stabilised distance from
are made under conditions of rotation. The entry of the outlet of the test section.
the flow to the duct is axial and swirl-free. Only
weak secondary forces, i.e., very slow speeds, are
considered and it is shown that the effect of rotation 3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
is to increase the heat transfer and friction, the effect
being larger in laminar flow than in turbulent flow. The power input to the heating elements was
The experiment simulates the condition of an adjusted so that it caused a measurable temperature
axially-cooled rough circular duct of a rotor of an difference between the air and the wall of the duct
electrical machine with circumferential variation of for maximum air flow. The power input was
heat flux. maintained constant and the steady state temperatures
were recorded on a data logger. The pressure drop
tap readings were measured through the scanivalve.
2. EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
The experiments were repeated for different heat
The experiments were performed using a rotating inputs and rotational speeds of 0 to 1200 r.p.m.
duct facility shown in Fig. 1. This consists basically Data was obtained for rotor power inputs in the
of a built-up rotor of circular ducts formed by an range of 100 to 300 W. For each power input and
assembly of electrical steel sheets. There are six axial speed, eight axial flow Reynolds numbers, ranging
ducts on the rotor. Thermocouples are embedded in from 800 to 14 000, were calculated.

BHEL JOURNAL, April 2007
4
FIG. 1 : EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
BHEL JOURNAL, April 2007
5
FIG. 2 : EXPERIMENTAL TEST SECTION
4. METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS numbers, is given in Fig. 8. It can be seen from the
figure that there is a steep decrease in the friction
The wall heat flux was calculated from the main factor in the range of 0 to 400 r.p.m. and further
power input by subtracting the brush contact losses increase in speed marginally decreases the friction
(calibrated earlier), rotor surface losses and end factor for a given nominal Reynolds number.
losses. The wall heat flux so obtained was compared
with the thermal balance made by measuring the The calibration of the test equipment can be
mass flow and the temperature rise of air. The two checked by comparing the local Nusselt numbers for
agreed within ±3.5%. The pseudo Nusselt numbers the stationary case. Even the small difference for zero
were calculated using the local temperature difference speed can be attributed to the roughness involved in
between the wall and the local centre line temperature the formation of the duct by the assembly of the
of the air. The local heat flux was evaluated by laminations.
calculating the heat carried by the air up to the point
of consideration. For evaluating mean Nusselt
number, the difference between the mean wall 6. UNCERTAINTIES IN THE
temperature profile and the mean of the inlet and MEASUREMENTS
outlet temperatures of air in the duct, was used. The
hydraulic friction factor, Cf was calculated from the The basic measurements involved in the experimental
pressure gradient, measured through the scanivalve, investigation are the voltage and current for power
using the Fanning friction equation. input calculations, wall tap pressures and wall and
air temperatures for pressure drop and heat transfer
calculations, respectively. The brush contact losses
5. DISCUSSION OF EXPERIMENTAL for power input and the rotor surface and end losses
RESULTS have been measured by highly sensitive embedded
heat flux sensors, drawn through the slip ring
The test data obtained are represented graphically in mechanism. These losses have been calibrated for
Fig. 3 to 11, for the minimum and maximum various speeds. The net heat flow into the rotor
Reynolds numbers. Fig. 3 shows the axial temperature ducts is compared with the heat flow obtained
distribution obtained for mean gravitational Rayleigh through the thermal balance and it compares well.
number of 5320. The curves for zero speed and The percentage of unaccounted losses is shown
some typical speeds of the rotor ducts are also given. graphically in Fig. 9. It can be seen that, for
The influence of rotation on the mean and maximum Reynolds number from 800 to 9500, and for the
wall temperature, for various mean Reynolds numbers, speeds 0 to 1200 r.p.m., the unaccounted losses vary
is explained in Fig. 4. It is observed from the figure from 2.0 to 8.0%.
that the effect of reduction in wall temperature is
greater at lower speeds than at higher speeds. Fig. 5 It can be seen from Fig. 10 that the temperature
shows the variation of the mean motivating differential between the wall and the air decreases
temperature differential (used in the evaluation of with increase in Reynolds number for a given speed.
mean Grashof number) vs. speed for typical mean An increase in the speed brings down the motivating
axial flow Reynolds numbers. An indication of the temperature differential. At higher Reynolds number,
variation in heat transfer owing to duct rotation is the speed has a minimal effect on the temperature
shown in Fig. 6. Fig. 7 explains the variation of local differential. Similar trends can be noted in Fig. 11.
Nusselt number with aspect ratio for various values
of acceleration ratio (Ac) and pipe flow Reynolds The thermocouples are of sheath type, pre-calibrated
number (Re). The variation of hydraulic friction using a thermostat bath. The measuring spot is 0.15
factor with nominal Reynolds number, for various to 0.20 mm from the duct inner surfaces, which is
acceleration ratios and mean rotational Rayleigh another source of error.

FIG. 3 : AXIAL TEMPERATURE PROFILES FOR ROTATING CIRCULAR DUCT
FIG. 4 : INFLUENCE OF ROTATION ON MAXIMUM AND MEAN WALL TEMPERATURE
FIG. 5 : INFLUENCE OF ROTATION ON MEAN MOTIVATING TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WALL DUCT AND COOLANT

FIG. 6 : VARIATION OF MEAN NUSSELT NUMBER WITH ROTATIONAL GRASHOF NUMBER
FIG. 7 : VARIATION OF LOCAL NUSSELT NUMBER WITH ASPECT RATIO
FIG. 8 : INFLUENCE OF ROTATION ON HYDRAULIC FRICTION FACTOR

FIG. 9 : PERCENTAGE OF UNACCOUNTED LOSSES
400
600 rpm
1000
FIG. 10 : REYNOLDS NUMBER VS MOTIVATING TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
1200 rpm
FIG. 11 : VARIATION OF WALL TEMPERATURE WITH REYNOLDS NUMBER FOR VARIOUS SPEEDS

7. CONCLUSIONS 2. MORI, Y and NAKAYAMA, W., -- Forced
convective heat transfer in a straight pipe
The following broad conclusions can be drawn from rotating around a parallel axis - Laminar
the present investigation: region. International Journal of Heat and Mass
1. Rotation of the rotor duct enhances heat Transfer Vol. 10, 1179-1194, 1967.
transfer and increases the hydraulic friction
factor relative to the stationary case. There is 3. NAKAYAMA, W., -- Forced convective heat
a steep change from zero speed to a nominal transfer in a straight pipe rotating around a
speed. parallel axis - Turbulent region. International
Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer Vo.11,
2. The effect of Coriolis forces, as identified by 1185-1201, 1960.
the parameter J, is to decrease the heat
transfer and also the hydraulic friction factor. 4. HUMPHREYS, J.F., MORRIS, W.D. and
3. The axial entry condition of the flow in the BARROW, H., -- Convective heat transfer in
rotor ducts is very important as this can the entry region of a tube which revolves about
completely change the picture of heat transfer an axis parallel to itself. International Journal
and pressure drop. of Heat and Mass Transfer. Vol.10, 333-347,
1967.
Acknowledgement 5. Le FEUVRE, R.F., -- Heat Transfer in rotor

cooling ducts. Proceedings of Institution of
The author wishes to thank the management of
Mechanical Engineers, London. Vol.182, Pt3H,
Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited for providing
232-240, 1967-68.
assistance in building the rig, to carry out the
investigation and to publish the paper.
6. GUNABUSHANAM, N and REDDY, R.S., -
- Heat transfer in the axial ducts of a rotor of
References an electrical machine. BHEL R&D Report.
April 1990.
1. MORRIS, W.D., -- Laminar convection in a
heated vertical tube rotating about a parallel 7. GUNABUSHANAM, N. -- Heat transfer in
axis. Journal - FLUID MECHANICS Vol. 21, the air gap of an electrical machine. BHEL
Part 3, 453-464, 1965. R&D Report. June 2002.

General Manager in 2005. He was trained in
Stuttgart University, KWU and Dorniers, Germany.
He is currently working as General Manager-
Design in a heat exchanger manufacturing
company in Hyderabad. In addition, he is a
chartered consultant for many energy engineering
industries.
Mr. N. Gunabushanam completed his B.Sc. His fields of interest include thermal engineering,
(Math.) in 1967, B.E. (Mech. Engg.) in 1970 heat exchangers, ventilation and cooling of electrical
from Madras University, and M.Tech. (Thermal machines, braking and starting resistors for
Engg.) from REC Bhopal. After working for two locomotives, etc. He has published and presented
years in the Department of Mechanical Engineering several papers in national and international journals
at IIT Madras he joined BHEL Corporate R&D, and conferences. He can be contacted by email at
Hyderabad, in 1974 as a Design Engineer and ngbushanam1@yahoo.com.
held successive positions until his retirement as

ALUMINIUM TRIHYDRATE (ATH) —
A VERSATILE MATERIAL
Shilpa Hiremath and Sukumar Roy
SYNOPSIS the manufacture of fine pottery. After 3000 BC,

Babylonians and Egyptians began employing
Aluminium trihydrate, popularly known as ATH, is a aluminous materials in chemicals such as dyes and
versatile material that has been catering to a wide range medicines [1]. Romans utilized aluminous materials
of applications over the past few decades, starting from in the manufacture of perfumes. Emerald, sapphire
metallurgical to ceramic processing industries, as FRLS and ruby, which are crystalline forms of alumina
(fire retardant low smoke) fillers in electrical/ electronic coloured by the presence of metal ion impurities,
cable industries, as catalyst supports and absorbents in were used in jewellery as early as 800 BC.
chemical industries, as functional additives in polymers,
paints, composites, automotive and in pharmaceutical Bauxite, the most common ore of aluminium, was
industries. The commercial growth of this material has discovered by Beethier in 1821, near the village of
been significant over the years. In the meantime, Les Baux, France. However, it was only at the end
substantial innovations have taken place worldwide on of the 19th century that bauxite was recognized as
developing new or modified techniques to synthesize containing useful forms of aluminium hydrates, i.e.,
both conventional coarse-grained ATH and fine-grained Al (OH)3 and AlOOH, and aluminium silicates. In
ATH powders, which have made it possible to synthesize 1889, Karl Bayer invented the so-called Bayer's
the material in a variety of forms, suitable for different process which is, even today, the most economic
purposes. In this paper, an attempt has been made to process of alumina or hydrated alumina production.
bring out the current international status of this
material on important synthesis techniques and Alumina (Al2O3) and its hydrates have always
application areas. The paper also highlights how the generated a great deal of interest among
material was made technically suitable from time to crystallographers, as it undergoes several intermediate
time to fit into various application needs. modifications before it transforms into its
thermodynamically stable alpha phase or corundum.
Key Words: The intermediate phases, commonly called 'transition

phase' or 'transition aluminas', exist in a variety of
Hydrated Aluminas; Transition Aluminas; Synthesis structures and have widely varying properties.
& Application of ATH; Composite Fillers; FRLS Interestingly, all these phases are stable and
Fillers. reproducible at room temperature. For example, on
heating (calcination), gibbsite ultimately stabilizes as
corundum (α–Al2O3) in the following sequence:
1. INTRODUCTION
Gibbsite [γ-Al(OH)3] ➞ Boehmite (γ-AlOOH) ➞
1.1 Background γ-Alumina (γ-Al2O3) ➞ δ-Alumina (δ-Al2O3) ➞
θ-Alumina (θ-Al2O3) ➞ α-Alumina (α-Al2O3)
Aluminous materials have been symbolic of progress
throughout human history. Before 5000 BC, These phase transitions are of fundamental
aluminous clays were being used in Mesopotamia for importance in designing the manufacturing process,

depending on which intermediate phase of alumina only the trihydrate forms can be called ATH. It is
is used in the application. Partially calcined alumina also known as hydrated alumina, alumina hydrate,
is often used as the starting material for processing alumina trihydrate, alhydrogel, superfos, amphogel,
to get specific properties. The phase transition aluminium (III) hydroxide, amorphous alumina,
temperatures of aluminium hydrates are depicted in trihydrated alumina, trihydroxy aluminium.
Table 1 [2].
The classification of aluminium hydroxides, based
on the degree of hydration and crystal structure, is
1.2 Properties of ATH presented below:
Aluminium usually forms two types of hydroxides – ● Bayerite [alpha-aluminium trihydroxide,
tri-hydroxide and mono-hydroxide – some having alpha-Al(OH)3 or alpha-Al2O3.3H2O]
well-characterized crystalline structures, whilst others ● Gibbsite [gamma-Al(OH) 3 or gamma-
are amorphous. The most common tri-hydroxides Al2O3.3H2O]
are gibbsite, bayerite and nordstrandite, and the
more common mono-hydroxides are boehmite and ● Nordstrandite [beta-aluminium trihydroxide,
diaspore. Commercially, the most important form is beta-Al(OH)3 or beta-Al2O3.3H2O]
gibbsite, although bayerite and boehmite are also ● Boehmite [gamma-AlO(OH) or gamma-
manufactured for various purposes. Al2O3.H2O]
Hydrated aluminas are often loosely referred to as ● Diaspore [alpha-AlO(OH) or alpha-
ATH (aluminium trihydrate), although technically, Al2O3.H2O]
TABLE 1 : SEQUENCE OF THERMAL TRANSFORMATIONS OF ALUMINIUM HYDRATES [2]

ATH is a non-abrasive material with Mohs' hardness reduce the requirement of filler load in flame
index of 2.5 - 3.5 and specific gravity of 2.42. retardant cables for the same level of flame
Detailed physical and chemical properties of ATH retardancy, thus making them lighter and
can be found elsewhere. improving their thermal stability, mechanical
strength and electrical properties.
2.0 APPLICATIONS OF ATH ● Nano grained ATH is also known to improve

arc-track resistance in plastics for electrical
Aluminium trihydrate is a versatile material with a applications.
wide range of industrial applications. Starting with
metallurgical processes, it spread to allied industries ● As filler in fine printing papers, it increases
manufacturing aluminium chemicals or salts, either opacity and brightness; and in paper coatings,
in pure form or derivatives like refractories, cements, it imparts brightness, gloss and high ink
abrasives, etc. Other products include alum receptivity.
(aluminium sulphate), poly-aluminium chloride ● It could be a better reinforcing pigment in
(PAC), sodium aluminate, zeolites, aluminium adhesives, where it improves cold flow
fluoride for manufacturing glass and glazes, catalysts, properties and cohesion, besides stabilizing
fertilizers, and fibre cement board products. ATH pH.
and its derivatives then found application in flame
retardant and smoke suppressant fillers in plastics, ● Finer ATH also improves surface properties
cables, rubber products and carpet backing. The use (surface roughness), which are exploited in
of aluminium hydroxide as adsorbent, emulsifier, ion polishing applications, cleansing agents,
exchanger, mordant, antacid, and filtering medium, mould wash and separating agents.
etc., was also then realized. Later, it found applications
● Finer ATH with high purity finds new
in the manufacture of technical ceramic products,
applications in pharmaceuticals, high purity
printing inks, detergents, waterproofing fabrics,
chemicals and paints.
dentifrices and anti-perspirants. Recently, ATH has
been used in waste water treatment. Another large
application of ATH is in cast polymers, which are 2.2 ATH and Flame Retardancy
chemically bonded, ATH-filled polymer composite
materials. It is believed that the presence of ATH in ATH is the largest volume flame retardant used in
the material enhances the flexibility in moulding and the world. The flame retarding property of ATH in
hardening parameters of the composite, that in turn polymers is based on its thermal decomposition in
meets diverse design requirements. the temperature range of 200 - 400 °C. During
thermal decomposition, an endothermic (energy
consuming) process, ATH releases its chemically
2.1 Applications of Fine-Grained ATH bonded water (34.6 wt.%), while the corresponding
aluminium oxide remains as char residue in the body
In the past, ATH has been available as a coarse-
mass. Thus, heat energy is removed from the
grained material, composed of grains in the range of
burning zone and the released water, in the form of
5 - 50 micron. However, with the development of
steam, cools the surface. The oxygen content in the
nano-technology, ultra fine or nano-sized ATH is
air surrounding the burning surface is diluted by the
also finding new applications. Ultra fine-grained
gases released from the polymer matrix. The
(grains below one micron) or nano-grained (grains
aluminium oxide formed provides a protective layer,
in the range of 1-100 nm) ATH has advantages over
which is chemically inert and insensitive to burning,
coarse grained ATH in many applications:
on the surface, thereby preventing oxygen and heat
● Use of nano-grained ATH can significantly from reaching in. Finally, due to the high specific

surface area of the oxide layer, absorption of smoke from the impurities. ATH is allowed to precipitate
and other toxic or decomposed carbonaceous gaseous out, filtered and heat treated at appropriate
products takes place, making ATH a very effective temperature/s. Industrially, a Bayer Process is a plant
smoke suppressant as well. for heating and cooling a large recirculating stream
of caustic soda solution in which bauxite is added
The flame retardant property of ATH has been at high temperature. Red mud (mainly iron
exploited in the paint industry also as a pigment impurities) is separated at an intermediate
filler. Fine-grained ATH is believed to have a more temperature, and alumina is precipitated at a low
pronounced effect on flame retardancy and smoke temperature in the cycle. The Bayer process produces
absorption properties, compared to coarse grained ATH of high purity in the form of gibbsite.
ATH.
Bauxite contains 40-70% of natural aluminium
hydroxide in the crystalline form of gibbsite (tri-
2.3 Commercial Growth of ATH hydrate form, γ-Al(OH)3 or Al2O3.3H2O) and
According to Martinswerk GmbH, the world's boehmite (mono-hydrate form, γ-AlOOH or
leading consumer of commodity ATH, the global Al2O3.H2O). Another mono-hydroxide, diaspore,
market for ATH as flame-retardant is growing at the alpha form of aluminium oxide hydroxide,
approximately 4 - 6 % annually. α-AlOOH requires much higher temperatures of
extraction and concentrated caustic solution.
The total consumption of ATH in polymer
applications has reached a volume of 470,000 tonnes ATH manufactured by the Bayer process primarily
world wide during the year 2000 [3]. Considering meets the demand for metal grade alumina, which
the total consumption of flame-retardants in Western is the largest market of ATH. However, Bayer's ATH
Europe, ATH has a market share of 42% by volume. does not qualify for non-metallurgical applications,
which is the second largest market.
The U.S. market for ATH as a filler in plastics was
50 million pounds in 1993 (US$ 3.7 million)
increasing to 63 million pounds in 1998 (US$ 18.6 3.2 Precipitation Techniques
million) and 92 million pounds in 2003 (US$ 25.4
million), an annual growth of 6.2% in volume and Csige et al. [5] and Sleppy et al. [6] developed a
6.4% in value [4]. milling process to generate finer (<2 micron) particles
by grinding coarse ATH powder, but as the method
The commercial consumption of ATH has increased is highly energy intensive it did not draw much
in India also over the years. The consumer industries attention. Baksa et al. [7] produced several fine
broadly include metallurgical, ceramics, polymers, hydrates in an air jet mill by precipitation in the
insulation electrical/electronic cable, chemical, etc. presence of a modifier, namely aluminium sulphate.
However, the annual consumption of the material in They also studied the production of 0.5 micron
the country is not known exactly. ATH particles by decomposing gallium-aluminium
alloy with caustic soda and/or water [8]. Martinswerk,
Germany [9] has also produced special grade alumina
3.0 SYNTHESIS OF ATH since 1970 and supplies one micron precipitated
3.1 Bayer's Process ATH. Interestingly, Shibue et al. [10] found that the
size of primary particles is not affected significantly
The most widely used method for large-scale synthesis by mechanical stirring and the size of the particle
of ATH is the Bayer's Process. Bauxite ore is treated decreases with increase in tank size. Also, particle size
with sodium hydroxide, which dissolves the distribution is sharper in batch than in continuous
aluminium component in the ore and separates it precipitation.

T. Tran et al. [11] studied the effect of 3,4 preparation of sodium aluminate, which was
Dihydroxy Benzoic Acid (3,4 DHBA), an organic precipitated by carbonation and ATH of below 50
acid, on the precipitation of ATH particles and nm was prepared.
established a second order rate equation in order to
understand the rate of nucleation and crystal growth.
In another study, the same group, M.J. Kim et al. 3.4 Sonochemical Synthesis
[12] reported that precise control of supersaturation
Sonochemistry is the application of ultrasound to
condition and temperature as a function of time was
chemical reactions and crystallization or precipitation.
important in producing ATH particles with desirable
It has been reported that high-power ultrasound can
shape and size.
enhance or alter chemical reactions [17-21]. Liu Ji-
J.K. Pradhan et al. [13] studied various factors bo et al. [22] studied the effect of ultrasound
affecting the quality of ATH precipitates, such as frequency on the precipitation process of
precipitation temperature, amount of seed, seed supersaturated sodium aluminate solution under
surface area, precipitation time, soda content of conditions similar to those in industry. The results
pregnant liquor and presence of modifier additives. indicated that ultrasonic treatment at 16 kHz
It was observed that at higher temperatures, purer enhanced the decomposition rate of sodium aluminate
ATH with larger particle size, without soda was solutions and also affected particle morphology and
obtained. At lower temperatures, though the particle particle size distribution of ATH precipitates.
size of ATH was smaller, the soda content in the
product was more. The single most important 3.5 Biomimetic Mineralization Synthesis
parameter that influenced the precipitation process
(BMS)
with respect to yield, particle size and purity was the
presence of a modifier, namely aluminium sulphate. Mineral synthesis by biological means has generated
An improvement in yield and finer size with organic much attention in recent years as it is an environment
additives was also observed. friendly approach. In contrast to conventional mineral
processing techniques, BMS generates materials with
highly controlled size, homogeneity, texture,
3.3 Rotating Packed Bed Reactors (RPB) composition and structure and, most importantly, in
an environmentally benign manner. Bio-
J. Chen et al. [14] developed a route for synthesizing
mineralization processes occur naturally in a diversity
so-called nano-fibrillar ATH by carbonation in a
of species and tissues, including bone mineral,
rotating packed bed at room temperature. The
marine shells, tooth enamel, and marine algae shells.
formed gel was subsequently thermally treated for 30
Several excellent reviews of biomineralization have
minutes at a temperature of 85 °C to yield pseudo-
been published [23-27]. One of the most significant
boehmite fibres of 1-10 nm diameter and 50-300
findings of these studies is that in virtually all cases
nm length. Factors affecting the carbonation process
of bio-mineralization, macromolecular structures
were gravity level of the reactants in the RPB and
composed of lipids, proteins, and/or polysaccharides
concentration as well as the ratio of the reactants.
are intimately associated with mineral phases and
Z. Peng-yuan et al. [15] worked on the preparation
serve vital roles in their crystallization.
of ultrafine ATH via a new method combined with
high gravity reaction and thermal hydrolysis. The
experimental processes from a small-scale experiment 3.6 Hydrothermal Synthesis
to pilot-plant test and the scale-up principle were
discussed. In another report, Z. Peng-yuan et al. [16] Hydrothermal synthesis is a method to produce
prepared nano-ATH by the RPB method, in which metal oxide crystals from metal salt aqueous solutions
industrial ATH was used as raw material for the by heating the aqueous solution [28-29].

Hydrothermal synthesis of AlO(OH) was conducted 5. Csige, J., Matyari, J., Banerjee, M.T., Kaptay,
using a flow type apparatus over the range of G., Light Metals. The Minerals, Metals and
temperature from 523 to 673 °K at 30 MPa. Nano- Materials Society, TMS, Warrendale, PA. 1990.
sized crystals were formed at supercritical condition
[30]. 6. Sleppy, W.C., Pearson, A., Mishra, C., Maczura,
G., Light Metals. The Minerals, Metals and
Materials Society, TMS, Warrendale, PA, 1991,
4.0 CONCLUSION 117.
The present survey shows that aluminium trihydrate 7. Baksa, G., Szalay, G., Siklori, P., 2nd Int.
(ATH) has always been an important material for Alumina Quality Workshop, Perth, Western
numerous applications across many interdisciplinary Australia, 1990, 39.
areas. Enormous research work has been carried out 8. Baksa, G., Foeler, J., Horvarth, J., Somosi, I.,
throughout the world to develop the same ATH Szabo, B., Szalay, G., Hung. Teljes HU 49,
material with new sets of physical and chemical 28th Nov. 1989, 831.
properties by adopting various innovative synthesis
techniques. As the demand for the finer or nanometer 9. Greenway, P., Brandt, W., Light Metals. The
sized ATH powders increases, more innovations are Minerals, Metals and Materials Society, TMS,
likely to take place in the future to address the Warrendale, PA, 1992, 237.
aspects of large-scale synthesis. Sonochemical and
10. Shibue, Y., Sakamoto, A., Kawai, Y., Morihira,
hydrothermal processing appear to have the potential
M., Light Metals. The Minerals, Metals and
for preparing finer or nano-sized ATH powders on
Materials Society, 1989.
a commercial scale.
11. T. Tran, M.J. Kim and P.L.M. Wong, Minerals
Because of their remarkable properties, various forms Engineering, 1996, 9 [5] 557-572.
of ATH, specifically those with finer or nano-sized
grains, are expected to find new applications in 12. M.J. Kim, P.L.M. Wong, T. Tran, Journal of
power generation and distribution related products, Crystal Growth, 1997, 178 360-366.
particularly in the area of nano-polymer composites.
13. J.K. Pradhan, P.K. Gochhayat, I.N.
Bhattacharya, S.C. Das, Hydrometallurgy 2001,
References 60, 143-153.
1. Van Horn, K.R., Bridenbaugh, P.R. and Staley, 14. Jian-Feng Chen, Lei Shao, Fen Guo, Xing-
J.T., Aluminium Processing Encyclopedia, Ming Wang, Chemical Engineering Science,
Britannica, 2002. 2003, 58, 569 - 575.
2. Wefers, K., Misra, C., Oxides and Hydroxides 15. Zhang Peng-yuan, Zheng Li-li, Gong Yang-
of Aluminum; ALCOA Laboratories, ming, CHEN Jian-feng, Research Report from
Pennsylvania, USA, 1987, 20. the Research Center of the Ministry of Education
for High Gravity Engineering and Technology,
3. Roskill, The Economics of Bauxite and Alumina, Beijing University of Chemical Technology,
5th ed., 2002. Beijing 100029, China.
4. Business Communications Co., Inc, 25 Van 16. Zhang Peng-yuan, Gong Yan-ming, CHEN
Zant Street, Norwalk, CT 06855, Study RP- Jian-feng, Research Report from the Research
231, Advanced Inorganic Fillers for Plastics, Center of the Ministry of Education for High
Nov. 1998. Gravity Engineering and Technology, Beijing

University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 23. Mann S., Nature 1988, 332(6160), 119-24.
100029, China.
24. Mann S., Nature 1993, 365(6446), 499-505.
17. Yin Z.L., Wu Z.P., Chen Q.Y., et al., Journal
of Chinese J. Nonferr. Met., 2002, 12(3), 596- 25. Mann S., J. Mater. Chem., 1995, 5(7), 935-
601 (in Chinese). 46.
18. Zhao J.H., Chen Q.Y., Journal. Acta Metall. 26. Vogel J.J., Boyan-Salyers B. D., Clin. Orthop.
Sinica, 2002, 38(2), 171-173 (in Chinese). Relat. 1976, R118, 230-41.
19. Enomoto N., Katsumoto N., Nakagawa Z.,
27. Lowenstam, H.A., Weiner, S., On
Journal of Ceram. Soc. Japan, 1994, 102(12),
Biomineralization, Oxford University Press New
1106-1110.
York 1989.
20. Imamura T., Deformation of Ultrasonic Pulse
with Diffraction [J], Ultrasonics, 1999, 37,71- 28. Dawson W.J., Am. Ceram. Soc. Bull. 1988,
78. 67, 1673.
21. Mason T.J., Practical Sonochemistry [M], New 29. Matijevic E. and W.P. Hsu, J. Col. Interface
York, Ellis Horwood Press, 1993,17-51. Sci. 1987, 118(2), 506.
22. Liu Ji-bo, Chen Jin-qing, Yin Zhou-lan, Zhang 30. Tadafumi Adschiri, Yukiya Hakuta, Kiwamu
Ping-min, Chen Qi-yuan, The Chinese Journal Sue and Kunio Arai, Journal of Nanoparticle
of Process Engineering, 2004. Research, 2001, 3, 227-235.

and development of low-cost indigenous precursors
and processes. He has earlier executed projects for
the development of micro-filtration ceramic
membranes, processes and precursors for various
nano-material synthesis, polymer-based composite
insulators using nano-additives, nano-modified
PVC-based FRLS materials, etc.
Dr. Sukumar Roy is currently working as Manager BHEL has sponsored him to work in the area of
at the BHEL Ceramic Technological Institute, nano-technology at the Max Planck Institute for
Bangalore. His R&D activities include synthesis, Metals Research, Stuttgart, Germany (under DAAD
processing and application development of nano- fellowship and Max Planck Institute fellowship
ceramic materials. He is in the process of programme) and also at the Alfred University, USA
developing large-scale synthesis of various nano- (under UNIDO fellowship). He has authored/co-
materials for in-house applications through design authored several papers and patents.
she carried out project work at the BHEL

Ceramic Technological Institute, Bangalore, for a
duration of 10 months starting June 2005. The
theme of her work is 'Synthesis, characterization
and application studies of fine and nano-grained
aluminium trihydrate (ATH)'. She has also worked
as a lecturer in KLE Engg. College, Belgaum, for
a year. During her undergraduate course, she has
Ms. Shilpa Hiremath is a post graduate student worked on projects such as colour removal of dye
at the National Institute of Technology, Surathklal, effluents by using rice husk carbon as an adsorbent,
Karnataka, having obtained her bachelor's degree heat transfer characteristics of two immiscible
in Chemical Engg. from KLE Engineering College, liquids in falling film heat exchangers, etc., at the
Belgaum. As part of her postgraduate curriculum, IICT, Hyderabad.

APPLICATIONS OF HIGH POWER LASERS IN
MATERIAL PROCESSING
K. Venugopal and Manish Agrawal
SYNOPSIS glazing and alloying [1-7]. In addition, lasers are also

used for marking or engraving on components on
The demand for laser systems for surface treatment production lines. Laser cladding and surface hardening
applications is growing rapidly due to the unique of materials to improve corrosion and wear resistance
advantages offered by lasers. High productivity, reduced are used on a production scale as laser technology
manufacturing cost, repeatability and high quality are offers advantages over conventional techniques like
the major advantages of using lasers in the manufacturing Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding, induction
sector. The most widespread use of lasers at present is hardening and plasma spraying.
for cutting, cladding, heat treatment and welding.
Laser surface treatment techniques like hardening and The major advantages of laser surface treatment are:
cladding can be used to improve the life of several
components used in thermal, hydro and gas turbine ● High productivity
industries, besides reducing the cost of manufacturing. ● Elimination or reduction of post finishing
The paper describes some important applications of operations
lasers in material processing.
● Possibility of automation
● Reduced process cost
Key Words:
● Improved quality of finished products
Lasers; Material Processing; Laser Cladding; Laser
Transformation Hardening; TIG Welding. ● Elimination of heat affected zone related
problems
1.0 INTRODUCTION ● Non-contact processing

● Greater flexibility
There is a growing demand for use of high power
lasers in industrial applications, especially for the
improvement of wear, corrosion and fatigue properties Realizing the potential of the technology in improving
of components made out of different materials. Laser the performance of power plant components, several
based technologies are increasingly replacing organizations have intensified their research efforts
conventional manufacturing technologies due to in laser surface treatment. Critical components such
improvements in efficiency, quality and productivity. as blades, buckets, valves, etc., used in power plant
Compared to ordinary light, the laser beam is equipment for thermal, gas and hydropower
coherent, i.e., it has low divergence. It is amenable generation undergo severe wear and corrosion damage
to focusing into a very narrow light beam, resulting during use. Laser surface treatment techniques like
in very high energy density, which can be utilized hardening and cladding can be adopted to improve
for several surface modification applications. the life of such components. Further, components
that have already suffered damage can be restored to
Some important applications of laser radiation are their original shape and dimensions with improved
cutting, welding, drilling, cladding, surface hardening, life.

2.0 MAJOR APPLICATION AREAS from 0.5 mm to 2.5 mm. Steels with carbon content
greater than 0.15% and with alloying additions, can
Some typical application areas where laser equipment be effectively laser hardened. The principle of laser
can be effectively used are: hardening is shown in Fig. 1.
● Laser surface transformation hardening (heat
Comparison with flame hardening and induction
treating)
hardening techniques (Table 1) clearly shows that
● Laser cladding laser hardening is the most advantageous process.
● Laser alloying, laser melting and laser glazing With laser hardening, the major advantages are high
precision, very low distortion of the component and
These are described in the following paragraphs. no need of quenchant.
Laser hardening can also be carried out on carburised,

2.1 Laser Transformation Hardening nitro-carburised and boronised surfaces and has been
shown to produce surface properties superior to
The laser beam serves as a tool for localized and non- those of the individual treatments.
distortion surface hardening of hardenable steels.
Laser hardening improves the strength, hardness,
fatigue life and wear resistance at the localized areas, 2.1.1 Application of Laser Transformation
as compared to untreated areas. The surface scanned Hardening
by the laser beam gets heated rapidly to the
2.1.1.1 INLET EDGE HARDENING OF STEAM
austenising temperature and, as the beam moves over TURBINE BLADES
the surface, the localized heated area cools very
rapidly to form martensite, thereby resulting in high The leading edges of long last stage blades of steam
hardness. Laser hardening relies on the core metal turbines are subject to water droplet induced erosion,
being self-quenching. The depth of hardening varies which limits the useful life of the blades. The pits
FIG. 1 : LASER TRANSFORMATION HARDENING OF AN ALLOY STEEL

TABLE 1 : COMPARISON OF LASER HARDENING WITH OTHER COMPETING METHODS OF HARDENING
Parameter Laser Inductive Carburising Flame Electron

Hardening Beam
Max treatment depth, mm 1.5 5 3 10 1

Distortion Very low Medium Medium High Very low
Flexibility High Low Medium High Medium
Precision High Medium Medium Low High
Operator skill Medium Medium Medium High Medium
Environmental impact Low Low High Medium Low
Quenchant required No Sometimes No Yes No
Material flexibility High Medium Low Medium High
and craters formed due to erosion can act as stress ● The higher hardness resulting from faster
concentration points, initiating cracks and subsequent cooling results in better erosion resistance of
blade failures. Traditionally, the problem of water the material, thereby enhancing the life.
droplet erosion has been mitigated by adopting
processes such as flame hardening, induction Published wear resistance data [8] on laser hardened
hardening and stelliting during blade manufacture. blade samples, along with other samples hardened by
As mentioned earlier, these processes have their own conventional techniques, are shown in Fig. 2. From
disadvantages like distortion and short life. Some the results, it is evident that there is negligible mass
companies have adopted automated laser surface loss with laser treatment as compared to other
hardening, which is reported to have lead to excellent methods. This has lead to the establishment of laser
performance of the blades in service, with remarkable hardening technology for steam turbine blades.
reduction in erosion. The major advantages of laser
surface hardening of turbine blades, as reported in Several laser hardened blades have been in use in a
literature, are: number of steam turbines supplied by various
European turbine manufacturers and the performance
● Distortion of the finished component is
as reported has been satisfactory.
negligible.
● The presence of surface compressive residual
stresses after hardening significantly reduces 2.1.1.2 BHEL'S EXPERIENCE
the susceptibility of the material to stress
corrosion cracking. BHEL has successfully established, after extensive
experimentation, the technology for hardening the
● The fatigue limit of the laser hardened zone leading edges of 12% Cr steam turbine blades, using
is enhanced compared to that of the base carbon-di-oxide laser. Establishment of the process
material. Further, the fatigue resistance of a involved the following activities:
laser hardened turbine blade, loaded in its
first harmonic, is remarkably higher than ● Study of laser absorption techniques for
that of a conventionally protected one. hardening

FIG. 2 : COMPARISON OF WEAR RESISTANCE OF SEVERAL STEAM TURBINE BLADE PROTECTION METHODS USING
WATER DROPLET EROSION TEST
● Establishment of laser process parameters underneath from wear and corrosion. It can also be
used to restore worn out parts of components by
● Design and fabrication of suitable high
building up the eroded areas with new materials.
precision fixtures to hold the blade
Laser cladding has been successfully applied to a
● Detailed programming of laser workstation number of components on a production basis, as
to track the zone to be hardened shown in Table 2. The major advantages of laser
● Laser hardening of actual blade profiles cladding over conventional techniques like TIG
welding and plasma spraying are:
● Establishment of quality checks
● The metallurgical bonding between the
The laser hardening facility and the results obtained cladding and substrate is very strong,
are shown in Fig. 3. More than 700 LP stage blades preventing removal of the cladding under
for steam turbines of different ratings have been loads.
hardened by BHEL and put in operation.
● Fast cooling (104 °C/sec) yields refined
microstructure, resulting in improved hardness
2.2 Laser Cladding and better wear resistance.
Cladding refers to the process of developing a hard ● Very low thermal distortion of the
layer of an alloy of a different composition on the component, which reduces scrap rate and
substrate. The hard layer protects the substrate rework.

(b)
(a)
(c)
FIG. 3 : (a) LASER HARDENING OF LP STAGE BLADE (b) BLADE CROSS-SECTION SHOWING THE DEPTH OF LASER HARDENED ZONE
(c) HARDNESS ACROSS THE LASER HARDENED ZONE

TABLE 2 : REPRESENTATIVE LASER CLADDING EFFORTS ON COMMERCIAL SCALE
Company Component Material & Deposition

Method
Rolls Royce Turbine Blade Triboloy/Nimonic alloys

Shroud Interlock Powder Feed
Pratt & Whitney Turbine Blade PWA 694/Nimonic alloys

Shroud Interlock Pre-Placed Chip
Westinghouse Turbine Blades Stellites, Colmonoys

Pre Placed Beds, Gravity feed
Rockwell Aerospace T-800, Stellites

Powder feed
Fiat Valve Stem CrC2, Cr, Ni Mo/Cast Fe

Valve Seat Pre-placed Powder
General Motors Automotive Cast Iron Systems
● High processing speed and automation lead shroud interlocks (Fig. 4) undergo severe fretting wear
to improved productivity and reduced labour during operation due to blade vibration. Excessive
costs. wear of the interlock would lead to blade rejection on
overhaul or, in extreme cases, to blade fracture. In
● Controlled surface finishes and near net order to reduce fretting wear, the interlocks are clad
shape geometry of the product reduce post with a cobalt based hard facing alloy.
cladding machining operations and material
consumption. The conventional method of cladding, TIG welding,
● Very low dilution and elimination of heat produces heat affected zones stretching into the
affected zone cracking.
Thus laser cladding offers significant economic

benefits as compared to conventional techniques,
leading to reduced manufacturing costs and superior
products.
2.2.1 Applications of Laser Cladding

2.2.1.1 GAS TURBINE BLADE SHROUD INTERLOCKS
High-pressure gas turbine blades are of shrouded

construction, manufactured from a cast nickel based
super alloy. The mating surfaces of the 'Z' shaped FIG. 4 : GAS TURBINE BUCKET SHROUD INTERLOCK

airfoil section. Lack of precise process control can against a hardness of 600 HV at a height of 4.5 mm
result in excess deposit of costly cobalt based alloy, for TIG welding.
requiring expensive grinding operations, and high
reject rates. Use of laser cladding eliminates most of Laser cladding technology for turbine blade interlocks
these problems. The cladding time is reduced from was introduced by Rolls-Royce and Pratt & Whitney
14 minutes to 75 seconds for each blade. Also, of United Technologies in the year 1982. More than
elimination of intermediate grinding operation, 100,000 jet engine blades are laser hard-faced
reduced post-machining operation, and reduced annually now.
consumption of hard facing material, result in 85%
cost reduction, despite the higher capital costs of the
laser equipment. 2.2.1.2 LP STAGE STEAM TURBINE BLADES
Typical results of the experimental work carried out The leading edges of low pressure steam turbine
by BHEL using TIG welding and laser cladding on blades undergo water droplet erosion damage, as
a GT Superalloy are shown in Fig. 5. It can be seen described earlier. In order to protect the leading
from the graph that the sample with laser cladding edges, an erosion resistant cobalt base strip of stellite
gave a much higher hardness as compared to the one 6 is silver brazed along the blade edge, which is a
with TIG welding. Further, due to very low dilution labour intensive process. Also, brazing can introduce
of base metal, the laser clad sample gave a higher defects, which can subsequently act as stress
hardness of 750 HV at a clad height of 1.5 mm, as concentration points for fatigue crack initiation.
FIG. 5 : MICROHARDNESS COMPARISON OF TIG AND LASER CLAD SAMPLES

Laser cladding with stellite powder offers a viable 3.2 Laser Melting
alternative to silver brazing. Westinghouse Electric
Corporation has discovered that laser clad blades Laser melting is a rapid heating and cooling process
exhibit good bonding and high cycle fatigue which produces extremely fine microstructures, giving
endurance that is superior to blades with brazed-on rise to improved wear resistant properties. In the case
protection. Further, the clad layer has high integrity of some metals, such as cast iron, rapid cooling from
to withstand extreme wear conditions. the melt solidifies leduburite structure that exhibits
hardness characteristics greater than those of heat-
treated cast iron. Laser melting has been used with
2.2.1.3 GATE VALVES
success on automobile parts such as camshaft lobes,
where a superior hard, shallow surface provides
The sealing surfaces of gate valves for oil fields,
improved hardness characteristics.
chemical plants and nuclear or geothermal energy
installations are being laser clad (Fig. 6) to resist
corrosion and wear, thereby offering improved life.
3.3 Laser Glazing
Laser glazing is used to seal the pores in a thermal

3.0 OTHER AREAS OF DEVELOPMENT
spray coating. Studies have revealed that there is
A number of research studies, as described below, considerable densification of coatings after laser
are being carried out to enhance the life of glazing treatment.
components.
3.4 Laser Powder Fusion Technology for
3.1 Laser Alloying Gas Turbine Repair
Laser alloying is a process in which the metal surface The advancement in laser material processing systems
is intentionally melted by a laser beam and alloying has led to a unique method of depositing complex
materials are added to the melt pool to change the metal alloys onto gas turbine component surfaces
surface chemistry to a controlled depth. Different requiring material build-up using co-axial cladding.
alloying materials can be added to tailor the surface In co-axial cladding, a mixture of the powder to be
chemistry to achieve higher wear and corrosion deposited and inert argon gas is fed through a water-
resistance. cooled conical co-axial nozzle surrounding the laser
FIG. 6 : LASER CLADDING OF GATE VALVE

beam. The powder-gas mixture passes through Electric, Pratt & Whitney, Rolls-Royce and Allied
specially shaped channels and a ring shaped slit, Signal for repair procedures, since the process results
which focuses it onto the laser spot on the work in very low heat input, metallurgical bonding of
piece. The laser melts the powder and the base metal deposited alloy and nil distortion of the component.
and the movement of the laser beam results in a clad The reconditioned blades can be considered as
layer of the deposited powder. almost original, thereby saving cost and increasing
life by almost 100%.
Critical components of compressors and gas turbines
like blades, vanes, shrouds, discs and stator assemblies,
which are used in aggressive combustion gases at
high temperatures, undergo localized damage due to
4.0 LASER EQUIPMENT
erosion, corrosion and foreign body impact.
Regarding selection of the type of laser, the choices
Replacement of these components, especially blades,
boil down to three basic equipment: carbon di-oxide
involves high costs since blades are made of
(CO2) lasers, neodymium: yttrium-aluminium-garnet
directionally solidified castings or single crystals,
(Nd: YAG) lasers, and high-power direct diode
which are very expensive. As keeping large stocks of
(HPDD) lasers. The preferred choice earlier were
blades to replace defective blades during overhaul is
CO2 lasers but, due to the commercial availability
uneconomical, repairing worn blades is the only
of both high-power Nd: YAG and HPDD lasers,
alternative. Conventional repair techniques, such as
there is a wider choice available now. The
TIG, plasma and electron beam welding can cause
characteristics of various laser systems are given in
distortion of the component and microstructural
Table 3.
degradation of the base alloy due to excess heat
input.
From the table it can be seen that the diode laser
Laser powder fusion technology has been accepted is very compact and has better absorption in steel
by leading engine manufacturers such as General samples. There is no need for applying absorption
TABLE 3 : COMPARISON BETWEEN VARIOUS LASER SYSTEMS
Parameter Direct CO2 Flowing Nd:YAG Nd:YAG

Diode ISL Flash pumped Diode pumped
Net system efficiency 30% 6% 1% 6%
Hourly operating cost ($) $1.50 $10.00 $30.00 $6.00

at 100% power
Wave length, micron 0.8 10.6 1.06 1.06
Absorption, %-steel 40% 12% 35% 35%
Footprint for laser supply 8 sq. ft. 50 sq. ft. 100 sq. ft. 60 sq. ft.
and chiller, sq. ft.
Replacement, hours Laser Optics-2,000 hrs, Lamps-1000 Pumping Arrays-

Arrays Blower/Turbine hrs 10,000 hrs.
10,000 hrs 20-30,000 hrs

coatings on the samples, as required in the case References
of CO2 laser. They are gaining importance for
1. David E. Fly, J.T. Black, Ben Singleton, Jl. of
hardening and cladding applications and can be
Laser Applications, 1996, 8, p. 89-93
easily handled by a robot, resulting in greater
flexibility in working. 2. N.B. Dahotre, Lasers in Surface Engineering,
ASM International, Oct. 1998
3. Bachmann, F., Applied Surface Science, 2003,
5.0 CONCLUSION p. 208-209, 125-136
Considering the need for improved availability and 4. P. Hoffmann, R. Dierken, Proc. of Second Intl.
reliability of power plants, laser surface treatments Conference on Lasers in Manufacturing, 2003,
such as hardening and cladding are gaining Munich, p. 1-5
importance to improve the life of power plant
5. L. Giordano, E. Ramous, Jl. of High
components. There is a tremendous growth
Temperature Technology, Nov. 1984, p. 213
opportunity which should be exploited fully.
6. B.L. Mordike, ECLAT 96, p. 253.
7. G.L. Goswami, Santosh Kumar, R. Galun &
Acknowledgement B.L. Mordike, Lasers in Engg., Vol.13, p. 1.
The authors thank the management of BHEL for its 8. W. Storch, G. Blum, B. Borsig, B. Brenner,
support and permission to present this paper. Turbinenschaufel, 1988, p. 16-17

the Surface Coatings & Treatment Laboratory of
BHEL Corporate R&D. He was responsible for
establishing the high velocity oxygen fuel and
twin wire arc thermal spray techniques for
providing wear resistant coatings for CFBC, AFBC
and thermal power plant boiler tubes and for
other applications. He was also associated with
establishing the laser hardening technology for
Mr. K. Venugopal graduated in Metallurgical inlet edge hardening of LP stage steam turbine
Engineering from Guindy Engineering College, blades using CO2 laser. He is currently working
Chennai, in 1975 and subsequently obtained his in the area of nano-coatings and is involved in
M.S. degree from IIT Madras. Mr. Venugopal is establishing the High Power Diode Laser facility
currently working as Addl. General Manager in for surface hardening and cladding applications.
Agra, in 2001. Mr. Agrawal joined BHEL

Corporate R&D, Hyderabad, as Engineer Trainee
in 2002. At present, he is working as Engineer in
the Surface Engineering Lab. He has been working
in the area of laser material processing and
development of wear resistant coatings using twin
wire arc spray and HVOF techniques for hydro
and thermal power plant components. He is also
Mr. Manish Agrawal graduated in Mechanical working on the development of nano-crystalline
Engineering from Dr. B.R. Ambedkar University, coatings.

CONTROL & DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES OF
500 MW TURBO GENERATORS
M.R. Bhardwaj
SYNOPSIS 2.0 CONTROL SYSTEMS
With the increase in the power rating of generating sets, The main systems for control, monitoring and
the issue of availability has become very important. The protection of a 500 MW set are described in the
outage of even one large capacity machine from the grid following paragraphs.
causes a significant shortfall in power generation. High
availability and reliability are therefore fundamental
requirements of power generating units. To achieve this, 2.1 Hydrogen System
the health of machines needs to be monitored
continuously. Over and above this, we also require Hydrogen (H2) gas is the main cooling medium for
techniques for forecasting imminent problems. Diagnostic the internals of the stator and rotor. As the mixture
tools are therefore gaining increasing importance by the of hydrogen and air becomes explosive when the
day. This paper gives details of the control and purity of hydrogen is in the range of 4 to 76% by
diagnostic tools used in 500 MW generators volume, a special procedure is followed to fill or
manufactured by BHEL. purge the gas from the generator. Air is first replaced
by carbon dioxide (CO2) gas. Thereafter, carbon
dioxide is replaced by hydrogen. The reverse procedure
Key Words: is followed during purging. The following
Diagnostic Tools; Distributed Control System; measurement and monitoring functions are performed
Temperature Control; Conductivity Monitoring; for reliable operation of the gas system.
Thyristorized Switching; Piezo-electric Accelerometers;
Grounding Brush Monitor; Partial Discharge;
2.1.1 HYDROGEN PURITY MONITORING
Quadrature Axis Voltage.
Hydrogen purity measurement is done in three
1.0 INTRODUCTION ranges, i.e., 90 to 100% hydrogen in air; 0 to 100%
hydrogen in carbon dioxide; and 0 to 100% carbon
To ensure uninterrupted operation, generators and dioxide in air. Both thermal conductivity and gas
their auxiliary systems are supplied with field sensing density measurement based systems are used for
devices, signal conditioners, control elements and measuring the purity. The thermal conductivity
secondary instrumentation for control, monitoring based system is low pressure type, with gas passing
and protection. All the field signals are taken to the through the analyzer being purged to the atmosphere.
central Distributed Control System (DCS) for The gas density based system is high pressure type,
monitoring, control, protection and recording. Faults with gas being returned to the generator, avoiding
and abnormalities are annunciated in the DCS in continuous bleeding. Alarms are generated for
the control room. In the event of critical parameters operator intervention if purity falls below 95%. The
exceeding set limits, the control system provides for machine is not recommended for operation if
disconnection of the generator through protections. hydrogen purity falls below 90%.

2.1.2 HYDROGEN GAS PRESSURE MONITORING 2.1.4 GAS MOISTURE CONTENT MONITORING
The hydrogen gas pressure is maintained at 3.5 kg/ Any contamination of the gas with moisture or oil
cm2 (gauge). Alarms are generated if pressure deviates drastically reduces the thermal conductivity of the
by ±0.2 kg/cm2. gas, resulting in poor heat transfer. To help maintain
the gas inside the machine dry, a fraction of the gas
2.1.3 BEARING OIL VAPOUR EXHAUSTERS
is continuously passed through the gas drier (blower
heater or refrigeration type). To monitor the moisture
Two bearing oil vapour exhaust fans are provided to content in the gas, a dew point temperature
exhaust oil vapours and hydrogen gas which get monitoring system, shown in Fig. 1, is supplied. In
accumulated from the seal oil supply and bearing this scheme, only one thin film aluminium oxide or
housings of the generator. The fans are in one ceramic sensor is used to measure the dew point
working and one standby configuration, with an temperature at both inlet and outlet of the drier. The
automatic switching over interlock. functionality is realized with the help of four
FIG. 1 : SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF DEW POINT TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

solenoid valves provided. At any given time, only temperature set point is kept 5 °C below the primary
one circuit is in use. The dew point temperature water temperature set point.
should be below 10 °C.
Tripping based on '2 out of 3' logic is provided in
the event of emergency high value of the cold gas
2.1.5 COLD GAS TEMPERATURE CONTROL temperature. The main exciter is also protected for
emergency high air temperature, which is caused by
Due to load variations during operation and the
insufficient cooling of the air circulating in the
resulting thermal expansion and contraction, the
exciter.
generator is subjected to stresses. To reduce these
stresses, the hydrogen cooling circuit is provided
with an automatic temperature control system, 2.2 Primary Water Cooling System
shown in Fig. 2, to maintain the active generator
components at the proper temperature level. A In large rating machines, hydrogen cooling is not
motorized temperature control valve, with sufficient to remove the entire heat generated. For
thyristorized switching, maintains the cold gas additional cooling, a Primary Water (PW) cooling
temperature at set value. To preclude the possibility system, with demineralised water flowing through
of any condensation on stator bars, the cold gas the hollow stator conductors and terminal bushings,
FIG. 2 : COLD GAS TEMPERATURE CONTROL LOGIC FUNCTION BLOCK

is provided. The following main measurement and crosses a limit, the generator is tripped based on '2
monitoring functions are performed for reliable out of 3' protection, with the help of level switches
operation of the PW system. mounted at the top position in the terminal box.
2.2.1 PW FLOW MONITORING 2.2.5 PW TEMPERATURE CONTROL
The flow through the main winding, as well as To maintain the windings and terminal bushings at
through the three bushings, is monitored and alarms the proper temperature, a motorized control valve
are generated at set values. If the flow falls below the with thyristorized switching is provided in the PW
emergency value, a tripping signal is generated with circuit, as shown in Fig. 3. As mentioned in 2.1.5,
a time delay of 60 seconds to shut down the unit. the PW temperature set point is kept 5 °C above the
cold gas temperature set point.
2.2.2 PW CONDUCTIVITY MONITORING
2.3 Seal Oil System
This measurement is very important for healthy
running of the machine. The primary water should The seal oil system is required to retain hydrogen
always be slightly alkaline, at pH of 8 to 9, to inside the generator without affecting its purity. The
minimize the possibility of corrosion and formation following main measurement and monitoring
of oxides inside the hollow conductors. Also, a functions are performed for reliable operation of the
polishing unit is used to remove harmful ions seal oil system.
(copper, iron, chlorine, carbon dioxide) from the
water system. However, as sodium ions also get
2.3.1 SEAL OIL PRESSURE MONITORING
removed in the process, this elimination is required
to be compensated. An alkaliser dosing system is The oil pressure at seals has to be maintained higher
used to add caustic soda (NaOH) in the water circuit than the gas pressure. The system also takes care of
intermittently to refurbish with sodium ions and to emergencies like total AC failure or failure of the
keep the solution slightly alkaline. PW conductivity control system. The emergency DC seal oil pump is
is maintained between 1.0 and 2.5 micro Siemens/ made available automatically to operate in such
cm. Alarms are generated if the dosing controller eventualities.
fails to maintain the conductivity within the specified
range. 2.3.2 SEAL OIL/HYDROGEN DIFFERENTIAL
PRESSURE MONITORING
2.2.3 PW TANK LEVEL MONITORING
The differential pressure (DP) is monitored at both
The hot water returning from stator conductors is turbine and exciter end shaft seals. Alarms are
taken to the PW tank mounted on top of the generated if the DP goes higher or lower than the
generator. The tank level is monitored for any set value band (<3.3 or >3.7 kg/cm2). The differential
leakages. The gas pressure in the tank is also pressure signal is generated by comparing the seal oil
monitored to detect leakage of hydrogen through the pressure at seals and the hydrogen pressure in the
conductors into the water circuit. casing. A height correction factor (offset) is applied
as the seal oil transmitters are located near the seal
oil unit while oil seals are at the operating floor.
2.2.4 LIQUID LEVEL IN GENERATOR TERMINAL
BOX
2.3.3 SEAL OIL LEVEL MONITORING
The liquid level in the terminal box is monitored.
The presence of liquid in the terminal box generates The seal oil level is monitored at different locations
an alarm for operator intervention. If the level inside and outside the generator to ensure

FIG. 3 : PW TEMPERATURE CONTROL LOGIC FUNCTION BLOCK
uninterrupted operation of the machine and alarms the exciter bearing in the X-Y plane. The relative
and protective actions are initiated in the event of shaft vibrations are also measured in the X-Y plane
a malfunction. at generator (TE/EE) and exciter ends. The absolute
shaft vibrations are derived mathematically in the
control system. The alarms for high and emergency
2.3.4 SEAL OIL INLET TEMPERATURE
high values are generated as per ISO
High seal oil inlet temperature endangers performance recommendations. Expert system software, which
of the shaft seals. The situation can arise due to the gives detailed analysis and advance information of
failure of seal oil coolers, causing a reduction in oil the faults developing in the bearings, can also be
viscosity. In such an event, the gas can penetrate the supplied as an option.
seal oil film at the shaft seal contact face and enter
the bearing housing. Therefore, protection tripping 2.5 Generator Winding/Core Temperature
based on '2 out of 3' logic is provided.
Monitoring
2.4 Bearing/Shaft Vibration Monitoring Twelve simplex RTDs are used to monitor stator
winding temperature. These are wired to paperless
The bearing vibrations are measured at generator recorders/DCS for monitoring and alarming.
turbine end and exciter end (TE/EE) bearings and Additional twelve RTDs (physically located near the

above RTDs) are provided as spare. Similarly, twelve b) 12 miniature charge amplifiers directly
simplex Cu-CuNi thermocouples are provided in the mounted on BNC connectors.
end zones for monitoring the core temperature.
These are also wired to paperless recorders/DCS for c) Vibration monitoring panel containing 12
monitoring and alarming. Additional twelve vibration channels. Each channel monitors
thermocouples (physically located near the above 2f component, i.e., 100 Hz vibration level
thermocouples) are provided as spare. No tripping is for 50 Hz generators. The 2f vibrations are
provided for generator winding/core temperature produced by the stator current as well as the
high values. The tripping is taken care of by cold gas electro-magnetic flux produced in the stator
temperature monitoring. core. The system monitors 100 Hz vibrations
in the range 0-50 mm/sec.
3.0 DIAGNOSTIC TOOLS d) Very low noise cable: This is used for
connecting the signal from the accelerometers
Following are the diagnostic systems provided in fixed on the stator winding to the charge
generators. amplifiers.
3.1 Generator End Winding Vibration The vibration signal leads are brought out from
inside the TG through the two lead-in-plates with
Monitoring System
flanges provided in the stator casing. The
The continuous vibration monitoring system enables accelerometers are fixed on the nose joints of the
monitoring of mechanical integrity of the stator end stator end winding and are distributed as
winding (overhang area) over a period of time. It follows:
thus helps in routine monitoring, trending as well
a) Six on the turbine end; three in radial
as analysis of the performance of the generator. The
direction and three in tangential direction at
advantages of the system are as follows:
neutral bars.
● Helps in minimizing the frequency of forced
outages by identifying potential problems. b) Six on the exciter end; three in radial
direction and three in tangential direction at
● Increased vibration beyond set value causes neutral bars.
an alarm, drawing operator intervention for
intensive monitoring. The accelerometer sensors are mounted in generator
● The availability of the generator can be overhang at works. These are mounted behind the
enhanced through predictive analysis and by water boxes to avoid physical dislocation due to
way of warning for taking remedial measures movement of maintenance personnel during
in case there is any significant increase in inspection. The signal cables are brought out through
vibration level. special gas tight flanges.
● In case of stable vibration level, the time The vibration monitoring modules can display
between overhauls could be extended vibration in terms of mm/sec in bar graph or digital
considering the constraints in withdrawing display, simultaneously or cyclically, for all channels.
the set from grid at time. A 4-20 mA signal, corresponding to 0-50 mm/sec,
is available for each channel, which can be interfaced
The monitoring system comprises the following: to the DCS for vibration trending at selected
a) 12 low magnetic sensitivity piezo-electric sampling interval. A typical scheme is shown in
accelerometers. Fig. 4.

FIG. 4 : CONTINUOUS VIBRATION MONITORING SYSTEM SCHEME
3.2 Individual Bar PW Flow Monitoring Each PRT is connected to the DCS for bar graph
display and alarming.
Primary water flow monitoring of individual bars is
provided to alert the operating staff, in case there is The choking trend can be inferred by comparing the
a choking trend in any of the hollow conductors of temperatures measured by PRTs, after appropriate
a stator bar of turbogenerator. It also helps in modifications, with the reference finger-print values.
assessing the temperature rise of individual bars, in The reference finger-print values are decided based
addition to the normal winding temperature detectors on test results at works.
provided. The PW flow monitoring system is supplied
as an integral part of the GAMP (Generator Auxiliary The measured values are modified as follows:
Monitoring Panel).
(a) Due to stator current 'I'
The rise in PW temperature is an indirect replica of
the flow in each bar. One simplex platinum RTD The measured temperature is directly proportional
(PRT) is provided at each nipple of the outlet PW to the square of stator current. If 'I' is the measured
header. All the PRTs are laid and covered individually current, temperature measured is modified as:
with ceramic fibre cast cover to insulate them
thermally from the environment. The leads of PRTs
are taken out from generator through 'lead in plate'
and connected to a terminal box outside the (b) Due to cold distillate (PW) temperature,
generator. Tpw
Individual PRTs can be monitored either continuously
or intermittently, depending upon customer choice.

(c) Due to differential pressure across the 3) Generator rear bearing and exciter bearing
winding, ∂P pedestal insulation healthiness checking by
measurement of pedestal voltages
Two current brushes, displaced 90 degrees spatially

Combining the three factors together, the overall to ensure firm contact for proper earthing, are used.
corrected value can be expressed as: Annunciations are provided when actual values of
parameters exceed set values.
The scheme of shaft grounding is shown in Fig. 5.

The shaft is grounded at the turbine end of the
generator shaft, through the GBM instrument.
The correction logic is realized in the DCS. The
initial condition data is entered as signature data The working principle of this diagnostic equipment
during commissioning. During operation, the system is as follows: Static electricity is developed in the low
compares the generator individual bar flows (modified pressure stages of steam turbines when wet steam
values as above) with the reference flows. The two droplets impinge on the turbine blades at high
values are displayed in terms of bar graphs for all the velocity; the static charges accumulate and build up
96 slots. If limits are crossed, alarms are annunciated voltage (which can go up to a high level of 50 V) till
in the DCS. it can discharge through the thinnest part of the oil
film in a bearing. In the process, the bearing can get
damaged by electrical pitting. To avoid such damage,
3.3 Grounding Brush Monitor carbon brushes are provided for grounding. However,
due to high temperature, presence of oil film formed
The Grounding Brush Monitor (GBM) is an on-line by oil vapours in the surroundings and high sliding
condition monitoring instrument for predictive velocity between the brush and the shaft, a high
maintenance of grounding brushes, to protect the impedance path forms between the grounding brush
thrust and journal bearings of the generator and and the shaft, inhibiting flow of charge to ground.
exciter from damage due to the flow of current. The Due to accumulation of charge, the shaft voltage
functions of the instrument include the following: builds up till it discharges through the bearings. To
1) Shaft voltage monitoring measure this voltage build up, an additional carbon
brush is put in a high impedance path. Two levels are
2) Shaft current monitoring set in the GBM for warning and alarm.
FIG. 5 : GROUNDING SCHEME FOR SHAFT

FIG. 6 : GROUNDING BRUSH MONITOR (DISPLAY UNIT)
Magnetic asymmetry also gives rise to shaft leakage electromagnetic noise, due to surroundings or grid
voltage. This shaft voltage, in the nature of alternating disturbances, with the help of special noise
voltage, tends to cause flow of current in a closed cancellation techniques. The system pre-empts full
loop through generator outboard bearings, ground blown discharges by detecting their onset before
and any of the other bearings on the turbine side time. At the time of first commissioning, the initial
of the generator. Hence, insulation is provided in the signature of the machine is recorded. Thereafter,
generator outboard bearing and the exciter bearing whenever there is significant increase in PD activity,
to prevent heavy flow of current through the an alarm is generated in the control room. A
bearing, which can damage the bearing babbitt liner. thorough analysis can then be done with the data,
collected at predetermined intervals and stored in
the memory of the system.
3.4 Partial Discharge Monitoring System
Three coupling capacitors are used for detection of
Partial discharge (PD) refers to the small electrical the RF signals from partial discharge - one installed
discharges that typically occur within or between in each phase. Additional information is derived
insulation materials, usually across voids. Partial with the help of RTDs embedded in the winding
discharge is also referred to as corona or surface slots. A typical scheme is shown in Fig. 7. The
tracking. The visible evidence of corona presents external electromagnetic noise is eliminated with the
itself as a white, powdery residue. It is important to help of special algorithms in the software to recognize
detect increased frequency and amplitude of such and discard such noise. In one of the variations,
discharges in generators before they develop into three coupling capacitors are installed each at
serious faults. The PD monitoring system is provided generator terminals in the terminal box and three in
to monitor the healthiness of the winding insulation PT cubicles. The additional capacitors help in noise
and detect any deterioration or loosening. elimination through the time of arrival technique.
The distance between the coupling capacitors installed
Partial discharges tend to generate radio frequency in terminal box and in the bus duct near the PT
(RF) signals. These RF signals are isolated from the cubicles causes a delay in the arrival of noise signals

FIG. 7 : TYPICAL PD SCHEME WITH COUPLING CAPACITORS & RTDs
from the grid at terminal box with respect to those BHEL has installed and commissioned periodic as
at the PT cubicles. This delay is utilized to eliminate well as continuous online PD monitoring systems in
the noise. The coupling capacitor connection many 500 MW units. Continuous online systems
arrangement in one phase in generator terminal box are preferred as these act as continuous watch dogs
is shown in Fig. 8. and give alarms whenever PD activity increases
FIG. 8 : COUPLING CAPACITOR CONNECTION ARRANGMENT

beyond the set value. Software is supplied for in- the generator are heated sufficiently to produce
depth analysis. The data can also be sent to the thermal decomposition. These pyrolytic particles are
supplier for in-depth interpretation. This system can quickly detected in the ion chamber of the
also be offered as retrofit as it is non-invasive. microprocessor based Generator Condition Monitor
(GCM). In the event of an alarm condition, a self-
diagnostic feature starts the verification sequence to
3.5 Generator Rotor Winding Temperature check genuineness of the alarm. Thereafter, a sample
Monitoring of the contaminated gas is collected, and sent to the
laboratory for analysis of the nature and source of
In Static Excitation System (SEE), the field voltage the problem. A base line sample may be maintained
and field current signals are directly available for V/ and additional samples taken every six months to
I calculation to calculate rotor winding temperature. determine any deviation.
However, this facility is not available in generators
with brushless excitation where AC from the main
exciter is rectified with the help of rotating diodes 4.0 CONCLUSION
and fed into generator field winding directly. The
field voltage and current signals are not available for With the increase in ratings of generating sets, the
measurement. In such cases, an indirect approximate requirement of maximum availability and minimum
method is used to get an indication of the field outage of turbogenerators is becoming absolutely
winding temperature. The quadrature axis voltage vs. essential. Modern diagnostic tools can help a lot to
current characteristic curve, taken during shop testing forewarn about impending catastrophes. The new
of the exciter, is stored in the GAMP logic, and control features also help in running the
forms the basis for calculation and display of turbogenerators within operating limits, without
approximate rotor winding temperature during requiring much human intervention. This paper has
operation. attempted to give an insight into the control and
diagnostics philosophy of 500 MW turbo generators
manufactured by BHEL.
3.6 Generator Condition Monitoring
The system is used to provide very early warning of Acknowledgement

generator overheating or the development of hot
spots, which can lead to serious damage if not The author places on record his gratitude to Shri
detected in a timely manner. Tagging compounds are Dev Raj, AGM (EME & CIE), Shri S.C. Tyagi,
applied in different zones in the machine. A high AGM (CIE) and Shri A.K.L. Rao, AGM (GRI &
concentration of semi-micron particles is produced ISE) — all from HEEP, Haridwar, for their support
whenever any materials (tagging compounds) within and guidance in bringing out a comprehensive paper.

year stint, he moved to HEEP, Haridwar, where
he joined Turbo Generator Engg. (TGE). In TGE,
he worked for engineering of C&I and excitation
systems for thermal, gas and nuclear sets. He was
responsible for the introduction of microprocessor
based C&I for THRI and THDF type generators.
He also developed the microprocessor based on-
line diode fuse monitoring system for brushless
Mr. M.R. Bhardwaj graduated in Electronics & exciters for 500 MW turbogenerators. He has
Communications Engg. from University of visited Germany for in-depth training in C&I for
Roorkee (now IIT Roorkee) in 1978 and obtained air cooled generators and 500 MW sets.
a PG Diploma in Management from AIMA in
1988. Mr Bhardwaj joined the newly created C & I
Engg. (CIE) department in July 2003. At present,
Mr. Bhardwaj joined BHEL Power Sector Technical he is working as Deputy General Manager in CIE
Services in 1978 as Engineer Trainee and worked and is looking after project and product engineering
in the area of installation and commissioning of for C&I for thermal, gas and nuclear sets. He has
generator C&I, excitation and generator protection filed a patent for the improved moisture measuring
systems for thermal power projects. After a four system.

IMPROVED THYRISTOR TURN-OFF CHARACTERISTICS
THROUGH SELECTIVE EMITTER DOPING
N. Harihara Krishnan, S. Govindaraj, Maheshwar Dehury,

Vikram Kumar Yadav, P.K. Kumaravyasa and S.K. Ramesh
SYNOPSIS optimized to deliver devices with the desired

characteristics and a reasonably good yield. However,
This paper reports a process optimization study to specific aspects of device characteristics are often
improve the turn-off characteristics of an 1800 V attributable to parameters related to multiple process
thyristor. Thyristor chips, fabricated by conventional steps, which complicates the optimization of process
doping and alloyed molybdenum discs, displayed parameters. In order to resolve process related
inconsistency in the turn-off time (tq), when measured problems, a good understanding of device
values either exceeded the USL (prescribed level of 500 characteristics as well as manufacturing processes is
μs) or the thyristors lost blocking capability permanently. essential. Presented in this paper is a process
Cause-effect analysis and trial runs using two gold optimization study of a silicon thyristor device,
doping temperatures allowed us to exclude electron-hole which resulted in improved turn-off characteristics.
recombination in n-base and p-base regions as a process
failure mode. It was surmised that the presence of an
ultra-thin buried n+ layer above the compensated p+ 2.0 THYRISTOR DEVICES
region, and the ensuing reverse-biased junction, delayed
carrier depletion. This hypothesis was verified by A thyristor is a four-layer (p-n-p-n), three terminal
selectively doping phosphorus (n+) on the cathode face (anode, cathode and gate) semiconductor switch,
of the thyristor and also by entirely compensating the which is open (OFF) in forward as well as reverse
buried n+ layer by a prolonged alloying process. Turn- blocking modes and closed (ON) in forward
off time was found to conform to the normal values in conduction mode. It can be triggered ON in its
subsequent production cycles that employed selective n+ forward mode by applying a signal to the gate
layer doping. terminal. By adjusting the time and position (firing
angle) of the gate signal, the conduction current can
be controlled and hence, the device is popularly
Key Words: known as silicon controlled rectifier.
Thyristor; Turn-off Time; Reverse Recovery It finds application in power electronic circuits for
Characteristics; Emitter Doping; Phosphorus AC-DC conversion (rectifer), AC-AC conversion
Diffusion; Gold Diffusion; Electron-Hole (power converter, cyclo-converter, matrix converter),
Recombination Rate; Carrier Life Time; Aluminium- DC-AC conversion (inverter) and DC-DC conversion
Silicon Eutectic; Alloying; Photolithography; Process (chopper).
Optimization.
2.1 Thyristor Manufacturing Process

1.0 INTRODUCTION
A p-n junction is formed on NTD FZ-Silicon wafer
The manufacturing process of semiconductor devices (Orientation <111>, Resistivity 55 ohm-cm, thickness
entails a series of steps, each of which has to be 470 µm, diameter 33 mm) by conventional high

temperature (~1230 °C) diffusion, using high purity which ensures stable blocking characteristics by way
Aluminium (Al) and Boron (B) sources. Phosphorus of making the bevel surface electrically passive.
(n+) is diffused on both sides of the silicon wafer to
form an n+-p-n-p-n+ structure. Gold impurity is used
2.2 Thyristor Turn-off Characteristics
to control the turn-off time within its nominal value
(500 µs) by doping at a temperature of 805 °C. The thyristor 'switch' is turned OFF (open) from
conduction to blocking mode by reverse-biasing, or
A molybdenum disc is alloyed with the anode side by withdrawing anode current below the holding
of the diffused wafer using an Aluminium-Silicon current. The response is not instantaneous, and a
(Al-Si) eutectic foil as binder. This converts the n+ finite time elapses before the switch is sufficiently
layer (on anode) into p+ to form a p+-p-n-p-n+ OFF, during which it can be spuriously triggered
thyristor structure. A cross-section of the fabricated ON, in the presence of a forward-bias voltage
thyristor chip is shown in Fig.1. The anode, cathode gradient (dV/dt). This response time is termed as
and gate terminals are formed using physical vapour turn-off time (tq), as illustrated in Fig. 2.
deposition (PVD) coating of aluminium and silver
(coating thickness: 2 µm on anode, 25 µm on The carrier concentration within the thyristor wafer
cathode and gate). The circumferential edge of the is sketched in Fig. 3 at different instants during the
chip is bevelled at an angle of 20° using silicon turn-off process [1]. At t=t0, the thyristor is in
carbide abrasive and subsequently polished using a conduction mode and the current has just started to
1:1 mixture of hydrofluoric acid and nitric acid. The withdraw. The rate at which the current reduces (di/
bevel is then protected from exposure to the dt) is determined by the inductance in the load
atmosphere by applying a coating of silicone rubber, circuit, but the thyristor is tested by manufacturers
FIG. 1 : STRUCTURE OF THYRISTOR CHIP. J1, J2, J3 ARE p-n JUNCTIONS OF THYRISTOR

FIG. 2 : TURN-OFF TIME CHARACTERISTICS OF THYRISTOR
FIG. 3 : CARRIER DISTRIBUTION WITHIN BULK OF THYRISTOR WAFER DURING TURN-OFF PROCESS

at a value of di/dt that guarantees its safe operation. and 7% were shorts. With rework on thyristor chips,
The current is zero at t=t1, but withdrawal continues the turn-off time test yielded 70% acceptance.
at the same rate due to the inductive effect till t=t2, However, as the rework process involved chemical
when the carriers are cleared from the p-base region. cleaning, re-alloying and re-polishing, which were
Further carrier depletion from the n-base prepares found to endanger the blocking capability of
the junction J1 to support reverse voltage. Now thyristors, it was not pursued further.
onwards, the reverse current reduces exponentially
and is influenced by the recombination of carriers
(holes and electrons). 3.0 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Two categories of failures can take place during the The effects of selected key process parameters, which
turn-off time measurement, which is one of the were considered to have a significant influence on
routine tests conducted on thyristor chips. turn-off characteristics, were estimated and a cause-
effect diagram was constructed (Fig. 4). During
a) Measured value of tq > USL (500 μs); brainstorming sessions, three parameters from this
USL: Upper Specification Limit diagram (gold diffusion temperature, phosphorus
This category is termed as Not-Turning-Off diffusion (n+) time and diffusion of n+ layer on
and is partially recoverable. anode side) were identified as key variables for the
b) Thyristor loses its blocking capability. purpose of experimentation. Two levels were assigned
This category is termed as Short and is non- to each of these variables. However, out of the eight
recoverable. possible combinations, four were judiciously selected
and a set of three experiments was conceptualized as
Typical statistics of failures in turn-off time test shown in Table 1. These experiments were conducted
indicate that during the test period, 61% of thyristors to measure the impact of changes in these variables
passed the turn-off test, while 32% did not turn-off on turn-off time and yield.
FIG. 4 : CAUSE-EFFECT DIAGRAM

TABLE 1 : EXPERIMENTAL VARIABLES, LEVELS, COMBINATIONS AND LAYOUT
The turn-off time was measured as per international rate, the shorter is the turn-off time. In the thyristor
standard IEC 747-6 using an LEM-make tester (Model manufacturing line, this rate is controlled by gold
4030). The thyristor is triggered to ON state using diffusion. As it increases with density of gold
a gate circuit. It is turned OFF by means of a reverse impurity in silicon, the gold diffusion temperature
voltage and by withdrawing the current at a rate presents an easy diagnostic tool to estimate thyristor
controlled by MOSFETs. The zero-crossing end of turn-off characteristics. It is observed from
ON state current pulse (1 ms, 1 Hz) is detected and Experiment-1 that, in the range 805 °C to 820 °C,
a forward ramp-up voltage is applied at a delayed the turn-off time is marginally lower and some
instant away from zero-crossing. The delay time is statistical improvement in manufacturing yield is
adjusted by a potentiometer and the value at which apparent. However, other experiments, as analyzed
the thyristor toggles between its ON and OFF states below, reveal that the problem is not associated with
is sensed and displayed as turn-off time. the recombination rate and hence, the gold diffusion
process.
Table-2 summarizes the process variables adopted in
this study and the corresponding experimental results.
4.2 Phosphorus (n+ Emitter) Diffusion Time
4.0 ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL The n+ emitter layer on cathode side influences gate
RESULTS triggering characteristics, and is adjusted by diffusion
4.1 Gold Diffusion Temperature depth. The total amount of n+ impurity, which is
driven in from both anode and cathode faces of the
Recombination rate is one of the causal factors that wafer, is controlled by diffusion time. Experiment-
affect turn-off time. The higher the recombination 2 shows that the manufacturing yield of thyristors

TABLE 2 : RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS
with 6-hour diffusion time is higher (72%) than 4.31 Analysis of Buried n+ Layer
with 7-hour period, when doping was effected from
both sides of the wafer. This result is further The eutectic temperature of Al-Si foil is 577 °C [2],
discussed under 4.3 below. [3]. During the alloying cycle, the wafer surface is
eroded through dissolution of silicon into Al-Si melt,
as well as by formation of molybdenum silicide
4.3 Diffusion from One Side/Both Sides (MoSi2) layer. This process entails compensation of
the n+ region on the anode face to form a p+ doped
It is evident from Experiment-3 that when n+ layer. If the n+ region is not fully converted, an ultra-
diffusion occurs from the cathode face alone, there thin buried n+ layer remains, which is difficult to
is a spectacular improvement in the turn-off measure. As a result, two additional p-n junctions,
characteristics, compared to the case in which J4 and J5, are created, as shown in Fig. 5.
diffusion takes place from both sides. It is interesting
to observe that this improvement is seen in spite of During turn-off, junction J2 is forward biased, while
the longer (7-hour) diffusion, which showed lower J1 and J3 are reverse-biased. Carriers are depleted
yield than the shorter (6-hour) diffusion in from the p-emitter region during the time period, t0
Experiment-2. These observations suggest that the n+ < t < t3. Since turn-off time is measured with
layer on the anode face is greatly responsible for the reference to t1, two components T1 = t1 < t < t3 and
increase in thyristor turn-off time and also that a T2 = t3 < t < tq are defined for the sake of analysis.
deeper n+ layer on the anode side affects turn-off At t = t3, the reverse current passes through its peak,
time adversely. known as reverse recovery current (IRR) as reverse

FIG. 5 : STRUCTURE OF THYRISTOR CHIP, WHEN n+ LAYER ON ANODE SIDE IS NOT FULLY COMPENSATED BY ALLOYING.
J4 AND J5 ARE ADDITIONAL p-n JUNCTIONS CREATED.
voltage just begins to build up at junction J3. During = 95 °C, ITM = 1000 A, di/dt = -20 A/μs). Measured
the period T2 = t3 < t < tq, the recombination process traces of reverse recovery current of normal and high
lowers carrier concentration in n-base and p-base tq thyristor are given in Fig 6. The values of IRR were
regions. This results in exponential decay of current 169 A and 886 A and the corresponding turn-off
with time constant related to recombination rate. times were 350 µs and >1000 µs (USL=500 µs),
respectively.
In the case of buried n+-layer, additional junctions J4
and J5 exist and the reverse-biased junction J5 hampers
the current flow. Carriers are withdrawn from p- 4.4 Extended Alloying Cycle
emitter rather slowly, which prolongs time period T1.
As a result, reverse current IRR increases to a very high In order to confirm the hypothesis that an
level. The turn-off process is further delayed (T2) as uncompensated n+-buried layer is indeed present, the
current decays from a relatively higher value compared alloying cycle (time) was deliberately extended to
to the normal case. The sum of T1 and T2 results in consume the n+ layer entirely. This is brought out
high turn-off time (tq = T1 + T2). as Experiment-4 in Table-2. The duration of alloying
was extended from 25 minutes to 40 minutes and
It was possible to verify this hypothesis by capturing the turn-off characteristics of the resulting thyristors
the current waveform for several thyristors (reverse were evaluated. All thyristors qualified the test,
recovery current, IRR) at standard test condition (TJ validating the earlier findings.

FIG. 6 : MEASURED TRACES OF REVERSE RECOVERY CURRENT (IRR)
However, when the silicon wafer bonds with the sides prior to phosphorus diffusion. Using
molybdenum disc, it develops a warp due to photolithography steps, it is selectively retained only
mismatch in their thermal expansion coefficients. on a small circular gate region located at the centre
Also, it is difficult to estimate the exact alloying cycle of the cathode side. As silicon dioxide acts as a mask
for a given batch of thyristors, since the depth of n+ to prevent n+ layer formation during phosphorus
layer (on anode) varies with different diffusion times diffusion, the n+ layer is formed all around the wafer
adopted. Extended duration of alloying is therefore except the gate region.
not recommended for fear of excessive warp, thermal
strain and poor reliability in blocking characteristics In the modified process, silicon dioxide layer is
[4]. retained on anode side in addition to gate region.
This is achieved by suitably modifying the
photolithography steps as shown in Fig. 7.
5.0 OPTIMIZED PROCESS
Based on the above discussions, it was preferred to 6.0 PRODUCTION DATA

adopt selective (cathode) n+ layer diffusion. The
manufacturing process was accordingly modified and Run-charts involving 363 thyristors, manufactured
implemented for regular production. with the pre-optimized process, were plotted during
a period of seven months (May to November 2004)
In the normal process, the silicon dioxide layer that (Fig. 8). Wide inconsistency in manufacturing yield
is thermally grown all around the silicon wafer is can be clearly seen, with turn-off time in the range
chemically etched away from both anode and cathode from 150 µs to >1000 µs.

FIG. 7 : OPTIMIZED PROCESS
FIG. 8 : MANUFACTURING YIELD IN TURN-OFF TIME TEST

In the post-optimized regime, nearly 100% yield was (Additional General Manager), Mr. Ranjan Sahi
achieved, with 283 thyristors tested in the period (General Manager), Mr. V. Vishwanathan (Executive
January to March 2005, having an average turn-off Director) and Mr. A. Bhattacharya (Executive
time of 199 µs (range = 110-380 µs). Director) is gratefully acknowledged.
7.0 SUMMARY References
This paper summarizes the investigations and process [1] B.E. Danielsson, 'Studies of Turn-off Effects in
optimization concerning turn-off characteristics of a Power Semiconductor Devices', Solid State
thyristor. An ultra-thin buried n+ layer was found to Electronics, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 375-391,
be responsible for the high values of turn-off time 1985.
measured in these thyristors. This anomaly could be [2] D.E. Crees, G. Humpston, D.M. Jacobson and
eliminated by adopting a selective diffusion process D. Newcombe, 'Silicon/Heat-sink Assemblies
of n+ layer on the cathode face of the wafer. for High Power Device Applications: Present
Production runs using the optimized process achieved Technology and Developments', GEC Journal
significantly improved results and a consistent of Research, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 71-79, 1988.
manufacturing yield.
[3] F.M. Roberts and E.L.G. Wilkinson, 'The
Effects of Alloying Material on Regrowth-layer
Acknowledgement Structure in Silicon Power Devices', Journal of
Materials Science, Vol. 6, pp. 189-199, 1971.
The authors would like to thank the Management
and Technical Staff of the Semiconductors and [4] G. Humpston, D.M. Jacobson, D.E. Crees,
Photovoltaics (SC&PV) department in BHEL for D.R. Newcombe and M. Zambelli, 'Recent
providing the necessary facility and support during Developments in Silicon/Heat-sink Assemblies
the course of this study. Motivation and for High-Power Device Applications', GEC
encouragement given by Mr. K.P. Raghunath Review, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 67-78, 1991.
and Technology, Coimbatore (Madras University)

in 1984 and MBA degree in Finance Management
from Bangalore University in 1997.
He joined BHEL at its Electronics Division,

Bangalore, in 1984. Since then, he has been
involved in design and development of power
semiconductor diodes and thyristors. At present,
Mr. N. Harihara Krishnan received B.E. (Honours) he is working as Deputy General Manager (Design)
degree in Electronics and Communications in the Semiconductors and Photovoltaics
Engineering from PSG College of Engineering Department.

He joined BHEL in 1980 at its Electronics
Division, Bangalore, in the Semiconductors and
Photovoltaics Department. After a decade of
service in production planning and control, he has
been closely associated with process control and
manufacturing activities of power semiconductor
devices. He is at present working as Senior
Engineer (Production).
Mr. S. Govindaraj received Diploma in
Telecommunication Engineering in 1979.
Electrical Engineering from University College of

Engineering, Burla, Sambalpur, in 1990.

involved in manufacturing of power semiconductor
devices. Currently, he is working as Deputy
Manager (Production) in the Semiconductors and
Mr. Maheshwar Dehury received B.Sc. degree in Photovoltaics Department.
Digital Communication Engineering from REC

Kurukshetra in 1998.
After working as lecturer in REC Kurukshetra for

a period of two years, he joined BHEL at its
Electronics Division, Bangalore, in 2000. Since
then, he has been involved in design and
development of power semiconductor diodes and
Mr. Vikram Kumar Yadav received B.Tech. degree thyristors. At present he is working as Senior
in Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering Engineer (Design) in the Semiconductors and
from Bundelkhand Government Engineering Photovoltaics Department.
College, Jhansi, in 1996 and M.Tech. degree in

involved in design, construction and maintenance
of process and test equipment for manufacturing
semiconductor and photovoltaic products. At
present, he is working as Deputy Manager in the
Factory Services Department.
Mr. P.K. Kumaravyasa received B.E. degree in

Electronics Engineering from Bangalore University
in 1989.
Electronics Division, Bangalore, in 1979. He has

since been associated with testing of power
semiconductor devices. Having an in-depth
practical knowledge in electrical and electronics
engineering, he has developed specialized expertise
in measurement of various electrical, mechanical
and thermal characteristics of diodes and thyristors.
At present, he is working as Chargeman
Mr. S.K. Ramesh, after completion of Industrial (Production) in the Semiconductors and
Training Institute course, joined BHEL at its Photovoltaics Department.

INNOVATIONS — FROM BHEL
100 TO 140 MW SINGLE CYLINDER NON- ● Nozzle control governing to improve part
REHEAT STEAM TURBINE load performance
● Two shell construction, with guide blade
A single cylinder, non-reheat steam turbine for the
carriers, to facilitate parallel machining and
100 to 140 MW range has been developed, based
hence manufacturing cycle time reduction
on the well proven building block principles. It is
the largest single cylinder steam turbine engineered ● Advanced 3D LP blading to improve
so far in BHEL, with overall dimensions of 9.06 efficiency
m length, 8.04 m width and 6.72 m height. The ● Pelton wheel design for hydraulic barring
design can be customized to meet specific plant
requirements like power, inlet/exhaust steam ● Electro-hydraulic governing system
conditions, extractions for feed heating system and
co-generation. The design is suitable for plants where a large amount
of waste heat is available and reheat is not feasible and
The main features of the design are: in co-generation plants where low pressure steam is
required for the process. An order has been received
● Integral valve chest for compact design from TISCO for a 120 MW turbine.
Cross-section of a Single Cylinder Turbine

GAS LIFT COMPRESSOR the first time, the entire motor driven compressor
train has been tested in the factory.
BHEL is executing its largest compressor export
order of Gas Lift Compressor package to PDO
Oman, where it is under installation at the Lekhwair 158 kW, 375 RPM BRUSHLESS EXCITER FOR
Gas Lift Plant. The package, with a capacity of 1.6 HYDROGENERATORS
mmscmd, will be the plant's fifth gas-lift compressor
Traditionally, hydrogenerators have been supplied
train, operating in parallel with the four existing
with static excitation systems, which make use of
compressor trains, which handle 1.0 mmscmd each.
slip rings and brushes that require frequent
The centrifugal compressor train has been designed
maintenance. Brushless excitation systems overcome
to boost the pressure from 200 kPa (abs) to 7800
these limitations in terms of enhanced reliability and
kPa (abs) for injection into the gas lift wells.
easy maintenance. BHEL Corp. R&D and Bhopal
The compressor has two casings – LP & HP. The LP have recently developed and successfully tested a
casing is horizontally split while the HP casing is 158 kW, 350 V, 375 rpm brushless exciter for
vertically split. Each casing accommodates two phases hydrogenerators of ratings up to 12 MW and 375
arranged back to back. Thus the overall compression rpm. The brushless exciter developed is suitable for
is achieved in four phases, having three inter-stage both vertical and horizontal mounting.
coolers and one final discharge cooler, along with
The exciter was subjected to the open circuit, short
separators. The final phase discharge cooler outlet
circuit, heat run, and the voltage response tests and
temperature is maintained at 45 °C. All four phases
the test results were satisfactory. The over-speed test
have independent anti-surge recycle protection.
has also been carried out to check the mechanical
It is the largest synchronous motor (14.8 MW) integrity and the capability of the flat-pack type
driven compressor and the largest compressor train diodes, manufactured at BHEL Electronics Division,
(14 × 4 × 6 m) from BHEL. The long Vorecon Bangalore, to function under high g-forces and
(Voith coupling) supplied is the first of its kind in under run-away conditions experienced by a hydro-
Asia and the eighth in the world. generator. The temperature rise was found to be
within the Class-F limit of insulation.
To validate the design, the entire compressor package
has been simulated under dynamic conditions. For BHEL is now in a position to design, manufacture
and supply brushless exciters to meet the excitation
requirements of hydrogenerators. An export order
for three sets has been received from the 3x5 MW
Devighat Hydro Power Station, Nepal.
Compressor Train End view of Brushless Exciter (Drive End Side)

TWO STAGE TRIGGERED SPARK GAP FOR also successfully undergone type tests (short circuit
PROTECTION OF 400 kV SERIES current, capacitor discharge current and recovery
CAPACITORS voltage) as per International Standard (IEC 60143-
2) at CESI, Italy.
Series capacitor banks are employed in fixed as well
as thyristor controlled series compensation schemes
for enhancing the power transfer capability of EHV ONLINE TURBINE BLADE CONDITION
transmission lines. The capacitor bank can experience MONITORING
temporary over-voltages during fault conditions.
Triggered spark gaps are used to serve as primary Steam turbine blades are subject to a severe vibration
protection devices, in conjunction with metal oxide environment and are directly exposed to a wide
varistors, for the protection of series capacitors range of aerodynamic excitations. Although blades
against onerous over voltages. are designed to withstand such conditions, failures
do occur due to unfavourable operating conditions
With a view to meeting the demand for such that cause blade resonance and a high level of
protective devices, a two stage triggered spark gap transient loading.
has been developed to meet the requirements of fault
current, capacitor discharge current and recovery Online vibration monitoring of turbine blades can
voltage expected in present-day 400 kV transmission help predict the health of blades and warn about
systems. The spark gap consists of main electrodes impending failures to enable plant personnel to
of copper and graphite, in addition to the triggered avoid any catastrophe. BHEL has recently developed
gap, with precise spark-over voltage setting. an online blade condition monitoring system, which
provides feedback on blade vibration, blade resonance
The triggering scheme, integrated with the main and change in the blade tip displacement, which
spark gap assembly, has been tested successfully in have a direct relation to blade failures. The BVMS
the laboratory for establishing operation in both the monitors the vibration behaviour of blades during
triggered and self-firing modes. The equipment has turbine operation through online measurement of
important parameters, such as blade clearance, blade
rub and blade frequencies. It generates information
about bent or missing blades, turbine blade creep
and crack detection and growth.
400 kV Triggered Spark Gap BVMS Connected to 8 MW Steam Turbine

Blade Vibration Monitoring System (BVMS)
Hotel Load Traction Alternator
The BVMS has been tested extensively in the
laboratory on a turbine blade test rig and the results locomotive can be replaced by electrical auxiliaries
have been verified through telemetry techniques. It (because of the extra power available from the
has also been tested on an in-house developed 8 companion alternator), thereby increasing the
MW steam turbine and plans are being finalized for overall efficiency and reliability.
installation in turbines of higher rating. BHEL aims
to offer BVMS as a Prognostic Health Monitoring The first machine has been manufactured and
System with its turbines in future. successfully type tested in presence of RDSO and
despatched to DLW for further assembly and
commissioning. BHEL had already developed and
HOTEL LOAD TRACTION ALTERNATOR supplied a hotel load inverter to provide power at
WITH COMPANION ALTERNATOR the required voltage and frequency.
To enhance the passenger carrying capacity of
trains, BHEL has designed and developed, with MICRO CONTROLLER BASED FLAME
the full support of Indian Railways, a 320 kW SCANNER (BHELSCAN)
traction alternator (TA10103AZ) with hotel load
companion alternator (CA10104AZ) for 3600 BHEL has developed an advanced micro controller
h.p. broad gauge diesel electric locomotives. based flame scanning system. The new product,
'BHELSCAN', with its superior features, will
In air-conditioned trains, an additional generator ensure continuous and reliable flame monitoring
coach is generally provided to provide power for in boilers, thus ensuring safe and trouble free
air-conditioning and other loads. With the operation.
companion alternator supplying power to AC
coaches and other necessary loads, there is no The flame scanner consists of a scanner head
need for the generator coaches, which can be assembly with a quartz lens for collecting the light
replaced by passenger coaches, enabling the signal from the flame, a fibre optic cable for
Railways to provide better passenger services while transmission of the light signal and head electronics
increasing revenue. Maintenance costs are also to convert the light signal to electrical signal. The
reduced by the elimination of generator coaches electrical signal is transmitted to the control unit
and provision of sturdy companion alternator in through special cables. Embedded software enables
the locomotive. Mechanical drives in the the controller to discriminate between flames of

different fuels by detecting the characteristic flicker COMPOSITE INSULATORS WITH NANO
frequency range of the flame. ADDITIVES
To establish satisfactory field operation, the BHEL has successfully established the technology
prototype was tested at Raichur and Rayalaseema for manufacturing polymer based composite
TPS. Subsequently, an improved version was insulators. A state-of-the-art plant with a
installed in Unit - 3 boiler at Raichur TPS and has production capacity of 450 T per year, based on
been in continuous operation since January 2005. the injection moulding method and specially
designed moulds, has been set up and its process
It was rigorously tested at Electronic Testing and parameters optimized. The facility was inaugurated
Development Centre, Bangalore. The Canadian by the Chairman & Managing Director, Mr.
Standards Association International, a world leader Ashok K. Puri on 4 January 2007.
in product testing and certification, has qualified,
A significant achievement has been the improvement
after reviewing the test results, the flame scanner
in intrinsic properties of silicones, the raw material,
for award of the 'Certificate of Compliance' to
by incorporating nano-materials in the silicon
International Standards requirements - CSA 61010-
matrix, thus making the composite material more
1. The certification will go a long way towards
suitable for service in high pollution levels and
enhancing customers' confidence in the product.
harsh environments. The arc track resistance of the
The following are the unique features of nano-modified silicones is better (by ~ 45%) than
BHELSCAN: standard silicones. Their hydrophobicity is also
● Advanced digital micro controller better. Improved arc track resistance gives BHEL's
technology composite insulators a technical edge over the other
commercially available varieties.
● Multi fuel flame detection capability (oil,
coal) Technical parameters for injection moulding of the
nano material-modified silicone dough into
● Digital display of flame intensity/ frequency numerous shapes/dimensions so as to cater to
parameters various pollution levels into sheaths, sheds, etc.,
● Digital setting of process parameters depending on design of the composite insulator
● Compact size - fewer electronic modules and the application areas, have also been established.
● RS 232C output for DCS connectivity Trial production of long rods and railway insulators
● 4-20 mA output for remote monitoring
CMD of BHEL, Mr. Ashok K. Puri Inaugurates the Composite

BHELSCAN - Microcontroller Based Flame Scanner Insulator Manufacturing Facility

engineering R&D. BHEL's earlier developments in
this field have been successfully implemented at
power stations, industrial establishments, the space
programme and other important applications.
The COE-SE will be a major facility for carrying
out surface coatings and treatment and develop
state-of-the-art technologies for products like hydro
turbines, steam turbines, gas turbines and boilers.
It will also explore new applications for BHEL
products and other strategic applications and facilitate
transfer of technology to BHEL's manufacturing
units. The facility will also be used in BHEL's
frontier research projects for exploring the use of
nano materials for surface engineering applications.
The high bay new building houses major facilities
such as robotic thermal spray, robotic 4.6 kW
diode laser hardening and cladding system, image
analyzer, macro-micro hardness tester and
mechanical grit recovery system.
Composite Insulators with Nano Additives
using silicones with nano-additives has been

completed. The materials and the products were
characterized and the insulators have been type
tested successfully. The manufacturing process for
the composite insulators has been established on a
production scale, with ratings in the range of 25 to
400 kV for railway traction and transmission lines.
The first developmental order for supply of 400
kV long rod insulators has been received from
Power Grid. The development has enabled BHEL Centre of Excellence for Surface Engineering
to take the leadership position in 400 kV long rod
insulators in the country.
CENTRE OF EXCELLENCE FOR SURFACE

ENGINEERING (COE-SE)
In line with its strategy to achieve technological
leadership, BHEL has established the Centre of
Excellence for Surface Engineering (COE-SE) – the
fourth in the series of COEs – at Corp. R&D,
Hyderabad. The Centre was inaugurated by the
Chairman & Managing Director, Mr. Ashok K. Puri,
on 29th March 2007. Set up with an investment of
Rs. 8.4 crore, the COE-SE will further strengthen
BHEL's leadership position as a pioneer in surface Robotic High Power Diode Laser Facility

RECENT MAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS OF BHEL
(during September'06-March'07)
ORDERS BAGGED ● Achieved a major breakthrough in the IPP

segment by securing an order for a 500 MW
Overseas gas turbine based power plant from MGI,
● Won its second power project contract in Jordan, on EPC basis.
Bangladesh, wresting it from Chinese power ● Secured its first order for gas turbines (2x26
equipment major - Harbin Power MW) for co-generation application from
Engineering, in an intensely competitive Oman Refinery Company, Oman.
global tender. Valued at Rs.5,050 million,
the Asian Development Bank (ADB) funded Domestic
contract has been placed on BHEL by the
Electricity Generation Company of ● Won a contract from Damodar Valley
Bangladesh (EGCB) for a turnkey 2x100- Corporation (DVC) for two units of 500
120 MW Gas Turbine Power Plant at MW each at Mejia Thermal Power Station
Sidhirganj. BHEL has earlier successfully (TPS) in West Bengal, on turnkey basis.
executed a turnkey 100 MW gas turbine Slated for synchronisation during the 11th
power plant for BPDB at Baghabari, which Plan, the project will add nearly 24 million
has been operating successfully. The company units every day to the grid, a major portion
is also executing an ADB funded turnkey of which will be transmitted to Delhi for the
contract for a 220 kV substation at Baghabari Commonwealth Games in 2010. Mejia TPS
and extension of a 220 kV substation at is already equipped with four BHEL-built
Ishurdi with the Power Grid Company of units of 210 MW each, and the company is
Bangladesh. executing a turnkey contract for another two
units of 250 MW each. Notably, BHEL sets
● Achieved a major breakthrough in the account for 12,000 MW or nearly 69% of
European market for compressors by securing the cumulative generating capacity in the
a prestigious order worth about Rs.45 crore, Eastern region.
for a compressor train package in France.
Won in the face of intense competition from ● Bagged orders for the Main Plant Package at
several internationally renowned two power stations in Maharashtra against
manufacturers, the order has been received International Competitive Bidding. Valued
from Grande Paroisse, France, a Total Group at over Rs.39,000 million, the orders have
company — one of the leading global been placed by Maharashtra State Power
companies in the oil and gas sector. The Generation Company Limited
order, to be completed in a challenging (MAHAGENCO), for one 500 MW unit at
schedule of 15 months, envisages design, Khaperkheda TPS Expansion Project and
manufacture, supply, erection and two 500 MW units at Bhusawal TPS
commissioning supervision of a CO2 Expansion Project. Slated for synchronisation
compressor train package for a urea plant. during the 11th Plan, these units will add 36
The equipment will be manufactured and million units every day to the grid. BHEL's
supplied by BHEL's plant at Hyderabad. scope of work involves design, engineering,

manufacture, supply, erection and protection system, besides other associated
commissioning of steam turbines, generators, equipment and auxiliaries. BHEL is also
boilers, state-of-the-art C&I for the entire executing its first ever mega hydro power
main plant and electricals, besides auxiliaries. project contract for the 800 MW Parbati
Khaperkheda TPS is already equipped with HEP, Stage-II, to be equipped with the
four BHEL-built units of 210 MW each, country's largest capacity (4x200 MW) Pelton
while Bhusawal TPS is equipped with two hydro turbines.
BHEL-built units of 210 MW each.
● Secured an order worth Rs.9,500 million, for
● Outbidding Indian and multinational setting up a 99 (3x33) MW captive power
companies in an open tender, BHEL has plant on EPC basis from Bharat Oman
secured a turnkey contract worth nearly Refinery Limited (BORL) as part of its
Rs.3,800 million from Punjab State Electricity refinery project at Bina in Madhya Pradesh.
Board (PSEB) for Renovation, Modernisation The power plant will be equipped with eco-
and Uprating of 2x110 MW Units (3&4) of friendly Circulating Fluidised Bed
Guru Nanak Dev Thermal Plant (GNDTP) Combustion (CFBC) boilers of 275 tons per
at Bhatinda in Punjab. BHEL will also hour capacity, specifically designed for petcoke
uprate the units from their existing capacity fuel. Won against international competitive
of 110 MW to 120 MW each. This will lead bidding, the order assumes special significance
to increased availability and generation, as this is the first order for petcoke-fired
besides life extension of the units by over 15 CFBC boilers on BHEL, as also the largest-
years. The first set is targeted for value single order secured by the Industry
commissioning in a tight schedule of 20 Sector business segment. The power plant
months and the second unit in ten months will meet the process steam and power
thereafter. BHEL is one of the few companies requirement of the upcoming refinery project.
in the world to have established state-of-the- While the first unit is slated for
art technology and expertise for R&M and commissioning in a schedule of 26 months,
Uprating of both hydro and thermal power the project will be completed within 30
stations. months. The equipment has to meet very
stringent technical specifications to ensure
● Against stiff competition from leading French, uninterrupted and high-quality power and
Austrian and German multinationals, BHEL steam to the refinery.
has secured a major contract for a 520 MW
(4x130 MW) Hydro Electric Project (HEP) ● Against International Competitive Bidding,
in Himachal Pradesh. Valued at over Rs.4,000 BHEL has bagged another major order from
million, the order for Parbati HEP, Stage-III, Indian Oil Corporation (IOC) for setting up
has been placed on BHEL by NHPC. an energy efficient and environment friendly
Located at Bihali in Kullu district, about 250 co-generation power plant at its Haldia
km from Chandigarh, the underground Refinery Complex. IOC has placed an order
powerhouse will generate electricity utilising worth over Rs.1,650 million, on Lumpsum
the waters of the river Sainj, a tributary of Turnkey (LSTK) basis. The project is being
Beas. The project is slated for commissioning set up to meet the requirement of
in a tight schedule of 50 months. Major uninterrupted power supply, in addition to
equipment includes four high-head Francis the steam needs of the refinery and is
hydro turbines with matching scheduled for commissioning in 22 months.
hydrogenerators; digital governors; BHEL's scope of work includes design,
microprocessor-based control, monitoring and engineering, manufacture, supply, erection

and commissioning of a Frame-5 Gas Turbine has been developed by BHEL in-house. The
Generator and a Heat Recovery Steam device, which operates automatically,
Generator (HRSG) of 130 tons per hour depending on system requirement in less
capacity with associated auxiliaries and balance than 10 milliseconds, improves power transfer
of plant, in addition to complete civil works capability of transmission lines and reduces
and select spares. system losses, besides improving system
stability in high-voltage transmission lines.
● BHEL will supply the largest size (210 TPH) BHEL has received the first commercial
BFBC (Bubbling Fluidised Bed Combustion) order for supply, erection, testing and
Boiler along with a 50 MW steam turbine commissioning of an 80 MVAR, 400 kV
generator against an order from IND Energy, Controlled Shunt Reactor at Karad Substation
Raigarh. The boiler will operate on washery on Karad - Lonikand line on turnkey basis
rejects, a fuel having the least commercial from Maharashtra State Electricity
value and will generate power at a very low Transmission Company Limited. The contract
cost. will be completed in a schedule of 18
months. The reactor transformer will be
● Once again demonstrated its competitive manufactured at BHEL's Bhopal plant while
edge by bagging a World Bank funded the company's Electronics Division,
turnkey contract for a new 400 kV substation Bangalore, will supply the control equipment.
and extension of three existing substations in
Maharashtra, against stiff competition from The first 50 MVAR, 400 kV CSR,
European MNCs and Indian companies. commissioned at a 400 kV substation at
Valued at Rs.1,440 million, the order has Itarsi on the Itarsi-Jabalpur transmission line
been placed by Power Grid Corporation of in Madhya Pradesh has successfully completed
India (PowerGrid) for a new 400 kV trial operation, providing impetus to the
substation at Wardha and extensions of 400 establishment of the new technology. Since
kV substations at Seoni, Akola and CSRs can be taken out of the circuit in
Aurangabad, associated with the Sipat Super loaded line conditions, 25-30% more power
Thermal Power Project Stage-II can be transmitted over the line through
supplementary transmission system. Aimed improvement in voltage profile, as compared
at improving power supply in the Western to a fixed shunt reactor configuration.
Region, the project will be commissioned by
BHEL in a tight schedule of 19 months. AWARDS
● BHEL will supply 500 MVA converter ● Twenty nine of the thirty four power stations
transformers - the largest such equipment to in the country awarded with the Government
be manufactured in India and amongst the of India's Meritorious Productivity Awards
largest worldwide for PGCIL's ±500 kV, for excellent performance, are equipped with
2500 MW HVDC terminal stations at Ballia generating equipment manufactured by
and Bhiwadi. BHEL, once again establishing the reliability
and quality of BHEL equipment.
● BHEL's in-house developments have received Significantly, all the five power stations
commercial recognition in the form of the awarded the Gold Shield for 2005-06 and six
first order for an indigenously-developed of the seven power stations awarded the
device for use in high-voltage (400 kV) Gold Shield for 2004-05 are equipped with
transmission lines. The first-of-its-kind in BHEL-built sets. These include: NTPC's
the world Controlled Shunt Reactor (CSR) Simhadri and Ramagundam; Tata Power

Company's Trombay; KPCL's Almatti and to cost reduction, higher productivity, safety
Varahi; HPGCL's Tau Devi Lal; NPCIL's and quality of products, etc. In addition, two
Kaiga; RIL's Dahanu; APGenco's Upper 'National Safety Awards' have been won by
Sileru and NHDC's Indira Sagar power BHEL's manufacturing plants at Trichy and
stations. Bangalore, for outstanding achievements in
● BHEL has become the first Public Sector terms of longest accident free period and
Company in the country to win the 'PRIZE', lowest accident frequency rate at their works.
under the CII Exim Award Scheme. The The awards were presented by the Union
prestigious recognition has been bestowed on Minister of State for Labour & Employment,
BHEL's Heavy Electrical Equipment Plant at Mr. Chandra Sekhar Sahu, at a function in
Haridwar, for business excellence, as per the New Delhi, on September 17, 2006.
globally recognized model of European
● Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh
Foundation for Quality Management
presented the 'MoU Award for Excellence in
(EFQM). The other major units of BHEL at
Performance' to Mr. Ashok K. Puri, Chairman
Trichy, Hyderabad and Bhopal have also
and Managing Director, Bharat Heavy
received commendation certificates for
Electricals Limited (BHEL). Awarded to
'Significant Achievements in TQM' while its
BHEL for exceeding the overall targets set
Electronics Division at Bangalore has received
out in the MoU with the Government of
the commendation for 'Strong Commitment
India for the year 2004-05, the prestigious
to TQM'. A quality conscious organisation
commendation was bestowed on the company
with a strong customer focus, BHEL has
at the Conference of Chief Executives of
acquired ISO-9001 (2000 version), ISO-
Public Sector Enterprises, jointly organised
14001 and OHSAS-18001 certification, for
by the Department of Public Enterprises and
all its operations.
SCOPE. BHEL was also awarded the MoU
● Three Vishwakarma Rashtriya Puraskars, Excellence Certificate for exceeding the overall
under different categories, have been shared targets set out in the MoU for the year 2005-
by eight employees from BHEL's Haridwar 06, by Mr. Jairam Ramesh, Minister of State
unit, for their innovative suggestions leading for Commerce.

Ramagundam STPS, equipped with BHEL sets, winner of GOI Meritorious Productivity Gold Shield
Talcher STPS
Registration No. RN-27700/76
Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited

BHEL House, Siri Fort, New Delhi-110 049
Visit our Website at : http://www.bhel.com
Published by Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd., and printed at VIBA PRESS PVT. LTD.,
C-66/3, Okhla Indl. Area, Phase-II, New Delhi-110020. Tel. : 41611300, Telefax : 26386500

Volume 28 No. 1 April 2007

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Volume 28 No. 1 April 2007

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Volume 28 No.

Volume 28 No. 1 April 2007 LAMINAR HEAT TRANSFER AND PRESSURE

ALUMINIUM TRIHYDRATE (ATH) —

Editorial Advisory Committee APPLICATIONS OF HIGH POWER LASERS

C.P. Singh CONTROL & DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES OF

INNOVATIONS — FROM BHEL 55

Editor : R.K. Bhattacharya RECENT MAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS OF BHEL

Associate Editor : Alok Mathur

BHEL JOURNAL is published quarterly.

SYNOPSIS and their variation with rotational Grashof number

NON DIMENSIONAL GROUPS

Grg - Grashof number = gβd3Δt/γ2

Grr - Rotational Grashof number = AcGrg

J - Rotational Reynolds number = 2Ω a2/γ

Nub - Bulk Nusselt number = q/πK(Tw-Tb)

Num - Mean Nusselt number = q/πK(Tw-Tm)

Pr - Prandtl number = γ/α

Rag - Gravitational Rayleigh number = Grg.Pr

Rar - Rotational Rayleigh number = HΩ2βτa4/αγ = Grr. Pr.

Re - Pipe flow Reynolds number = Wmd/γ

ε - Eccentricity Parameter = a/H

aR - Aspect Ratio = L/d

BHEL JOURNAL, April 2007 1

1. INTRODUCTION ducts and stationary ducts. The density gradients in

BHEL JOURNAL, April 2007 2

BHEL JOURNAL, April 2007 3

BHEL JOURNAL, April 2007 6

FIG. 4 : INFLUENCE OF ROTATION ON MAXIMUM AND MEAN WALL TEMPERATURE

BHEL JOURNAL, April 2007 7

FIG. 7 : VARIATION OF LOCAL NUSSELT NUMBER WITH ASPECT RATIO

FIG. 8 : INFLUENCE OF ROTATION ON HYDRAULIC FRICTION FACTOR

BHEL JOURNAL, April 2007 8

FIG. 10 : REYNOLDS NUMBER VS MOTIVATING TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE

BHEL JOURNAL, April 2007 9

Acknowledgement 5. Le FEUVRE, R.F., -- Heat Transfer in rotor

BHEL JOURNAL, April 2007 10

BHEL JOURNAL, April 2007 11

Shilpa Hiremath and Sukumar Roy

SYNOPSIS the manufacture of fine pottery. After 3000 BC,

Key Words: The intermediate phases, commonly called 'transition

BHEL JOURNAL, April 2007 12

TABLE 1 : SEQUENCE OF THERMAL TRANSFORMATIONS OF ALUMINIUM HYDRATES [2]

BHEL JOURNAL, April 2007 13

2.0 APPLICATIONS OF ATH ● Nano grained ATH is also known to improve

BHEL JOURNAL, April 2007 14

BHEL JOURNAL, April 2007 15

BHEL JOURNAL, April 2007 16

BHEL JOURNAL, April 2007 17

BHEL JOURNAL, April 2007 18

she carried out project work at the BHEL

BHEL JOURNAL, April 2007 19

K. Venugopal and Manish Agrawal

SYNOPSIS glazing and alloying [1-7]. In addition, lasers are also

1.0 INTRODUCTION ● Non-contact processing

BHEL JOURNAL, April 2007 20

Laser hardening can also be carried out on carburised,

FIG. 1 : LASER TRANSFORMATION HARDENING OF AN ALLOY STEEL

BHEL JOURNAL, April 2007 21

Parameter Laser Inductive Carburising Flame Electron

Max treatment depth, mm 1.5 5 3 10 1

BHEL JOURNAL, April 2007 22

BHEL JOURNAL, April 2007 23

BHEL JOURNAL, April 2007 24