ROCK ANCTIRS ~ DESTON AND QUALITY CONTROL, ANCRAGES EN ROGIER = LE CALCUL BP LE CONTROLE DE QUALITY FELSUUER ~ PIMP WH UALS KOMIMOLLE 4G. S. Littiesomn, D. A. Bruce Geotechnice Research Group ‘University of Abardoen ‘Sootland, usTRACT ‘the paper reviews gone design rules and quality controls assoclated with prostroszad, conent grouted rock lanchota, 'Besign data, relating to uplite capacity, rock/grout bond, grout/tendon bond, and tenon, are Sppraiaed with special roferonce to the choice of safety factors. or comparison, the remlts of relevant theoretical and experimental investigations are presented, which tend to contradict the fundanental assumytions of uniform interfacial stress disteibution coamomly nade by on site quatity control measures are strongly recommended, and guidance 1 provided on permissible ‘oriiiing tolerancen, waterproofing, geouting afi final stressing. asTeacriCn ce papier uiyen des rhs do cole ot, en contStey Je atalité gsnsctés aut anrayeo pronto on SM rocier, du scellemont a Lacier, ct de 1s edble, sont Gvaluges articulidranent on co qui concerne te choix Pour comparer, es rosultats des investigations applicables, ehéoretiques ot oxperimentales, sont présentés qui cenblent contratire Los suppositions fondanentaler de L'sniformiee des scellononts, qénéralewent faites jue Tes inanieurs:, Dow mesures de a contcOle de qualité 3 pied docuvee, sont foreman reconnannées et des Conuella sont doméa au oujee dos tolrances peesiacn de pecforation, dew ayatimoa dhydratuye, e& ue 1s mise fn tension Finale. DISA ASSING Die seheie zeigt eine Ubersicht iiber Entwicte und qualities Kontrollen 1n Zusamenhangait vorgespannten injoxtionssnter im Feiss, Die Ausfuheumedaten besiehen sich auf die Abhebungtinigheit, auf die Fels-Metel Grenson, die Birtel-Staht Grenton, und die auggLinde, welche abgechGtze werden, unter betondere Berucksich- Cigung ta dor Wahl der Sicherheitetaktoren. tum Vergieich worden die Resultate von mutreiffenden thoorischen uni experimentalen Untersuchungen angepoten die datu acigeny. in Cegenoatt zu den fundanentalen Anmalmen der ciahel lichen Spannungeverte ilu Mikehen, welche ia allgeseinen bel Entwirfen genache worden. ks wird besonders enpfohlen die Qualstit dos Baup onrungstolerans, die Masserdichtung, das horteln und cawerkes #9 Kontrollieren. Fir die sutSssige fe die engultige Seanspruchnalme wird eine Anteituny nrequeri“ Although rock anchors have boon used successfully iffieulty, oven when installed in relatively poor for many yeare in connection with the prostroasing of quality, weathered, of laminated, rock. In addition, Gene, toof strata control, and slope stabilisation, In there is a tren! eovards higher load capacities for focent years the range of applications has widened Vndividual ant concentrated groupe of anchors. For Considerably. This is due in part to tho succes the higher dans in vogue tolay, peestressing of the Sehieved by aoi1 anchors in eying buek retaining onder of 2 a per notre may be required, necessitating olis, holding down dock floors, and pile testing Ghdlvidual anchors of capacity well in excess af 10 #8 Now, rock anchore aca expected to porfors without In the fold of mispossion bridyea concentrated qroups ned DESIGN METHODS IN ROCK MECHANICS Sieendy belng seriously considered, and design Loads Ge 50 mt are anticipates in the future. Bven in Strong competent rocks, ehese high prostress levels Ere densnding engineering Juigenents. in areas where Bearing these pointe in mint, the authors thd cuptoy reliable design formulae vith realistic SSnecots should be agreed, amd stressing procedures ‘Rantardice since Je 42 the tensioning operation hich finally teste the anchor aed demonstrates: its current practices in relation to £ock anchors by roving on the experience gained in various countstes ‘Geer the past-20 years. It is intended chat the Paper should fore « basis for discussion since the Satlaity ef the Basic design assumptions is peational, and ehe lack of Xrowleige of full scale Shor perfomance 4s highlighted. oesion 1 grouted rock anchor may fai in one or nore of tne “following modes: (e) By failure within the rock mass, (0) By failure of the roek/grout bond, (C) by failure of the geout/tendon bond, or (a) by failure of the eteol tondan, er top sechorage safety factor for the anchor, each of the above Phenonera mast be considered in turn. tn reviewing the enin design concepts, 1 should be emphasised that these coneepts relace peinarily to prestressed Senent grout injection anchors, which have bees. Constructed in a vertical, of otocply inclined upliee capactey ‘the assesenent of the overall stability, of uplift capacityy of an anchor fr carried out in order We onsure that failure of the rock mass suerounding the anchor doce not occur. In the cage of single anchors, moat engineers asmue that at failure an verted cone of rock iz pulled out of the rock mass ig. D. ‘The uptite capacity is normally equated to the weight * rock is used. ‘The depth of anchor calculated én this way mays of course, be reduced shere it can be Stmonatratad by tert anchors that the applied Prostscss can be otherwise restated safely. The Cefect in groups of anchors i= the production of Flat vertical plane at the interface of adjoining Cones (Pig. a): Ag the spacing for a single Line Stanchors ratuces further, a siapie continous wedge Easlure in the eock 16 assumed. However, although the shape of the failure ‘volume in widely agreed, its position with respect Wo the grouted Fixe anchor Length (aocket) varies CSneiderably in practice. Tho aspect is Gitstratet by rable 1, which contains examples drawn feature vhich although widely recognised receives Lftie consideration: i that a solid, homogeneous tock mass ia seldom encountered, Thorefore, in the Vast najority of cares, modification to the sinple Tone apnecach should be made by experienced rock Imcchanies engineers, Lieele data are available Cn the safety factors employed vhen analysing the Signe of rock in the sanmed palivout zone, but it Te known that values of 3-0 (Setedt, 1956), 2.0 (fawtinge, 1962) ad 1-6 (Littlejohn and Triman-Davies, 1974) have been enployed in practice, im current practice the factor of safety is reduced to unity on many occasions on the bazis that Eqreain rock parancters, eg. shear steenth, other Wise ignored in the design, vill give rise co a “utticienely Inege factor of safety as a matter of Course. thie bonus of shear strength is, however, Tsurat "loose" rock masses, especially in those Proasuve, in this connection it is notewrthy that Klopp (1970) found, in typical Rhine slat thet elevated hydcostatic an! seepage pressures could Fetuce the aheot strength of nylonitic tones t0 about Joe of the "ideal" leboratory dry value, and Gecastonafly to as low ae sh of this Figure, generally conteibites a major component of the Ueinate puli-out resistance and suggest the use Gureace ec), 0.034 Avant (galinan € Schaefer, 1968) nd 0-28 W/am™ (HLLE, 1973) In general, there ig a dearth of data on anchor faitures tnluced Inthe rock mass. However, Suliman land schacfer (1968) 3i4 obtain sone valuable {nformation, on thie overall stability aspect, by testing te failure grouted bars in connection with the Trinity Clear Creck tranonission Line. Four Eests wore carried out on deformed reintoccenent bare grouted into 70 nm dianoter Poles to a depth Of Los2'm in andinents, largely shale. tn all cases, tt; the propayation of cracking to the rock surface Gave Sn indication of the cone of influence (Fig- 2)ws ee aon ¥ ROCK ANCHORS UME 2 POKSOLE FAIRE MODES BASED OW TEST RESTS A Tooladed]| Position oF cae 1360 wo fee wine 973) 90° | mare of Anchor [tanks (1955) so fe Parker (1958), on fobee (1965) so fst Mole et a1 (1965), se fs ot own (2970) se ft Tomvoren 9721 sr fs ot tang (19721 ge fe entee 11973) 90 | saso of anchor | Stocker (19731 (were eed t= transferred by ond plated 90t | midaie of esxea | stocker (19731 Gnchor (wnere ferred by bond gor | miaaie of anchor |woreis 6 Garret: (19561 jor |S wr [rao L968) oof + | Bieenarde « vettzop (1965) 90° | top of Fixed | Rawings (1968) 30 * Rescher (19601 50° : Golder Brewer (19731 +0090" | widae of fixed [titelejone (19721 ferred by bond where loed 12 transferred by ond plate) 9° | sep of Fixed | pustrailan stamiara Seehor, or [ea 35” (1973) Aseuning a bulk donsity of 2 Mg/n? for the rock, back oad betwoon Pet and 22-3" if the aper of the 20" Solomite in which Brova (1970) installed shallow test ‘observed, although the extensive area over which the [roggerted failure alonj a horizontal bedding plane Glavinar failure). Rock failures of thiz mode Seow thought to be restricted to shallow anchors, but in current practice, fear of Laminar failure, oF excessive fixed anchor ovenent duriog service, has Yer to the adoption of staggered anchor lengths, even At great depths, for closely spaced anchorss in Sneavourable conditions, fof example, where « major Fock discontinity occurs normal to the anchor atisy the purpose of staggered Lengths is to reguce the the level of the fixed anchor. Be Se thus evident that vALLSE a major factor in the choice of anchor depth is the size of rock cone of vadge to be engaged, the possibility of Laminar failure may also influence the designer's choice of lengths in closely spaced anchor groups. Tho Sith Aérican Recommendations (1972) suggest chat in the hse of “concentrated” groupe, shore the fixed anchors Gre spaced at lees than 0.5 x the fixed anchor length gare, the stagger between alternate anchors should 4S stagger of 0.25 x the fixed anchor length used at fhe Devonport ticlear Complex by Littlejohn and Teuan bevies (1974), where 2 MM anchors im slate where spiced at Im centres. Another method to dissipate Yead within the rock mass ia ainply to install anchors at diferent inclinations, a2 in the design by ith regard to uplift capacity no experinental Currently used (Table 1) to calculate the uitinate Fesistance to pull-out of individual, or groups of ost designs are Likely to be consetvative in adopting [fone method in which no allovance for the shear Zeength of the rock mass has beon made. Novertheless zone standardisation on safoty actors for temporary and permanent anchors is desisable, together with agrement on what allowances overburden, and the effect of upper layers of +60" eaployed primarily in oott, heavily fissured nehor Which Tave Bean Prployat in Practice ‘the straignt shaft anchor relies mainly on the development of bond, oF shear steeds, alot the £Ock/ equivalent uniform distribution of bord stress over tho fixed anchor surface. Thus the anchor force, Fy sate ---01DESIGN METHODS IN ROCK MECHANICS where f= fixed anchor Length = attective anchor diameter 1 = vorkieg bond stress ‘This epprosch 1s usod in many countries e.g. canada (Coates, 1970), Britain (Littlejohn, 1975, France (Pargeot, 1972), Ttaly (Wascacdi, 1973), tnt USNS (white, 1973) representative sanples of the Fock massy the manioen average working bond ators at tho rock/gtout inter face should not exceod the minimum shear steengeh divider by the relevant safety factor {rornally rot ess than 2.” “this approach applies primarily eo ‘soft rocks where the Uniaxial compressive stteegth (0.6.5.) fs less than 7/m*, and in which ehe toles have been drilled using a rotary percussive technlqae In the absence of shear strengeh data, or fheld pulls out tests, Littlejohn (1972) states that the ultioate bond stress is often taken as 10% of the oniaeial compressive strength of massive rocks (1000 sere recovery) upto # maximim value of of ‘altinate 4.2 wmn?, ascining that the crushing stcength of the conent grout is equal to or greater than 42 Wma? ‘Awplying an apparent safety factor of 3 of wore = Which £8 Conservative bearing in mind the. lack of Folevant data ~ the working bond stress f= therefore Limited to 1.4 W/m* In sone rocks, and particularly granulaz, wenthered vat ietiog with a Felatively low ¢ value, the asmmption E53 Terermgee ‘equals 10% rock U.C.5. may lead to an artiftelaiiy low estinace of shear strength (Pign, 48 5) 1 1 sos ues Tun stucs/atontse-g/2) ‘POURE £ RELATIONSHIP GETWEEN SHEAR stRESS AND UMARAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH 1m such cases the assumption that 1, = 20-350 ‘attinate U.C.5. may bo justified. Az a guide to specialist, Yond values vhich have been weed throughout: the wortd for a wide cane of Igneous, netanarphie and Sedinentary rocks, are presented in Table 2. Where Sneluded, the factor of safety relates to the vitiaste and working bond values, calctlated assuming uniform Bond distribution. Usually the reconmented aatecy factor ranjex from 2 to 3, but ia frequently lover sn very. competent rocks and highce in'woakes, Hesured, oF weathered typea. ‘The degree of weathering of the rock is a major factod which affects not only the magnitude of the leinare Yond int also the Load/dcelect ion Tanrucs OURES. EFFECT OF @ ow TuL/ucS maT Figure 6 shows tho results obtained fron test anchors sn'hyolite tuft, of Hoth sound ant weathered varieties. Tt is rigniticant that the equivalent uinitorn bond stzege ~ at narimum Jack capsciey 2 is scarcely Orl /aa? os) . wearco) q Jorn] (weaTenen soem 0 a8 ass DeFLECTON (0s) POURE «EFFECT OF WEATHERING AT cuRREcANT ower TRaNSuSON Le AFTER ‘Sauna 4 SOMAEFFER tah For design in soft or weatnerad rocks there are signs That the standard peneteation test is beiny further exploite. For example, Suzuki et al (1972) state ‘can be detormines fron the equation. Tyreinate "9-007 N+ 0.12 (want) = = = Gay whore Sim{larly, Littlejohn (1970) shove for stift/nard = musber of blove per 0.2 = 0.01 w ciymm) ---o ‘edaate Although it would appear trem evidence prasentat in subsequent sections that tho assumptions fade: teROCK ANCHORS Rock THe working pond | uitinate,tond | Factor of source (want Satety teneous Medium hard basal, 2-8 fedia = Rao 1968) Weathered granite Sayan > Susuki et a2 (1972) acatt hat = 138 20+ 3.2 | Britain * yeiitee sone (1974) Granite 130 = 1155 3123's * “ee Granite 6 basalt arzl3a0 | 152s | usa, =P... (1974) METAMORPHIC Namhatean schist 0.70 2.80 40 visa. - waite (1973) Slave « hard shate oer rise [asc2s | visa: = Pct. 97a (LOAREOLS SD WENTS Linestone 1.00 2.00 20 Seitzerlant ~ tosinger 119661 Chath = Grades 1-111 o.a2-a.07 | a.s23.0 | aritain ~ Litelejoms 1970) Tertiary Limestone | 0.03 - 0.97 76 2192313 | fettain — ~ yeldteerdones (1974) Soft Limestone “| aost ase | as-25 | usa. = Pct. 1974) Dolomitic timestone ite laler | 1s 22's * cele mawciOS SOMETS — ~ ard, coarse-grained 2a, 17s canada ~ Coates (1970) andetone Weathered sandstone 0.69 = 0.05 2.0 ow Zealand = tevin (1972) Bonter sandstone 0.40 “.0 | aedtain > Lieetejohn (19731 ‘W.c.8. > 2.0 N/mm?) ard tind sandstone | | 0.69 - 0.03 2.7- 3.2 | peiesin —- wyetttte-sones 11974) Sandatone oartia [is22's | usa” oper. 97 ‘ARGILLACEOUS SEDIMENTS Kooper mart 0.17 = 0.25 2.0 estain ~ Litelejoba (2970) Weak shale nas Camda” > Golder Beawner (1973) Solt sandstone & shale | 0.10 = 0.14 oT 27-37 | Britain ~ wyelitte Jones (1978) soft shale oases: | ils23's | usa. omer. usr oA competent rock (yhere | v.c.s.#30 | v.c.s. 10 20 britain ~ Liettejoha (1972) vies. > 20 Wan) jee | ups Value of, | value of Teeny’) | 2 nvm!) 0.35 - 0.70 austealia ~ Kock (2972) Los 2.0 Australia ~ standard 435 (1973), netanorphie rocks ‘ock/ccout Bond Values Which Have B60n Recoumendted in PracticeDESIGN METHODS IN ROCK MECHANICS accurate, it is noteworthy that fev failures aro encountered at the rock/grout interface, and new designs are often based on the succenstil completion fof former projects) that Sa, former "working" bond Walues are Fe-esployed ox slightly modified depending fn the Judgement of the designer. Fixed Anchor Dinensions Most fixed anchor lengths which have been lenployed in practice are in the ranje 3 to 10m. A minim Length of 3'm te gonerally teconmented, aithough 5 m haz boon Suggested by the Bares Securitas (1972) and White (1919), whilst the South, Acican Code stipulates 4 and 6m, for very hard fnd soft rock, respectively. Under certain conditions, it is recognised that such shorts lemhe would suffice, even after the application ‘of generous factor of safety. However, «sudden ‘cop in rock quality along the anchorage Zone, ana (of constructional inefficiencies, would seriously Inpair the efticiency of short fixed anchors. With rogard to the choice of anchor dianoter A. type and size of tendon, (of fixed anchor and hence to the anchor capacity. Ratio of steel area to cross-sections! aren of borehole for efficient bon! distrinution and 4. Drilling mothod and rig to bo used. 5. Nature of rock in the anchorage tone and Presence of unconsolidatal overburden, if any. ‘The authors find from a survey of several hundred comercial anchor reports that no direct, Felationship may be observed bearing in mind the Fange of anchor types, but that most anchors conform to the folloving trend (see Table 3) ‘capacity (ka) Diameter (em) 200 - 1200 50 = 100 i600 = 4000 90 = 150 3000 = 4500 150 = 200, ‘500 214000 200 = 400 Teble 2 Appeoxinate Relationship Between Fixed Rnshor _Diaseter and working Capscity hers corrosion protection is iagortant, the South Atrican Code (1972) stipulates that tho fixed Anchor diameter should be equal to the outside Gianeter of the tendon plus at least 12 mm. This Spprosch has also been discussed by F.i-P. (1973) io recomend a grout cover to the tendon of § ty Ecspoctively. With regard to’ the amount of steel whieh nay bo placed {nan anchor borehole, there 18 2 scarcity of iafornation, although Littlejohn and Teuman-Davies (1974) suggest that the steel should not exceed 150 of the borshole cross-sectional are ‘Teoretical Bridence Studies of the stresa distribution around cylindrical anchorage in a triaxial strees field oa have boon carried out by Costes ant Yu (1970) using a Finite elenent method. The authors show that the Shoar stress (Ive. bond distribution, ie dependent fon the ratio of the elastic soulit of the anchor baterial (Eq) and the Fock (Ey). Fig. Tahows the vatlation of the shear stress’ along the Interface of Sn anchor of Length equal to 6 tines itz ragiva for Bgfee tatios of Onl, 1 and 10. the smaller this ratio the larger ie’ the stress calculated at the proximal (or losded) ‘end of the anchor higher values f the ratio are associated with more ven stress, Sistrnationa”” 3e'fe also Senueane fr Baer Gfetefinted along the anchor, snd that the anchor fesign nay be based accurately and directly on the shear strength of the weaker medsun eee Te Sa Likely thae the majority of rock anchors for the ratio Ea/tr of between 0.1 and 1, and for nich according to Pig. 7, the bond distribution fs markedly non-unifora. "Indeed, for anchors. in rocks of compressive strength in excess of T N/an, ‘my, strore concentrations at the proxinal end are sont Likely, having a magnitade possibly 5 = 10 tines he average stress Level Although lesa satisfactory fron a theoretical point of view, anchors in strong rocks at present Fopresont lest of a problen in practice, since a Significantly increasing the cost. Hovever, for the accueate design of hgh capacity anchors, Enmufficient attention har been paid eo the high stresses at the proxinal end, ani in particular to the effect of debonding on stress distribution 4m tealy much valuable experinental research as ‘pally by Sererdi, nto the ses along the fixed anchor and ‘in 196) he concluded from teats on {nto the rock. active portion of the anchor is independent of the total fixed anchor Length but dependent on 1tsROCK ANCHORS: Glasticity. Figs. + an! bare typleal diagrams calovlatea from strain gauge readings. Those anchor Vinestone (B= 3 x 10%i/nty Users. = 100 s/n? approximately). “other results show that the bond distribution 1s more uniterm for high values of Fsrout/Eroen’ end nonuniform for tow values of this ratio L.e. for rock of high elastic malulus. these Femulte thus confirm the conclusions drawn by Coates Mutter (1966) produces interesting resuite in Switzerland on the Gistrimueion of shear stress ‘slong the 8 m fixed anchor of a 2200 RY anchor (Pig tunitormly over the proxinal 5.55 metres. Ae 1050 AM ‘oeoreral and eaisure anchor clonations sgested that al the load was resisted by the foot of the sma en design rules for the various categories of rock and. of rock anchor design, principally because ensiioors Usually consider that the fixed anchor Lenth chosen ith respect to the roek/grout honl, ensures move chan SMdequete’ tendon eabelment Lengths 1m fixed anchor design it ix comon in practice to find enbedsont Longene for bare, wires and strards quoted as equivalent to a certain timber of diameters Se this method ensues s maximun value of apparent average bond stress for each type of tenions The Esanmission length ts the length required vo transmit the Initial prostressing force in a tendon ta the surrounding grout. Ie shovid be borne in windy however Uhat the transaiselon Length varies wich Grout strength as well az eizo and type of tendon Snd ic io aeill advisable on eccusions to measure 4m Britain a minima anchor length of 100 Gianeters for plain vire (grout U.ce8. > 35 n/ma?) is spocitiedjwhiise for mall dianoter strand (3) ~ 18.0'0m diameter) the transmission length varies fron 19's 31 ianeters, based on grout strength range of 24 = 48 want. For conpact strand 0-9. Oytorm, ae is accopted that transmission lengths ave generally Aomeh and-an additional 254 is reccmmenied fn Rumania ‘The Australian Cote (1973) stipulates a maximum value of 1.05 Wan’ for the Bond stress for a clean ire tendon, ant 2.10 W/an! for a clean strand tenion. and deforned bars Table ¢ illustrates the values stipulated by the British Code cP 110 far difterent Grades of concrete. These values are eppiied to heat conent grouts on occasions. (ay Neem) 20 25 20 Plain 12 Mathematical, laboratory and Cield evidence indicate that the distribution of the bond, mabiised at the rock/grout Interface, te unlikely to be Unttorm unless the rock ie ‘eaten the cs ff high capacity anchors, evidence exiote that partial eventing in the fixed anchor occurs, and the \lebonding progresses covards the end of tho anchor a the load 4s Inereazed. Information te searce however concerning the conditions where debonding 18, settous 8 Teble 4 provided on the mininun spacing where reluction ‘spacers and centalisers which could lead to Secoupling With reference to minimun embadaent Lengths uset in practice, Morris and Garrett (1980) have calculated from stresting tests on 5 am diameter wives that the wminimun necessary onbednent is just over 1m: colder Seawner (1973) found thae although the qrout/strandDESIGN METHODS IN ROCK MECHANICS wires due to “spiral interlock", tho value drops Fapidly if the enbeinent Length te leas than 0-6 Distribution of Bont ‘The assumption of unitorm bond distribution at ‘the tendon Interface is seldon true in practice, Invariably, as the load Ancreaces, progteasive. sikp ‘maximum intensity of bond atreases moves towards the Gistal end. Hawkes and Evanz’ (1951) were able to orelude from palt-out testa thit the disteibution ‘of bont obeys an exponential Law of the fora =ne = 2 whore 1, = bond stress at a distance x bond stress at the prowinal end of the bar, 4 = diameter of the bar ‘Constant relating axial stress in the bar 0 bond stress in the ‘The greater tho value of A, the Larger the stress anchor." The snaller the value of the wore evenly the tresses are distributed along the length of the anchor. Insufficient information exists at present fon the behaviour of cement grout anchors in rock to provide meaningful values for A'bue. it f2 reassuring to find that the theoretical trends are Very similar to those in Fig. 7 (Coates & Yu), with, "a/Ex proportional to 1/a. This indicates that at applicable to rock anchors. Some designers consider the question of grout/ tendon bond in anchor syotens to present no. problens, fas the design at the roek/grout interface is nore critical. "A factor of safety of st least 2 ayatnet Yendon pull-out is stipulated by other designers. Little work has been dona on multi-unit tendons with respect to bond distritution. The use of pacers and centralisers, and the problem of decoupling also vareant investigation. In general, recommendations pertaining to grost/eendon bond values used in eueeent rock anchor practice, commonly take no account of the Length and type of Centon, Stull advisante to menoure experimentally the (bedment Lenjth for known Field conditions. rendon Accurate information on the strength and elastic properties of tendon components 4a readily avatlabler but the choice of the type of tendon and the safety assesment and Judgement by the designers expecially {in countries not covered by a code relating to anctors. ‘Tonions may be fornad of bars, wire ot strand. ‘The latter ts have distinct aivancajos vith compost to tonsile steanjth, ease of storage, teansporestion and fabrication. pars, however, are nore readily Protected against corrosion ani in the case of ahallow to install. In strong competent rocks where the amount of fixed anchor crech is neyligibies an Sustained loading. “Under these circumstances, 9 low outa belo ese than 2.54, Fig. 10 compares cataxation losses or bers, vires and strands under sinllar conditions. tt should, of course, be rutenberod that the anount of Jose depents history, and the ambient teaperature, URE 10. RELAXATON OF BATES TONOONE A OKC FROM TL terms of the specified characteristics strength which 19 the guaranteed Linit below vhich not nore than St test Fesulte fall, and none of these are lees than 950 characteristic atremth: For Fecomenlations are susaarised in Tablet [ ‘Anchor category aoa ‘Temporary Pereanent (ites 3 years) Design force 62.58 fp 500 tru Moasured safety | 1.25 Ls Recomended Satety Factors for Tendon Testing to 1.5 tinos the working strase scens at ‘conmonly contract anchors are over stressed by an fount thought equivalent to long term load losses ~ ‘current trend in European countries is tovards higher Coty factora aul mare riyorousROCK ANCHORS Mnilst tendons are produced to a high standard wien relishle minimum breaking loads, few Load/ (10-30 metros) which are comparable in size £0 the reo anchor lengths used in practice. Since Interpretation of anchor load/ieplacenent characteristics can be problematical in practice, particularly for strand anchore, At would be of valve {0 "taow it hong stsand conta give Hvala stich are hort gauge Lengths of 0.6 m. QUALITY contro, va cus Sgemotony of aettLiog a town ngmy complex ethol cf drilling tx chowon primarily for optimn Production and in most rocks percussive equipment 1s Soman for depths dovn to 60 m ant diancters up to Yoo ma. In weathered rocks care should be taken to adopt a Elushing medium vhich will not adversely aftect rock strength properties (arker, 1988), 1° 10" (Bberhard & Veltrop, 1965) and GFE" iuittlejohn and teuma-Deviess 1878) sppene by the South Afeican code (1972)- Borehole deviations are within acceptable Limits. ts cecacded by the gritier, im odition to notes on als connection the recent addition of torque and Materprooting tested for "watertightness™, by measuring the water Peegrouting of the hole Le necessary.” Besting in ‘ind thie loss of grout from around the tendon in the fixed anchor zone is of prime iaportance in corrosion protection, the mlninn videh of Cisaure Valen wilt! permit flow of canent at lov pressure fost bo aszessed- Littlejohn (2915) reviewed (2) wacorprooting is required if Leakage exceeds 3 litres/min/atmoaghere, moascred over 3 poriod (2) For a measured outflow (or gain under artesian Condiciones), a cbsckpressuce" is required dieing the grouting stage. IC the flow cannot be Moning 8s Eenporary anchors, noreal rusting ia acceptable since Le inproves the greut/tonton bond, but strands with flaky, loose rust must be thoroughly wiped to certain situations the efficiency of the contealiser spacer units may be judjed by carefally Sithitawing the tendon to observe damages distortion, OF presence of spear. In this connection tendons fn a controlled maaner with the aid of # mechanically atways bo kopt t0 a miniain,and, ae 2 policy. ono the sane day. The use of grout cubes for strength control; snd flow meters or virconeters. to monitor Fumpebility in relation to. tletie grouting should be Ss required, this is often Limited t9 50-700 over= burden pressure, although on occasions 150% over= pressures Leading possibly to hydrofracture and fisface heave stovld be avoided. Heat cement. grout ‘strength of 42 N/ma® and anchor stressing is not permitted in many countries until a steenath of Ba t/a? haa boon attained, normally 7-10 day after grouting. 1 najor advantage of prestressed over “passive” Sooning Toad automatically checks the security and Sttictency of the anchor.” “This, if errors have been ide in either the design or construction stages, Gangerous and expensive consequences avoided. obtained by overloading every contract anchor for 3 Shore ported (ave Table €)- ‘ectonsion curve be plotted for each anchor tested. {in Burope, about 10\ of the. designed vorking lost fate thereafter measured at a ninimin of four equal oad increments up to the working load similarity to that calculated by theory. In Germany Ge'is stipulated thae the plotted results should Le between the Lines corresponding tor (2) the extension of a tenon of Lemgen equivatent, (2) The oxtension of 9 tenon of Length equivalent to the free length plow SOV Cixed (aocket) (2) but tend to curve (2)y a5 load increases ant dotonding progr esses:DESIGN METHODS IN ROCK MECHANICS Production anchors, t obtain an indication of the fixed anchor novanent. This is obtained by ‘subtracting tron the otal permanent displavenent (weasurod by 4 einple losd-anload cycle) the top anchorage plate novenent. (monitored by iniepentent survey) or anchors in competent rock, both these leplacenents are mall with respect to total meaaured enon extension. "However, if they are found to af lock off, ‘then allowance must be made in the” comparison Of the theoretical and actual extensions. be expected in the steel madulus of elasticity, hua Providing another cause of theoretical and measured fextension discrepancy. The twisting and cubbiny Keown to occur in lon flexible tendene may also contribute tovards apparently ancmolous extensions. Sources of Load Loss én Prestressed Anchors toss, both inodiate and long terms afflict for expected losses in the form of an initial anchor. Unless a loed cell {a tavorporated in the anchor, a correction factor mist be applied to the Jack 1608. "This factor will be minimised Lf jecks Fejularly serviced on site, Frictional Loose gecurring within the anchor ~ especially in the free length Of Long multi-strand anchors ant particularly just under the head~ can only be conpenssted for by The act allovance can be obtained from a load ‘cell, Shh Sse ending satya” wrequantty wp to ‘occasionally as auch as 30¥ (Hennequin & canbefort, 1966). lock off losses occur in strand anchors die to veige "pull-int at the heed, end are proportionally higher for shorter tendons. Te allow fer this an ‘overstress by a nominated anount = ovatly 108 ie Frequently recomended. However, @ note sceurste setiod is! to observe on test anchors, the seta! snount of wedge "pull-inm and thereafter to stipulate fn overload of nagnitude sutticlent to produce on Sluitional tendon extension of this size, Yong term losses are due to a combination of stecl relaxation and anchor exeop, The Felasation characteristics of peestressing steel are well Krown, ad readily available from maniCactarerts "Depening fon the initial prestrens Tevelyrostressing after, 1000 hours may reduce ultimate prestrese loss due to relaxation by up €0 four tia Less Ls known about creep in rock anchor aystens largely because information regarding tho nagnitese and distribution of stresses around the fixed anchor 4 very scarce. In heavily fissured weatheral rock, of fractured rock with clay infill, exesp losses may be significant ant an eatiaation of the amount to Be expected can be gaujed from test anchors. installed well tn advance of the contract. Unfortunately H Toad 10:8 of Up to Stror 4 creep diaplacenent ot Limm, moasurod after 24 hours, has been specitied on feccasions in soil, but no reliance should be placed fon these arbitrary figures.” only vhen execp losses are monitored over long periots for a variety of fnchor loads and systema, ani for a wide rane of rock types, vill an accurate predictive capacity be available, “Until then, se Ls recomend that 1, Tho Load in all anchors should be checked 24 hours after stressing, to provide en carly warning of load loss, if any. This check On a large contract, the first 10 anchors should bbe checked weekly for 1 month, then monthly for ‘Subject to satisfactory results fron the 4 months testing progran, 54 of all anchors should be between loss at 24 hours or l'weck, and lon tern behaviour, whieh may eventually result ine more reliable allovance oF short tera loss being specttid 1m practice, if the anctor fails or creeps significantly duting stressing, then the anchor should be unloaded to the lovel at which no creep occur ‘The Fevised working loed will then be that level Good sito supervision aml the provision of ‘qdoquate quality conteols are the exception rather that procautionary measures save more tine and money in the lony run compared with remedial measures In edition records covering the drilling, grouting and stressing stages, can be invaluable eo che sogineer azkod to provide an explanation for possible ‘There is a growing neal to stanlardize the stressing and monitoring procedures which guarantee he safety and satisfactory performance of anchors uring service. Ef€ort should now be expended in the form of field testing in a wide range of rock maver als ‘and sasses which have been carefully classitied in ecomodate single anchors and groups teated over, « ezign in relation to overall stability be aptiniocd doth technically ant economically. Since the validity of the uniform distribution of bend vhich 2 commonly asmune! by designees ia clearly in question, it 12 recomented thasROCK ANCHORS wide range of rock masses whose engineer ing and Geological properties can be fully classiéied, in Seder to ascertain whlch paranetors significantly be possible in due course to provide more reliable spt economic deviga eriteria. lnilst there ts an apprectabte amount of intoraation available concerniny the mechanism of ond transfer in the field of reintorcel, an prestressed concrete, Jt {2 considered that mich ‘The pode of failure of a tenon ina rock anchor Eituation nay be dissinilar co that of the tenon pull-out test usod in concrete technology and. tom Case, the grout is usually in tension whereas during 2 standard bond ‘test, part, at Least, of the careful inspection and record keeping are the ey (success on site.” Tn this connection closer Haison is Fequired betwen drilling and grovt ing personnel, and the supervising engineer. ‘An agreed approach to tho testing and analysis ‘and long tern. RereRENES BAIS, J.A.» 1955, The employment of prestressed techniques cn Allt-nasLairige ban, sth Int. Cong. on Earge ang, Paris, 2) pp 241-357 BERARDI, G-» 1967, Sal comportamento degli ancorasss, [BRITISH STAIDARDS INSTITUTION, 1972, The structural Use of concrete, CxP. 110, Pare 1, BeSctey 2 Park ‘owns, 0.G., 1970, UpLife capacity of groutet rock favchots, Ontario tyro Research Quarterly, 22, (8), design, calculation, intalletion and inspection of Sound anchors, wiltsons eyzolies, 61 Boulevard Saint Germain, rariecve (Ref. FAI. corres, 0.P., 1970, Rock mechanics principles, Degarthent of Energy, Mines and Resources, Hines Nenograph No. 874, 0ttawa. ‘Contes, .P. and YU, ¥.5., 1970, threo dimensionat DEUTSCHE TMOUSTAIE-NOW, 1972, Verprebanker Cie ‘orubergohonde zwocke Im lockergesteins beresaong, Siefthron und prifung, DIN 4128, Blatt 1, SB oerace. Dives 90, (586) pp 129-108 FARGEOR, Mo, 1972, Roply to P.T.P. questionnaire 0 Fotstey 1972; Draft of the recommendations and Subcomitte:on Prestressed Ground Anchors, P.O. Box 2h, bathe, Soitceriand TOnpubiiahelh project Tits Use of artificial support for sack slope ‘citation Sonpany toore ~ Fates Det Sc Ines J. and EVANS, Rul. 1951, tond stresses in Englneees 29 (Libs ep Daneaar nn” Sesseeah OWOQUIN, He, and CHNGEFORT, H., 1966, Consolidation Gt rela deNatherbe, Revue generale” den chanine eter (ren) 9 Pp MILE, J.t 1973, Reply to Aberdeen questionnaire 1972, npabttshed. wonst, 1., 1965, viedpleaényer xshorsonvsiea, Winvgyitottenenyek, ty pp 475513 MUTI, Re, 1OTL, Reply to F.I.P. questionnaire 000P, m., 1970, vorventung vorgespannter felsanker In gekldfteten gebiege sun ingenieur genloylecher SHohty Dee oulngeniaue, 45, (9) Pp 220-331 OCH, Joy 1972, Reply to #-1.8. questionaie Eogs cooks 9 (he pp 25-29 ed Lirrissom, ¢.5., 1970, Soll anchors, symposium on ‘round Enginesr ing, insin. of civ. enjes’, London, exployed in Britain, Geotechnics Research Croup, Technical Hote, Oepartrent of Engineering, University 8¢ Abcedeon (Unpubli shat) - LATTLEJONN, G.5., 1973, Ground Anchors today ~ a foroword™ Ground Enpincering, 6 (6), pp 20-2 EITTLEIONN, 6.5. and TRUMAN-DAVIES, C., Ground anchors 4 Davonpte isclea Coop Seossd iginecring, 7 (6) pp 19-24. rock anchet grouting, Ground Enginecrimg, ® (3) UNGMORTH, C., 1971, The use of prestressed anchors An open excavations and surface structures, Australian Inst, Wining spd Retalluegy, (IilMarra Branch), Symposium on Rock Bolting, 17-19 Feb. y Paper LOSINGER Co., 1966, Prestressed VSL. rook and Switzerland (5 pe) “vv 1 london NORRIS, 5.5. and GARRETT, W.S., (2956) The raising ant rengthoning of the Stecnbras Dan, (and Discussion! Peed, Vols 5, Nov I pp 23-55, BBRY in fois ~ und lockergesteinen Sclweizerieche Bavzettung, 4, (4) pp 77-02.DESIGN METHODS IN ROCK MECHANICS PARKER, Por: 1950, the retaking of dame with particular reference to the use of atresaed cables, Proc. 6th Cong. on Large Dans, New York, Question FoI POST-TEISIONING CORLITTER, 1974, Tentative Feconmeniations for prestressed rock and 2oil HMO, Rae, 1964, the use of prestrossing technique in the construction of dans, Indian concrete Journal, Aegust, pp 297-308. RAWLINGS, Go, 1968, Stabiisation of potential Fockalides in folded quarteite in Northwestern ‘Tasmania, Engineoring Geology, 2 (5), pp 283-292. souténesent do 1a centrale en cavernes de Voytaue per tirants on rocher et Béton projeté, full. Pech de 1a Suisse Romande, 18 (7 Sept) pp 249-260 SSALINAN, fo, and SCHAEFER, R.» 1968, Anchored footings fos traneniosion towers, ASCR Anal Mecting & National Meeting on Seructaral Engineering, PLetabueg, Fa, Sepe. 30 Oet- 4, Preprint 753, 20 Bo SCIMIOT, A, 1956, Rock anchors hold #.V. tover on ne, Wilson, Civil Engineering, Sey pp 24-26 SOLETAICHE ENTREPRISE, 1965, 1a sureetevation dt barrage des Zardesan sur loved Sat-saly unpublished report, (@pp), Paris, France 00TH AFRICAN CODE CE PRACTICE, 1972, Lateral support fn surface excavations, the South Aftican Institution of Civil Enpineare, Johannesburg Prestressed concrete cote, CA3S, Section S ~ Ground Aectorages pp 30-53 STOCKER, HAE, 1973) Reply to Abordeon questionnaire, teanspore Tar du vapon, Cont, tnt. des Grande Héssaux Electriques 3 tavte Tension, Paper 21-01, WurTE, Rut, 1973, Roply to Aberdeen questionnaire WOLF, Wey ot al, 1964, Noreow Point Untergeount[SESSION 2 SLOPES AND FOUNDATIONS FEV ND COMENTART by , EK Princtpat Golder Kascolates, Eta Vancouver, CANADA povooerToN T have been asked ‘to corment on sone of the practical aspects of rock” Slope foundation fneinecring ‘with particular reference to. papers presented in this gescion. T would like to. preface fy rere ty comenting upon the relationship Derwecn the ty¥pe of problem under censideratton and the level of geotechnical effort which can be Gevoted to the solution of the problen. (COMPARISON BEIVEEN HIGH AND LOW DMENSTY PROGRAMS Consider two projects, each trvolving a total capital cost of ten million dollars. Project A 13 fhe foundation fora concrete arch dan walle profect Bis 210 Idlonetre long mountain highney. in each fase the geotecinical budget 1s assumed t0 te 1% of the total’ capital cost, tn other words $100,000, hich may be regarded’ a9 a reasonable averag? Pereentage dna mor elvil engineering project. ‘In. the case of project Ay the volume of rock involved in’ the. dist foundation would be relatively Sil, say 100,000 cole. metres, avi hence the Grotechntea! engineer his $1.00 por cubic metre of Fock ta spend on his investigators. " On the other hand, the volume of rock witch has to be considered Tn project b, the 10 ko highway, 1s very large, say ten niliion éubte metres. Within the constraints of hfe budget of $100,000, the eal engineer only. has one cent fer cubte mtre available for his Srvestigation. Clearly, the approach witch mst be adopted 1n plaming thade fio vgeotecinteal studies mist be [ute different, Jn the cage of project A, the Serfow consequence associated with the falltre of a concrete, anch dam would Justify the use of | the mot sophisticated site investigation and analytical tectniquet. It 18 probable that such studies could be accomplated within the overall budget since the Sintted nowt of rock involved in the study moans that’ the goologieal data collection phase can be kept within reasonable Units. ‘the cost of comprehensive geological data collection on a 10 lon highway route would far exceed the. allocated budget. — consequently, the approach ‘hich would probably be adopted in thts ease would de to cary out a low cost, atrphoto stuly supported by a Limited emoit of groind observation, designed 2 1dentify potential “problen areas. "The nalor proportion of the budget would then be devoted to The study of methods of avoiding these problems. Tt ie more than Ikely thet sone problem aress would be inissed tn the initial superfictal study and 18 would be fnportant to provide @. stand-by budget to deal With these problem during the construction and aintenance phases of the hignay project. Ist Ccorpariaen tetwoan the requinerents, in these two priests, for dlanand anilling, structural Geology logking, raterial properties » testing, Ghalytleal design sethods and) practice) renedial reasures would reveal Signiftcant alfferences in all fhreaa. Ing experience, such differences are not fieay recogrdaed and tie results in inadequately studies Wileh are unlikely to feet the Tequiresents. Note that adequate planning does not mean that too little ork 19 done, in fact, in. mary cases the reverse 18 thie. Wen an engineer or geologist has not clearly thouwht through his propesed programe, and checked the felevance of “each step inthe investigation ouinst the solution whieh 4a required, wastefUl and Erretevent studies can be carried. out’ and can lead to inadequate decions, budget over—nims and Gmeral deterioration in Telattonships between the Various parties involved in the project. EVIBY OF PAPERS PRESENTED IN SESSION 2 ‘the four papers presented in this session represent an "interesting and varled set of Contributions to the fleld of practical rock’ slope Gesien. In the ght of coments made earlier about the tevel of investigation justifted on a project, the paper by Lande and Tardieu 1s an exanple of a'hieh Ttenelty propre, ‘he deelgn of the foundation for aden hae to, be safe and the use of the Sophisticated Finite elenent padel described in this Peper is nore than justified.” The concepts included fn thie rodel are extremely interesting and the rock fechantes cormmity can lock fonmrd to seeing, further developments in this model ty a tesn which tan already mde slnifteant contributions to practical rock mechantes. Bukovansiy and Plerey's paper also makes use of the finite element tecnlque but, perhaps, wlth Signtly tess justification than "tts use by Londe and Tardieu, Ine ia rot to say that the results Presented are nol interesting and that they have not Emreributed to a practical engineering solution ~ rdeed, in both cases the paper makes a positive contribution. Tt could, however, be speculated that the sane practical conéluston nay have been reached ‘xithout. She alg of the finite element analysis tn This case and, had the project budget been | severely United, this is the ane component in the study. whlch could. have” been dispensed with. In epite of These “coments, tt 1s goed to see” confimatory Slice of this’ sort carried aut’ when they can be justified within a project budest. ‘the paper by Littlejohn and Bruce 1s a veleare sumary of practleal rock anchor data, particularly Since tt coma fron Creat Britain’ which 13 not ‘oually of for work in rock anchors. A Point stich Je brought bone by this paper is that, Etgutteant anant of research Into Fock anchors 18 still Justified, For example, in discussing the Busi nothod of aasesoing the cépactty “of an anchor by assuming @ cone fracture with the anchor at the cone sper, the authors corment...dn the vast rajority of cases, podifteations to this simple cone Gppreach should "te made by experienced TeckDESIGN METHODS IN ROCK MECHANICS echantes engineers." The reviewer's comment on this statement’ 15 "that, in the vege mJority of canes, even expertenced” rock mechanics engsneers ‘would’not have the faintest: Idea of how to rake auch modifications. The question of how stress. 1s transferred fron the reck' through grout bend to the ‘steel bar or cable is also” imperfectly: understood at this tine. Fortunately, in rot canes, the ability of the Tock mae’ to accommodate the “ferorance of the reck nechantes engineer eames to the rescue and rock Feinfarcenent system can be reoriably effective, In spite of the lack of Precision tn thelr design. Comments onthe reper by Lawrence Von Thun have been “Teft to last ‘because “this ts” the” most Philosophical paper of the four presented in. thts Session. Mary interesting and inporeant points are Aiscussed but the author ‘may have been'a 1ittie gptimistic in choosing the title of his paper. This 45 because many of the tectniques which he discusses have yet to be filly worked out’ as practical levery-Oay rock Slope design tools. In rarticular, methods of data collection to provide reliable input data for these analyses are not in cammen use. ‘the importance of a curvilinear relattonehtp between nofmal” stress and. hear” strength of scontinutttes tn rosk has been recognised for sane Het but the difficulties Involved in Incorporating this failure erfterion into stability calculations: for the wide vartety of failure tedes encountered 1n the field ‘has Irhtbited Its wide scseptance by practical rock mechantes engineers. ‘Thie aiffieulty 4s further conpouried by the problan of ebtaining reliable shear strength envelope whileh can be applied with eonfdence to the smeitu Tock mass. ‘These corments should be taken a cautionary rather than nogitive, Ih fast the feviewer'? opinion 1s that a curvilinear relationship. between shear strength and normal stress 18 the only correct relationship for practically all rock maseed and for ost rock discontinuities.” lowever, tntil we leam how t0 utilise these relationships, “it ts etill Permissible to obtain meaningful and” practical rock Stope design cn the baste of Linear" pelationships ‘within specified normal stress ranges. Papers such as that ty Von Thun should slwaye bbe weleaned “ata” cenference since they challene= mary of the concepts and techniques with watch We have became’ familiar “and therefore,” perhaps, complacent. ‘he gradual evolution of new concepts land the developrent of row and better deslen nethods Gepends upon challenges of thie sores oNCEABTONS, ‘he aim of the Sixteenth Sympostim on Rocke Mechaniles vas to revtew practical deeiin methods in rock mechsnies. Tt would” probably be inpoesible t2 “TABOR, J. C. Friction of roska and the stability of rock’ elopes. ‘Geotechnique, Volume 21, No. 2, gris pages STAs 132 completely satisty thts aim, even at a eajor international’ conference, beeduse authors find it easier to write about thelr current. interests rather than to attenpt the much nore difficult task of sumarising ad comparing eoteblished cestgn ethods. “In ay case, this latter task 4e nore eppropriately dealt with ina text book than in a short syeposiun paper. Glwen the Linttations inherent in a three day aymposiim, the papers in this session, and in the other sessions, represent’ a Teascnable’ cross-section of current thinidng on nck mechanics: design SESSION 2 ~ AUIORS' REPLIES Bukovensiy, Dr. Hook expressed some doubt that the finite element arailysis was really necessary for the design of rock cuts, From the practical point of view, we adait that the cuts ‘could be designed without’ the finite elesent analysts." There is one reason for this! most of the rock cuts effectively decrease the #lope angle of the existing cliffs and increase the overall atebiisty. ie felt, however, that the finite elenent mralysie should be carried out for thnee Peasers” 1, Mo evaluate the state of the stresses in hitural cliffs prior to the excavation. There sere few data avaliable on the stability of the lifts. Yery ‘elirrs In the cargon etary traces of instability euch as large, open vertieal fractures Yehind then. Sane of the elifre are tilted and. sone of them have fatled. Finite element analyels Provides geod data onthe stress distribution and Potentiat “stable genes both before and after the excavation. 2, Finite element analysis provides quantitative Gata on tensile stresses behind individual denehes fand it canbe used for the evaluation of total dotting forces, If necescary. 3. The costs for the snalysis were very low simpared to the costs of the projecty and of the geotechnteal investigation. Littlejom ‘The paper presented is written fren « civil engineers point of view, with the consequence “that Wide variations in” dosti. methods and quality controls assoclated "with rock anchors have been deliberately “highlighted; for example, calculations oh uplift. capacity based ‘on ere Gone and wedge fechantsns, and the felated importance of” the structure of the rock as “discussed by Prof. Hoek. The possibility” of leninar fatlure, even in horizontally bedied feck, 1 a matter of" concer in elvil engineering, where” movenents. are equally as nportant as load safety factors, Me feel that even in’ rock engineering, of slopes it ts very important to know precisely where to put the anchor, and would Soprectate comments on veer the ancho? should E>AUTHORS" REPLIES—2 relative to the fatlure plane, Tt my be adequate tn purely rock-stitehtne operations to locate the ‘socket nontral distance beyend the fracture. being stitched, "but in baste slope stability the distance mast be Suffictent that the wedges visualtsed in the factor of safety calculation are indeed mbt itzed, Jn the paper, the validity of the assumptions ‘that load at the rock/grout/tendon ‘intermoee is sefom ig “seriously questioned, and the 1ack of ata cn decoupling ‘noted. ‘Treas are Srportant. in ivi “angineering ‘because’ of effects on the Yoad/atsplacenent, relationship and in corresien Protection. The inrluence of multiruntt tenors aa Spacers on the efficiency “of load transfer appears to be prectioally wine, On the pasts of 0-50 years reasonably ‘successfil ‘experience “tn Fock anchoring these factors nay seen intnportant, but. they “are of relevance in civil engineering’ right ‘now because codes of practices fave recently been written in rence, Germary, Australia and South Afvtea, and are under Current» attention in” Sitzerland, "Austria, Sreden, Britain, Coechoslovalda and the United States The civil comintty, lacking de experience tn "Tock bolting, would benefle Smensely frum discussion an’ this aubject, eepectally if there ts the future ‘pocatbility of civ] engineering codes having juriadiceion over the activities of Tock mechanics practicners now operating outside then. on the question of quality control in efvi1 engineering the stressing’ operation protests. the anchor, thus insuring its safety, but, after 00 years, "there 18" still no standard procedure agreed wen today. In particular there 1s @ dearth of data eh long term behaviour, end, consequently, arbitrary acceptance figures based én shore tem’ behalvour, for example a 5f loos of prestreas in 2 houre, or & Amn “creep dlaplacenent. masured” over the’ sane period, are being latd dow in an effort. to Burattec satisfactory perfomance tn the long tem. Kore tem data confirming. that’ these ahoré term recomendations are valid ts not yet avatlable, ‘The mode of stressing, 1s also a subject, for @tscussion. “For example, tn prestressing a dam 110 ts ‘rock founation,. to lock off every. anchor 1000 tons nay not traly reflect the uplift capacity available “in "the Tock. Sinflarly for example, & ‘lab right be prestressed to a soll anchor with {00 tons " “of “prestress, and yet the whole slab/sotl/anchor aysten Ufted out of the ground ty a crane with 2-3 tors. Obviously the Toad tect ing and. overall stability ‘of the prestreasing technique evan area of concem. ‘This moming Prof. John retsed the point that, fn rock engineering “in particular regard ‘to. the Feinforcenent of “Tock slopes, the cost of tendons could be excessive. Tt seers inportant to recognine the existence of two diatinet market Geliderately planned during. the Initial dealin of ‘the overall etivctural system. Applications occur in retaining walls for deep excavations, dans, ginding docks, and piling. The moet spectacular 183 recent: example has been the lange tenston roofs at the” Munich | Olympic” Complex. Also, in elvit engineering, displacements. that could ‘cecur in an overiced ‘situation are Just as important as load safety factors. Leode In our paper, Tattou and I present basteally to methods for’designing rock foundations. he frat is the Lint equilibrium of a” solid, rigta rock volume. A 3edinenstonal approach ie wed, aa 15 required in most rock fouist ion problene. wlth Unit’ equiltirium analysis we investigate failure only; ive. the baste safety condition of the structure. For rary years we did not use fintte element analysis because. tt'was restricted to’ 2-dinensiens, ow that it 1s avatlable for use in 3-dinerstons, tt fa very useful tool, primarily to analyse the behaviour of structured "in nomal operation. Examples given in our paper’ also” show analyses Including the effect’ of Seepage vater forces Jn one ‘ase, and the effect of cracks in an abutment in another case, representing examples of the use’ of Finite elenert' techniques to ancereain stabliity of the “structure. Amore recent analysia, just completed, has’ dealt with the fomdition ofa "dan with three large geological discontinulties inder oF on the Mver bani. One major problen adth the j-dinenstonal aalysis “15 visualizing " the ‘results, It Je necessary to plot several cross sections.” Finally, Sonething that! isn't obtained fron Init analysis, finite elenent analysts also provides “streeses JA the dan fteeif., Such initial information a3 Possible excessive stress “intensity in the toe of the dam adjacent to. one bark is. obtained Jn the ‘exanple show. Yoo hun ‘he atn of iy paper vas to highlight a number of practical problem encountered in slope stability fnalyeen over recent yeurs- ‘To continue frum where Dr. Lone ended, one Srportant area of interest is control of deflections associated with arch dana; with various possible stress/strain relationships. " For ‘example, it is inportant that the deflection on one Side of the dam 4s not greater than on the other sfde, otherwise hhigh'strosecs arise a2 Dr. Lende pointed out The || use of curvilinear stress/etratn relationships, cameted on ty Dre. Hock, ot seem difficult If the resulta of Limit “equtlibrium analysts are referred back to the graph of the stress/strain relationship. Regarding Dr. Barton's question of Dr. Oundal, {in Session 2, the “location of the plane that does fail will "depend upon the shear’ strength relationships because each pluie will experience Gifterent “romal stresses. Sinflariy this relationship will influence the posttion and node of application of rock mehors.SESSION 2 — GRIER, DISCUSSION Question by Join (for Bukovansky and Plerey) 1) In camparing tro fintta element methods, ne using a ainple etratent-forward approach and the other a nore sophisticated Gootsan-type model, 1s 1t worthvhtle to use the mre sophtstleated redel? 44) Wty not use @ routine vero tenaton prose? Reply by Bukovansiy Prof. John asked whether the finite element analysis,” witch ineluied the Joint elements, 15, hecessary, in addttien to the analysts witht the Joint elenents. 4s, canbe seen from both analyses, the model wath Joints seers to provice mich nore realdstic Tesults. The authors believe that only thts model Should be wed for the final ensineering desten. ‘he described Fintte element miele were used for additional analyses of cuts” in deep soils, Nowtension analyses, mentioned by Prof. Jot, could certainly be applied for this problen. Discussion by Roberteon In an essentially similar problen area tn South “Africa a rather @tfterent Sesten philosopy yas afopted. The authors nay care to” coment on ‘such an approach. ‘The gonge of Buffelspoort ts fomed through a simple aiticlinl Told in Table Momtain Series Sandstone. Total gorge length 18 approximately. 13, mn, “Throush the gorge flows a mjor river wich in 50 year flood vould flood the gorge to a height of 8h. The restricted flow conditions require the oad be located sone 10 m up. the sprge walle with Little f111 being permitted to" Author restrict Alor. Resulting cuts would be igh and most unattractive. 1 mintntse cut hetghte vereteal or overhanging cuts” were considered where ever Possible. Natural "overbines of “equtvalent Ginensions suggested that this might be possible, ‘Dee Jointing patterns as measured in the gorge conform to the classical pattems anticipated” for the “simple testonte “stress situation witch gave ise to the anticlinal fold. ‘Typical slope cuts wore first carefully mapped for structural” stat], Fracture data’ allost Snvariably were as, predicted form the major Mleations observed tn air photos. Kinematic modes of fatlure were determined from great elrele analyses on stereoplote, Stability alyses wore generally made 1s merteally. Prom such analyses fatlure attuat to and design nessures wore determined. Fatiure moses Sneluded’ plane falture cn bedding, wedge allure and toppling. Friction sngle estinates were made fron field observations of regions were “shear fallure. fag cccurred slong Sintlar features. A valus of tt ‘as obtatned for bedding Joints. igh overhang cuts would be controlled largely by cofesion an the vereteally intersecting welses formed by Joints. Fstinites of euch cohesion were nade fron back alysis of existing overnanes Tk 4s, our intention to form overhang cuts by blasting cut Sections of the euty leaving tenporary ‘support’ pillars. he overfang ‘will then be instrimented. The support pillars are then to be blasted out’ ard the performance of the overhang Srould this. be" sattefactory the overhang cuts wiTl be retained, Question by Jon (for Littlejotn and Bruce) In considering the quality controt of rock ‘anchors should not corrosion control be stressed very strongly? Littiejom tts ts a very valid point. Certainly the clvdl engineering consulting thwstry in Britain £3 Very interested in this at present. The current Dhilosopty ts that for a pemanent” or terporary fanchor application voere "the consequences of fatlure wuld be severe, the anchor matt be doubly protected. Every component of the anchor mast have foo stags of protection, nd the first stage must be. able to be inspected and tested 4f necessary, prior to the placement of the tendon into the rock ore hole. The met comen technique at present 12 to have "reds, wires or stranis presreased end coated tn plastic “under factory eontrelled conditions. Question by Robertson (for Littieletn and Bruce) ‘te following tests on anchor bond and pull cout for anchors tnstalled “into Jointed and teased quurtzitic sandstones nay interest the authors, and they ray care to coment. on the results cbeain Anchors comprised 12 to 15 mm dlaneter 3 strand twisted "cable ytelding a "maxim load capacity "of 2750 Hi. ‘These were routed into 100 im dimeter percussion drilled holes. Bond tests consisted of 5 fixed Length anchor tests Targing in length from Lom t0°3 in increments of 0.5 m. Ultimate bond fallure” was, attributed to rock/grout bend faslure. Mean strose at fetlure “varied” grem 5 Wm for the im” Jong anchorage to "2.5N/im® forthe 3n long anchorages Corresponding tendon grout mean bend ranged from 2.7. Wim “to 1.3 Wem, Extension 2 failure was typically about 30m.GENERAL DISCUSSION—2 Five pull out tests were performed, to wth total anchor lengths of 3 m and. 3 with total anchor lengths of ne Anchors’ were ineLined wands at angles rarging fron 24° to ie, Classics! wedge theory predicts that pull out cones should fall out under’ thelr own weight. “We wore succssaful tn failing. only one of the 2m long anchors at a load of 2200N, "This failure occumed Joint surfaces of classically” peor orientation. Prelininary aualyses indicate that. ahegr strength a the cone surfaces of O.1" N/eme would be conservative, Values of 0.5 Wim “nay” be epplicable. Reply by Litelejetn, ‘This ts exactly the Idnd of tect that should be performed nore often. Differing values of apparent tniform bond cbserved for different anchor lengths may tndleate debonding or decoupling. Extensicn inforeation would have conftimed that. However, romintfom “distribution of bond appears to. be Clearly show, confine what has been inom for a long “tire, "and paralleling the results of Ghasberlain in the 1540's in reinforced concrete, Te yas pot quite clear whether stressing was remote fren the face or against a load bearing plate on the rock itself. Tecentiy, Bruce has installed about “Yo anchors graphically downarts,, to investigate “load transfer nachantars at the Toci/grout interface and the grout/terdon Interface, Anchor” lengths ‘range fren 0.75 m to 5.0 A, Bopeflty the shallow anchors will cause fatiure in ‘the neck mss. ‘The effect of cyclie loading 13 also vetne investigated; this is important in itself in civil engineering applications. Question by Barton (for Littlejohn and Bruce) ‘The authors are to be congratulated on a valuable feview article,” The following coments Folate to recent experienecs of the Norwegian Geotechnical institute conceming anchor pull out Pests, sich T hope NLL be of Intereet here. ie wore recently hired ty a mior Norwegian chemicals Tim "to estinate the requined depth ard spacing of peripheral rock anchors to stabilize a 60 tres Glaneter amenta storage tark. Under certain gaseous storage phases, an upltfe of 3000 tens can Be generated. ‘Me rock consisted of nodular Linestone and shale, with nearly horizontal” bedding planes, and ‘bio perpendicular’ sete of vertical” croso- Joint, Sane! of these were calcite coated, and undulating to planar ~ with occastonal steps. the grouhrater was Bt the surface, 1n view of the possibility of primate block pullout, "we nagiected the usual Ceateal failure Assumption, and concentrated on flrviing a (ypieal Block dimcnaton based cn bore” core analyete ard surface napping of the Joints, If I. renerber correctly, we settled for a typical Block dimension 135 ‘of 60 em x 150 cm, seith depth depending on the depth fof the grouted aichor. Bedding Taatures wore mich more closely spaced. Using different anchor deptha ve estinated tho effective shear reststance Bnerated cn the Tour ‘vertical sides of hortzontal Stresses. The _nect’pesainiatle acsimpe lone Andleated that an anchor depth of at least 10 netres vas required for's faximm load “of sone US tons, out’ 70 anchors wore needed tn all, ‘This preliminary design was checked by 8 sertes fof pulleut tests st the site. Me ied tho. widely Spaced. abutnents “ao reacticn to the 200 ton Jacks Six different. anchor depths were tested ranging) fren Lto 8 metres. We hoped to pinpoint the fatlure Gepth by using these’ short length. Load-dtsplacenent moasurenents were ecorded for & series of load cycles up to 60 tars. Unfortunately no block pullout occurred, nor conteal faltures; hot even lth the L metre depth ewever cre grout bond failed at 60 tone for one of the I metre Yong anchors. We used deformed, 32 m=. Glaneter, high strength stee) bars. ‘he stentticant feature of the tests was that several’ mlilineters of tock uplift were scouring for the" shorter” anchors. This "was alrest Lorecoverable. We interpreted thie ac a wedging process. The nen-plarar vertical Joints sheared slightly untit "they ‘bad dllated sufficiently. to finerease tha hortzenta? (or normal) effective stress ‘uch thatthe vertical load was “balanced by @ greatly increased shear strength. question 1a: how should we estimate the contrifufion of atlation for Seslen purposes? ly by Litttajetin ‘To begin with, the quality of the grout mst affect” the occurrence ‘of dilation, say at the interface, depending on bow particulate An nature It 45.00 In ‘elvil. engineering this pharonenon 15 rot relted upon to be effective because It ts felt that soft zones may occur with enough lateral yield that the dilation effect it lost.” Undaubtediy” dt lation exists in hard reck though 1” 1s not taken Into fecount ‘primartly because of a serious lack. of Imowledge of stress Triction; hopefully this stance Ie conservative, ihe kind af infoxeation needed, ‘the lateral pressures nomal to the acls of the cable a St te being stressed wp and dam, would be very interesting 1f it could be obtelnea; until 1 ean be, relance on this effect seems unae. Ruther Litelesern ‘The dlsplacenent we measured fer the loads was easured “for the tock surface, and not related "to the displacenent of the anchor Gr bolts as such; tt vas the whole block moving up. Tt was neasured sane 20 en anay from the anchor on the rook surface, Question by Latanyt (fer Littlejetn and Bruce) Do. you have ary information about. the problen ‘of how the cone develops actually, and tts shape?DESIGN METHODS IN ROCK MECHANICS Latsiejonn (Piast part of reply lost as not spoken tito ntcrophne.)...Invartubly the” efte “information reeetved in civil engineering. te not extensive; for instance, it 1s “rot usual to get unconfined compressive strengths fren cores. In our experience grotectnical mapping does not uivally glve a very Sead classification of the rosk structure, “ahs validity of shear strength paraneters is' often viewed with suspicion. For these reasons etvil ESE, he fa 1 on ah “sper preach ich can't. be armed te Typleally, conservative mchantons of fatlure ane considered? ‘sey 60° or 90% cones, taldng no account of shea" strength, using sutmefged wetent if indemeath water, tth a factor of safety of 2, “and then insisting that overy permanent anchor teste to 1.5% that werldng Iosd, Tt does not seem that this practice 12 going to change for a long tine Wille the present tecknigess, fhe Tetmple ‘wedges, give eafe and eoonanlcaiiy attractive solutions. Question by Bello (for Littlejotn and Bruce) ‘at do you mean by testing anchors installed at the rock site? "Since loading influences only a few meters of anchor length are you Teally eescribing pullaut teste? Have "you found ay examples of anchor fatlure by shearing between the Bob and the rosk? Reply ty Lateiesetn With reference to the standamd routine testing of anchors, all we're really doing te testing the installed anchor aystes to give a measure of factor of safety. Main interest lies in the safety factor ‘and in the extension or dlaplacerent ‘Itkely to occur in the top anchor in an overload situations This 15 Srportant because “Of “of the civil eretneerting market for anchors ts “In “holding back retaining valle. In an urban area, ina deep excavation gurroinded by multt-stoney blocks, the client, and ‘the owers ‘of surrouniing bulldings, are extremely ‘concemed about movenents; nore 90 thin about safety factors, whlch 18 vty every single anchor te tested. Of course, also, tn Tock and solle vardations th ground cénditiéns ean cooin fren meter to. neter. Anchors may be installed et clove centers, but site Investigation reports do not have fine accuracy. Te 4s always possible to miss, soy, a soft pocket; witch “fo another Justification for’ testing every chor, Faflure at the ground/erout interface 16 the ‘mst cormorly” cbaerved type of failure with soll anchors. This is because tt fs youal to. specify rushing grout atrenetiha of 12 Wn (6000 pete and anchorg are not. tested itil e crushing strength of (@o00 pst) “has been “reached. 2a Interface and could be regarded by @ soll mechanics engineers “aa avery compact, weakly cemented’ sand. T have" never “encountered. 136 Interface fatlure at the rock tn materials stronger than Chat. Conment by Lande tke Mr, L8etejotn Im a elvtl engineer ond can_taneur vetth hg experence Yet Senin Sarge of atrenethaning, or falsing ‘he beige oF Siout 15 gravity daw ty prestreasine, inotvieg the ‘Ee or acter thant ables am tp C0 1500 ere fepesitge ney were all” Gestion’ wane et Scrventlonan “BO? cone, anda grout “canaplic® for beacon of fut ets thee mas ‘pt Te tiegis future, whieh probably Indtoates hat “the SOS Seinptlon is" too tale, to at thts seats fhe my thing of saich we an sires Semment by Hoek T coment briefly on the question of tiation retaed by abteapts “have been nade. st Imperial College "ty May and Boyd” to. use Stereographic methods to try to define the situation etter. “This” 1s in relation to underground excavation where there is “elearly a possiblity of gravity pullout. If the Jointing 19" euch that no direct gravity wedges are possible then there 1s the Possibility of dliation developing. It ie not yet clear how to analyse the contribution of dilation to strength, but very simple stereographilc check have been developed, primarily ty May, to decide the situation "fron "the structural “input; whether strength pullout can occur, sliding “on ane oF tx Planes, oF an interlocking type of situation. The work Tas been reported in" theses at loperial College. Question by Geroon (for Livtlejotn and Bruce) ‘The values of strength. tn Table 2 seen to be t00 low bya factor of le Please explains "the results, quoted fram the theery of Castes ‘and Yu ad fron the experiments. ty Berard, are for oat dns of anchors? (Solid rebar or stfands as Teinforcanent?) Byuation (1) vas ebtatned have used 9 sitar equation rca 4g #00672 ge? (25 + 22)? sere £m W/8, 1 * tg (ox) at 2 YE whieh also shows that x, decreases raptaly with x/4, 2.8. ty = 07 v9 ven Xe 24. This agreed well with Figure*7 tor EAI = 1-0, At Michigan Tech we have also instrumented roof bolts sath strain gages. In addition to measuring decay of axial load, however, we have measured the bending of botts die to interlanellar slip in” rock strata,GENERAL DISCUSSION—2 Lattajin With regard to Table 2 you mention that sce of the sin ‘friction values probably ter the woricing bond column are tow von compared with thls general ule in the bottam section. Wording bends quoted in ‘hore table have been recomended by other fn anchor eolution 1 asked by dividing the crushing strength by 1D. the basis” of the present formila, except apparent safety factor of 3 ts vittten tn, Hise to the dividing factor’ 50. hat an eiving She’ rule de Binittedly imprecise, but 15 useful in the absence of better information. Dincusston a In Aigcussion, Barton gave the Instance of a single” anchorage Tatlure shere a rockoolt of 32m Gefcrmed bar fatled at 60 torres. Tater in the sane Stecuneton L8ttlesohn quoted Tek strengths 2s. Tow fas one sixth grout strong. Apart fren the 60 tones Toad quoted by Barton appearing to exceed the yield load of the bolt, it seem pertinent to Examine the node of fallire of “anchorages as the factual mechanism seems open to question. Where bolts fre tensioned after grouting with leads approaching yield, the radial strain Anduced in the bolt might be suffictent to place the grout tn radial tension, fr vith. a strong grout sh g reak surmounding rook, even to place the roc it radial tension, and tenetie fallurea could give rise to. the “debonding” Gesertbed ty Muller (1966), Under normal corttions of testing for ‘both cane shearing, and. anchorage shearing with a Jack aroun’ the bolt bearing on the rock face cutalde a diameter oqual to the bolt Tewth, or with “rente pulling, fron the comenéerent of the grout for sore distance texans the anchorage md of the tole there mst bea reduction in tension dn the bolt. ils was Fatlure ("abending”) could wether “than anchorage. Pen?aps Niehendine! ts eine dupendont an to sccclerate ty live loads, Tt ip hand to visualize perren atabanity of an anchor bend, ven with deformed bary where grouting 1s completed prior "to tensioning of the tanton ard where distribution of tension dn, the faut 1s stated to depend on “progressive, slip" at the tendon interface.” Did the losextenaion curves of Barton's “anchorage failure throw ght on the echanten of fatlure? windng there ts a movenast awry from echanoal enchoreges, with tnereasing, “use of resin ‘chores. The use of cenmnt. groute 2 almost tmlnom in'nine roof bolting. Bearing in mind the 17 ueual long Life of efvil worist, stepe should be taken to waterproof grouts. Tnvestigations » should also be mado into. the detertoration of grout~steel ond due to progressive exldation of steel ty) Poreolating surface waters pemesting grout. Question by Jet (for Londe ant Tardieu) Pig, § 1 a very sophisticated figure and atsricult to follow. In the inl publication tt ould be desirable to have it explained in more Geeaia. Figs. 13, patterns of a buttressed dan. ‘what were the actual Glsplacenents in em at the efest? Reply by Londo Tt my be _nocetamry to refer to a previcus paper in ofder to explain Fig. Baore Maly. Regarding Pigs. 13, 1M and 26, from memory, the scale of Glsplacenné” {s “full “scale. 80,” for Snstance, 17 the crest has moved by 20 mon the Grwring,” this isthe actual moverent. The dam 1s bout 50 m high. sstton by Garden (for Lorde and Tardieu) ‘You finite elem nedeling of bolted, Jotrts, vig. Sip interest ing for we have conaucted Sunda? fnliyses, To. the model represented in Fig. 5, fovainesetons) ‘or thmee-dinensierat? Were Joint Sttethess velucs Rand. fq seasured or assumed? ‘hat are realistic"values fOr joints? Have you achteved ary results on the threedinensionat “finite “lenent model with Glscontinities? Have you analyzed the effect of bolt Fetnforcenent tn the 3D rofel? Hoply by Londe Fig. 5 shows a 2-dinenstenal representation of anchor bate in rock only, as itis" pare of & Prelininary study at present undeny: since the Situation te" 2dinenstonal it Is kom tobe an enroximeion. te vplus of stitmess cuttictents Kan Ky age apninsdy pot peasurely the actual mesure of Sroathiay tttsteeces is "Currently wer eee Tey whtae the values glen are eauee gated fa ee ettaniet ad ane fot baalctotay tis nt feooltic'ta se) tae tay ane realistic" or te ease irroire. Wie hope tobe able to report on 3-dnerstonat ‘malyaes next Year. coment by Kanji In relation to the factor of safety, Prof. Jom tas alteady mentioned prodablistie Tallare analysis tnd M. Londe baa in a previous paper questioned the Value of factor of safety, but tomy has allowed that 1 1s a very good sensitivity index, If anyone present hae hed experlence of probabilistic analysis of grotectnioal work, slong the Lines used. byDESIGN METHODS IN ROCK MECHANICS structural engineers in thetr concrete atmictures, would they care to coment about tt? Since “severed different sets of statistical data may be required for one rock. mass, there are sary nore probes in the analysis of reck than of concrete, witch 1s Ron fr less homgeneous. Walle If would be interest ing to hear of any probabilistic ‘methods of alysis curently in ute, 1b must be pointed out that, so ‘auch inforsation’has accumilated about the factor of safety concept and 80 little, as yet, on” the Probeb{listic approach, that it’scens Soubtfut thet the latter 1s" yet. in a position to supereode the tomer. Coonent by Einstein (resubmitted at later date) | few coments and questions in Seastene 1 and 2 have “dealt with probabilistic approaches. Tn addition, the Selection ar computation of safety factors tas discussed extensively. ‘the fact, that the safety factors were diseused with no or only passing reference to the probabilistic approaches Jeads me to rake the following ecemen Safety factors, and probabilistic approaches represent a recognition of the fact that ratural saterials and phenomena and their descriptions involve tncertainty, Thus, uncertainty tas £5. be ‘taken Into account! in the énmiyeia and design. ‘he | presently most camen approach to uncertainty'ts the use of the “safety factors, whlch can de erplayedadth various depress’ of ‘ophteteation: ~~ Rrequently, an upper and a lower faetor are chosen, adeounting for a varlation of the expected perfomance, but within" ftxed boundaries. ‘The selected mmertoal valves do, however, “not have arational correlation with the iketithood of fatlure, - Te use of the safety margin, Je, the atfterence between the actual safely factor and a safety factor of 1, ia tintlar to. the aforementioned approach and te ibject to the sane Linttations. the use of a ‘safety factor of Las a lover ‘boutary ensures ab least a ore condctows consideration of the pooothtltey of failure, - Partial safety factors represent a more ‘vanced “epplication of the safety factor appreach, "The assigment of partial safety factors takes Into accouit. that the incertainty of different design paraneters may be different, fand it can express the fact that not ell paruneters are of equal trpareance, ‘This short reviow of the safety factor approach shows that ‘the wneertain or probabilistie nature of desten is inplicttly' assumed, lowever, safety factors ere not @ Tigorous moans. of expreseing uncertainty since they do not correlate the state of 4 structure to the Hkeliheod of fatlure: even, for the blghest factor of safety, there ie a nite Uketiheod of faflure (or vice versa, a safety factor “of 1 or below does not meat that. the structure actually felis). 34 Probeptlistic approaches to design can remedy this sftuation, particularly if they are applied tn the context of risk analysts, vhtch can be described ina sisplified mamer, aa £6100! The probability of fatiure of a certain structure (e.g., a slope) “Is ‘multiplied with the cost. consaquandes” of this fatlure. An improved eaten will reduce the probeb!lity of failure and His result th a reduced potential cost consoquence, The difference in potential fatlure cost, consequences, between the two designs “18 eooparcd &5 the “cost of design tnprovenents.. in thie ‘memery ink of fatlure can be Tationally expressed and risk odifiention can be compared to the cost of Femail eesten are “nto considetation and to be aware of the’ ever present risk “of faliure. Aa has been shom ‘above, Probabilistic design approaches are the only. one that permit a camplete evaliation of esto alternatives. The present state of application of probabilistle™ approaches leaves ati] mich tobe Gestred as Dr. John correctly pointed out in’ nis) general report. ‘he present Mnttetions are: = Methodology: The destner dees not now how to”. tncorparate "probabilistic ‘approaches in the desten process. = Analysis: Although the probabtutstte techniques are analytically” formulated, rot mary engineering analyses do exist 23 yet that are fomailated ina probabilistic Input Parmeters: Prohstilistie epproaches require paraneter “Input in the fom of @istributions. “Present explonstion and testing techniques frequently do rot yletd such “distributions, and” the experience ith subjective teciniques 19 Linited. To conclude, it can be stated _ that. Probebilistic sppfuaches will play a very Snportant ole in the destgn process} that, however, more wor Se ‘needed to suke these approaches practicaliy applicable. Comment by Lende Dr, Kanji sald that we have to make reference to the conventional factor of "safety aa we how ie. Tiowover, we don't low tt tn rock mechantes.” Safety factors’ of “slopes already extsting are not inom, pelther are ‘safety factors for foundations. Te 1 Arposstble to mow the safety factor. It is imewn hab sone slopes are” stable and sare are not, co that we bave an idea of limiting cases it ie tive, ‘but we'have a very poor idea of actual safety fecvor tn existing structures.etic GENERAL DISCUSSION—2 In ny, opinfon it 1s posatble to use probabilistic Fuasoning in rock mechantes, but not as a tool for giving a figure, a! numerical fapprectation of the “probabtitty of fatlure, because there. 19 the problen of neastining the parancter Aistribution curves. This 1s a methodology’ preblen, fbr, Einatein remarked, There are too. rary Darmcters that we are rot in a position to neastrey Dat we can cttain « model giving us a guldeline for studying the problen. In an expeseicn for the total safety “of a structure, bank, slope oP fomdation, thoee tema with high selgnt In’ the expression, and. hence “an inportant effect on stability, ‘mst be Identified. “Mey may ‘have high elght for ene of two reasons: ofther because they Strongly affect equilibrium or because they are not well inom. Cexment: by Kang agree with shat you say. My point, however, 4s that'to altogether put aide a way of reasoning vith wolen’ ve are familar in favour’ of anew Unfant iar way say be dangerous. Conment by Sewers (resubmitted at later date) The tectnteal papers | concerned with the anlaysts of rock slope "stabltity and the resarks of Dr. i. Jot in hie review of these papers give rise to. to serious concerns “in. the applications of malytical techniques to the desig of permanent Gong Life) slopes in evil engineering works. Prot, the realisn of the results of ary of the analytical’ tecmniques proposed depends. onthe TeLishllity of the prysieal properties of the rock and rock Joints (a5 well” as thelr geonetric Bomdaries) Although these properties are treated fas constants by the authors, they are really Variables subject to” the vaeaties of enviromental charee. ‘the effects of stress rele due to excavation and pore fluid predoure alone Joints are the only ‘bro anviromental changes considered ty moct of the analyoes. However, in long-term exposure, other factors may be equally or even more significant. ‘the change of plysieal properties of both the ntact Tock between’ joints and ary joint Taine wth continued weathering are not mentioned. Whtle fhe' changes that can occur in intact’ competent Sgmout Took uring the ifetine of a civil engineering project may be iralgftcant, they are fot in shales, mudstones, poorlj-tndurated ‘Sendatonea, tufts, partially weathered crystal ine foci and'Linestones., For exmple, fatlures of Higmay cuts in shale tn Tennessee’ often occur 10 yeare after the cut was made, During the ensuing Bpriod, there my be 2tkte oon of Instablity. delayed failures. have been experianced 18 ‘the other formations listed. fy may of contrast, Some, tufts ant sandstones cn, gain strength and seabalty, emesue, partiowlariy in dry Climates, such surface hardening has led to an ‘uerestinate of the rock strength based on the Gheerved. behavior of old slopes. Such Overestinates have been accompanied by under design ‘and early fatlure of new cuts. 159 Temperuture changes, eroalon of Joint f22ine natertale ard frost action gre other” dimensions of envirermental charge that can cause both over= and Gider-desien. ‘The eeoord concem a the comparison of mine slopes” with civil! engineering slopes. “The nplication ia that the civil engineers fight be able to reduce their conservatian by proper prorare of slope monitoring and maintenance. ‘Unfortinately, the “comparison is not necessarily valid: the Ginensios of tine and ultinate reopensibility are aifrerent. Tre engineer has a well-defined responsibility towns is employers “and fellow employees for alntatning “an economic balance otween Initial construction (product en) costs and maintenance, Moreover, the designer is ore oF less Snvolved In both initial excavation and any corrective" measures necessary, including the fessontial monitoring of the performance of the initial deatgn. he _conbination of responsibilty Tor safety and cconry toa rarrox sepnent of soctety, coupled with the authority to act wen Senitoring dletates raintenance, provides an optins: corbination for overall escnny Unfortunately, this 1s not alays the case tn clyit engineering work, particularly” that involving Public projects. fhe completed project mst Ametion “for years. Despite the designer's plans Tor survetliance ard continued maintenance, future decisions will te made ty others, snctines decades Jeter. Hew administrators may’ not appreciate the eed for such” activities that create nothing, new. During periods of financial stringency, malntenance and suavellinnee prograns are anorg the earliest expenditures tat’ are curtalled. Therefore, Hoeaily, the ‘civit “engineering ‘work should be designed with margins of safety that mininize future maintenance. the atfrerence tn (nthe other har ‘capital aval labintty between construction mney, Smrenditure, and maintenance ene, "an annual expense, sometines reveracs the obvious. Haintendnee expenditures provide instant, local Jobs and the costs are often lumped togather go that they camot be identified with ary” specific project. Once a project 18 constructed, the designer ray have ro. fMixther teepensibiitty for tt and frequently has fo reports “on performance fren the naintenance forces For example, on one Bighway across a steep mountainside tn a shale sandstone corplex the desien Slopes, based en’ experlence, id not reflect elther the joint pattems or the céntinued rock weathering oh expooure, Sliding developed In both ‘ets. and fis. raffle sas raintained ty filling and remaving ‘a9. needed, sonetines datly. Borings made YB" years “later” focnd 40 Te. thiciness of asphalt paving in one area,” Nb econls. were available Feganding the cost of repairs except for the asphalt hat wan purchased. Based on estimated costs of abor “for repair, the ellde raintenance cost far nore than “the Original onstruction. Because the Yao quite satisfied with the original desten.‘This ts not a really eritical aspect, when strength’ 18 governed by the targent of the friction Sale, ceneting sonntat on the pareicular street eave for the faterial. In intact material, Sere cobeaten fs eigiitteant, excambien an’ the Upper part of the slope could’ be inportant, 1¢ the Arction ws quite anal. in analogy exists with the case of a block sitting on 8 plane. “With ‘2. Minear ftetion Felationshlp, increasing the size of the block males no difference to the stability enalysis. With a curvilinear relationship the Velght has an effect, ‘houh not a large one. Hence the answer to your question 18 that sone effect is ‘achteved if there is a curvilinear pelatiorahip, but the effect is not large. To comment on a ronan by Dr, Lorde I would ike “tov mention an example of a }dinenstonal malysis of an arch “dam, that was) inexpensive Becatie {tai reduced to the stiplest elements. Vertical stringers of tale were present. ‘The desigi object was to reke the foundation able to carry the shear stresses across these zones. By pubting the Josd'on in an’ appropriate marner 1t was possible to determine the stress to be passed through the talc. ‘Then replacing the tale with concrete in the finite clement’ analyele shoved bow high it would” be Stresced, ant helped determine how much "concrete Should actually ‘be placed with a certain margin of safety. Tn this way” the foundation was deltted together prior to the placing of the arch das. Question by Lindner (for John) In Secaten 1. Dr. Job camented on the horizontal stress field, “questioning the valtes .33 and <5. presented by Kaliant and Mantredini et. al. Tespectively. Would be give his opinion on reported horleontal sixess flelés of orders 2 or 3 tines greater thin vertical stresses? (Reported by Sbar Se sjeeo C1973), Hooker tnt Telnwon C36.) Reply by Jom ‘Tat 18 a very good question that can nly be enavered in individu sitiations, not neceseard]y from statistical surveys, whlch was the point of ay Hild “sbjection. I iow of projects, particularly ‘tumeling projects, that have been dominated by high Torgttudinal stregses. The problen 18 to ascertain thes; this ray possibly be achleved by testing, by beck’ enalyeis, from data tied ty otter people, ot ray even requite guesswork, and/or upper and ower Doind analyses. Shere’ iano clear cut path to the Information. the assumptions I objected to are realistic, This does not answer the question, but Toes much as Tecan ay. Concaming the last question, T have found that en arrival” in Canada from Europe "have bait” to \dly concerning the. state of re high horizontal stress ts evident in For exmple, in the excavation forte An Torento, the tallest free standing the world, the rock bed vas moving Into the excavation an bedding planes in a way that can only be explained by -high horizontal stresses. Mortoring of excavations in the vicinity of theeo Proceedings Sixteenth Symposium on Rock Mechanics September 22-24, 1975 University of Minnesota Minneapolis, U.S.A. DESIGN METHODS IN ROCK MECHANICS EDITED BY Charles Fairhurst and Steven L. Crouch Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering University of Minnesota SYMPOSIUM SPONSORED BY International Society for Rock Mechanics U.S. National Committee for Rock Mechanics Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering Department of Conferences Continuing Education and Extension University of Minnesota Published by ‘American Society of Civil Engineers ‘345 East 47th Street Now York, N.Y. 10017 197