GM Counter 2 PDF

Geiger Muller Counting System
NV6150
Learning Material
Ver 1.1
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NV6150
Geiger Muller Counting System

NV6150
Table of Content
1. Introduction 3
2. Features 4
3. Technical Specifications 5
4. Theory 6
5. Experiments
• Experiment 1
To determine the Plateau Curve of the GM Tube 28
• Experiment 2
To study the pulse height with the applied voltage to the GM Tube 35
• Experiment 3
To verify the Inverse Square Law 36
• Experiment 4
To study the absorption of beta and gamma radiation 37
6. Warranty 38
7. List of Accessories 39
Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 2

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Introduction
Geiger Muller Counting System NV6150 is a versatile counting system designed to count
beta and gamma radiation. It is useful in academic field for teaching radioactivity and its
application. It consists of a Geiger Muller (GM) detector, radioactive source and
electronic counting unit with inbuilt variable high power supply. A GM detector is a
cylindrical tube with a thin membrane on one end containing a low-pressure gas. With
the help of NV6150, number of studies can be performed including characteristic curve
(plateau curve) of Geiger Muller Tube, inverse square law verification and absorption of
beta and gamma radiation. This feature rich unit is provided with a large LCD (20x4) for
simultaneous display of voltage, preset time and counts with the visual and audio
indication using LED and a buzzer. Microcontroller design facilitates both automatic and
manual mode for counting.

NV6150
Features
• Microcontroller based design
• Large digital display for simultaneous reading of voltage, preset time & counts
• BNC connector to directly measure pulses on oscilloscope.
• Wide range digital timer
• High counts capacity
• LED indication for counts, GM probe and high voltage
• Audio indication at the end of counting
• Threshold level adjustment
• PC interfacing with the facility of automatic graph plotting
• Learning Material CD
• 2 Year Warranty

NV6150
Technical Specifications
GM Tube:
Detection : Beta and Gamma detection
Operating Voltage : 400-700 V
Dimension
Length : 88 mm
Diameter : 35 mm
Source
Type : Beta/Gamma
Isotope : Co-60/Cs-137
Density of Absorber : 12.45 mg/cm2
No. of Absorbers : 15
GM Bench:
Length : 50 cm
Scale : 50 cm with least count of 1mm.
Counts : 0-999999
Time preset : up to 10 hours with 1 to 60 sec.
increment /decrement
High Voltage Output : 0-800 V with coarse and fine adjustment

Display : High Contrast LCD 20 x 4
Mains : 230 V ±10, 50Hz
Fuse : 1A
Interfacing : RS232, USB

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Theory
Introduction:
Since the discovery of x-rays by Wilhelm Röntgen in 1895 radiation detectors have
experienced a constant evolution. The phosphorescent screen where Roentgen observed
x-ray was the first real-time detector and the precursor to the scintillation crystal
detectors still in use today. The gas filled radiation detector was discovered by Hans
Geiger while working with Ernest Rutherford in 1908. The design of this device was later
refined by Hans Geiger and Wilhelm Mueller, in the 1920s. It is sometimes called simply
a Geiger counter or a G-M counter and is the most commonly used portable radiation
instrument. The main drawback of the G-M counter is its inability to provide information
on the energy of the radiation it detects.
Born in Neustadt, Rheinland-Pfalz, on September 30, 1882, Geiger began his studies in
physics at the University of Munich, and completed his doctorate at Erlangen in 1906. In
the same year, he accepted a position as research assistant at the University of
Manchester, where Ernest Rutherford became director in 1907. Over the next decade,
Rutherford and Geiger collaborated on a number of fundamental research studies on the
nature of alpha rays and alpha particles. At the outbreak of World War I, Geiger returned
to his homeland to serve in the German army. After the war, he was appointed professor
of physics at the University of Kiel. He took on a post at the University of Tübingen in
1929 and, in 1936, was appointed chairman of the physics department at the Technical
University at Charlottenberg-Berlin. After losing his home and all his possessions in
World War II, he died in Potsdam on September 24, 1945.
Geiger constructed the earliest form of his radiation counter in 1908. The device
consisted of a wire extending down the center of a sealed metal tube with a glass or mica
window at one end. The wire and the metal tube were connected to a power source
through an external circuit. When radiation passed through the tube, it created a track of
ion pairs. The positive ions in each pair were attracted to the negatively charged metal
tube, while the negatively charged electrons were attracted to the central wire. As the ions
and electrons passed through the gas, they collided with other gas molecules, producing
further ionization. Because of this avalanche effect, the number of ions and electrons
reaching the outside circuit was sufficient to initiate an electric current that could be
recorded as a sound or observed as a flash of light.
Geiger continued to work on the design of his counter over the next two decades. In 1928,
he made further modifications based on the studies of a German colleague, Walther
Müller. The final design, often referred to as the Geiger-Müller counter, soon became one
of the two or three most widely used radiation counters available to scientists.
A number of variations of the design have been developed; among them are the
ionization counter and proportional counter. These variations can be used to identify the
types of radiation and the characteristics of particle that pass through a counter. The
Geiger-Müller counter can also be modified to detect and count non-ionizing radiation,
such as neutrons. In this case, boron fluoride gas is used to fill the chamber. The reaction
between neutrons and boron nuclei results in the formation of alpha particles, which can
then be detected like any other alpha particle.

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The Atom
Searching for the ultimate building blocks of the physical world has always been a central
theme in the history of scientific research. Many acclaimed ancient philosophers from
very different cultures have pondered the consequences of subdividing regular, tangible
objects into their smaller and smaller, invisible constituents. Many of them believed that
eventually there would exist a final, inseparable fundamental entity of matter, as
emphasized by the use of the ancient Greek word, ατομοσ (atom), which means “not
divisible.”
By the early 20th century, there was rather compelling evidence that matter could be
described by an atomic theory. That is, matter is composed of relatively few building
blocks that we refer to as atoms. This theory provided a consistent and unified picture for
all known chemical processes at that time. However, some mysteries could not be
explained by this atomic theory. In 1896, A.H. Becquerel discovered penetrating
radiation. In 1897, J.J. Thomson showed that electrons have negative electric charge and
come from ordinary matter. For matter to be electrically neutral there must also be
positive charges lurking somewhere. Where are and what carries these positive charges?
A monumental breakthrough came in 1911 when Ernest Rutherford and his coworkers
conducted an experiment intended to determine the angles through which a beam of alpha
particles (helium nuclei) would scatter after passing through a thin foil of gold.
Figure-1 Models of atoms
A prevailing model of the atom at the time (the Thomson, or “plumpudding,” atom)
proposed that the negatively charged electrons (the plums) were mixed with smeared-out
positive charges (the pudding). This model explained the neutrality of bulk material, yet
still allowed the description of the flow of electric charges. In this model, it would be
very unlikely for an alpha particle to scatter through an angle greater than a small fraction
of a degree, and the vast majority should undergo almost no scattering at all. The results
from Rutherford’s experiment were astounding. The vast majority of alpha particles
behaved as expected, and hardly scattered at all. But there were alpha particles that
scattered through angles greater than 90 degrees, incredible in light of expectations for a
“plum-pudding” atom. It was largely the evidence from this type of experiment that led to
the model of the atom as having a nucleus.

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Figure-2 Scattering of alpha particles by gold atoms
The only model of the atom consistent with this Rutherford experiment is that a small
central core (the nucleus) houses the positive charge and most of the mass of the atom,
while the majority of the atom’s volume contains discrete electrons orbiting about the
central nucleus. Under classical electromagnetic theory, a charge that is moving in a
circular path loses energy. In Rutherford’s model, the electrons orbit the nucleus similar
to the orbit of planets about the sun. However, under this model, there is nothing to
prevent the electrons from losing energy and falling into the nucleus under the influence
of its Coulomb attraction. This stability problem was solved by Niels Bohr in 1913 with a
new model in which there are particular orbits in which the electrons do not lose energy
and therefore do not spiral into the nucleus. This model was the beginning of quantum
mechanics, which successfully explains many properties of atoms. Bohr’s model of the
atom is still a convenient description of the energy levels of the hydrogen atom.
Nuclear Structure
An atom consists of a centrally located nucleus surrounded by electrons revolving in
certain physically permitted orbits. The nucleus itself is made up of neutrons and protons,
collectively called nucleons. Almost all of the mass in an atom is made up from the
protons and neutrons in the nucleus, with a very small contribution from the orbiting
electrons. The diameter of the nucleus is in the range of 1.6 fm (1.6 × 10-15 m) (for a
proton in light hydrogen) to about 15 fm (for the heaviest atoms, such as uranium). These
dimensions are much smaller than the diameter of the atom itself, by a factor of about
23,000 (uranium) to about 145,000 (hydrogen).

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Figure-3 Structure of Atom

The nuclear range is called a short-range, wherein the nucleons attract each other with a
force, much larger than the electrostatic repulsion between the positively charged protons.
This means, two neutrons attract each other though they are neutral; two protons attract
each other though they are both positively charged; a proton and a neutron attract each
other though they are not of opposite charges. In other words the nucleons bind
themselves together when they happen to come closer than 10-12 cm.
The number of protons (Z) is called the atomic number and the total number (A) of
nucleons in a nucleus is called the atomic (or nuclear) mass number. Occasionally the
number of neutrons (A-Z) is represented as N. Atoms are classified as isotopes, isotones,
and isobars based on the nuclear contents, as in Table-1
Table-1
Isotopes Isotones Isobars
Nuclie with same Z but Nuclei with same N but Nuclei with same A but
differing in N differing in Z differing in N, Z or both
Example : U_238, Np-238,
Example : U-235, U-238 Example: U-238, Np-239
Pu-238
Binding Energy
The nucleons are held by short-range nuclear forces. The mass of a nucleus is generally
less than the sum of the masses of the nucleons. This difference is called the mass-defect.
Such a phenomenon is observed in atomic or subatomic levels, and not with ordinary
materials that we handle, where the total mass has to be the sum of the component masses.
The mass-defect is responsible for the binding together of the nucleons. The energy
equivalent of the mass-defect is called the binding-energy of the nucleus.

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Figure-4 Graph showing Average Binding Energy per nucleons as number of nucleons
increases in atom
Starting from Hydrogen, as we increase the atomic number, the binding energy increases.
So Helium has a greater binding energy per nucleon than Hydrogen while Lithium has a
greater binding energy than Helium, and Berilium has a greater binding energy than
Lithium, and so on. This trend continues, until we reach iron. It begins to decrease slowly.
The binding energy curve is obtained by dividing the total nuclear binding energy by the
number of nucleons. The fact that there is a peak in the binding energy curve in the
region of stability near iron means that either the breakup of heavier nuclei (fission) or
the combining of lighter nuclei (fusion) will yield nuclei which are more tightly bound
(less mass per nucleon). The binding energy is intimately linked with fusion and fission.
The lighter elements up to Fe will release energy via the fusion process, while in the
opposite direction the heaviest elements down Fe are more susceptible to liberate energy
via fission.
Radioactivity:
Radioactivity is the process whereby unstable atomic nuclei release energetic subatomic
particles. The word radioactivity is also used to refer to the subatomic particles
themselves. This phenomenon is observed in the heavy elements, like uranium, and
unstable isotopes, like carbon-14.
French scientist Henri Becquerel took note of Roentgen’s discovery of X-rays and spent a
long time in the study of various fluorescent materials. Becquerel discovered that
uranium salts were able to blacken a photographic plate placed in the dark, even through
a paper barrier. Subsequent experiments distinguished three distinct types of radiation --
alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays. These are positively charged, negatively
charged, and neutral, respectively.

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Fundamental laws of radioactivity:

I. Soddy Fajan’s displacement law – when a radioactive disintegration occurs with the
emission of alpha (α) and beta (β) particles, the original atom called the parent atom
changes into some other atom called the daughter atom. In 1913, Soddy and Fajan
discovered a simple law known as the displacement law of radioactivity, can be stated as
follows:
1. When a radioactive atom emits an alpha particle (mass 4 and charge 2e), it is
converted into another element of atomic number two less and atomic weight four
less than that of the parent element and the place of the new element is shifted two
groups lower in the periodic table.
238
92U → 90T234 + α
2. When a radioactive atom emits a beta particle (mass approximately zero and
charge –e), it is converted into another element of atomic number one greater than
that of the parent but of the same atomic weight and the place of the new atom is
shifted one group higher in the periodic table.
90Th
234
→ 91Pa234 + -1e0
II. Law of radioactive Disintegration – This law state that the rate at which a particular
radioactive material disintegrates or decays is independent of physical and chemical
composition and depends on number of atoms present at the time of disintegration. Since
disintegration is taking place continuously, the number of atoms present is changing;
hence the rate of disintegration will change with time. Let N be the number of atoms
present in a particular radioactive element at a given instant t. The number of dN, that
will decay during the time interval dt (from t to t+dt) must be proportional to N and also
proportional to dt. Thus we have
dN ∝ Ndt
(1)
dN = − Ndt
Where λ is a constant known as the disintegration constant or the decay constant of the
radioactive element. Negative sign indicate that number of atoms of the radioactive
element decreases with time. On rearranging we have
N = N 0e− t (2)
Where N0 is the initial number of atoms of the radioactive nuclide. Here we have
assumed that the probability of disintegration per second λ is independent of the age of
that atom and is the same for all atoms of the species. The above equation shows that the
number of atoms of the given radioactive substance decreases exponentially with time
provided that no new atoms are introduced. This can be shown by Figure-5

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Figure-5 Curve showing relative activity as a function if time

Putting t = 1/λ in above equation, we have
N 1
= e −1 = (3)
N0 e
Hence the radioactive constant is the reciprocal of the time during which the original
number of atoms of a radioactive substance falls to 1/e of its previous value. The term
half-life is defined as the time it takes for one-half of the atoms of a radioactive material
to disintegrate. Half-lives for various radioisotopes can range from a few microseconds to
billions of years. Table-2 below shows a list of radioisotopes and their half-lives.
Table-2
Radioisotopes Half life
Polonium-215 0.0018 seconds
Bismuth-212 60.5 seconds
Sodium-24 15 hours
Iodine-131 8.07 days
Cobalt-60 5.26 years
Radium-226 1600 years
Uranium-238 4.5 billion years
Suppose 10 grams of Barium-139 disintegrate. It has a half-life of 86 minutes. After 86
minutes, half of the atoms in the sample would have decayed into another element,
Lanthanum-139. Therefore, after one half-life, 5 grams of Barium-139 and 5 grams of
Lanthanum-139 would remain. After another 86 minutes, half of the 5 grams of Barium-
139 would decay into Lanthanum-139; and the sample contains 2.5 grams of Barium-139
and 7.5 grams of Lanthanum-139.
The activity (A) of a radioactive sample is expressed in terms of the number of

disintegrations per unit time
dN
A= = N (4)
dt

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The commonly used unit of the activity is called Curie. Originally the Curie was defined
as equal to the number of disintegration per second occurring in 1 gram of radium.
According to this definition, the Curie was a changing standard, since it depended upon
experimentally determined quantities. In 1950 a Joint Commission of the International
Union of Pure and Applied Physics adopted the following definition: “The Curie is
defined as the total activity of a pure radioactive sample which has mean decay rate of
3.70 x 1010 decays per second or dps (disintegration per second)”. The Curie is a
relatively large unit, hence milliCurie (mCi) and microCurie (μCi) are the practical units
commonly used.
If two radioactive species are mixed together, then the total activity is the sum of the two
separate activities.
A = A1 + A2 (5)
For a mixture of n species the total activity is
A = A1 + A2 + ... + An (6)
III. Law of Successive Transformation – In general one radioactive substance decays into
another that is also radioactive. The first is called parent substance, the second , the
daughter substance. This relation is not limited to parent and daughter but extends over
many generations, until a stable end product is formed. It was found experimentally that
the naturally occurring radioactive nuclides form three series. In the study if radioactive
series it is important to know the number of atoms of each member of the series as a
function of time.
Modes of radioactive decay:
There are broadly three modes of radioactive decay. These are alpha radiation, beta
radiation and gamma radiation.
1. Alpha (α) radiation:
Alpha radiation is the emission of two protons and two neutrons from the nucleus, which
is the same as a Helium nucleus. Due to the heavy mass and charge, α radiation is the
least penetrating, being stopped by a sheet of paper. However it also is the most ionizing
form of radiation, knocking electrons from their shells in nearby atoms. The dangers of
alpha-radiation come from being ingested into the body. When an alpha particle is
emitted, the proton number decreases by 2 and mass number decreases by 4.
A− 4
A
Z X→ Z −2 ( X − 2) + 24
Figure-6 Alpha Decay

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Characteristics of Alpha Radiation:

• Alpha radiation is not able to penetrate skin.
• Alpha-emitting materials can be harmful to humans if the materials are inhaled,
swallowed, or absorbed through open wounds.
• Instruments cannot detect alpha radiation through even a thin layer of water,
blood, dust, paper, or other material, because alpha radiation is not penetrating.
• Alpha radiation travels a very short distance through air.
• Alpha radiation is not able to penetrate turnout gear, clothing, or a cover on a
probe. Turnout gear and dry clothing can keep alpha emitters off of the skin.
2. Beta (β) radiation:
Beta decay is a radioactive process in which an electron is emitted from the nucleus
of a radioactive atom, along with an unusual particle called an antineutrino. The
neutrino is an almost massless particle that carries away some of the energy from the
decay process. Because this electron is from the nucleus of the atom, it is called a beta
particle to distinguish it from the electrons which orbit the atom. Beta radiation
occurs in two forms β+ and β-
• β+ a positive electron called a positron is created by the transformation of a
proton into a neutron.
0 +
Z X → Z −1 ( X + 1) + +1 e + 0
A A 0
• β- a electron is created by the transformation of a proton into a neutron.

0
A
Z X→ A
Z +1 ( X − 1) + −10 e − + 0
Figure-7 Beta decay

Like alpha decay, beta decay occurs in isotopes which are “neutron rich” (i.e. have a lot
more neutrons in their nucleus than they do protons). Atoms which undergo beta decay
are located below the line of stable elements on the chart of the nuclides, and are
typically produced in nuclear reactors. When a nucleus ejects a beta particle, one of the
neutrons in the nucleus is transformed into a proton. Since the number of protons in the
nucleus has changed, a new daughter atom is formed which has one less neutron but one
more proton than the parent. For example, when rhenium-187 decays (which has a Z of
75) by beta decay, osmium-187 is created (which has a Z of 76). Beta particles have a
single negative charge and weigh only a small fraction of a neutron or proton. As a result,
beta particles interact less readily with material than alpha particles. Depending on the

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beta particles energy (which depends on the radioactive atom), beta particles will travel
up to several meters in air, and are stopped by thin layers of metal or plastic.
Characteristics of Beta Radiation

• Beta radiation may travel meters in air and is moderately penetrating.
• Beta radiation can penetrate human skin to the "germinal layer," where new skin
cells are produced. If beta-emitting contaminants are allowed to remain on the
skin for a prolonged period of time, they may cause skin injury.
• Beta-emitting contaminants may be harmful if deposited internally.
• Most beta emitters can be detected with a survey instrument. Some beta emitters,
however, produce very low energy, poorly penetrating radiation that may be
difficult or impossible to detect. Examples of these are carbon-14, tritium, and
sulfur-35.
• Clothing and turnout gear provide some protection against most beta radiation.
Turnout gear and dry clothing can keep beta emitters off of the skin.
3. Gamma (γ) radiation:
After the emission of an α particle or β decay, the nucleus is left in an excited state
and it releases its excess energy in the form of a γ-ray photon. γ-rays are high-energy
electromagnetic waves. They are also highly penetrating and are not stopped but the
probability of absorption is proportional to the thickness of the absorbing medium,
leading to an exponential decrease in the number of γ-ray photons passing through.
Figure-8 Gamma decay

Characteristics of Gamma Radiation and X-Rays
• Gamma radiation is electromagnetic radiation like visible light, radio waves, and
ultraviolet light. These electromagnetic radiations differ only in the amount of
energy they have. Gamma rays are the most energetic of these.
• Gamma radiation is able to travel many meters in air and many centimeters in
human tissue. It readily penetrates most materials and is sometimes called
"penetrating radiation."
• Radioactive materials that emit gamma radiation constitute both an external and
internal hazard to humans.

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• Dense materials are needed for shielding from gamma radiation. Clothing and
turnout gear provide little shielding from penetrating radiation but will prevent
contamination of the skin by radioactive materials.
• Gamma radiation is detected with survey instruments. Low levels can be
measured with a standard Geiger counter. High levels can be measured with an
ionization chamber.
• Gamma radiation frequently accompanies the emission of alpha and beta radiation.
• Pocket chamber (pencil) dosimeters, film badges, thermoluminescent, and other
types of dosimeters can be used to measure accumulated exposure to gamma
radiation.
Isotopes
Atoms of the same element can have different numbers of neutrons; the different possible
versions of each element are called isotopes. For example, the most common isotope of
hydrogen has no neutrons at all; there's also a hydrogen isotope called deuterium, with
one neutron, and another, tritium, with two neutrons (Figure - 9). Another example is
carbon, Carbon-12, carbon-13 and carbon-14 are three isotopes of the element carbon
with mass numbers 12, 13 and 14, respectively. The atomic number of carbon is 6, so the
neutron numbers in these isotopes of carbon are therefore 12−6 = 6, 13−6 = 7, and 14–6
= 8, respectively.
Figure-9 Isotopes of Hydrogen
Some isotopes are radioactive and are therefore described as radioisotopes or

radionuclides, while others have never been observed to undergo radioactive decay and
are described as stable isotopes. For example, 14C is a radioactive form of carbon while
12
C and 13C are stable isotopes. At present there are up to 200 radioactive isotopes used
on a regular basis, and while some are found in nature, most others have to be
manufactured to suit specific needs, such as for hospitals, research labs and
manufacturers. Radioactive isotopes can be manufactured in several ways, the most
common by neutron activation in a nuclear reactor which involves capturing a neutron by
the nucleus of an atom which results in an excess of neutrons (neutron rich). Some
radioactive isotopes are produced in a cyclotron in which protons are introduced to a
nucleus resulting in a deficiency of neutrons (proton rich).

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Radioactive isotopes have very useful properties. Alpha, beta and gamma radiation can
permeate solid objects like an x-ray, but are progressively absorbed by them. The amount
of this penetration depends on several factors including the energy of the radiation, mass
of the particle, and density of the solid. These properties can lead to many uses for
radioisotopes in the scientific, medical, archaeological and industrial fields. The uses of
radioactive isotopes in these fields depend on what element they become after they reach
stability.
Radioactive Dating
All ordinary matter is made up of combinations of chemical elements, each with its own
atomic number, indicating the number of protons in the atomic nucleus. Additionally,
elements may exist in different isotopes, with each isotope of an element differing in the
number of neutrons in the nucleus. A particular isotope of a particular element is called a
nuclide. Some nuclides are inherently unstable. That is, at some point in time, an atom of
such a nuclide will spontaneously transform into a different nuclide. This transformation
may be accomplished in a number of different ways, including radioactive decay, either
by emission of particles (usually electrons (beta decay), positrons or alpha particles) or by
spontaneous fission, and electron capture.
While the moment in time at which a particular nucleus decays is unpredictable, a
collection of atoms of a radioactive nuclide decays exponentially at a rate described by a
parameter known as the half-life, usually given in units of years when discussing dating
techniques. After one half-life has elapsed, one half of the atoms of the nuclide in
question will have decayed into a "daughter" nuclide or decay product. In many cases, the
daughter nuclide itself is radioactive, resulting in a decay chain, eventually ending with
the formation of a stable (non-radioactive) daughter nuclide; each step in such a chain is
characterized by a distinct half-life. In these cases, usually the half-life of interest in
radiometric dating is the longest one in the chain, which is the rate-limiting factor in the
ultimate transformation of the radioactive nuclide into its stable daughter. Isotopic
systems that have been exploited for radiometric dating have half-lives ranging from only
about 10 years (e.g., tritium) to over 100 billion years (e.g., Samarium-147).
In general, the half-life of a nuclide depends solely on its nuclear properties; it is not
affected by external factors such as temperature, pressure, chemical environment, or
presence of a magnetic or electric field. (For some nuclides which decay by the process
of electron capture, such as Beryllium-7, Strontium-85, and Zirconium-89, the decay rate
may be slightly affected by local electron density, therefore these isotopes may not be as
suitable for radiometric dating.) But in general, the half-life of any nuclide is essentially a
constant. Therefore, in any material containing a radioactive nuclide, the proportion of
the original nuclide to its decay product(s) changes in a predictable way as the original
nuclide decays over time. This predictability allows the relative abundances of related
nuclides to be used as a clock to measure the time from the incorporation of the original
nuclide(s) into a material to the present.
Carbon exists in the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide, CO2. It can be present
either as stable carbon 12 or unstable carbon 14. Carbon 14 is formed from ordinary
nitrogen 14 in the atmosphere by the action of cosmic rays. The cosmic rays produce
neutrons which bombard the nitrogen atoms, resulting in a neutron being absorbed and a
proton being ejected. The N-14 atom of 7 protons and 7 neutrons is transformed into a C-

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14 atom of 6 protons and 8 neutrons. The carbon-14 atom immediately combines with
atmospheric oxygen to form carbon dioxide. A steady state results in which the rate of
decomposition of carbon 14 is matched by the rate of formation of new C-14 by cosmic
rays. The result is that carbon 14 is present as a constant percentage of the total carbon in
the atmosphere, although it does change slightly depending upon the amount of cosmic
radiation reaching the atmosphere. However, a correction can be made on the basis of
carbon 14 readings on items whose age is known from counting tree rings and
archeological records.
Trees and plants that get their carbon from the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere will,
while they are living have a ratio of carbon 14 to carbon 12 equal to that in the
atmosphere. When these organisms die, they no longer ingest C-14 from the atmosphere.
Carbon 14 decays at a particular rate and is not replaced. Thus, measuring the degree to
which the carbon 14 level is less than that in the atmosphere provides a measure of time
since death.
Detection of Radiation:
All methods of detection of radioactivity are base on interaction of the charged particles.
As a result of interaction ions are produced and reduction in energy is observed. In the
case of neutrons and gamma rays, the ionization produced is caused by secondary
charged particles. In research, detectors are used to detect and record the number of
particles emitted in various experiments involved in the study of nuclear radiation,
disintegration and transmutation.
Types of radiation detectors:
The radiation detectors are classified as:
1. Gas Filled Detectors
2. Scintillation Counters
3. Semiconductor Radiation Detectors
1. Gas Filled Detectors:
The most common type of instrument is a gas filled radiation detector. This
instrument works on the principle that as radiation passes through air or a specific gas,
ionization of the molecules in the air occurs. When a high voltage is placed between
two areas of the gas filled space, the positive ions will be attracted to the negative
side of the detector (the cathode) and the free electrons will travel to the positive side
(the anode). These charges are collected by the anode and cathode which then form a
very small current in the wires going to the detector. By placing a very sensitive
current measuring device between the wires from the cathode and anode, the small
current measured and displayed as a signal. The more radiation which enters the
chamber, the more current displayed by the instrument. Many types of gas-filled
detectors exist, but the three most common are:
a. Ionization Chambers
b. Proportional Counters
c. Geiger Counters

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A. Ionization Chamber
The ionization chamber is the simplest of all gas-filled radiation detectors, and is used for
the detection or measurement of ionizing radiation. An ionization chamber is an
instrument constructed to measure the number of ions within a medium. It consists of a
gas filled enclosure between two conducting electrodes. The electrodes may be in the
form of parallel plates (Figure-10), or coaxial cylinders (Figure-11) to form a convenient
portable detector; in some cases one of the electrodes may be the wall of the vessel itself.
Figure-10 Schematic showing parallel plate type Ionization chamber
Figure-11 Coaxial cylinder type Ionization chamber
When gas between the electrodes is ionized by any means, such as by alpha particles,
beta particles, X-rays, or other radioactive emission, the ions and dissociated electrons
move to the electrodes of the opposite polarity, thus creating an ionization current which
may be measured by a galvanometer or electrometer. Each ion essentially deposits or
removes a small electric charge to or from an electrode, such that the accumulated charge
is proportional to the number of like-charged ions. A voltage potential that can have a
wide range from a few volts to many kilovolts can be applied between the electrodes;
depending on the application. The applied voltage allows the device to work continuously

NV6150
by mopping up electrons and preventing the device from becoming saturated. The current
that originates is called a bias current, and prevents the device from reaching a point
where no more ions can be collected. Ionization chambers are used in nuclear medicine to
determine the exact activity of radioactive therapeutic treatments. Such devices are called
'radioisotope dose calibrators'. Ion chambers are sometimes microphonic as they are very
sensitive devices and non-ion related charges can be set up inside due to the piezoelectric
effect.
B. Proportional Counters
A proportional counter is a measurement device to count particles of ionizing radiation
and measure their energy. The device was invented in 1948 by Sir Samuel Curran.
A proportional counter is a type of gaseous ionization detector. An inert gas is used to fill
the tube, with a quench gas added as a stabilizer. A common proportional gas mixture is
90% argon, 10% methane, known as P-10. An incoming ionizing particle, if it has
sufficient energy, liberates electrons from the atomic orbital of the gas atoms leaving an
electron and positively charged atom, commonly known as an ion pair. As the charged
particle travels through the chamber it leaves a trail of ion pairs along its trajectory. The
electrons created in this process drift toward a readout electrode, known as the anode,
under the influence of an applied electric field. At the same time, the positive ions drift
towards the cathode, at much lower speed; in practical devices, the drift times are
measured in microseconds and milliseconds, respectively.
Figure-12 A proportional counter design
A proportional counter differs from an ionization chamber in that the operating voltage is
sufficiently high that the drifting electrons gain enough energy over a mean free path to
create further ion pairs when they collide with other neutral atoms of the gas. The
electrons created in these new events also drift toward the readout electrode and can
create further ion pairs themselves. In this manner, a cascade of ion pairs can be created,
this is known as a Townsend avalanche. If the operating voltage is chosen carefully, each
avalanche process occurs independently of other avalanches which derive from the same
initial ionizing event. Therefore, even though the total number of electrons liberated can

NV6150
increase exponentially with distance, the total amount of charge created remains
proportional to the amount of charge liberated in the original event.
By measuring the total charge (time integral of the electric current) between the
electrodes, we can find out the particle's kinetic energy, because the number of ion pairs
created by the incident ionizing charged particle is proportional to its energy.
The geometry of the electrodes and the voltages on them are chosen such that in most of
the volume of the counter the electric field strength is not enough to produce a Townsend
avalanche. The electrons just drift until they get close to the anode, where a strong field
allows avalanche multiplication to occur. In this way each electron is multiplied by
approximately the same factor (up to about a million) independent of the distance it has
covered in the low-field 'drift region'. If the field strength everywhere is below a critical
value, Townsend avalanches do not occur at all, and the detector operates as an ionization
chamber. If the voltage (and therefore the field strength) is too high, the degree of charge
amplification tends to a maximum value, and all pulses from the chamber have the same
amplitude, so the detector operates as a Geiger-Müller counter.
This process of charge amplification can improve the signal-to-noise ratio of the detector
and also reduce the amount of amplification required from external electronics. The
proportionality between the energy of the charged particle travelling through the chamber
and the total charge created makes proportional counters useful for charged particle
spectroscopy. The energy resolution of a proportional counter, however, is limited
because both the initial ionization event and the subsequent 'multiplication' event are
subject to statistical fluctuations.
Proportional counters are also useful for detection of high energy photons, such as X-rays
or gamma-rays, provided these can penetrate the entrance window.
C. Geiger Counter:
A Geiger counter, also called a Geiger-Müller counter, is a type of particle detector that
measures ionizing radiation. They are notable for being used to detect if objects emit
nuclear radiation. The construction and working are explained in later section of this
manual.
2. Scintillation Counter
A scintillation counter measures ionizing radiation. The sensor, called a scintillator,
consists of a transparent crystal, usually phosphor, plastic (usually containing anthracene),
or organic liquid that fluoresces when struck by ionizing radiation. A sensitive
photomultiplier tube (PMT) measures the light from the crystal. The PMT is attached to
an electronic amplifier and other electronic equipment to count and possibly quantify the
amplitude of the signals produced by the photomultiplier.
The scintillation counter was invented in 1944 by Sir Samuel Curran whilst he was
working on the Manhattan Project at the University of California at Berkeley, and it is
based on the earlier work of Antoine Henri Becquerel, who is generally credited with

NV6150
discovering radioactivity, whilst working on the phosphorescence of certain uranium salts

(in 1896). Scintillation counters are widely used because they can be made inexpensively
yet with good quantum efficiency. The quantum efficiency of a gamma-ray detector (per
unit volume) depends upon the density of electrons in the detector, and certain
scintillating materials, such as sodium iodide and bismuth germanate, achieve high
electron densities as a result of the high atomic numbers of some of the elements of
which they are composed. However, detectors based on semiconductors, notably hyper
pure germanium, have better intrinsic energy resolution than scintillators, and are
preferred where feasible for gamma-ray spectrometry. In the case of neutron detectors,
high efficiency is gained through the use of scintillating materials rich in hydrogen that
scatter neutrons efficiently. Liquid scintillation counters are an efficient and practical
means of quantifying beta radiation.
Figure-13 A scintillation Counter
3. Semiconductor Radiation Detectors

In semiconductor radiation detectors, radiation is measured by means of the number of
charge carriers set free in the detector, which is arranged between two electrodes.
Ionizing radiation produces free electrons and holes. The number of electron-hole pairs is
proportional to the energy transmitted by the radiation to the semiconductor. As a result,
a number of electrons are transferred from the valence band to the conduction band, and
an equal number of holes are created in the valence band. Under the influence of an
electric field, electrons and holes travel to the electrodes, where they result in a pulse that
can be measured in an outer circuit. The holes travel in the opposite direction and can
also be measured. As the amount of energy required to create an electron-hole pair is
known, and is independent of the energy of the incident radiation, measuring the number
of electron-hole pairs allows the energy of the incident radiation to be found.
The energy required for production of electron-hole-pairs is very low compared to the
energy required for production of paired ions in a gas detector. Consequently, in
semiconductor detectors the statistical variation of the pulse height is smaller and the
energy resolution is higher. As the electrons travel fast, the time resolution is also very
good, and is dependent upon rise time. Compared with gaseous ionization detectors, the

NV6150
density of a semiconductor detector is very high, and charged particles of high energy can
give off their energy in a semiconductor of relatively small dimensions.
Figure-14 Working of a semiconductor radiation detector
Geiger Muller Counter

A Geiger counter, also called a Geiger-Müller counter, is a type of particle detector that
measures ionizing radiation. It consists of a sensing element called Geiger Muller Tube
(or GM Tube) and a electronic circuitry for counter and display of counts.
Geiger Muller Tube

A Geiger Muller tube basically detects the presence and intensity of radiation (particle
frequency, rather than energy). In general, GM counters cannot determine the type,
energy, or vectors of the detected radiation. Generally they are used for detecting and
measuring radioactivity that consists of low level beta particles and gamma-ray radiation.
Hans Geiger first developed these detectors for detecting ionizing radiation in 1908. In
1928, based on suggestions from his colleague Walther Muller, he refined the design to
create the Geiger-Muller tube, upon which most contemporary Geiger, or Geiger-Muller,
counters are based.
Construction:
A Geiger–Müller tube consists of a tube filled with a low-pressure (~0.1 Atm) inert gas
such as helium, neon or argon and an organic vapor or a halogen gas and contains
electrodes, between which there is a potential difference of several hundred volts, but no
current flowing. The walls of the tube are either entirely metal or have their inside surface
coated with a conductor to form the cathode while the anode is a wire passing up the
center of the tube.

NV6150
The usual form of GM tube is an end-window tube. This type is so-named because the
tube has a window at one end through which ionizing radiation can easily penetrate. The
other end normally has the electrical connectors. There are two types of end-window
tubes: the glass-mantle type and the mica window type. The glass window type will not
detect alpha radiation since it is unable to penetrate the glass, but is usually cheaper and
will usually detect beta radiation and X-rays. The mica window type will detect alpha
radiation but is more fragile.
Most tubes will detect gamma radiation, and usually beta radiation above about 2.5 MeV.
Geiger–Müller tubes will not normally detect neutrons since these do not ionise the gas.
However, neutron-sensitive tubes can be produced which either have the inside of the
tube coated with boron or contain boron trifluoride or helium-3 gas. The neutrons interact
with the boron nuclei, producing alpha particles or with the helium-3 nuclei producing
hydrogen and tritium ions and electrons. These charged particles then trigger the normal
avalanche process.
Although most tubes will detect gamma radiation, standard tubes are relatively inefficient,
as most gamma photons will pass through the low density gas without interacting. Using
the heavier noble gases krypton or xenon for the fill effects a small improvement, but
dedicated gamma detectors use dense cathodes of lead or stainless steel in windowless
tubes. The dense cathode then interacts with the gamma flux, producing high-energy
electrons, which are then detected.
Figure-15 Working of a GM Tube
Working of GM Tube:
When ionizing radiation passes through the tube, some of the gas molecules are ionized,
creating positively charged ions, and electrons. The strong electric field created by the
tube's electrodes accelerates the ions towards the cathode and the electrons towards the
anode. The ion pairs gain sufficient energy to ionize further gas molecules through
collisions on the way, creating an avalanche of charged particles. This results in a short,
intense pulse of current which passes (or cascades) from the negative electrode to the
positive electrode and is measured or counted.

NV6150
Quenching Gas:
Together with the normal gas selected for the discharge, a small amount of quenching gas
is also included. If the tube is allowed to operate without quenching gas then after the
main discharge the impact of some of the residual high energy positive ions on the
cathode would cause the emission of the secondary electrons. These secondary electrons
would be accelerated towards anode and the subsequent high energy collision with gas
atom would trigger the repetition of the discharge. This process would be repeated
several times and so a string of spurious discharge would follow the single initial
ionization. Such repeated triggering is avoided by adding a quenching gas.
The quenching gas has ionization potential less than that of the main detection gas. De-
ionisation of the main gas is hastened because the slow moving residual ions of the main
gas combine with the electrons taken from the quenching gas. The newly formed positive
ion of the quenching gas drift towards the cathode, and on impact they are merely
neutralized, there being insufficient total energy to cause emission of secondary electrons.
Characteristic of GM Tube:
The characteristic curve of the GM tube is shown in Figure-16. This characteristic is
obtained by plotting the count rate in pulses per second as a function of supply voltage in
constant radiation.
Figure- 16 Characteristic curve (Plateau curve) of Geiger Muller Tube
As seen from the figure-16 at low voltages the counts rate is zero. GM tube can not be
operated usefully at low voltage region. The starting voltage Vs is defined as the lowest
voltage applied to the GM tube at which pulses can be detected with certain defined
characteristic. The starting voltage of tube Vs varies with design of the tube and can be
between 350V to 500V.
Above the starting voltage Vs the count rate increases rapidly and a condition is reached
where the counts rate stabilizes. This mark the beginning of the region called the plateau.
In plateau region all fully distinguishable ionizing events produces the same size normal
output pulses, the charge collected by the anode per ionization events being substantially
independent of the number of ions originally created.
The plateau length is defined as

NV6150
Plateau length = V2-V1

The small positive slope in plateau region called the plateau slope occurs due to the
following factors:
• Increasing voltage lengthens the active volume of the tube slightly (the spatial
region where ions are in an adequate electric field to ensure that they have a
chance of initiating an avalanche discharge). The number of counts thus increases
for the given incident radiation.
• Since even a quenched discharge leaves some residual charges or molecules in an
excited state, there remains a possibility of second discharge being induced. The
probability of this is low but rises with increasing voltage. The small number of
such spurious counts will add slightly to the initial count rate and thus contribute
to the slope of the plateau.
At the upper end of the plateau there is a sharp rise in the count rate. The relation
between the count rate and the radiation intensity is no longer linear. The tube circuit
becomes unstable and oscillation may occur.
Dead Time and Recovery

The maximum counting performance of a tube is determined by two interrelated
characteristic times. These are known as ‘dead time’ and ‘recovery time’, and both relate
to the period immediately following a full-size discharge.
Dead Time
The dead time, which has a major influence on the total recovery time, is the very brief
period following a discharge, during which the Geiger Muller tube is incapable of
responding to any subsequent ionizing event. This short period last while the effective
circuit capacitance is recharged. Normally, most of the residual positive ions are collected
by the electric field during this period, but the field is nevertheless too low to allow
another discharge, even if further ionizing events occurs. Dead time varies with applied
voltage. The dead time after each ionization discharge will limit the maximum count rate
because events that occur in the dead period cannot produce a count.
Figure-17 Possible heights of a second pulse as a function of time subsequent to a single

initial full size pulse

NV6150
Figure-17 shows the dead time and this can be seen to be the initial part. After the dead
time but before the field is completely restored, only limited discharge can be supported.
If additional time elapses before a subsequent discharge occurs, the voltage across the
detector tube rises. The next ionizing event can then produce a more substantial discharge
and a larger output pulse. The amplitude of such subsequent pulses will eventually rise to
the normal maximum after a full recovery period. The recovery time is defined as ‘the
minimum time between two successive normal pulses’ as shown in Figure-17. Recovery
time is approximately twice the dead time.
Background Count Rate:

The background count rate is the count rate in the absence of all other radiation that a
detector is intended to measure. The most important sources of background are as
follows:
• Gamma radiation from environment and from cosmic radiation
• Mesons from cosmic radiation
• Beta particles from impurities in the material from which the detector is made.
Intensity of radiation:
One of the most common natural laws is the inverse square law. An inverse-square law is
any physical law stating that a specified physical quantity or strength is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance from the source of that physical quantity. Light
and sound intensity both behave according to an inverse square law when they spread out
from a point source.
Nuclear radiation behaves this way as well. If you measure the counts per second at a
distance of 1 centimeter, the counts per second at 2 centimeters or at 4 centimeters should
vary inversely as the square of the distance (Figure- 18).
Figure-18 Counts rate versus distance plot

NV6150
Experiment 1
Object:
To determine the Plateau Curve of the Geiger Muller Tube
Apparatus Required:
1. NV6150 Setup
2. Oscilloscope
3. Computer with “GM Counting System” software installed
Procedure:
WARNING:
• Do not touch the window of GM Tube. It will become inoperable.
• The voltage applied to the GM Tube must not exceed 700 V.
• Handle the radioactive source with care. Follow the safety precautions.
Front Panel Introduction:

The front panel contains the following controls
1. EHT Voltage Control: It is used to supply voltage to GM Tube. It contains
coarse and fine adjustment for better control of voltage.
2. Timer Control: First row contains Start, Stop and Reset buttons for starting,
stopping and resetting counts on the display. Second row contains Step, Up and
Down buttons for adjusting time. The time is displayed in the format HH: MM:
SS. Up and Down buttons increases and decreases the time respectively by the
amount set by the Step button. The default value of Step is 1 second.
3. Threshold Knob: Use to set the value of threshold.
4. Pulse Output: The counts are registered in the form of pulse. These pulses can be
directly seen on the oscilloscope with the Pulse Output.
5. Probe: A five pin connector to connect GM Tube to the front panel.

NV6150
6. Display: Large LCD for EHT, Time and Counts display.

7. Indicators: This section contains four bicolor LED. Probe LED will turn green
when GM Tube is connected to the instrument, Timer LED will be green during
the period of counting and will blink when time is about to over. Count LED will
turn red when a count is registered and EHT LED will turn green when the EHT
is On.
8. Power Switch: It is used to switch on the instrument.
Setting up the Threshold
• Connect the mains cord.
• Connect the GM Tube to the front panel with five pin connector.
• Keep EHT Voltage Control knobs and Threshold knob at minimum position
(rotate them fully in anticlockwise direction).
• Switch On the instrument with the help of power switch.
• Press the EHT switch to “On” position.
• With the help of Coarse and fine voltage control set the EHT voltage at 400 V.
EHT voltage is displayed on the LCD.
• With timer control section, set the time at 60 seconds as described in Front Panel
Introduction.
• Keep the source far away from the tube (at least 4-5 meter away). Now press the
“Start” button and observe the value of counts. If counts are registered then adjust
the threshold with the help of “Threshold” knob till counting stop. Then press
Reset button to reset the display. Once threshold is set do not disturb its position
during the subsequent experiments.

NV6150
Performing Experiment in manual mode
1. Connect the mains cord to the Geiger Muller Counting System & switch ‘on’ the
instrument. (If not connected)
2. Set the value of EHT to 0 V and switch Off the EHT.
3. Now connect the GM probe to the front panel if not already connected.
4. Also connect pulse output to the oscilloscope through BNC cable.
5. Set the timer to 1 minute (60 seconds) with the help of timer section.
6. Switch On the EHT and set the voltage at 250V. (Any other starting voltage can
also be chosen).
7. With source placed far away (atleast 4-5 meter away) press start button to start
background counting. Timer LED will turn green when it is started and Count
LED will turn RED at each count. Pulses are seen on the oscilloscope at each
count. Note the counts and record the background counts in Table-1. Reset the
display with reset button.
8. Keep the distance between source and GM tube as 10 cm (distance is measured
from the front face of GM Tube to the face of source). Press the start button and
note the value of counts and voltage when timer stops in Table-1.
9. Reset the display with reset button. Now increase the voltage and repeat steps 6 to
8. Take reading upto 700 V.
Note: Take reading by increasing the voltage in small steps till plateau region, there
after increase the voltage by larger value.
10. Plot the graph between Voltage and Actual Count Rate and determine the Plateau
Region.
Table -1:
S. No Voltage (V) Background Count Rate (R) Actual Count
in Volt Count Rate (B) Rate = R-B

NV6150
Setting up the apparatus for PC mode
When connected to a computer the GM Counting unit will perform the experiments
automatically once the experimental parameter is set.
• Install the software provided with the setup. (If not done already).
• Connect the instrument to the computer using a RS232 cable or USB cable.
• Switch on the instrument.
• Open the software window by double clicking on its icon.
Introducing GM Software
As soon as you open Geiger Muller Counting System software the following window will
be seen on your computer screen
The screen of the software is divided in following sections

1. Hardware Control:-Hardware is connected & disconnected through hardware control
section.
The Hardware control section has following subsections:
• Select Com Port: Used to select COM port on which the hardware is connected.
• Test: Device connected or not.
• Connect: As you click on connect button, physical device is connected to the
software program. All the physical controls are disabled when connected to the
PC.
• Disconnect: As you click on disconnect button, Physical device gets disconnected
from the software program.

NV6150
2. Voltage and Timer control: You do not need to set parameters on the hardware
device directly; it is done through Voltage and timer control section.
The voltage and timer control section is having following subsections:
• Starting Voltage: The value of voltage from which reading of counts is to be
taken is been mentioned in this subsection.
• Ending Voltage: The value of voltage up to which reading of count is to be taken
is been mentioned in this subsection.
• Step size: Step size helps in setting the voltage interval in which reading is to be
taken.
• Timer: In this section we can set the time up to which reading is to be taken.
• Set parameters: After setting the above parameters, click on set parameters to
register your settings.
• Import: Through this button, readings can be imported to GM software.
• Export: Through this button readings can be exported in CSV format.
• Refresh: It is used to refresh the parameters.
• Start: Click on start option to starts taking reading according to the parameters
mentioned by you.
• Stop: Click on stop button to stop the experiment.
• Reset: It is used to reset the timer and counter.
3. Readings: The readings of voltage and counts are displayed here.
4. Voltage V/S Counts Plot: The graph between voltage and no. of counts is seen on
this screen.
5. Messages: Message window shows the task which are performed by the software.
6. Slope Calculation: Feed any two values of voltage and counts and then click on
calculate button to measure the slope and slope is displayed on slope window.
7. Graph control: The graph control section is having flowing sub sections
• Show points: The points of reading on the Graph curve can be displayed by
clicking on Show Points button.
• Hide points: The points of reading on the Graph curve can be hid by clicking on
Hide Points button.
• Refresh: It refreshes the graph.
• Print: The print of graph can be taken through print button.

NV6150
8. Manual Plotting: On pressing manual select button a new window will appear as
shown below
The above screen is divided in following sections

1. Manual Readings: Insert readings of voltage and counts then press Add to add
manual readings.
2. Graph Control: The graph control section helps in plotting graph of readings
mentioned on manual reading section.
Plot: Click on plot to plot the graph of mentioned reading.
Refresh: It refreshes the graph.
Show Point: Click on show point to see points of reading on graph curve.
Export: Click on Export to export the readings and graph in CSV format.
Import: Click on import to load already saved file.
Hide Point: Click on hide point to hide points of reading from graph curve.
3. Slope calculation: Enter any two values of voltage & counts and then click on calculate
button to measure slope, the slope is displayed on slope window.
4. Exit: Click on Exit to close this window.

NV6150
Performing Experiment in PC Mode:

• Set the Starting Voltage, Ending Voltage, Step Size & Time to the appropriate value.
Note: Recommended starting voltage = 250 V. (Make sure EHT switch is On)
• Click on the Set Parameters buttons to set the above parameters.
• Wait for some time till the initial voltage is set (message will appear in messages
section) then click on the start button to start the experiment.
• Once the experiment is finished a graph can be seen in the voltage v/s counts plot.
• Calculate the slope of the plateau region by entering the values of V1, V2, C1 and
C2. (V1 is the voltage where plateau starts and C1 is the corresponding counts,
similarly V2 is the voltage where plateau ends and C2 is corresponding counts).

NV6150
Experiment 2
Object: To study the pulse height with the applied voltage to the GM tube.
Apparatus Required:
• NV6150
• Oscilloscope
Procedure:
WARNING:
Note: Set up the Threshold value as described in Experiment -1.
2. Press the reset switch to reset the display.
3. Now connect the GM probe to the front panel.
4. Keep the distance between source and GM tube as 10 cm.
5. Set the timer to 1 minute (60 seconds) with the help of timer control.
6. Connect the Pulse Output to the CRO channel -1 and switch on the oscilloscope.
7. Switch On the EHT and set the voltage at which counts are registered.
8. The oscilloscope displays a pulse when a count is registered.
9. Find the height of the pulse (in terms of voltage) on oscilloscope. The pulses are
registered very frequently and to easily read the pulse height (pulse voltage) keep
the oscilloscope in XY mode.
10. Take pulse height reading for different value of voltages. (Do not increase voltage
beyond 700V).
11. Tabulate the data according to Table-2 & plot the graph between voltage & pulse
height.
Table-2
S. No Voltage (V) in Volt Pulse Height (P) in Volts

NV6150
Experiment 3
Object: To verify the Inverse Square Law
Apparatus Required:
• NV6150
• Oscilloscope
Procedure
WARNING:
Note: Set up the Threshold value as described in Experiment -1.
2. Press the Reset switch to reset the display.
5. Switch On the EHT and set the voltage at 500V.
6. Keep the source near the GM tube and note the distance between them (distance
is measured from the front face of GM Tube to the face of source).
7. Press Start button to start counting. After the counting stops note the reading in
Table-3.
8. Reset the display with Reset switch.
9. Increase the distance between radioactive source and GM tube and repeat step 7
and 8 and tabulate the data.
10. Plot the curve between source and tube distance (r) versus count rate (R).
11. Also plot 1/r2 versus R.
Table-3
S. No Distance (r) in cm Count Rate (R)

NV6150
Experiment 4
Object: To study the absorption of beta and gamma radiation.
Apparatus Required
• NV6150
• Oscilloscope
Procedure:
WARNING:
Note: Set up the Threshold value as described in Experiment 1.
2. Press the Reset switch to reset the display.
5. Keep the distance between source and GM tube as 15 cm (distance is measured
from the front face of GM Tube to the face of source).
6. Switch On the EHT and set the voltage at 500V.
7. Put the absorbers with its holder in between the tube and source, one at a time.
8. Press Start button to start counting. After the counting stops note the reading in
Table-4.
9. Reset the display with Reset switch.
10. Again put the one absorber and repeat step 7 & 8 and tabulate the data in Table-4.
11. Plot Count Rate v/s No. of Absorber.
Table-4
S. No No. of Absorbers Count Rate (R)

NV6150
Warranty
1) We guarantee the instrument against all manufacturing defects during 24 months
from the date of sale by us or through our dealers.
2) The guarantee covers manufacturing defects in respect of indigenous components
and material limited to the warranty extended to us by the original manufacturer,
and defect will be rectified as far as lies within our control.
3) The guarantee does not cover perishable item like transistor etc. other imported
components.
4) The guarantee will become INVALID.
a) If the instrument is not operated as per instruction given in the learning
material.
b) If the agreed payment terms and other conditions of sale are not followed.
c) If the customer resells the instrument to another party.
d) Provided no attempt have been made to service and modify the instrument.
5) The non-working of the instrument is to be communicated to us immediately
giving full details of the complaints and defects noticed specifically mentioning
the type and sr. no. of the instrument, date of purchase etc.
6) The repair work will be carried out, provided the instrument is dispatched
securely packed and insured with the railways. To and fro charges will be to the
account of the customer.
Note: GM Tube is not covered in the warranty.

NV6150
List of Accessories
1. GM Tube…………………………………………………………………………1 No.
2. GM Bench...............................................................................................................1 No.
3. Tube Holder……………………………………………………………………...1 No.
4. Radioactive Source…………....…………………………………………………1 No.
5. Source holder…………………………………………………………………….1 No.
6. Absorber Set (15 pieces)……………..………………………………………….1 No.
7. Mains Cord………………………………………………………………………1 No.
8. Tube Probe………………………………………………………………………1 No.
9. Serial Cable……………………………………………………………………...1 No.
10. USB Cable………………………………………………………………………..1 No.
11. Absorber Holder…………………………………………………………………1 No.
12. BNC to BNC Cable……………………………………………………………...1 No.
13. Learning Material CD…………………………………………………………..1 No.
14. Forms
• Intimation of Receipt of Radioactive source…………………………….1 No.
• Declaration of use of radioactive source…………………………………1 No

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Geiger Muller Counting System

Designed & Manufactured by:

Geiger Muller Counting System

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 2

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High Voltage Output : 0-800 V with coarse and fine adjustment

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Figure-1 Models of atoms

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Figure-2 Scattering of alpha particles by gold atoms

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Figure-3 Structure of Atom

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Fundamental laws of radioactivity:

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Figure-5 Curve showing relative activity as a function if time

The activity (A) of a radioactive sample is expressed in terms of the number of

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Figure-6 Alpha Decay

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Characteristics of Alpha Radiation:

• β- a electron is created by the transformation of a proton into a neutron.

Figure-7 Beta decay

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Characteristics of Beta Radiation

Figure-8 Gamma decay

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Figure-9 Isotopes of Hydrogen

Some isotopes are radioactive and are therefore described as radioisotopes or

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Figure-10 Schematic showing parallel plate type Ionization chamber

Figure-11 Coaxial cylinder type Ionization chamber

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Figure-12 A proportional counter design

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discovering radioactivity, whilst working on the phosphorescence of certain uranium salts

Figure-13 A scintillation Counter

3. Semiconductor Radiation Detectors

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Figure-14 Working of a semiconductor radiation detector

Geiger Muller Counter

Geiger Muller Tube

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Figure-15 Working of a GM Tube

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Figure- 16 Characteristic curve (Plateau curve) of Geiger Muller Tube

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Plateau length = V2-V1

Dead Time and Recovery

Figure-17 Possible heights of a second pulse as a function of time subsequent to a single

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Background Count Rate:

Figure-18 Counts rate versus distance plot

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Front Panel Introduction:

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6. Display: Large LCD for EHT, Time and Counts display.