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Bucks, England HPI0 SHA7905663 SWILLEY, WANDA SUE ‘A COMPREHENSIVE PERFORMANCE PROJECT IN FLUTE LITERATURE WITH AN ESSAY ON FLUTE EMBOUCHURE PEDAGOGY IN THE UNITED STATES FROM CA. 1925-1977 AS DESCRIBED IN SELECTED WRITINGS. ‘THE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA, D.M.A., 1978 Intemational 200% 2¢c0n040, an Anson, 406 © copyright by WANDA SUE SWILLEY 1978 All Rights ReservedA COMPREHENSIVE PERFORMANCE PROJECT IN FLUTE LITERATURE WITH AN ESSAY ON FLUTE EMBOUCHURE PEDAGOGY IN THE UNITED STATES FROM CA, 1925-1977 AS DESCRIBED IN SELECTED WRITINGS by Wanda Sue Swilley A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Musical Arts in Music in the Graduate College of ‘The University of Iowa July, 1978 ‘Thesis supervisor: Professor Betty Bang MatherGraduate College The University of Towa Towa City, Towa CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL D.M.A. THESIS This is to certify that the D.M.A. thesis of Wanda Sue Swilley has been approved by the Examining Committee for the thesis requirement for the Doctor of Musical Arts degree in Music at the July, 1978 graduation. Thesis committee: rs MemberACKNOWLEDGMENTS: Above all, I thank my Heavenly Father without whose sustaining grace and strength this paper would not have been written. I wish to thank my parents and many friends, especially Alma Baskerville, who have encouraged and supported me throughout the work on this study. special thanks go to my major professor and thesis supervisor, Professor Betty Bang Mather, who suggested the topic to me and whose helpful suggestions and guidance during the course of the study have been of inestimable value. My gratitude goes to my major advisor, Professor Himie Voxnan, and Professor Edward Kottick, both of whom read preliminary portions of the study and gave me pertinent advice, and to the rest of my conmittee for their interest, time and help. ii‘TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ©. 1 ee ee ee te ee eee LIST OF FIGURES 2.6 eee ee ee ee eee ee ee ee ME PART I. PROGRAMS PRESENTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS DEGREE IN PERFORMANCE AND PEDAGOGY ......++.-.2 PART II. FLUTE EMBOUCHURE PEDAGOGY IN THE UNITED STATES FROM CA. 1925-1977 AS DESCRIBED IN SELECTED WRITINGS «ee eet eet ee ee ee ee TPROUUCTION Se et ee STDS TS CUNY ee ee ee ee elated studies tier) eee 30) Procedure for Collecting Data se... ese eee ee ee LD ICHABIEE se BACHGHOUND <) te ee eee 13] Oo OO O00 OcuDcuGGGadoaGKGG The French Flute School»... ee ee eee eee eee 1S Selection of Pedagogical Materials... s+ e+e e ees 20 CHAPTER IT. PHYSICAL QUALIFICATIONS FOR THE FLUTIST'S EMBOUCHURE 2. se ee ee eee ee ee ee 29 A British Dentist's View. 6s. ee ee ee ee ee eee 30 Writings of Flutists/Performers/Educators ......... 32 An Alternate Solution . se +e eee ee eee ee ee es 36 Sie ee ee eo ee oe) CHAPTER IIT. EMBOUCHURE INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE BEGINNING FLUTIST ©. eee ee ee ee ee 43 Acoustical Descriptions of Plute Tone Production. ..... 43 Embouchure Instructions of Flutists/Performers/ Educators for the Beginning Flutist ........ 46 CHAPTER IV. CONTROL OP TONE QUALITY... - 1+ ee eee 68 Introduction... ee eee ee 8 Identification of Factors That Affect Tone Production. 6. eee ee ee ee eee 8 Flute Tone Quality Described... 2... 2+ eee ee ee 75 Embouchure Factors Affecting Control of Tone Quality... . 77 Summary ee ee ee ee ee te OF iiiPage CHAPTER V. CONTROL OF REGISTER 2.1... - ee ee ee ee ee 96 Introduction. se ee ee ee ee 6 Factors Affecting Control of Register -...-.-- +++ 98 (Stamm ete ee ee te CHAPTER VI. CONTROL OF INTONATION. ©...) eee ee ee 118 Mnibeodect donee ogre eee eet ett tle) Embouchure Factors Affecting Control of Intonation... . . 120 fe oho 000 dd0 000000 dodged naanoort) CHAPTER VII. CONTROL OF DYNAMICS ©. - eee ee ee ee ee 130 initeroduct dom estes) feet epee et eee) et 130) Embouchure Factors Affecting Control of Dynamics... . . . 132 (Smt etree gta see etc eget 109 CHAPTER VIII. SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PEDAGOGICAL USE OF FINDINGS .. 1... eee ee ees M45 Summary see ee eee ee ee ee ee eas] Implications for Pedagogical Use of Findings |... 1... 150 Questions for Further Study 2... eee eee ee ee ISL APPENDIX. SOURCES OF BMBOUCHURE AND TONE DEVELOPMENT EXERCISES FROM THE SELECTED WRITINGS... ~~... +... + 153 BIBLIOGRAPHY © ee ee ee ee ee 1B ivTable TI-1. 1I-2, 11-3. I-l. vi-l. vit-1. LIST OF TABLES PHYSICAL FEATURES DISCUSSED .........4- ASPECTS OF PHYSICAL FEATURES CONSIDERED FAVORABLE ASPECTS OF PHYSICAL FEATURES CONSIDERED UNFAVORABLE EMBOUCHURE FACTORS AFFECTING CONTROL OF TONE PRODUCTION. 2 eee eee ee ee eee te EMBOUCHURE FACTORS AFFECTING CONTROL OF TONE EMBOUCHURE FACTORS AFFECTING CONTROL OF REGISTER . EMBOUCHURE FACTORS AND THE MEANS BY WHICH THEY ARE REGULATED TO CONTROL REGISTER ........ EMBOUCHURE FACTORS AFFECTING CONTROL OF INTOKATION EMBOUCHURE FACTORS AFFECTING CONTROL OF DYNAMICS AND CORRESPONDING FLUCTUATIONS IN PITCH ..... Page 40 4a. 42 2 78 97 102 122 133Pigure vel. v-2. LIST OF FIGURES Lip positions in relation to the outer edge of the embouchure hole as presented by Pletcher Cross section of flute at the embouchure hole as presented by Stevens»... - ee eee ee ee ee viPART I PROGRAMS PRESENTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS DEGREE IN PERFOKMANCE ‘AND PEDAGOGY‘The University of Towa SCHOOL OF MUSIC Division of Fine arts RECITAL SUE SWILLEY, flute Beverly Avery, piano Assisted by: Kristin Lindley, violin Bernard McWillians, viola SUNDAY, APRIL 9, 1972, AT 3:00 P.M. Kadha Karuna (1962) Partita in A minor, BV 1013 (ca. 1720) Allemande Corrente Sarabande Bourrée Anglaise Ballade (1939) INTERMISSION Eight Pieces (1927) Serenade in D Major, Opus 25 (1797) Entrata. Allegro ‘Tempo ordinario d'un Menuetto Allegro Molto Andante con Variazioni Allegro scherzando e vivace Adagio Allegro vivace e disinvolto Student Series No. 86, 1971-72 Season. HARPER HALL Kazuo Fukushina 8. Bach Frank Martin Paul Hindemith L. van Beethoven ‘This program is being presented by Miss Swilley as a qualifying recital for admission to the curriculum of the Doctor of Musical Arts degree in Performance and Pedagogy and in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Musical Arts degree in Performance and Pedagogy.‘The University of Towa SCHOOL OP MUSIC Division of Fine arts RECITAL, SUE SWILLEY, flute Rita Resch, piano Assisted by: Carol Enlow, flute SATURDAY, DECEMBER 2, 1972, AT P.M. Concerto II in E minor for 2 flutes (1730) Prelude Air Courante a 1a naniere Frangoise Courante a la maniere Italienne Air dans le goft ancien Air dans le got des Brunettes Sonata in G Major for Flute and Piano Allegro moderato Adagio Presto Synchronisms No. 1 for Flute and Electronic Sounds (1963) Student Series No. 30, 1972-73 Season. ‘This program is being presented by Miss Swilley in of the requirements for the Doctor of Musical Arts and Pedagogy. HARPER HALL M. P. de Montéclair P. J. Haydn Mario Davidovsky partial fulfillment degree in Performance‘The University of Iowa SCHOOL OF MUSIC Division of Fine Arts RECITAL SUE SWILLEY, flute Rita Resch, harpsichord, piano Assisted by: Cheryl Fippen, cello Linda Boozer, viola Judith Carman, soprano Motter Forman, harp SATURDAY, MARCH 3, 1973, AT 8:00 P.M. HARPER BALL Sonata in G Minor Georg Philipp Telemann (from Methodical Sonatas 1728) Adagio vivace Grave Allegro Blues (1970) Arghyris Kounadis Density 21.5 (1936) Edgard vartse Deux Po’mes de Ronsard, Op. 26 (1924) Albert Roussel I. Rossignol, mon mignon II, Ciel, aer et vens Sonate (1916) Claude Debussy Pastorale Interlude Final Student Series No. 92, 1972-73 Season. This program is being presented by Miss Swilley in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Musical Arts degree in Performance and Pedagogy.PART TI FLUTE EMBOUCHURE PEDAGOGY IN THE UNITED STATES FROM CA. 1925-1977 AS DESCRIBED IN_ SELECTED WRITINGSINTRODUCTION The Study This study is a survey of selected writings on the flutist's playing embouchure as taught in the United States from ca. 1925 through 1977. Only writings intended for the Boehm system cylindrical metal flute have been considered. The writings were selected from methods for beginning flutists, complete flute methods, pedagogical texts used by flute teachers or instrumental music education students, and profes- sional journals. I have selected those writings which illustrate con- trasting approaches to flute embouchure pedagogy from the simplest instructions to unique detailed procedures. ‘The contents of the writ ings have been analyzed, similarities pointed out and different peda~ gogical approaches discussed. ‘The various aspects of embouchure peda~ gogy are identified, and the selected writings are presented as they relate to each aspect. The completed study provides a single source for flutists to compare approaches to teaching embouchure, broaden their knowledge and understanding of the aspects of embouchure pedagogy, and judge for themselves the effectiveness of the particular approaches. Chapter I discusses background information, including some of the events and personalities involved in the adoption of the Boehm flute in the United States. ‘The wood-versus-metal ccntroversy is pre- sented, and the spread of the French flute school! to this country and tohe French flute school refers to the technique of fluteits influence over the past seventy-five years is reviewed, Excerpts on the flutist's embouchure have been taken from writings, by fifteen twentieth~century authors, that have been in general use from 1925 through 1977, These authors and their writings are listed with annota~ tions. Writings on the flutist's embouchure? address themselves to the (1) flute teacher, (2) prospective flutist, (3) beginning flutist and (4) maturing flutist. The body of this study is an analysis of the enbouchure instructions written for the flutist in one or all of these categories. Chapters II and III analyze respectively (1) the physical qualifications for the flutist's embouchure and (2) embouchure instructions for the beginning flutist. As the flutist works to acquire embouchure control, his study involves the mastery of several aspects of tone development. Four of these aspects are examined in separate chapters: (1) tone quality, (2) register,? (3) intonation and (4) aynanics. Writings on these aspects of embouchure and tone development are examined, presented and commented upon in terms of the following playing taught by professors and students of the Paris Conservatory from the time of Altés and Taffanel to the present, ca. 1868-1977. ?ahe definition of the flutist's enbouchure for this study is: The position of the lips in relation to the flute emb2uchure plate involving the musculature surrounding the lips (including cheeks, chin, and upper lip drop area between nose and mouth), the mouth, throat, teeth, tongue and jaw. 3yor the purpose of identifying a specific pitch the following system is used throughout the paper: middle "C" is designated by c); third space treble clef "C" is designated as C2; etc. Each octave begins on "Cc." Specific register limits are given in Chapter V.factors that affect flute tone and relate to the lip embouchure: Placement of the flute in relation to the lips Lip position including muscle tensions Lip aperture shape Lip aperture size Embouchure hole coverage Distance from lip to edge (airstream* length) Direction (angle) of the airstrean Velocity of the airstream Any material appearing in brackets (e.g., [ "]) is the author's interpolation. ‘The Appendix presents an annotated list of sources of exercises for embouchure and tone development found in the selected writings. T consider that a resonant, projecting tone which is under con- trol in all performance situations is the result of several influences. These interact and share equally in the end product. Besides the embouchure, these influences are: (1) a head-body relationship which avoids tension and frees the respiratory mechanism, (2) a perfect balance of the flute between the hands and the chin which facilitates Light finger action, (3) a well-regulated breath control mechanism and (4) an instrument of superior quality in fine adjustment. 1 will not @iscuss these influences on tone here. However, the velocity of the airstream, the last aspect listed above, is controlled by both the lips ‘airstream, also called air reed or air jet, is the project=4 flow of air measuring from the lip aperture to the edge of the backwall of the flute embouchure hele.and the breath control mechanism. ‘The differences in opinion voiced in the various approaches present a dilemma to the student of flute pedagogy. This dilenma led me to question who and/or what was correct and, ultimately, led me to pursue the flutist's embouchure as my essay topic. ‘The selected writings represent a cross section of sources writ- ten for students, performers, and educators. The authors are flutists, educators and acousticians. ‘Three of the four acousticians are semi- professional or good amateur flutists. ‘The writings are generally based upon (1) what the writer was taught by another flutist, (2) what the writer feels he does when he plays, or (3) what the writer has learned about embouchure as the result of scientific investigation. No attempt will be made to determine which instructions produce the best results in performance. ‘The study seeks to answer the following questions: Do the writ- ings reflect an understanding of the acoustical principles of tone pro- duction on the flute? Are different approaches discernible or are they similar though using different terminology? What contradictions exist? ‘The conclusion of the study presents a summary of the findings with implications for their use, considers the above questions, and points out some areas for further study. Related Studies Walter Haseke's dissertation "Untersuchungen zur Fldtenspiel- praxis des 18/19 Jahrhunderts (Uber die Fléte mit mehreren Klapper’, K61n, 1954, surveys the history of the pre-Boehm flute, discusses all10 the fundamentals of flute playing covered in eighteenth~ and early nineteenth-century tutors, and includes some comparative quotations. Haseke's study of the flutist's embouchure is similar to mine, but larger in scope and general in approach. Catherine Smith's dissertation presents a thorough study of the characteristics of transverse flute tone in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, including quotations on tone quality and tone pro- duction. this information would be interesting to compare with the excerpts in my study. Jane Bowers' excellent study of the “French Flute School from 1700-1760" does not focus on the enbouchure, but does suggest sone aif- ferences in the tone quality of the Prench flute of the eighteenth century and that of the flute today. She discusses at length the intonation of the French one-keyed flute, including instructions given in eighteenth-century French treatises for adjusting inaccurate pitches. A "Treatise on Flute Playing" by Everett Tinm (M.M. thesis, 1943) and Charles Osborne's "Pedagogical Application of Flute study to Teacher's Needs" (Ph.D. dissertation, 1962) cover all aspects of flute technique. These works are text books on flute playing reflecting the authors" opinions. Enbouchure formation, intonation, and tone control, anong other topics, are presented in separate chapters. Donald Hartman's dissertation, "Pedagogical Practices Relating to the German Flute in England from 1729 to 1847," is similar in approach to my study. He chooses ten treatises and draws instructional Procedures and practices from them. Then he relates these earlier teachings to present-day instructions. His study examines all aspectsan of flute playing discussed in the treatises rather than limiting it to embouchure and tone control. Procedure for Collecting Data The Music Library at the University of Iowa has been invaluable to me in locating sources and gathering background information. The following references have been of additional help: Bate, The Flute, 1969; Vester, Flute Repertoire Catalogue, 1967; Miller, Catalogue of Books and Literary Material Relating to the Flute, 1935°; Doctoral Dissertations in Musicology; Doctoral Dissertations in Music and Music Education; René de Lerma, A Selective List of Masters' Theses in Musi- cology; Doctoral Dissertations: Music, 1949-64 (University Microfilms Catalogue); RILM Abstracts; The Music Index; Music Article Guide; and the card catalogues of other institutions including the Library of Congress, the British Library, the New York Public Library, and the Boston Public Library. Materials needed from other institutions were secured on microfilm or through interlibrary loan, A visit to the Library of Congress to obtain material from the Dayton C. Miller Collec- tion was made. Some biographical information was secured through private cor respondence with Philip Bate and Fernand Caratgé. All of the twentieth-century sources from which the selected writings have come are in my library. Of special help in finding these sources and related material were the personal libraries of Professor Ssee the Bibliography for complete information on the first three sources listed.Betty Bang Mather and Roger Mather, who were very generous in making their holdings available to me. My purchasing needs were handled by Eble Music Company in Iowa City. 1213 CHAPTER T BACKGROUND Introduction At the turn of the twentieth century, the use of the Boehm flute was well established in the United States. After 1900, "professional flutists without exception were using the Boehm system cylindrical instrument." ‘through the promotional efforts of A. G. Badger, a nine- teenth-century flute manufacturer in New York, several flute professors endorsed the Boehm flute. Notably, John Kyle and Philip Ernst in New York and N. D, W. Ainsworth of Yale influenced their students to adopt the Boehm system flute, insuring its future.” The wood-versus-netal controversy was well under way around 1900. Wooden flutes were prevalent, but the metal flute was gaining popularity rapidly. From 1867 to ca. 1890, Badger specialized in manu- facturing a cylindrical-bore, all-silver flute. Around 1895, C. G. Conn Company began production of a flute with a metal body and ebonite head- Joint, which was developed by Charles T. Howe, a Hartford, Connecticut, flute professor. This instrument was relatively inexpensive and popular.? Carl Wehner, whom Leonardo De Lorenzo calls “the dean of flutists Jpaul Henry Giroux, “History of the Flute and Its Music in the United States," (Unpublished master's thesis, University of Washington, 1952), 90. *rpid., 72. Fnid., 89.4 of America,"* was born in Mannheim, Germany in 1838, and studied flute with Theobald Boehm. He came to New York after 1870 as principal flutist in the New York Philharmonic and Metropolitan Opera orchestras. He was a zealous adherent to the wooden flute with an open G-sharp key and would neither hear nor teach a student with a metal flute.® Conversely, Georges Barrtre, at the invitation of Walter Damrosch, arrived in New York from Paris in 1905 witk his metal flute with a closed G-sharp key, As a flutist, he attained immediate success, whereupon many flute students began to exchange their wooden flutes for silver ones.° Barrre later became principal flutist in the New York ‘Symphony Orchestra and professor at the Institute of Musical Art, now the Juilliard School of Music. In a letter written to Paul Henry Giroux in 1951, William Kincaid relates the reaction of the professional flutists to the wood-vs.-netal question during the second decade of the twentieth century: +++ until 1913 there were more wood flutes than metal being played in the United States. Whereas in the Boston Symphony Orchestra all the flutists were using netal flutes as early as 1911, in the New York Philharmonic and the Metropolitan Opera Orchestras, the wood flute was standard throughout the sections. About 1914 the New York Philharmonic Orchestra changed to silver flutes? In 1912, William S. Haynes centered his attention and experimen tation on the manufacture of metal flutes, He made two silver flutes in 1913, but the number greatly increased in 1914-15, the demand for silver ‘teonardo De Lorenzo, Hy Complete Story of the Flute (New York: Citadel Press, 1951), 149. Syoia., 461. Stpia. Giroux, op. cits, 90.15 soon exceeding that of wood, Haynes produced no wooden flutes after aie. Verne Q. Powell had joined Haynes in 1913 and was foreman of that company for thirteen years. In 1926, he opened a shop of his own : Powell made only metal flutes. in which every workman was a flutist. Today, it is rare to find a flutist in this country performing on a wooden flute. One exception is Felix Skowronek of Seattle, Washington. Other flutists who established professional reputations in the United States early in tris century were: (1) Leonardo De Lorenzo (1875-1962), an Italian flutist who settled in the U.S. in 1909, became professor of flute at the Eastman School of Music in Rochester, New York, in 1923; (2) Ary Van Leeuwen (b. 1875-deceased), a Dutch flutist who came to the U.S. after World War I and became principal flutist of the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra and (3) Georges Laurent (1886-1964), a French flutist who arrived in the U.S. in 1921 at the invitation of Henri Rabaud, the conductor of the Boston Symphony Orchestra. Laurent was principal flutist of the Boston Symphony from 1921 to 1952, and he taught at the New England Conservatory. The French Plute School The roots of the contemporary French flute school of playing and teaching reach back to Vincent Joseph Dorus (1812-1896), who was one of the first French flutists to adopt the Boehm system flute for which he devised a key (the “Dorus key") to change the original open G-sharp to a Srobert J. Basch, “the Flute: Yesterday and Today," Woodwind Magazine 7 (March 1955), 7.16 closed one. In 1860, Dorus became the flute professor at the Paris Conservatory. De Lorenzo considers this appointment of Dorus as “an important turning point in the history of the flute in France," because “he introduced the Boehm flute which has been played and taught ever since."? An important link in the French flute school chain was added in 1858 when Claude-Paul Taffanel (1844-1908) at age fourteen began studying with Dorus and attained first prize at the Paris Conservatory in 1860, Dorus' first year. Taffanel built a distinguished reputation over the next thirty years and, upon the retirement of Henry Alt8s (1826-1899), became the flute professor at the Paris Conservatory in 1893. “He was quickly sur- rounded by many talented pupils who spread his system of teaching and 20 two such pupils were in playing in France and other countries.” Taffanel's 1994 class-~Georges Barrére (1876-1944), who later emigrated to the United States, and Philippe Gaubert (1879-1941), who was to hold the same position as his master, Taffanel, from 1919 to 1941, Barrere says he would not have becone a professional flutist had it not been for Paul Taffanel. His evaluation of Taffanel follows: Taffanel was not only the best flutist in the world but I doubt if any one can ever fill his place. Quality as well as quantity of tone and fine technique were only a small part of his splendid characteristics as a flute player. His musicianship, his style particularly, was highly inspira~ tional. He loathed cheap sentimentality, excessive expression, endless vibrato ..., in a word, all the cheap tricks which are as undignified as they are unmusical.11 Philippe Gaubert was the first teacher of eleven-year-old Georges 20, Sde Lorenzo, Ibid., 154. Ibid. Uypia., 187.7 Laurent. After three years, Gaubert suggested that he enter the Conser- vatory to study with Taffanel, which he did. Laurent then in 1921, a Product of the teaching of Gaubert and Taffanel, departed for the United States where, alongwith Georges Barrtre, he spread the French concept of flute sound and teaching techniques. Roger Mather confirms the similarity between the flute sound of Barrére, Gaubert, and Laurent by a comparison of early phonograph record ings of each. He concludes that Taffanel apparently was the source of this concept of tone, ashe taught all three of them. Mather also points out that Laurent used the “learn by listening" method to help his stu- dents develop a concept of tone sinilar to his. ‘The assumption is that Laurent attained his flute sound from Taffanel in a similar manner.!? Philip Bate discusses Taffanel's teaching and the spread of the French school in his book, The Flute. easter (re ey origin in France in the latter part of the 19th century, when Paul Taffanel, the Professor in the Paris Conservatoire, was probably the most influential teacher in Europe. Since Taffanel's tine, the style has becone widely appreciated through the concert tours of his successor and pupil, Louis Fleury, and later those of Marcel Moyse, René Le Roy, etc. ‘The delicate Performance and control of tone colour shovn by these artists have done much to popularise the metal flute, which today must rank as the world-favourite, and which has a growing list of devotees even in England and Germany. Marcel Moyse (b. 1889), mentioned above, was a student of Taffanel, Adolphe Hennebains, and Philippe Gaubert, all of whom were ‘roger Mather, "The Flute Sound of Georges Laurent," Woodwind World, Brass and Percussion 15 (March 1976), 13. ‘philip Bate, The Flute (New York: W.W. Norton, 1963), 232.18 flute professors at the Paris Conservatory in the listed order.” Moyse cane to the United States in 1949, making his hone in Marlboro, Vermont. He now lives in West Brattleboro, Vermont. Scores of flutists have made a pilgrimage to his hone or to Marlboro Music Festival to study with him and to be coached or conducted by him in chanber music and orchestral Performance. His son, Louis Moyse, gives the following answer to a question by Eleanor Lawrence: ‘what makes the French School of flute playing unique?* To me, there is only one way to play the flute well, and it 4ia happen by circumstance that the source of it was in France, years ago, with a great man at the head of the “dynasty,” a great artist and a great flutist. His name was Paul Taffanel; then in direct Line cane Adolphe Hennebains, Philippe Gaubert and Marcel Moyse. +++ the so-called French Method is now available everywhere in the world, and not anymore in Prance only.13 Louis Moyse may be prejudiced in his initial statement, but there is much evidence to support his final statement. Other French artists have made the United States their hone for ‘André and Daniel Maquarre’® (conservatory stu- a brief number of years~. dents with Barrére), René Rateau (solo flutist of the Chicago Symphony, Mouis Moyse is Professor of Flute and Chamber Music at the University of Toronto in Canada. "eieanor Lawrence, “Interview with Louis Moyse," The National Flute Association Newsletter 2 (ay 1977), 9. *pe Lorenzo, op. eit., 252, André Maquarre was at various times principal flutist in the Boston Symphony, Philadelphia Symphony ané Los Angeles Orchestra. Daniel Maquarre, brother of André, was at various times flute teacher at the New England Conservatory and a member of the Boston Symphony and New York Philharmonic. He was principal flutist in the Philadelphia Symphony preceding William Kincaid.19 retired and returned to France ca. 1955), and René Le Roy (returned to France in 1950). French flutists Michel Debost and Jean-Pierre Rampal frequently concertize in the U.S. ‘The French influence and impact upon the style of flute playing in the U.S, today has deep roots as “nost of the flutists holding major positions in this country either studied with Barrfre or Laurent or are musically descended from them.*!7 1 would aad Moyse to this group of influential French flutists, In 1961, James A. MacGillivray made the following observation in a discussion of woodwind schools and styles of playing: A distinctly American style of playing is now beginning to appear with the rise of the first generation of American-born principals in the important orchestras. Their teachers, like +++ Batrére on the flute, were mostly of the less exuberantly French kind, and the present movement is towards continued restraint, with stress on blending rather than contrasting col- ours, but with the French roots clearly showing... The mag- nificent Kincaid of the Philadelphia Orchestra combines French flute virtues with a more virile quality which is all his own, and which against all precedent sounds equally appropriate in Beethoven and in César Franck. William Morris Kincaid (1895-1967) was one of the most sought after teachers in the United States during the 1930's through the 1960's. He was a Barrére student and becane principal flutist of the Philadelphia Orchestra in 1921, a position he held for thirty-nine years until his retirement in 1960. He taught at the Curtis Institute of Music from its founding in 1925. A list of his students includes almost every principal player in the major orchestras in the U.S, His professional career Uyather, op. cit., 12, ™yames A. MacGillivray, "the Woodwind," Musical Instrunents Through the Ages, edited by A. Baines (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1961), 268.20 Parallels that of Laurent, who came to Boston in 1921. John Krell, one of Kincaid's students, states: To a great degree, William M. Kincaid was responsible for developing a robust style that might be called the American school of flute playing.19 Thus, the French school of flute playing was the primary influ- ence on flute playing and pedagogy in the United States during the first half of the twentieth century. The French influence continues today, though diversity and individuality among teachers indicate the emergence of what might be termed "the American school of flute playing." Some diversity and individuality will be discovered when the selected writings are examined. Selection of Pedagogical Materials Pedagogical writings on the Boehm cylindrical metal flute that include embouchure information were the goal of my search for material upon which to base this study. The types of material I researched were (1) complete methods, (2) beginning methods for private or homogeneous class study, (3) beginning methods for heterogeneous class study, (4) teaching manuals, (5) texts for college woodwind methods or techniques classes, (6) books on the flute and flute teaching and (7) articles relating to various areas of flute pedagogy. Writings used in the United States that can be classified in the above categories are numerous. I did not consider sone writings due to John Krell, Kincaidiana: A Flute Player's Notebook (Culver City, California: Trio Associates, 1973), vii.21 their lack of pedagogical information. The writings I selected were chosen for their originality of content and format and their inclusion of the various aspects of embouchure pedagogy. Some sources were chosen because of their use by "French school" teachers, others because they represent contrasting pedagogical approaches. The acoustical writings included will give the reader a scientific view of tone production and control which can be compared with the flutist/performer/educator view, generally based on experience and self-analysis. The following two anno- tated lists of the selected writings are in chronological order by original publishing date: Writings of Acousticians Coltman, John. “Acoustics of the Flute." Physics Today, 21/11: 25-32, Novenber 1968; The Instrumentalist, 26/6:36+, January 1972; 26/7:37+, February 1972. Coltman is an active amateur flutist with a collection of some 120 flutes. He is Research Director, Industry and Defense Products, Westinghouse Electric Corporation in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and car- ties out acoustical research on the flute as a hobby. He holds a Ph.D. degree in nuclear physics from the University of Illinois. His work in x-ray image amplification won him the Roentgen Medal from Remscheid, Germany, in 1970. Backus, John. The Acoustical Foundations of music. 2nd ed. New York: W. W, Norton, 1977. First edition, 1969. Backus is Professor of Physics at the University of Southern ntific and fornia. He has contributed numerous articles to both s musical journals, and is active as a practicing musician.22 Fletcher, Neville H. "Some Acoustical Principles of Flute Technique." The Instrumentalist, 28/7:57-61, February 1974. Fletcher. “Acoustical Correlates of Flute Performance Technique Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 57/1:233-37, January 1975. Fletcher is Professor of Physics at the University of New England in Armidale, Australia. He holds a Ph.D. degree from Harvard University and a D.Sc. from the University of Sydney, both in the field of solid— state physics, He has studied flute in Boston and Sydney and played with several semi-professional orchestras. In the past few years, he has combined his two interests through a study of musical acoustics, which is being supported by the Australian Research Grants Conmittee. Benade, Arthur H. Fundamentals of Musical Acoustics. New York: Oxford University Press, 1976. Benade, Professor of Physics at Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, is highly esteemed internationally by acousticians and musicians as one of the leading authorities in the field of musical acoustics. His textbook is encyclopedic in scope and technical in nature yet written with the musician in mind, Benade has published numerous research studies in professional journals and has done extensive research in the area of woodwind instrument construction. Writings of Flutists/Performers/gducators AltBs, Henry. Complete Method for the Flute. Paris: A. Leduc, n.d, (English translation, translator not identified). Copyright by H. Schoenaers, 1906, AltBs (1826-1899) was professor at the Paris Conservatory from 16°93 to 1693, Barrére speaks of playing an excerpt from Alt®s' Mothod23 for Flute in 1889.79 However, F. Caratgé assures me that Alt&s' Method was first published in 1906 by Millerau-Schoenaers. Alt®s was a student of Dorus, who was the first professor to teach the Boehm flute at the Paris conservatory.2+ Taffanel, Paul, and Gaubert, Philippe. Méthode complete de flfte, Paris: A. Leduc, 1923. Taffanel (1844-1908) was a student of Dorus and was Professor at the Paris Conservatory, 1893-1908. Taffanel conceived this Méthode as a treatise on the "Art of the Flute." He collected all the docunents, instructions, advice, lessons and studies, but died before he could organize them for publication. Philippe Gaubert (1879-1941), one of Taffanel's outstanding students, took over the task of editing the existing material, to which he added some lessons, and some original exercises and studies. Gaubert became Professor at the Conservatory in 1919 and served in that capacity until 1941. I will refer to the authors of this method as Taffanel/Gaubert throughout the rest of the paper. Moyse, Marcel. De 1a sonorité, Paris: A, Leduc, 1934. Moyse. The Beginner Flutist. Paris: A. Leduc, 1935. Moyse. The Flute and Its Problems-~Tone Development through Interpretation for the Flnte, Tokyo: Muramatsu, 1973. (Mostly written in 1961.) Moyse. Tone Development through Interpretation for the Flute. New York: McGinnis & Marx, n.d, Moyse (b. 1889) studied with Taffanel, Hennebains and Gaubert at ceorges Barrtre, "Autobiographical Sketch," My Complete Story of the Flute by Leonardo De Lorenzo (New York: Citadel Press, 1951), 184. *zernand Caratgé. Letter to the author, Decenber 6, 1975.24 the Paris Conservatory, He has had an extensive solo and chamber music performance career coupled with teaching, coaching and conducting. He helped found the Marlboro Music Center and the Brattleboro Music Center, both in Vermont. He has written thirty-two books of exercises covering all aspects of traditional flute playing and gives frequent workshops both here and abroad. In the following quotation, Moyse states his philosophy of flute playing and what he attempts to communicate through his playin I have always related the flute to the human voice: it is much nearer to it than the violin, Music is a language, the flute is one of its mediums of expression, and when I play I try to convey the impression of laughter, of singing, of talking, through the medium of my instrument in a manner almost as direct as that expressed by my voice. alts, Henri. CéI®bre méthode complete de flfte. Revised and augmented by Fernand Caratgé. Paris: A, Leduc, 1956. Caratgé undertook a revision of the 1906 edition of the Altts Néthode. In so doing, he added some exercises to each lesson that seemed to him indispensable and added a fourth part to the Méthode to bring it up-to-date with modern practice.”? some of the text is changed from the original meaning, so much so that the approach is different at times. Tt may be an interpretation of what Altts meant but did not say. T will refer to the authors of this method as Altts/Caratgé throughout the rest of the paper. Marcel Moyse, “The Art of Vibrato," Flute Forum 2 (Autumn 1969), 7. *Scaratgé, loc. cit.25 Wilkins, Frederick. The Flutist's Guide, Elkhart, Indiana: » § J. Artley, 1957. (Book and Recording) A pupil of Georges Barrére at the Juilliard School of Music in New York, where he was winner of five consecutive fellowships in flute, Frederick Wilkins (a. 1968) was his great teacher's successor both in the principal chair of the Chautauqua Symphony Orchestra and as flute instructor in the Chautauqua School of Music, Wilkins also taught at the Juilliard School of Music and the Manhattan School of Music. He was interested in the problens of the music educator and flute teacher, which prompted him to prepare this book and its accompanying instructive recording. It is one of the first methods to include a recording for demonstration and instructional purposes. Westphal, Frederick W. Guide to Teaching Woodwinds. Dubuque, Towa: Wm. C, Brown, 1962. Second edition, 1974. Westphal is Professor of Music at Sacramento State College in Sacramento, California. This book is designed for use by college stu- dents preparing to teach instrumental music and as a reference book for those interested in teaching and studying the woodwinds. Stevens, Roger. Artistic Flute Technique and Study. Hollywood, California: Highland Music Company, 1967. Stevens is Professor of Music at the University of Southern California. He graduated from the University of Michigan and the Eastman School of Music. Georges Barr®re, Anton Coppola, Georges Laurent, William Kincaid and Joseph Mariano were his teachers. His playing experience includes thirty years in the Los Angeles Philharmonic. He wrote this text to help satisfy what he calls @ "real need for26 clarification among teachers of instrumental music of the many aspects 24 and techniques of flute pedagogy and performance."*4 The pedagogical approach described in the book is unique among the writings selected. Stokes, Sheridon, and Condon, Richard A. Illustrated Method for Flute. Culver City, California: rio Associates, 1969. Stokes is the flute instructor at the University of California, Los Angeles, as well as being very active in the studio and recording orchestras of Hollywood for television and films. He is widely acknowl- edged as an authority on modern and avant-garde flute techniques. His teachers were Haakon Beigh and Roger Stevens. I will refer to the authors of this method as Stokes/Condon throughout the rest of the paper. Condon teaches at the University of Southern California and works with a satellite-producing technical company (TRW Systems Group). He plays flute with the Beach Cities Symphony and Woodwind Quintette and is a jazz flutist, performing frequently with Roger St. Onge. Their Method explains how to play the flute, using illustrations, Photographs and text to facilitate success. It is a scientific approach to flute pedagogy, and the principles are clearly and concisely presented. Exercises and music are included at the end of the method. It isa beginning methoa. Kujala, Walfrid. The Flutist's Progress. Winnetka, Illinois: Progress Press, 1970. (Demonstration recording included.) Kujala. "Jawboning and the Flute Embouchure," The roger Stevens, Artistic Flute Technique and Study (Hollywood, California: Highland Music Company, 1967), 7.27 Instrumentalist, 26/2:34-36, September 1971; 26/4:34-36, November 1971; 26/5: 38-39, December 1971. Kujala (b. 1925) is head of the Flute Department of the School of Music, Northwestern University. He performs with the faculty Chamber Music Society and plays flute and piccolo in the Chicago symphony Orchestra. He studied with Parker Taylor and Joseph Mariano at the Eastman School of Music. His text is designed as a "self-teaching" or “teacher-instructed” method for the rank beginner, the musical beginner, the doubler, the flutist needing remedial work and the college-level music education major. The accompanying recording lets the student hear how many of the exercises and pieces are to be played. The techniques described in the book and in the subsequent articles are unique with Kujala. Text, photographs, illustrations and music, within the limited range of the lower two octaves, ate arranged in logical, pedagogical order to guide the student's progress step by step. Putnik, Edwin. The art of Flute Playing. Evanston, Illinois: Sunmy-Birchard, 1970. Putnik was Professor of flute at Arizona State University until. 1977, He is a recitalist and clinician. His degrees are fron North- western (B.A.) and the Eastman School of Music (M.M.). His Method is in two parts: Part I is designed to guide the beginning flute student through the “basic principles" and Part II con- tinues development of the basic principles, advancing toward “artistic Performance." The Method contains a mixture of text, photographs (few) and an ample number of development exercises.28 Krell, John. Kincaidiana: A Flute Player's Notebook. Culver City, California: Trio Associates, 1973. John Krell has been solo piccoloist and member of the flute sec- tion of the Philadelphia Orchestra since 1952. After graduating from the University of Michigan, he studied with William Kincaid at the Curtis Institute. He has been a flute instructor at the Curtis Institute of Music, the Philadelphia Music Academy, Temple University and the Settlement Music School of Philadelphia. The publication of his "Note book of Kincaid's Teachings" was prompted by friends and other students of Kincaid who felt that the Kincaid legacy should be passed on to the Present generation of flutists. Since Kincaid did not publish anything himself, it is left to his students to communicate that legacy to the world. ‘The book is not a playing method, but it describes some practice routines and lists materials used by Kincaid. Part II on phrasing embodies some of the teachings of Marcel Tabuteau, oboist and colleague of Kincaid in the Philadelphia Orchestra and at the Curtis Institute. I will refer to this book as Kincaid/Krell throughout the rest of the paper.29 CHAPTER II PHYSICAL QUALIFICATIONS FOR THE FLUTIST'S EMBOUCHURE The definition of the flutist's embouchure used in this paper is: The position of the lips in relation to the flute embouchure piate, involving the musculature surrounding the lips (including the cheeks, chin and upper-lip-drop area between the nose and mouth), as well as the mouth, throat, teeth, tongue and jaw. Some of the authors of the selected writings speak of the favorable or unfavorable effects that various conformations of these physical features have on flute tone production. AltBs, Alt®s/caratgé, Moyse, Kujala and the acousticians do not mention this matter in their writings. Other selected authors discuss the physical qualifications in order to help the reader evaluate his ‘own or another's chances of success in flute playing. This type of dis- cussion appears under headings such as: "Selecting the Student," "on the Aptitude to Flute Playing,” "Student Qualifications," or "Physical Qualifications for Students." Such titles are generally directed to the music educator. Putnik considers abnormal physical characteristics as embouchure problems and suggests various means to overcome their limita~ tions. His comments are directed to aid the player who is already com- mitted to the instrunent.30 A British Dentist's view Maurice Porter, a British dentist, wrote a book entitled The Embouchure, which considers the physical characteristics of the wind player's enbouchure. Because of the nature of Porter's study, I have selected excerpts for inclusion in this chapter only. Porter focuses his remarks on characteristics of the teeth and jaw in the following excerpts: A student with a "normal" relationship between his upper and lower jaws and between his individual teeth has a considerable advantage at the outset on almost any instrument. Where there is a receding lower jaw rendering the upper front teeth prominent when the back teeth are clenched, or where the upper front teeth are prominent without necessarily involving a receding lower jaw, the embouchure is limited in scope. The scope of adaptability depends on the length of the upper lip and its maneuvrability as well as its sensitivity... .2 In flute playing, these conditions ... [have] ... far less of an effect [than in playing other wind instruments] unless the alignment of the upper front teeth is very bad,-e-9., overlapping or rotated front teeth, or the presence of outstand- ing canine teeth. These ircegular teeth could interfere with the stretching and manceveability of the upper Lip. Where there is a protrusion of the lower jaw or where the upper jaw is underdeveloped ... the head of the instrument resting on or under the lower lip would need to be turned more outwards to assist the direction of the air flow across the hole without straining the upper lip.3 Porter views a normal relationship between jaws and between teeth as favorable for playing any instrument. He views prominent and misaligned upper front teeth (whether caused by a receding lower Maurice M. Porter, The Embouchure (London: Boosey and Hawkes, 1967), 10. 3 2 qbia., 38. Ibid., 40-41,31 Jaw or not) and a protruding lower jaw or underdeveloped upper jaw as unfavorable conditions for playing flute. He mentions two important points that could determine whether or not a student with these condi- tions would have success in playing flute: (1) the length and maneuver~ ability of the upper lip and (2) the’positioning of the mouthpiece to aid the lips in directing the airstream properly. Writings of Flutists/Performers/Educators Stokes/Condon state that the physical configuration of the player's mouth and jaw affects proper embouchure formation, but these authors do not discuss the effects produced.4 Selection of the Student ‘Taffanel/Gaubert list concisely the physical attributes necessary to gain control over the embouchure: a. Lips neither too thin nor too thick. b. Even teeth. c. A lower jaw that is not prominent. A d. Upper part of the chin slightly concave. Georges Laurent wrote no flute method, but he did write an article in 1950 that includes the following statement concerning the physical qualities of a young person desiring to become a professional flutist: +++ the first thing to do is to see if the lips and teeth ‘gheridon Stokes and Richard A. Condon, Illustrated Methc# for Flute (Culver City, California: Trio Associates, 1969), 17. 5paul Taffanel and Philippe Gaubert, Méthode compl&te de flfte (Paris: A. Leduc, 1923), 7.are normal. Upper and lower lips which are too big, or teeth that protrude are not good assets for this instrument. If physical qualities are normal, there is nothing to prevent an ambitious youth from studying the flute with all the chances of success on his side. Keeping his statements brief, Wilkins also considers attributes described as normal to be most favorable: ++ it is assumed that the flutist has a nornal oral cavity with straight teeth. ‘This does not eliminate those aspirants who have uneven teeth as they may succeed in producing good sounds as well as others. However, a normal mouth and lip forma- tion is certainly an asset. Wilkins is careful not to completely discourage anyone. Other authors take similar precautions. Westphal speaks of student qualifications and aptitudes in a manner similar to that of Taffanel/Gaubert: Generally speaking a student who has even teeth and lips that are firm and not too large may have an advantage over those who do not possess these attributes. The raze individual who has a pronounced underbite will probably have difficulty in achieving much success on the flute. In the final analysis, it is not natural aptitude but desire and persistence which determines future success on the instru- ment .8 As with Wilkins, Westphal points out the advantageous attributes, but Sceorges Laurent, "On Playing the Flute," symphony (March 1950), 10. Trrederick Wilkins, The Plutist's Guide (Elkhart, Indiana: & J. Artley, 1957), 23. Srrederick Westphal, Guide to Teaching Woodwinds (Dubuque, Towa: Wim, C. Brown, 1974), 112-13. Information is the same as that in the 1962 edition.33 encourages anyone with enough desire to persevere. Roger Stevens is very thorough in his remarks concerning the physical features that an instrumental music teacher should examine before influencing a student to study the flute. He comments on five physical features--lips, jaw, chin, teeth, mouth (palate): ‘The ideal upper lip is one which is quite straight across, of average thickness, and at least average in length from nose to red area. The downward dip in the upper lip often referred to as a tear drop is not desirable, although, if not extreme, it can be adequately negotiated by means of an off-center aperture. There are many successful flutists who have done outstandingly despite this irregularity, but not infrequently at the expense of adequately rapid articulation. The lower lip should also be of average thickness and regular in shape. This is not as critical a factor as the upper lip .... The absence of any severe deformity will adequately qualify the lower lip.? The lower jaw, its shape, and the relation of its natural set to the upper jaw is important. Extremes of malocclusion are sufficient to discourage the prospective student. A moderate over-bite is not a severe detriment, but any degree of under- bite ("bull-dog jaw") is sufficient reason to suggest an alter nate instrument. +++ the chin must not recede sharply, leaving no substan- tial resting place for the embouchure plate. Misalignment of the teeth can be detrimental in extreme cases. All incisors should be present, or the prosthesis such as to duplicate normal contours of the incisors. Wearers of extensive prosthesis should be discouraged. A student who is undergoing temporary orthodontia is handicapped by the presence of all the hardware in his mouth, but this should not be consid- ered sufficient reason to discourage his learning to play. The hardware does, however, pose the problem of becoming accustomed to its presence and then, later on, its absence. In cases of extreme misalignment the student should not be encouraged unless orthodontia is planned and offers good odds for subsequent cor- rection. ‘The student with an uncorrected or uncorrectable cleft Proger Stevens, Artistic Flute Technique and Study (Hollywood, California: Highland Music Company, 1967), 13.34 palate can not pogsibly learn to play the flute or any other wind instrument. Stevens is the only selected author to state firmly that a student with certain extreme physical features should be discouraged. In reference to the upper lip tear drop’! formation, he includes close- up photographs of the playing embouchure of eighteen flutists, seven of which illustrate successful embouchure formations in spite of a tear @rop. He encourages the student with average or moderately irregular features, but discourages the one with any degree of under-bite, a sharply receding chin, extensive prosthesis [false teeth] , uncorrected extreme misalignment of teeth and completely rules out the possibility of a student with an uncorrected cleft palate to learn to play the flute. Kincaid/Krell refer to the “cupid's bow" lip formation as a handicap, but it is one that can be overcome by using a “side-winder" embouchure on one side of the mouth, which many successful players have done oe A Problem to Correct Putnik considers that abnormal physical characteristics of the player are problems to be corrected. His solutions relate to problens involving the lips and jaw: Mrpia., 16. Nghe “tear drop," sometimes called “cupid's bow," is a thicken- ing in the center of the upper lip. It often causes the formation of two airstreans, one of which must be closed off, requiring the player to ue an off-center embouchure or to stretch the lip sufficiently to flat- ten the tear drop. }?5ohn Krell, Kincaidiana: A Flute Player's Notebook (Culver City, California: Trio Associates, 1973), 6.35 Lower Lip I£ the student's lower lip is unusually thick, the edge of the embouchure hole should be moved up slightly on the lip, to cover less of the hole. In case the student's lip is unusually thin, he must cover slightly more of the hole by moving the flute down below the edge of the lower lip. Upper Lip An upper lip that is unusually thick or fleshy in relation to the lower lip will cause the student to blow down too directly into the flute. This may generally be corrected by changing the relative tension of the lips. ‘The corners of the mouth are drawn back, or even down, to make the upper lip firmer while allowing the lower lip to remain relatively fleshy. If this proves insufficient, further adjust- ment is necessary by bringing the lower jaw forward and, conse- quently, the lower lip. In the opposite instance, when the upper lip is so thin in relation to the lower one that the student normally blows across the embouchure plate at too slight an angle, improvement can be made by bringing the corners of the mouth up slightly to flatten the lower lip against the teeth and drawing back the jaw. Since the upper lip must at all times cover the upper front teeth, some students will find it necessary to pull the lip down over the teeth in cases wherein the lip normally allows the upper teeth to protrude. This type of extreme overbite will usually also require the average position of the lower jaw to be quite far forward. Lip Aperture Shape +++ the shape of the student's lips in forming an aperture may cause problems in centering the air stream. Thicker portions on either the upper or lower lip will often produce apertures resembling the following, rather than the norm:36 Note that in Example B above, the off-center embouchure is usually caused by pushing the flute to the player's left, rather than by a physical characteristic of the lips. In any case, the solution is to move the lower lip to the right or left as needed and approximate the desired aperture formation. Occasionally, a thickness of the upper lip in the center may Produce a "split embouchure," such as: —_> Mn“ The solution of this problem is usually to move the lower lip to the right or left, and match one of the apertures in the upper lip with the natural aperture in the lower lip. The stu- dent may also have to learn to close the other aperture by Pressing the lips together on that side. Jaw In the rather comton overbite, the average position of the lower jaw may easily be adjusted to one in which the jaw starts already somewhat forward in the lowest range. When the lower jaw is generally too far forward, the position of the flute on the lip, and its angle, will need to be shifted in, The student must then practice pulling the jaw back while forcing the tone in the low octave, also stretching the lower lip and flattening it against the teeth by pulling the corners of the mouth back considerably. 3 Tf Putnik recognizes any problem as insurmountable, he does not say so. An Alternate Solution Several of the above authors offered suggestions for overcoming Problems involving abnormal configurations of the lips and jaws. Al1 the suggestions either dealt with the need for muscular control to ‘eavin Putnik, the art of Flute Playing (Evanston, T1lnot Summy-Birchard, 1970), 22-23,37 improve the unnatural situation or with experimentation in placing the headjoint against the chin. The following writings by William Powe11,"4 of Birmingham, England, suggest adapting the flute's embouchure hole size and shape to improve the player's particular weaknesse: ESSAY ON LIPS White lips, Red lips, Blue lips, Black lips, Thin lips, Medium lips, Fat lips, Blubber lips. Lips play a very important part in flute playing. When we consider the millions of people there are in the world and realise that the lips of each and everyone varies, it is not surprising that many people find it difficult to play a flute with comfort, in fact some flautists both amateur and professional spend a lifetime with the instru- ment and never get the quality of tone they have a right to expect. I do not mean that it is for the want of practice or perseverence, ... but because of a slight natural defect and the manufacturer's have not up to the present faced the problem. There are plenty of good flutes on the market which are quite easy and comfortable to play by persons possessing normal lips, but there are other persons--and it does not matter how much they practice--who are unable to produce a good tone. Lips are very sensitive not only to heat and cold but pressure also. There are what we may call "blubber™ lips and persons possessing these are the most difficult to suit with a flute head unless he has made a study of his defects and possesses a good purse which will enable him to have experimental heads made. JAWS AND TEETH The formation of these vary to a considerable extent, some chins protrude causing what we may call "over-shot" and some receed causing what we may call “under-shot." When a person's chin and bottom lip receed, it is usually found that a lip plate or embouchure of large radius is the most comfortable, in fact, such persons are generally most brilliant piccolo Players. In selecting a flute, a person must go about it as though he were buying a suit of clothes and wanted a good fit, in other words, if he cannot get an instrument ready made that will enable him to produce a good tone, he must be measured for Maiiiian Powell of Birmingham, England, is an enthusiastic devotee of the flute. Investigation, reported in a letter to the author from Philip Bate of London dated May 26, 1976, revealed no further identification of Mr. Powell.38 one. It would be a great comfort to flautists--also of benefit to flute manufacturers--if registered trial heads were brought into use ... and should consist of something like the following. The mouth hole should consist of two shapes viz. Elliptical and Rectangular and each shape should consist of about 12 registered sizes with due regard to the angle of the undercut--which I consider important--. Such a method would enable every flautist to select a flute head with an embouchure suitably adapted to overcome any abnormal formation of lips, jaws or teeth. Summary In their discussions, most authors are careful not to condemn any undesirable characteristic as insurmountable. They use phrases such as "can be detrimental," "usually impossible" or "may be impossible." Other authors discuss only the "conditions desirable" or the "attributes most favorable." Perhaps this reluctance to condemn any “defect” has influenced some authors to avoid the subject. Those who do discuss it do so with varying degrees of strength and emphasis. Can we conclude from the above excerpts that there is a physical attribute that would absolutely preclude a successful flute enbouchure? Roger Stevens states that it is not possible for a student with an uncor- rected or uncorrectable cleft palate to play the flute.1® strong nega- tive statements from some other authors refer to the extreme irregular bite--the underbite (protruding lower jaw) and poorly aligned and pro- truding upper teeth--as serious enough to discourage a student from play- ing the flute. A third questionable physical attribute is a short upper 'yilliam Powell and Sidney Powell, The Flautists Guide (Hand written and compiled into one volume and presented to Dr. Dayton C. Miller on September 15, 1933. The volume is part of the Dayton C. Miller Collection in the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.), 1P4~85. stevens, op. cit., 1639 ip (from nose to red area of the lip). In short, it would seem in general that any attribute that is unnatural and borders on the extreme is detrimental to flute playing, while that which is normal or almost normal is favorable. Some authors do not mention the “tear drop" lip formation and some state that straight lips are "most favorable.” Those who do discuss the tear drop consider it a problem that, in most cases, can be solved with determination on the part of the student. Table II~1 below summarizes the physical features discussed by each author. Tables II-2andII-3 list respectively the physical charac- teristics considered favorable and unfavorable by each author.TABLE II-1 PHYSICAL FEATURES DISCUSSED 40 Physical Features Selected Authors 5 ais 5 ] &| |g i é esr slelalels| 3/2/12! 84/413 Bale] bie] 8/2/8128) 3) 8) 218 Slalele}2|s|2|sla/ 8] 2) ale Jaws (bite) Norma? yilv ¥ v Abnormal v ¥ v 4 ¥ Teeth ¥ v Vivivily Orthodontia (braces) | Prosthesis (false teeth) v Palate ¥ Lips v y viviv| v7 viv Chin (shape) ¥ v| Oral cavity ¥ YWormal bite here is interpreted to mean slight overbitea1 LI-Tl aaeoucs Aqaubtts uyyo go azed sedan a ©3 @Sou W033) y36uet aberene Jo dyT raddq IA |Z (wend) 3ybTe738 abpe ay7 7 @aT3Tsues pue sTqTXoTJ ‘Guozys exe 3eua SsdrT As tf SsauyoTYy, abereae Jo sdrq 7 ‘Raqaeo Tero TeuION 7 A aan Ba WE Hae oa 3 oer wares 7 : Se 7 Irie te 7 - y3e203 pue SdzT Jo uoyyeuOs TeUION PIECE UE IEIEIE ELS ple? BIRIZI3 ls lolelelels Bales BIS ia ela lays) eal |” < 3 B ge ie e} | |e g e 8 a STEVOAWA GHUTAISNOD SAUNIWES IWOISAHA JO SLOgaSY Z-11 stave‘TABLE I1-3 ASPECTS OF PHYSICAL FEATURES CONSIDERED UNFAVORABLE 42 Unfavorable Aspects Selected Authors Altes Itaffanel /Gaubert Moyse lAlt®s/Caratoé Laurent Wilkins Westphal [Stevens IStokes/Condon Kujala Putnik Kincaid/Krel1 Upper Jaw underdeveloped Protruding upper teeth ~< | < [porter Receding lower jaw and protruding upper teeth Protruding lover jaw Misalignment of teeth Outstanding canine tooth Very thick lips Very thin lips Short upper lip Upper lip "tear-drop" = Sasa Wearing braces Wearing extensive prosthesis Sharply receding chin

He explains further: ‘The more directly at the backwall the player blows, the higher will be the velocity, the higher the pitch and register. By blowing more directly down into the instrument (nore parallel with the backwall), the lower the velocity of air off the wall becomes, and the lower the pitch and/or register becomes. Stevens! statement and Coltman's above statemen "the jet is not Parthur H. Benade, Fundamentals of Musical Acoustics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), 492. Snoger Stevens, Artistic Flute Technique and Study (Hollywood, California: Highland Music Company, 1967), 12-13. Sabia., 29. ®rbia.46 deflected like a reed," do not appear to agree. Further investigation of Stevens’ backwall theory would help clarify the issue. Stevens’ backwall theory prompts another question regarding exactly where the airstream is directed to produce sound. Stevens states that the flutist is to aim the airstream at the backwall of the enbou- chure hole.” Fletcher, on the other hand, writes that the flute's sound depends "in great measure upon the exact way in which the air jet fron the player's lips strikes the edge of the flute enbouchure hole."® Does the flutist blow at the edge or the backwall? For the purpose of this paper, Coltman's description of flute airstream behavior and Benade's classification of the flute as an air reed behavior system will serve as the acoustical basis for flute tone production. Embouchure Instructions of Flutists/Performers/Bducators for the Beginning Flutist Moyse does not include instructions specifically for beginning to play the flute. His Beginner Flutist does, however, contain exer~ cises to develop the beginner's tone, The editors of Taffanel/Gaubert's method reconmend Moyse's Beginner Flutist as supplementary tone develop- ment material. Trpia., 17. ®xeville H. Fletcher, "Some Acoustical Principles of Flute Tech- nique," The Instrumentalist (February 1974), 57. (Hereinafter referred to as Fletcher, "Some Acoustical Principles.") Marcel Moyse, The Beginner Flutist (Paris: A. Leduc, 1935).47 As I described in the Introduction to this paper, the embouchure refers to the manner in which the flutist manipulates his lips and sur- rounding muscles in forming, shaping and guiding the airstream to pro- uce tone. ‘The individual conformations of each flutist's teeth, chin, jaw and lips (as discussed in Chapter II) make his particular embouchure unique. This diversity of physical characteristics among players prob- ably influenced some authors to include only general embouchure instruc- tions in their beginning methods, or to omit them entirely, choosing to let the teacher instruct the student with techniques suited to his needs. Most public school elementary band methods rely on one or two photographs to illustrate the proper posture, holding position, hand position and embouchure (e.g., Petersen, Elementary Method, Rubank; Anzalone, Breeze-Easy Method, Witmark; Belwin, Band Builder; and Belwin, Pirst Division Band Method). Such pictures, if any, are inadequate to explain the fundamentals of beginning flute technique. Hand position and embouchure, especially, would require close-up pictures from several angles. None of the above methods gives any verbal embouchure instruc- tion. The pupil is told that new problems will be explained by his teacher. Harry Phillips‘ Silver Burdett Instrumental Series and Hal Leonard's Learning Unlimited--Let's Play Flute are exceptions in that they give careful attention to the formation of the embouchure and offer appropriate instructional comments throughout. In the selected writings, the embouchure instructions for the beginning flutist illustrate several approaches which will be discussed as they relate to the following pedagogical aspects: (1) preparation for first tones, (2) placement of the embouchure hole in relation to the48 player's embouchure, (3) forming the aperture, (4) directing the air- stream and (5) first notes, Preparation for First Tones Wilkins, Kujala and Stevens describe various exercises for help- ing a student locate and develop the muscles used in forming the embouchure before attempting to produce sounds on the instrument. Wilkins’ exercise is the simplest and is illustrated in his method: With the lips in this position [sardonic smile or grimace], allowing for a slight separation through which to blow, we have a teasonably accurate lip formation. Kujala's method, a self-instruction approach, details three exercises using his "lower cheek deflation enbouchure" technique which he refers to as "LCDE." The first exercise which introduces the LCDE follows: 1. Moisten your lips, form a very small opening between them, and blow with just enough strength to keep the cheeks inflated ... (Continue blowing during the following steps.) 2, Place the tips of your forefingers just below the corners of your mouth and press the base of those fingers over the lower cheeks ... so that the air is squeezed out of that area. 3. Now remove your fingers and try to seal off the air access to that same area, this time by firming up and slightly pulling the corners of your mouth from below. It should feel almost as if you were trying to tuck the corners of the mouth against your lower teeth,1! Mprederick Wilkins, The Flutist's Guide (Elkhart, Indiana: D. & J. Artley, 1957), 23. Myaltria Kujala, The Flutist's Progress (Winnetka, Illinois: Progress Press, 1970), 13.49 His other two exercises develop the lover cheek muscles by using them (1) to move air in the mouth from the lover cheek area to the upper cheek area and then to squeeze the air out through the lips and (2) to squeeze water fron one cheek to the other as one does when rinsing the mouth, The three exercises are to help the student experience the feel of a good basic embouchure position.!* Numerous illustrations deron- strate the LCDE technique. Stevens gives three helpful suggestions to the student who is unable to produce a sound on the instrument: 1. With the mouth in a natural, relaxed position, keep the Lips closed and permit the airstream to force a small opening between the lips. 2, With the lips held firm but not tense, insert a soda straw in “he center of the lips and encourage the student to retain the contour of the opening after the straw has been with- drawn, i.e., "gripping the missing straw.” 3. Ask the student to think of “spitting” a piece of fuzz off the upper lip.13 stevens’ and putnik!® both suggest that the instructor denon- strate the proper enbouchure for the student. Kujala!® and Stokes/ 7 Condon’? denonstrate the embouchure through their extensive photographs and illustrations. Useevens, op. cit., 22. Mrpia., 17. Via. 16. \eawin Putnik, The Art of Flute Playing (Evanston, Illinois: Sunmy-Birchard, 1970), 18. 16, Kujala, op. cit., 14-15. Msheridon Stokes and Richard A. Condon, Illustrated Method for Flute (Culver City, Calif.: Trio Associates, 1969), 17-21.50 The use of a mirror is reconmended by Altés/Caratgé,*® Taffanel/ Gaubert, fa westphal,”° stokes/condon,”1 Kujala”? and Putnik”? as the student is instructed to take the flute (Stokes/Condon”*) or the head joint alone (recommended by all other selected authors) and attempt to place the enbouchure hole properly to produce his first sounds. Putnik uses the head joint alone only until the student can consistently pro- duce a tone. If a student can inmediately produce a tone on the head joint, he moves on to the use of the whole flute.”° stevens, on the other hand, requires the student to achieve a degree of fluency with the head joint tones”® before proceeding to assemble the instrument.” other selected authors say that the head joint alone should be used until the player's enbouchure is set. When the student is ready to assemble the head joint with the body joint, his attention should be guided to the proper alignment of the enbouchure hole in relation to the key mechanism of the body joint. ‘The selected authors present two opinions on the basic alignment. Muenri Altds, Célébre méthode compldte de flfte, revised and augmented by F. Caratgé (Paris: A. Leduc, 1956), 17. Hereinafter referred to as Altts, Célebre. + paul Taffanel and Philippe Gaubert, Méthode complete de flate (aris: A, Leduc, 1923), 3. Headjoint alone, p. 5. Ovestphal, op. cit., 94. “stokes and Condon, op. cits, 21. 23, ?eujala, op. cite, 13. 1s. stokes and Condon, op. cit., 17. ?6yead joint tones refer to the fundamental and overtones pro- duged on the open end and closed end jead joint. Approximate pitches Ab, ab3, al, £3, c#4, Stevens, op. cit., 21. Putnik, op. cit. Sputnik, op. cits, 18. TM rhia., 22.51 28 aitts/caratgé”® and Kujala®® state that the far edge of the altts, embouchure hole should be in a straight line with the middle of the keys. The other authors state that the center of the embouchure hole should be centered with the line of the keys on the body joint. ‘Taffanel/Gaubert, of the latter group, further notes that "for certain lips the enbouchure hole might be slightly turned invard."?! they do not explain what “certain ligc" they have reference to. Placement of th? Enbouchure Hole in Relation to the Player's Embouchure For placing the flute in playing position, some authors describe a specific way to place it, while others simply state its location. These procedures will be discussed as they pertain to the following aspects of embouchure hole placement in relation to the aperture: (1) side-to-side placement, (2) parallel placement, (3) vertical place- ment and (4) embouchure hole coverage by the lower lip. The following descriptions of the manner in which the flutist should bring the flute to the mouth are given by Kincaid/Krell and Kujala respectively. Brush the flute up to the lip and do not crush down on the red portion fron above ag this positioning inhibits the flexi- bility of the lower lip.32 7®xenry AltBs, Complete Method for the Flute (Paris: A. Leduc, n.d., copyright by H. Schoenaers, 1966), 17, Hereinafter referred to as ALtBS, Complete Method. nieas, célebre, 13. *xujala, op. cit., 20. Stnaffanel and Gaubert, op. cit., 3 32 John Krell, The Flute Player's Notebook (Culver City,52 Cover the embouchure plate with your mouth and lightly mois- ten the near edge of the embouchure hole with your tongue, This lubrication will help you maneuver your lower lip on the embouchure plate. Side-to-Side Placement ‘The selected authors who refer to side-to-side placement of the embouchure hole fall into three basic groups, One group including 134 Westphal°4 and stokes/Condon®® state that the flute should be centered on the lips. The second group (Stevens, Kujala and Kincaid/Krell) indicate that centered placement is best but, due to individual lip configura- tions, the placement might have to be to the right or left of center to match the lip aperture. Kujala's placement instructions are as follows: We have ... assumed that the placement of the embouchure hole is at the horizontal center of your lower lip, but to a very small degree this ... is subject to adjustment. It is not at all unusual for the natural opening between the lips to form slightly off center, either to the left cr right. The placement of the enbouchure plate, therefore, should be adjusted for this factor.36 The third group (Taffanel/Gaubert, Alt®s/Caratgé and Putnik) indicate that the embouchure hole should be centered with the lip aper- ture, wherever it naturally forms. Alt8s/Caratgé and Putnik state their respective opinions as follow: s+ the mouth-hole [enbouchure hole]... must be Californi 33, Trio Associates, 1973), 5. Kujala, op. cit., 16. Westphal, op. cit., 94 36, *8stokes and Condon, op. cit., 17. *kujala, op. cit.» 17.53 opposite the aperture between the lips.°” In most instances, the aperture ... will naturally form in the center of the mouth, or nearly so, and the embouchure hole may be centered accordingly by moving the flute to the right or left as needed. 38 With the exception of Westphal and Stokes/Condon, I conclude that the selected authors agree that side-to-side placement is determined by the location of the aperture. Parallel Placement ALL the authors, with Moyse, Wilkins, Kujala and Kincaid/Krell being silent on the issue, concur that the flute enbouchure plate should be held parallel to the line of the lips, though they state it in differ- ent ways, Stevens states that "the line of the nose should be perpen- 39 icular to the line of the flute."*? westphal states that the flute 40 “should be parallel with the floor."*° stokes/Condon explain that "the flite should be parallel to a line formed by the junction of the 1ips.”** kujala, though silent, pictures the flute parallel with the lips in his illustrations ae Vertical Placement Vertical placement refers to the point of contact of the inner edge of the embouchure hole with the player's embouchure. The placement has a direct influence upon several other factor” which influence flute 3, 38, alts, CéIbbre, stevens, op. cit., 23, 40, Putnik, op. cit Westphal, op. cit., 94. ‘1stokes and Condon, op. cit., 17, ‘7Kujala, op. cit., 15.54 tone, It varies (1) the amount of embouchure hole coverage, (2) the length of the airstream from the orifice to the outer embouchure hole edge, (3) the angle of incidence of the airstream on or in front of the embouchure hole's outer edge and (4) the amount of 1p available to cover or uncover the embouchure hole. ‘The majority of the selected authors (Altts, Taffanel/Gaubert, Altts/Caratgé, Westphal, Stevens, Stokes/Condon, Kujala and Putnik) indicate that the vertical embouchure hole placement should be adjusted according to the amount of embouchure hole coverage desired. Kincaid/ Krell do not place the hole according to coverage but their statements relate to coverage: "Place the embouchure plate comfortably into the natural indention of the jaw, allowing the lower lip to overlap slightiy."4 Wilkins is the only selected author who does not relate placement of the embouchure hole to coverage. In fact, he does not men- tion embouchure hole coverage in his embouchure instructions. He states: +++ place the lip plate in the valley of the chin and the back edge of the embouchure hole on the lover part of the lip, about where the red of the low lip begins. Bnbouchure Hole Coverage Enbouchure hole coverage refers to the amount of the hole that is covered by the lower lip. In the discussion above, it is apparent that the vertical placement of the embouchure hole is determined, in most cases, by the amount of embouchure hole coverage desired. what is the desired embouchure hole coverage? Altbs/Caratgé, Taffanel/Gaubert, ‘Bxrell, op. cit., 5. “4wilkins, op. cit., 23.35 Stokes/Condon and Kincaid/Krell state that flutists cover about a quarter Of the enbouchure hole for the low register. Kincaid/Krell state further that the flutist should "cover as much of the plate to each side as pos- sible." Westphal, Stevens, Kujala and Putnik recommend one-fourth to one-third coverage for the flutist's first tones. 46 Rajala instructs the student on how to adjust the amount of enbouchure hole coverage which clearly illustrates its relationship to placement of the enbouchure hole: If at least 1/4 of the hole is not covered, move the enbouchure plate slightly lover on the lip. If more than 1/3 Of the hole is being covered, move the enbouchure plate a little higher on the Lip. Forming the Aperture The aperture shapes, metes and directs the airstream. This is accomplished primarily through developing control of the musculature of the Lips and surrounding areas. Initial instructions for forming the flutist's embouchure are designed to give the student a basic muscular feeling for the enbouchure. This becones the foundation for developing the enbouchure through practice. In these initial instructions, the selected authors refer to the (1) shape of the aperture, (2) size of the aperture and (3) positioning of the lips, cheeks, teeth and chin in forming the aperture. 1 will discuss these aspects in the order listed. Bxreii, op. cits, 5 tne inclusive range of first tones is an octave from ot to 3, covering the upper portion of the low register and the lower part of the niddle register. “"eujaia, op. cit., 16.56 Shape of the Aperture ‘The selected authors identify three basic aperture shapes: (1) a flat slit or blade, (2) an ellipse and (3) a diamond. Alts/Caratgé, Taffanel/Gaubert, Kincaid/Krell and the acousti- cians, Coltman and Fletcher, describe the aperture as a slit or blade~ like opening. Taffanel/Gaubert speak of the shape of the airstream as a 648 "blade of breath,"4® altés/caratg¢ say “produce a siit"*? by blowing aix through the lips. The acousticians do not give beginning embouchure instructions, but they do discuss the shape of the aperture. Coltman says that “the performer directs a small flat stream of breath across 5° Pletcher describes the desirable shape as "a nSL the embouchure hole." very thin lamellar [blade-liké] jet. It is difficult to discern which shape Kincaid/Krell prefer because they describe two aperture shapes. First they state that "the opening in the lips is long, straight and thin rather than round and open."5? Later they modify their statement in the following way: The ideal lip aperture is a symmetrical elliptical opening certainly no wider than the flute embouchure hole.°) Their two accounts cause une to question whether there is much difference ‘Spattanel and Gaubert, op. cit. 5 a Partes, céiebre, 16. *cortman, op. cit., 26. SIyeville #. Fletcher, "Acoustical Correlates of Flute Perform ance Technique," Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 57 (January 1975), 236. evel, op. cit., 5. 3ypia., 6.37 between the long thin opening and the elliptical opening. Perhaps the key is in the variable height of the ellipse. Putnik does not name the shape of the aperture, but he describes movements of the corners of the lips that “elongate the shape of the 054 aperture. He provides an illustration of the lips which appears to be elliptical. Stevens and Stokes/Condon speak of an elliptical shape as the shape that results when one attempts to make . circular aperture: he ideal shape would be circular, but lips being made as they are, the best we can accomplish is an e)lipse.> Form an elliptical opening between your lips .... Do not make the ellipse too stretched ... or purse the lips +... You should always feel as though you are trying to form a circular opening, even though the result will in fact be a gentle ellipse .°6 These two sources do emphasize a greater height in the ellipse. Westphal is the only selected author specifying that the desir- able opening “should be more of a diamond shape than an oval. It is never circular."°” the photographs in his text show a man with a diamond-shaped aperture, is upper lip has an indention in the center. Unless a student had this particular lip configuration, it would be be difficult to make his lip conform to the diamond shape. The selected authors show a preference for either a long thin opening or a rounded ellipse. AltBs, Moyse and Kujala do not discuss 54, 58, Putnik, op. cit., 9. "stevens, op. cit., 13. 56 stokes and Condon, op. cit., 21. 7, 2 Westphal, op. cit. 94.38 specific shapes but emphasize the positioning of the lips and muscle actions in forming the aperture. Size of the aperture Kincaid/Krell's description of the shape of the aperture applies "The opening in the lips is long, 58 in a general way tc aperture size: straight and thin ... no wider than the embouchure hole."°° westphal defines the limits of the airstream emitted by the lips, then specifies the aperture size: «++ the air stream must be wide enough from side to side to strike the entire width of the emboyghure hole and narrow from top to bottom to avoid wasting air.” + s+ produce an opening no more than one-sixteenth of an inch’ [i-2 mn] high and one-half inch [12 mn. ] long.6 Stevens states: ‘The height of the aperture should be as great as possible with respect to the width, and the width should not exceed 2/3 of the width (longitudinal dimension) of the embouchure hole. 61 ‘This explanation supports his comments on the elliptical aperture shape with maximum height. Altés/Caratgé use specific measurements to indicate that the aperture size should be "... a slit 1 mm, high and 12 mm. long at the 62 most."°* since the width of the embouchure hole is approximately 12 mn., the instructions given above for length'of the aperture are within 4 mm. 58, Krell, op. cit., 5-6. 5%vestphal, op. cit., 95. Ornia., 94. “stevens, op. cit., 13. artes, Cél@bre, 16.59 of each other, with Stevens recommending 8 mm. and Westphal and Altes Feconmending 12 mm. ‘The authors differ in opinion on the height from 1mm. to as high as possible with respect to the width. How high is that? Stevens does not say, ‘The acoustician Pletcher observes, from measurements taken of several flutists, that he lip opening is approximately an ellipse with 063 width [lengtt] about 15 times its heigh This measurement would look long and narrow. Positioning the Lips, Cheeks, Teeth and Jaw in Forming the aperture ‘There are probably as many approaches to teaching the formation of the aperture as there are teachers teaching it. The preparation exercises discussed on page 48 of this chapter are intended to prepare the student to form an aperture prior to bringing the instrument into position. Here the instructions given by the selected authors for the initial attempts at producing a sound on the flute are presented as they relate to lips, cheeks, teeth and jaw. Altes, Alt®s/Caratgé and Taffanel/Gaubert concur on the point of bringing the lips together and then stretching the lips to form the aper- ture. Taffanel/Gaubert give the more complete description that follows: Bring the lips together until they meet without pressing; then stretch them by drawing back the corners of the lips, so that the lips rest lightly against the teeth leaving a small space between the teeth,64 63, Pletcher, "Some Acoustical Principles," 59. S4pagfanel and Gaubert, op. cit., 5.60 Westphal and Wilkins indicate a similar approach. Westphal states: “Keep the lower lip relaxed, pull the corners of the mouth back slightly to firm the upper lip. Allow the center of the upper lip to 065 relax to produce an opening ...- Wilkins describes the embouchure as a "sardonic smile or grimace": With the Lips in this position [sardonic smile or grimacé], allowing for a slight separation through which to blow, we have a reasonably accurate lip formation.’ Kincaid/krell explain that the embouchure might be described as: +++ a simultaneous stretch and pucker (like trying to smile and whistle at the same time), or as the shape the lips assume when blowing to cool a hot drink. Keep the cheeks relaxed. The only facial muscles that should be ‘exerted are those immediately around the perimeter of the lips. Play from the smooth moist inside of the lips.... Stokes/Condon give a more detailed account of how the flutist keeps his lips in a "state of dynamic tension": Open your teeth until they are about one-fourth to one-half inch apart, and make the interior of your mouth as large as possible. ... thinking of-the beginning of a yawn helps ... open up both’the interior of [your] mouth and [yout] throat passage. Now, keeping your upper lip firm, form an elliptical opening ... not... stretched ... + Do not purse the lips by collapsing the corners of the mouth. The corners should be firm, but not drawn up into a smile. Some flutists ... thing of saying the word “pure” in establishing the embouchure. ‘They also explain that the jaw pushes down, forcing the throat and mouth open. 65, 6 94. uitkins, op. cit., 23. 68, Westphal, op. cit 6 Txrell, op. cit., 5. stokes and Condon, op. cit., 21.61 Stevens describes the sensation of the lips as "very similar to that required in producing a tone by blowing across the mouth of a soft arink bottie."°? Contrary to Stevens, Putnik describes his view of what the embouchure formation should be and should not be: «+. the corners are drawn back slightly elongating the shape of the aperture. Contrary to popular opinion, or perhaps rumor, this does not resemble the approach to playing tunes on a pop bottle, nor does it resemble a smile. ... the upper lip... should be firm, land the lower lip somewhat looser or fleshier. Generally, this is best accomplished by drawing the corners of the mouth straight back, or even down, rather than up as you would in a smile.” A strong difference of opinion exists regarding the similarity between blowing a flute and a pop bottle. Stevens is the only selected author supporting the similarity. In his description above, Putnik refers to a downvard as well as straight backward pull of the corners of the mouth. Kujala elaborates on this downward pull in his following instructions: Stretch your lower lip and simultaneously press the embou- chure plate against it with moderate firmess. The idea here is to iron out the natural wrinkles and get a smooth inner surface of the center part of your lower lip./? This description of the “smooth inner surface" of the lower lip is very similar to Kincaid/Krell's statement that one should play from the "smooth moist inside of the lips. Kujala explains how this should look: 70, stevens, op. cit., 21. putnik, op. cit., 9 TMeujala, op. cit., 16.62 +++ (a) The lower Lip will be turned out somewhat as if in a gentle pout, and some of the smooth inner surface of the lip should be visible. (b) A conspicuous crevice should appear between the lower lip and chin... (4) The air space that previously existed between the upper lip and the upper teeth (when your cheeks were completely relaxed) should now be closed. (e) The overall lines of the lips should still resemble its natural state, that of a pointed ellipse rather than a bowl [smite] .72 He further explains that the lower lip pout is encouraged by a "turned- down-and-in feeling of the corners of the mouth" as experienced when crying. 7? In sunmary, the suggestions of the selected authors for estab- lishing the embouchure setting in the lips are to simulate (1) a sardonic smile or grimace, (2) trying to smile and whistle at the same time, (3) saying the word “pure” while thinking of the beginning of a yawn inside the mouth, (4) blowing across a pop bottle, (5) cooling a hot drink or (6) turning the lower lip out in a gentle pout. Instruc- tions relating to muscle tensions and the means of creating them are (1) to stretch the lips by pulling back the corners of the mouth, (2) to relax the lower 1ip and pull the corners of the mouth back slightly to firm the upper lip, (3) to keep the upper lip firm, not stretched, not pursed, with the corners of the mouth firmly set, (4) to draw the corners of the mouth straight back or (5) to draw the corners of the mouth downward, as in a pout. The cheeks are (1) to be relaxed, only exerting the muscles around the perimeter of the lips or (2) to be used to close the air space between the upper lip and teeth, with the lower cheeks to be affected by 4 curned-down-and-in feeling of the corners of the mouth. ia. Srpia.63 ‘The teeth are to be (1) slightly open or (2) one-fourth to one-half inch apart. The jaw would naturally be dropped to open the teeth, but one author suggests pushing the jaw downward in an effort to enlarge the mouth cavity and create tension between the lips. Directing the Airstream Once the flutist forms the aperture, he is instructed to aim it somewhere. ‘The following statements summarize the instructions given by the selected authors. Taffanel/Gaubert, Altts/Caratgé, Westphal, Stokes/Condon, Kujala, and Putnik state that one should blow at the opposite edge of the embou- chure hole. Wilkins probably means the same when he says to “blow across 4 the hole."” Kincaid/Krell say to “direct the air across the hole more "TS areas says to “direct the stream 76 at the opposite wall than over it. of air into the enbouchure [hold] ...."76 stevens specifies that the “air stream is directed into the hole and against the backwall."77 Further study would help clarify whether the point of incidence of the airstream is the edge and, if so, does the aixstrean initially have to be split in half by the edge to produce a tone at resonance [fonai centez]. 1£ not, what effect does moving the airstream downward on the backwall produce? Could it be another way of lengthening the airstream or of altering the upper and lower proportion of the airstream that is still being split by the edge? Fletcher states that the sound of the flute "[aepends| in great measure upon the exact way in which the T4wiakins, op. cit., 23. "krelL, op. cite, 5- 7a1tes, Complete Method, 20. "stevens, op. cit., 21.64 air jet from the player's lips strikes the edge of the flute embouchure hoie."7® He identifies the edge as the point of incidence of the air- stream. ‘The acousticians also measure the length of the airstream from the lip aperture to the outer edge of the embouchure hole. They have not been more specific in answering these questions. Experimentation If the student fails to produce a sound when he blows, the air stream is not hitting the edge properly. The selected authors suggest experimentation to establish the proper relationship between the player's embouchure and the embouchure hole for optimum tone production by (1) varying the angle at which the flute is held, also referred to as placing the flute, and/or (2) varying the blowing angle of the airstream. Some authors suggest experimentation with the flute angle and blowing angle to discover varieties in tone quality. Angle at Which the Flute is Held Putnik notes a close relationship between the amount of embou- chure hole covered, the angle at which the flute is held and the angle at which the airstream is directed: Either moving the flute down on the lips or turning it in will cause the flutist to cover more of the hole, whereas rais- ing the placement of the flute on the lip or turning it out will result in covering less hole. The effectiveness of these adjustments depends on the angle ... of the air stream. Find ing the best angle and placement for the flute will require considerable experiment. This angle may best be found by 78pretcher, “Some Acoustical Principles," 57.6s sustaining tones ..., then turning the flute in and out gradually. 79 Kincaid/Krell experiment with tone quality by pushing the flute forward with the right hand, which causes the airstream to strike the edge at an oblique angle.°° Stokes/Condon refer to adjustments in the flute angle as “varying the placement of the flute.” They recommend experimentation for the purpose of observing the effects on tone quality and control as a regular part of the flutist's practice time. Their experiments follow: Rotating the flute inward and outward 7 Move flute forward and back [Right hand pushes forward] Move flute up and down [Foot joint is raised and lowered.] ‘They also recommend experimenting with turning the flute in and out to establish the correct blowing angle.®? Blowing Angle of the Airstrean Alt®s/Caratgé strongly state that the flute embouchure should not be turned in or out in order to locate the airstrean, but that the direction of airstream should be adjusted by movements of the lips and lower jaw.°3 ghis sharply contrasts with Stokes/Condon, who rotate the flute for attaining an optimum sound production angle. Westphal suggests that the student should "move the lover jaw and Lips slowly back and forth until a tone ... is produced."* In this putnik, op. cit., 10, % 81, Krell, op. cit., 11. Stokes and Condon, op. cit., 23. **xbid. 8 ®Saites, cérebre, 17. “twestphal, op. cit, 94.66 he agrees with the teachings of altts/carataé. To make the tone respond, Kujala instructs the student to adjust the blowing angle by rotating the head joint in or out, moving the jaw up and down and shifting the lower Lip on the embouchure plate.°> thus Kujala becomes the only selected author stating that the student has the choice of adjusting either the flute or the airstream or both to estab- lish a blowing angle satisfactory to tone production. First Notes Most of the selected authors formulate their embouchure instruc- tions for the beginning flutist with a specific note ot narrow range of notes in mind. Some authors choose the easiest note to produce while others select the note to best facilitate holding the instrument. Some give no reason for their choice of first note. The inclusive range of beginning notes appearing in the selected writings is fron G! to G*, the choices of the first note to be played are given below in the order of frequency of use along with the reason or reasons for the choice. ‘The authors recommending them appear in brackets. c?-Basy to produce; the student can finger down the scale easily. [loyse, Wilkins, Stokes/Condon, Putnik, Stevens (C* or D*)] v?- Easiest to finger to facilitate holding of instrument; the student learns the correct fingering from the beginning for D* [Westphai, stevens (D” or c”j] I~ Easy to produce with few holding difficulties. [rattane1/caubert] ®Skujala, op. cit., 16.ch- Easy to produce and finger up to Cc”, [kujata] or ct depending on which octave the student sounds first; the student then works down or up to 7, [utes /caratsd] c#?- Easy to produce. faeg] 678 CHAPTER IV CONTROL OF TONE QUALITY Introduction The process of embouchure development consists of learning to shape and direct an airstream under pressure in order to acquire control of tone quality, register, intonation and dynamics. This requires strengthening the muscles of the lips, cheeks and sonetimes the jaw and attaining suppleness. fdwin Putnik lists the following goals as most important in producing and controlling flute ton 1. Relative brilliance, in contrast to dullness, or bland- 2. Clarity, or pureness of sound, in contrast to breathi- ness. 3. Size of tone, running the gamut from small or thin to large, big, full, etc. 4. Capacity for dynamic variation. 5. Facility, or rapidity of response in producing succes- sive tones, either slurred or articulated. 6; Bvenness of quality throughout the range of the instru- ment. The only aspect of tone not considered here by Putnik is control of intonation, but he discusses it later in his book in connection with the Azawin Putnik, The art of Flute Playing (Evanston, I1linoi Sumny-Birchard, 1970), 31.6 effects of changes in the embouchure. Answers to the following questions will aid the aspiring student. (1) What embouchure factors affect tone production? (2) How do these factors affect tone quality? (3) How can I select the precise combination of factors to produce the tone that I desire? In this chapter, I will answer the first question in one section by identifying the factors that affect tone production as found in the selected writings of the acousticians and the flutists/performers/ educators. Then I will consider the second question in a section on embouchure factors affecting control of tone quality, including discussion of the means by which the factors are adjusted. ‘The third question will be considered in the summary. Identification of Factors That Affect Tone Production Acoustical Writings Prom the writings of the acousticians discussed in Chapter I, I have drawn up the following Lists of embouchure factors that each acoustician considers essential to production and control of flute tone. In his two articles on “the Acoustics of the Flute,"* John Coltman discusses (1) blowing pressure, (2) velocity of the airstream, (3) Lip-to-edge distance and (4) size of the lip aperture as the main factors in tone production, He further observes that lip coverage of 2Jonn voltnan, "The Acoustics of the Flute,” Physics Today 21 (November 1968), 25-32; The Instrunentalist Part I 26 (January 1972) 36+; Part II 26 (February 1972), 37+.70 the embouchure hole varies with lip-to-edge distance. Australian acoustician Neville Fletcher,® confirming Coltman's research, reports the factors that interrelate and aifect flute tone production: (1) blowing pressure, (2) jet velocity, (3) jet length and (4) size of Lip aperture. He further observes that the anount of enbou~ chure hole covered by the lower ip can vary with jet length. He also notes that the shape of the lip opening and the angle from which the air jet strikes against the edge affect flute tone. Arthur Benade identifies the following factors that affect tone production on the flute: (1) blowing pressure, (2) transit tine of the airstream from Lip to the far side of the embouchure (speed or velocity of the airstream), (3) distance from the aperture to the opposite side and (4) the size (thickness and width) of the airstream. He explains that a suitable relationship between the "transit time” and the timing of the inward and outward parts of the oscillatory flow will result in tone production. He further explains: The flute player has great flexibility in tone production because there is a range of transit times that will suit the maintenance of each note in the scale. Furthermore, he has optional ways in which he can attain the desired transit tine, because he is free to trade off a larger or smaller stream dis- tance ... against a smaller or larger flow velocity. He can control the thickness ... and the width of the airstream by altering the spacing between the lips as well as the angle at which he blows.4 SNeville H. Fletcher, "some Acoustical Principles of Flute Technique," The Instrumentalist 28 (Pebruary 1974), 57-61. ‘acthur H. Benade, Fundanentals of musical Acoustics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), 492-93.n The acousticians are in agreement with each other. The factors that each includes are (1) blowing pressure, (2) velocity of the air- stream, (3) distance from lip aperture to edge (airstream length) and (4) size of the lip aperture. Fletcher and Coltman mention embouchure coverage as a factor due to the fact that it varies with lip-to-edge distance. Benade and Fletcher both observe that the angle at which the player blows affects tone. However, Fletcher alone reports the effects that the shape of the aperture has on tone. Writings of the Plutists/Performers/Educators To present the flutist/performer/educator view of the factors that affect flute tone, I have analyzed the writings of eleven selected authors and formed a composite list of factors from their writings. Table IV-1 lists the factors affecting tone production as discussed by each author. Acoustical as well as pedagogical writings are included. It should be noted that all but one of the selected acoustical writings were written after those by the flutists/performers/educators. ‘The exception is the 1968 article by John Coltman found in Physics Today, a publication little-known among musicians. Therefore, most of the flutists/performers/educators did not have the advantage of knowing this acoustical research. Several of the authors based their writing upon acoustical principles generally accepted at that time. Others evidently based their writing on experience and self-analysis. Among the factors affecting flute tone, there is almost total agreement among the authors on the inclusion of (1) the shape of the lip aperture, (2) the size of the lip aperture and (3) blowingnR SdyT aya Jo ssouatddns pue adeys soa FaROT oua 03 uorsetoz uy sdyt ayy 30 UOTaTSOa ylelele le weeagsaze 943 Jo AqqOOTeA sks [s + - rls eanssead “UrMoTa ‘aABuGy 943 JO UOTATSO eAyqeTOA OY pue requeyo yaneu pue qeoTy; 943 Jo adeys ESS SIS EE weeaqeaye 943 Jo woTzOeITC ‘abpe STOy Sanyonoque aya 03 eangaade ay; wory soueasta S]sfs pep ~ Z ‘@Berenco TOY eANyONOquE ~ SS N SRS IS S iS iS iS S S ~ SN Ss ~ NS ~ ‘aangaede dy1 2y3 Jo ozts ~ ‘eangaede dq 94; 30 adeys tT eM0T 843 ysuyebe aqetd eanyonoque ay} Jo yuoueoeTE ayuanal > [> Tear /ereours| erepm! > DS ARTS [> S S ~S + > wopudD estou 7/s24035| ‘suanaas| ‘SUTATH (saat sate apeuag| pEReIED wea Too] Teudaser azeqnep /Taue33e4 + xougeta] + [S[S [Ss] > [+ ‘s203Ronpg/s10u10} 194/S3ST3INTA suetorasnooy| sa0yyny paz09TeS. s203903 ROLLONGOWa FNOL JO TOYLNOD ONILOAEAW SYOTOWA TIOHONOSNT Tear stews3 Pressure. Altts/Caratg¢ are the only authors not identifying velocity of the airstream as a factor separate from blowing pressure. All authors excepting Altts and Moyse discuss the influence of the direction of the airstream upon control of tone. Although only three authors (Wilkins, Stokes/Condon and Kujala) list distance from aperture to embouchure hole edge as a factor, all the authors that include embou- chure hole coverage are, in effect, varying the distance from the aperture to the embouchure hole edge. This can be clearly seen in the photographs in Stokes/Condon's Illustrated Method for the Flute, p. 20. While Stokes/Condon do not mention embouchure hole coverage, Wilkins and Kujala both maintain that coverage varies with distance. Moyse, the only author not discussing coverage or distance, does refer to the position of the lips in relation to the mouthpiece, which would probably relate to coverage and distance. It is difficult to understand what he means, since he does not elaborate. Stokes/Condon, Putnik and Kinceid/Krell say (1) the formation of the throat and mouth chamber and (2) the relative position of the tongue have some effect on tone production. Moyse discusses the shape and suppleness of the lips, referring to the shape, flexibility, strength and quality of tissue in the lips? as determinants of flute tone. The natural shape of the lips influences the quality of tone a player will be able to produce. This factor cannot be easily altered, Flexibility, strength and quality of tissue of the lips, however, are conditions that Swarcei Moyse, The Flute and Its Problems. Tone Development through Interpretation for the Flute (Tokyo: Muramatsu, 1973), 7. [Mostly written in 1961.] Hereinafter this source will be referred to as Moyse, The Flute.4 change with use or disuse. They must be developed through daily prac- tice, a process that Moyse thoroughly exploits in his many publications. Alt®s and Kujala relate placement of the embouchure plate against the lower lip to the amount of embouchure hole covered, making the role of placement a secondary one, Putnik states that vertical placement and turning the flute in or out result in a change of the embouchure hole coverage.® The other authors do not consider placement as a factor. Placement, then, is secondary to embouchure hole coverage as a factor influencing tone. In summary, in the opinion of the flutists/performers/educators, the factors that affect tone production are (1) placement of the flute against the lower lip, (2) shape of the lip aperture, (3) size of the Lip aperture, (4) enbouchure hole coverage, (5) distance from aperture to embouchure hole edge, (6)direction of the airstream (also referred to as angle of the airstream), (7) shape of the mouth and throat and posi- ‘tion of the tongue, (8) blowing pressure, (9) velocity of the airstream, (10) position of the lips in relation to the mouthpiece and (11) shape and suppleness of the lips. When comparing these factors with those discussed by the acousticians, three observations can be made. First, the acousticians prefer to speak of either "the distance from the aperture to the embou- chure hole edge" or "the jet length" whereas the flutists/performers/ educators prefer to speak of “embouchure hole coverage" for the same factor. Second, the acousticians view the direction of the airstream Sputnik, op. cit., 10.8 as an effect rather than a cause. Fletcher observes the direction and discusses how some flutists use it, but he does not consider it a causal factor in control of tine. Third, Pletcher, the only acoustician com menting on shape of the aperture, notes its influence on tone quality. Flute Tone Quality Described Benade notes that there is «++ a relationship between a sound's vibration recipe (the strengths and frequencies of its various components) and what the musician calls the timbre or tone color of a sound. He explains that if the component frequencies are whole-nunber multiples of the fundamental (sounding) frequency, then the components are called harmonics .°*? Neville Fletcher specifies the relationship between harmonics and tone quality stating that “the main factor determining tone quality 10 His is the relative strength of the harmonics present in the sound research regarding the harmonic content of flute tones in each octave is reported as follows: Analysis of a standard “rich” flute tone on low notes shows Tpenade, op. cit., 223. ®ia., 63. the harmonic series is composed of the fundamental and frequen- cies which are integral multiples of that fundamenta?, called overtones. If the overtones are whole-number multiples of the fundamental, they are called harmonics, if they are in any other relationship to the fundamen- tal, they are called partials. The harmonic series of the fundamental pitch cl is as, follows: ch c? cg? c? B? G3 (pb?) c# pt ef cret) ct (a4) (abt) Bh4 C5 ‘The harmonics in parentheses are lower in pitch than the same note pro- duced in more ordinary ways. Mpietcher, op. cit., 60.16 a relatively weak fundamental tone and considerable strength in harmonics up to at least the tenth, In the middle octave the fundamental is strongest with harmonics up to about the sixth being important, while in the top octave the fundamental is clearly dominant and only harmonics up to the third occur in appreciable strength. Tt is apparent that each octave of the flute has a different timbre due to the changing harmonic ‘structure. Backus includes this as one of the difficulties involved in attempting to characterize the tone of an instrument by charting the relative amplitudes of the harmonics in its tone. Other factors that influence the structure of harmonics are (1) variation in dynamic level--soft tones generally have few harmonics while loud tones have many harmonics--and (2) interference and diffraction effects which cause the harmonics in the sound to radiate differently in different directions, making the harmonic structure of a tone depend partly on where it is heara.}? Only Fletcher gives a statement of the means to increase and decrease the number of harmonics in flute tone: +++ to produce a tone on the flute rich in harmonics we should use a lip opening which is a long thin ellipse, rather than a wide ellipse of equal area. We should tend to use a slightly lip-forward position to reduce the jet length, and we should use high air pressure, though stopping short of overblowing in both these adjustments. + a longer than normal jet length, a rounder lip opening and a lower blowing pressure will all reduce the harmonic development of the sound.!3 Uypia, *yohn Backus, The Acoustical Foundations of Music, 2nd ed. (ew York: W. W. Norton, 1977), 117. Mpetcher, op. cit., 60-61.nn ‘The flutist/performer/educator generally tends to judge flute tone quality by using his ear instead of elaborate electronic analysis apparatus. Therefore, he speaks of tone quality in descriptive terms such as bright, dull, breathy, intense, bland, brilliant, edgy, shrill, dark, centered, etc. His subjective concept of tone determines his acceptance or nonacceptance of a flute tone. He will often speak of the tone as having a certain “emotion” or "character." Kincaid/Krell discuss what a tone should be able to express by its quality: +++ ideally, tone should be able to reflect life impressions such as motion, tension, relaxation, excitement, repose, anguish, joy, beauty, etc. + + + a good tone is that particular quality which is appro- priate to the period, style or character of the music being perforned--e.g., the raw energy of a Beethoven, the diaphanous pastels of a Debussy or the harvest colors of a Brahns.14 Embouchure Factors Affecting Control of Tone Quality Table IV-2 presents all the enbouchure factors given by the authors of the selected writings as affecting tone quality. I will discuss each factor in the order that it appears in Table IV-2, giving the effect produced (if discussed by the author) and the means by which the effect is produced. Shape of the Lip Aperture According to Fletcher, some of the individuality in flute tone is determined by the exact shape of the lip aperture, which depends on +4John Krell, Kincai@iana (Culver City, California: Trio Associates, 1973), 7.78 7 F PTA Tele 7 7 ueerasiqe aya 30 AaTOOTeA 7 AT s[ eT es vorsuea drt ‘anbuoy ‘|r ‘le s ayy 30 uoTays0d enyaeTes 943 pur Zequeyo yynow pue WeOIyT ayy JO edeus ‘{-l_ [ele [ele zs weerysaye 943 Jo UOT3D9y0 ‘eBpe eToY aanyonoque ‘ ‘ 243 09 eangzede yy worz sourasTa 7Telete ? 7 7le ‘eBez9A09 aToY eaNyoROqUE A7Lale tele 7 eangaede d}t 049 30 2275 *TAl te , ? - aangiede dit ayy go adeus e lzlzlelelelelelglele lee le BIS|SlF(2l Sie] ela B)s ll ele le Bele als isles (sie |e | Bis |g EF IFIS)s Ela] 5)" |3 *) 3 8 5 BP TPIT ey rs a a g g 2 FE 8 a 5 Ga $103eOnpg/SI9UI0J 19g/S3STINTT sueTOT3SnOOY sa0yynY pezDeTeS si0j0°g, ALT'TYNO SNOL JO TOwLNOD ONTIOAaIY SuOIOVa TUNHONOEWA eal atave79 the natural lip shape and the position of the teeth. 15 He suggests the following lip aperture shape modification: +++ to produce a tone rich in harmonics we should use a lip opening which is a long thin ellipse, rather than a wide ellipse of equal area. We should tend to use a slightly lip-forward position to reduce the jet length, and we should use high air Pressure, though stopping short of overblowing. . . .16 +++ a longer than normal jet length, a rounder Lip opening and a lower blowing pressure will all reduce the harmonic development of the sound. 2? Stretching the lips to thin down the elliptic opening and increasing slightly the blowing pressure yields a more intense sound, while a relaxed embouchure and a lighter blowing pres sure makes for a lighter, quieter tone. ... too round a lip opening or too low a wind pressure leads to dullness, while too tight an embouchure and too high a blowing pressure gives a strident sound. Im iscussing the aperture shape a beginning flutist should make, Stokes/Condon include the following remarks concerning the effects of aperture shape on flute tone: If you make the opening in your lips too round (pursing the lips), your tone will be fuzzy and hollow. Making the opening too lengthy, ... gives the tone a harsh, nasal quality. 1? Putnik, speaking on windiness in the tone, says that it is most often the result of air striking one of the sides of the embouchure hole. This may be caused by an abnormally shaped lip aperture. *° ‘Spretoher, op. cit., 59. rbia., 60. iia, 61. Wipia, *sheridon Stokes and Richard A. Condon, I1Justzated Method for Flute (Culver City, California: Trio Associates, 1969), 21. 2Oputnik, op. cit., 23.80 Westphal, in referring to the same quality, identifies a specific aper- ture shape as the cause: The round shape of the air stream produced strikes only a portion of the opposite edge of the enbouchure hole and produces a breathy noisy tone quality.21 Size of the Lip Aperture To control breathiness in tone, Fletcher suggests the use of a regularly shaped lip opening which is less in width than the flute embouchure hole.”? putnik and Kujala agree that too large an aperture causes windiness.”> Roger Stevens seems to be discussing "size" more than "shape" in the following statement of principle regarding the factors that control quality change: To change quality, alter shape of embouchure and/or angle of airstream, adjusting diaphragmatic pressure as required to main- tain proper pitch and register .24 Although he says here to alter the shape, nowhere in his book does he discuss shape or indicate how it should be altered. In a later chapter of his book, he presents twenty-four oscillographs of different flute tones with corresponding descriptions of the sound produced and how it was produced.”® His descriptions of lip aperture changes refer to ?\prederick W. Westphal, Guide to Teaching Woodwinds (Dubuque, Towa: Wm. C. Brown, 1974), 95. ?pretcher, op. cit. eutnik, op. cits, 23. *eoger S. Stevens, Artistic Flute Technique and Study (Hollywood, California: Highland Music Company, 1967), 31. 61. Bec0 Stevens, op. cit., 53-56.a1 aperture size: “enlarging the enbouchure," “opening the aperture slightly" and “a very open embouchure."*© His final description con- tains the following statement: The differences are obtained by controlling aperture size relative to pressure and by varying airstream-angle in relation to the other factor.?7 Putnik’® and stokes/Condon? suggest that, as a means of master- ing a variety of flute tone colors, the size of the lip aperture be varied, during experimentation, along with the embouchure hole coverage and the blowing pressure. In summary, when the lip aperture size is altered, the change is usually accompanied by adjustments in the velocity of the airstream in combination with the length of the airstream or the direction of the airstream, Some evidence points to confusion in the writings in the use of the words "shape" and "size," for example in the writings of Stevens mentioned above. Obviously, results produced by extremes in aperture shape or size are the easiest to discern. It would seem that the infinite variety of sonorities between the extremes is most frequently discovered through the process of experimentation. Coverage of the Embouchure Hole Alt®s, concerned with the amount of embouchure hole coverage the flutist should use, explains the effect on tone of too much coverage or too little coverage. 28, 6rnia. 27 tpia., 56. putnik, op. cit., 32+ *25tokes and Condon, op. cit., 23.82 +++ covering one half or three fourchs of the mouth hole, «++ cannot produce the fullness of tone the instrument admits of, it sounds thin and thus destroys the character of the Flute which should be by turns sweet, mellow, full, and sonorous; on the other hand, avoid... leaving the mouth hole entirely uncovered, because thus placed it cannot receive the quantity of air necessary to its full degree of power.20 Paul Taffanel and Louis Fleury, authors of the article, “La fldte," that appears in the Encyclopédie de 1a musique et dictionnaire du Conservatoire, point out the embouchure hole coverage deficiencies resulting from improper position of the lips: +++ either the flutist covers the embouchure hole too much, and obtains a weak muffled sonority which splits into overtones at the first attempt to strengthen the tone ... or he uncovers it too much, and the tone becomes heavy, woolly, dead, with a waste of breath .... In both cases it is impossible to attain accuracy. 31 Alt@s/Caratgé describe gradual embouchure hole coverage and include a warning: T£ one brings the aperture between the lips nearer to the edge of the mouth hole, the tone will become brighter and eventually more metallic. But take care not to cover the mouth-hole 13 30, Henry Altts, Complete Method for the Flute (Paris: A. Leduc, n.d; copyright H. Schoenzers, 1906), 18. 31paul Taffanel andLouis Fleury, "La flfte." Encyclopédie de la musique et dictionnaire du Conservatoire, edited by Lavignac and de la Laurencie (Paris: Delagrave, 1913-1931), Pt. 2, Vol. 3, 1523. (Trans- lation by Alma Baskerville.) Taffanel collected the material and began weiting this article for the encyclopedia, but he died before conpleting it. Fleury took his notes, ordered then and completed the article for Publication. Hereinafter, this work will be referred to as Taffanel/~ Fleury. uenri Altes, Céldbre méthode compléte de fifte. Revised and augmented by F. Caratgé (Paris: A. Leduc, 1956), 320. Hereinafter this83 Westphal is more explicit in describing the tone resulting from too little coverage: Shrill high register is frequently found when too little of the embouchure hole is covered.?3 Hollow tone. Result of too little embouchure hole coverage. Small or weak tone may result from placing the embouchure Plate too far down, causing too much embouchure hole coverage.34 Stevens does not specifically mention embouchure hole coverage as a factor in control of tone, but he describes actions that affect coverage: A thin, piercing quality [high register] is frequently the result of attenpting to over-refine the airstream in proportion to the anount of support or air pressure behind the tone... An unusual amount of sharpness or flatness with crescendo and diminuendo, respectively, result.... The solution is generally the application of more relaxation in the embouchure, opening out gf the enbouchure hole, or slight retraction of the lower lip. Stokes,7ondon refer to coverage in discussing the value of experimentation in finding the "right" embouchure: vary the placement of the flute and the embouchure and work will be referred to as Altes, Célebre. 33westphal, op. cit., 101. An exercise is given to aid in developing embouchure control of tone. ‘exercise consists of ascending slurred octaves beginning on D*. First, "crescendo" into the slur; then, “decrescendo" into it. The player is instructed to “check the amount of embouchure hole covered and the forward movement of the lips and lower jaw necessary to close more of the embouchure hole and to redirect the airstream in a more upward direction for this register. 35, *4rpia., 100. "stevens, op. cit., 35-observe the effects of these changes on tone quality and control: [Following movenents are illustrated.) Move flute forward and back. Move end of flute up and down. Rotate flute in and out. A Move lips toward and back from edge. ‘The effects of these experiments are not discussed. The player is expected to rely on his ear to decide which combination produces the "best" tone quality. Kujala includes a recording with his method, on which he plays several tones of different quality. Some tones illustrate effects of varied embouchure hole coverage: Breathy and a sharp pitch. Lower lip not covering enough of the embouchure hole, or headjoint rolled out too far. Dull and a flat pitch. Lower lip covering tog much of the embouchure hole, or headjoint rolled in too far. Putnik discusses a number of factors involved in the production of a variety of tone qualities. He mentions some effects of coverage that are similar to several of the above statement: Covering too much of the embouchure hole results in a tone that is small and thin in quality. If too little... is covered the resulting tone tends to be empty or shallow in quality. It will necessitate an even greater quantity of air to produce sound, and will make tone production in the highest octave most difficult and solely dependent on overblowing. 38 stokes and Condon, op. cits, 23. walérid Kujala, The Flucist's Progress (Winnetka, Illinois: Progress Press, 1970), 17. 38putnik, op. cit., 10.85 Too much coverage may be the result of lip placement, turn- ing the flute in too far, the shape of the lips, or the position of the jaw. 39 John Krell reports William Kincaid's instructions to students concerning experimentation with embouchure hole coverage to find a "centered tone." Kincaid directed his students to search for a "centered" tone--a quality that lies between the extremes of the sharp quality of the open embouchure hole and the flat, smothered quality of a closed hole, 40 In summary, the authors agree that either extreme of embouchure hole coverage is to be avoided. The authors report that too much cover- age results in (1) thinness (Alt®s); (2) weak muffled tone (Taffanel/ Fleury); (3) brighter, metallic tone (Alts/Caratgé); (4) small, weak tone (Westphal); (5) thin, piercing high register tone (Stevens); (6) dull, flat pitch (Kujala) and (7) small, thin tone (Putnik). Too little coverage results in (1) heavy, woolly, dead tone (Taffanel/Fleury); (2) hollow tone and shrill high register (Westphal); (3) breathy and sharp pitch (Kujala) and (4) empty and shallow tone (Putnik). Stokes/ Condon and Kincaid/Krell encourage experimentation with coverage by (1) changing the placement of the flute against the lip, (2) changing the angle of the flute (out or in) and (3) moving the lips forward and backward to discover varieties in tone quality. 3 rpia., 23 xrell, op. cit., 8-9,Distance from Aperture-to-Edge ‘The acoustician Fletcher produces a tone "rich" in harmonics partly by reducing the jet length with a slightly forward position of the lips. By reversing the procedure, he reduces the nunber of harmonics in the tone. He states that the length of the air jet has a lesser effect on quality than on other aspects of tone.4? Altds/Caratgé do not speak of jet length but their instructions to "bring the aperture between the lips nearer to the edge of the mouth- hole to make the tone brighter and eventually metallic"’? describe the action of the lips necessary to shorten the airstream. Since the airstream length varies with enbouchure hole coverage and the flutists/performers/educators prefer to speak of coverage rather than of length or distance, most of their discussion, relating to length and distance, appears under "Coverage of the Enbouchure Hole." Direction of the Airstrean Marcel Moyse, being unusually specific for him, tells how to direct the airstream but neglects to tell where to darect it: A slight tension between the lips to direct the air column better and an imperceptible change in the position of the chin in relation to the embouchure to modify the direction of the 43 column are enough to maintain tone quality and good intonation. In order to bring about the addition of overtones to enrich the lower octave, Wilkins instructs the player to angle the airstream downward when blowing with increased intensity and to grip the corners “Amtetcher, op. cit., 60-61. “7aitds, céIbbre, 320. “yoyse, The Flute, 14.87 of the lips.“4 the angle is lowered by lowering the jaw and elongating the face.4® Westphal describes a combination of factors which interact to maintain tone quality and intonation in a crescendo. No attempt is made to separate factors and identify which aspect of tone quality they affect. Along with a change in aperture size, the direction of the airstream is gradually lowered through pulling back the lips and lower jaw while increasing the intensity of the airstream. In a decrescendo, the same factors are involved with a gradual upward change in the direction of the airstream by a forward movement of the lips and lower jaw. 46 Much space is taken by Roger Stevens to analyze each factor of tone control and to note the aspect(s) each affects. ‘The factor he chooses to control a given aspect of tone is the one he considers has the least detrimental effect upon other aspects. He recommends the following control for tone quality: Primarily: Control Quality, Tone Color, Timbre, with airstream-angle and shape.47 He explains that aiming the airstrean is to a large degree the function of the lips.4® Basing their acoustics on the edge-tone theory (discussed in Chapter III), Stokes/Condon describe the effects of airstream angle on “4itkins, op. cite, 26. *rpia., 23. “Cwestphal, op. cit., 101. ‘7stevens, op. cit., 31+ 8rpia. eit88 tone and the means of adjusting itr Both tonal quality and amplitude are best when the edge divides the air jet into two equal parts. If you blow too much down into the flute or too high above the edge, the tone will decrease significantly in quality and amplitude. The proper angle for an individual mouth structure can be easily found by playing a sustained note and rotating the flute slightly. when the tone is loudest and brightest, the edge is splitting the air jet into two equal parts (i.e;, you have established the proper blowing angle for that note) .4 Putnik implies that when “breathiness is accompanied by a very shallow, empty, or bland quality of sound, it is most often caused by blowing across the flute at too slight an angle"®” or by improper aperture size. the angle at which the airstream strikes the edge can be adjusted "by a fore and back movement of the lower jaw"®! or by "turn~ ing the flute in or out."5? Kincaid/Krell indicate that the direction of the airstream plays an active role in quality change, along with the lips and airstream velocity.53 changes in the direction of the airstream are to be accom plished by (1) an up-down pivot of the jaw, (2) angling the air toward the outside edge of the embouchure hole or toward the right side of the hole (lateral angie) and (3) by tilting the head joint slightly in.°# ‘The angle at which the airstrean strikes the outer edge of the embouchure hole or the backwall can be determined by (1) the position of the lip aperture (point of emission), which is recommended by most of “stokes and Condon, op. cit., 19. *putnik, op. cit., 23. Stypia., 10. Srpia., 23. 3krel, op. cite, 8 S4tpia., 72.89 the selected authors or (2) the position of the embouchure edge, which is recommended by Stokes/Condon. Putnik and Kincaid/Krell offer the student a choice between the two means. The lip position can be controlled by muscle action of the lips themselves or manipulated by the forward-and-back or pivot actions of the jaw or chin, ‘The singular effect of airstream angle on tone quality is not clear, An angle shift is almost always accompanied by a change in lip aperture size and/or shape and/or a change in airstream pressure. Thus, it is difficult to say which one of the three factors determines the tone quality or whether it takes any two, or all three, to satisfy the demands of the sensitive listening ear. Shape of the Mouth and Throat and Position of the Tongue To make a bright tone mellow, Altts/Caratg¢ suggest, among other things, that the player “enlarge the space in the mouth by opening the throat a little, as though beginning to yawn."°> the converse will brighten the sound. They state that a flutist's tone color is “a natural gift, Aifticult to change, dependent on the suppleness of the lips and the shape of the moutn,#®@ Westphal indicates that a tight throat restricting the air flow contributes to the production of a small weak tone.57 Stevens mentions that the middle portion of the tongue can be artes, céreore, 320, ria. STestphal, op. cit., 100.90 manipulated to alter color (as vowel sounds are altered in speech by tongue manipulation) .°* Putnik is more precise in describing the use of the mouth, throat and tongue in developing control of tone quality: ‘The third basic factor affecting quality of tone that should be studied is the effect of the various tongue placements. The student should practice these sane studies [long tones Rtg similar to Moyse's| with each of the vowel sounds from the full, open sound of ah through the thin quality of the small throat and mouth chamber caused by the eee placement. Kincaid/Krell do not discuss the tone production factors that they list, but they classify the mouth and tongue (vowel sounds) and open throat (yawn) as affecting resonance.©° All three factors concerned with the element of "shape," whether of the mouth, throat or lip, add individuality to the tone quality since their natural configurations vary from player to player. Lip Tension Taffanel/Fleury express some concern over the use of too much pressure of the lips. In the low register, (1) this produces a sound that is likely to be "brassy," (2) the sound may lose strength instead 61 of gaining it or (3) it overblows to the next octave. Moyse is the least specific of the authors in his statements S8seevens, op. cit., 38. 9% §Kre12, op. cite, 73. Putnik, op. cit., 33. Styatfanel and Fleury, op, cit., 1523. (Translation by Alma Baskerville.)91 regarding the factors influencing tone, but he is the most outspoken on the need to develop sonority. He places emphasis on the suppleness of the lips in producing a good tone: ‘The lips are completely free to channel a[nd] propel addi- tional impulses of air with flexibility. The lower lip, for instance, can exert slight pressure on the mouthpiece to accen- tuate the resonance, the timbre, the variety of colors, without losing its suppleness. Alt®s/Caratg¢ instruct the flutist to tighten his lips to brighten his tone and to relax his lips (without enlarging the airstream) to mellow his tone.°? ‘heir reference to the tone color being dependent upon the suppleness of the lips appears in the previous section (see p. 894) Wilkins enriches the lower octave of the flute by increasing lip tension and airstream velocity to increase the harmonics in the tone: The enrichment of the lower octave by the careful addition of overtones can be practiced as follows: Start on C2, grip the corners of the lips with a firm hold and blow with increased intensity (angle down). The result should be a slightly more nasal and penetrating sound. 64 More relaxation in the enbouchure®® is part of the solution to a thin, piercing quality in the high register, according to Stevens. (The quotation appears in full under embouchure hole coverage [see p. @3].) ‘The primary factor affected by varying lip tension is the velocity of the airstream. Styoyse, The Flute, 15. Sats, céIBbre, 320. S4yikins, op. cit., 26. stevens, op. cits, 35+92 Velocity of the Airstream ‘The velocity is dependent on blowing pressure and the size of the lip aperture. More blowing pressure, says Fletcher, along with a lip change will make a more intense sound and increase the harmonics in the tone. ‘Too high blowing pressure contributes to a strident quality while too Little leads to duliness.°* Measurements show that when a player attempts to keep a similar tone quality for loud and soft notes, he uses a constant blowing pressure and varies the size of his lip opening. ‘Taffanel/Gaubert compare the flutist's breath to the violinist's bow and in the following discourse illustrate the relative importance of the airstream among other aspects of control: ‘The disciplined breath must be a docile agent, now supple, now powerful, which the flutist should be able to govern with the same dexterity as that with which a violinist wields his bow. It is the motion force behind the sound and the spirit Which animates it, gives it life and becomes a voice capable of expressing all the emotions. The lips, the tongue, the fingers are only its servants; it is by the breath alone that the artist can communicate to the world outside the most exclusive nuances,, the thousand inflexions of the music with its infinite variety. Alt®s/Caratgé tell the flutist to blow more gently along with other lip and mouth adjustments to correct a tone that is too bright. To enrich the lower octave by the addition of overtones, Wilkins mretcher, op. cit., 60-61. *7tbid., 60. ©Spaul taffanel and Philippe Gaubert, Néthode complete de fldte (Paris: A. Leduc, 1923), 185, areas, céldbre, 320.93 instructs the flutist to grip the corners of the lips with a firm hold and blow with increased intensity (angle down). The result is a slightly more nasal and penetrating sound.’ He summarizes his thoughts in the following statement: ‘The addition of the overtones by increased intensity creates a core or center of the sound. This core must exist at all times, even in the most extrene pianissimo, otherwise the note will lose quality and pitch. 71 Westphal says that control of soft tone is not possible unless the player maintains a steady, concentrated airstream.’ Tone quality is affected by airstream velocity, but Stevens states that it is not desirable to alter the tone by means of velocity.’”? Kujala writes that the airstream is the all-important generator Of the tone, which denands sensitive control to avoid blowing too strongly or too gently, resulting in piercing and shrill tone or delicate sound- ing whistles respectively.” In practicing routines to master the variants of quality, Putnik instructs the student to vary blowing force along with coverage and aperture size.”> Kincaid/Krel1 agree with Wilkins that harmonics added to the lower two registers by manipulating the lips, air pressure and the 16 directions of the air effect a quality change.’° They do not explain TOwstkins, op. cit., 26. “ibid. TPvestphal, op. cit., 101. stevens, op. cit., 31. 4xujala, op. cit., 7, 17. Sputnik, op. cit., 32. Breil, op. cit., 8.94 the manipulation process or the effects produced. In summary, the airstrean is the generator of the tone. If the velocity is increased, the overtones increase; the reverse is also true. Fletcher includes a lip change with a change of velocity, as do Altts/ Caratg¢, Wilkins, Putnik and Kincaid/Krell. The observable effects of intensity of the airstream on tone quality seem to be most apparent when applied or withdrawn in extreme degrees. The velocity is kept at a constant rate of flow to maintain quality during dynamic changes (Pletcher). Minor intensity changes are more subtle and occur to counterbalance the effect of another control factor, such as aperture size. Sunmary With the information discussed above, one can identify the factors which should be developed and can find suggestions of numerous possibilities for varying and combining them to produce the tone quality desired. The (1) distance from aperture to edge, (2) embouchure hole coverage and (3) position of the lips in relation to the mouthpiece could be considered as the same basic factor. ‘The (1) lower lip turn- ing out and (2) angle at which the flute is held affect that factor. Stokes/Condon offer suggestions to the student for experimenting with all these factors for embouchure and tone development. I present them in sunmary: [keep] in mind the following: the shape of the embouchure (a modified ellipse); the feel of the embouchure (€irm but not tense); the three basic variables of embouchure95 (speed of air jet, distance from lip opening to edge, and angle of air jet). As you practice the flute, vary the last three factors until you achieve a pleasing, resonant tone. For example, turn the flute in and out and listen to the tone. when it is at its brightest, you have the optimum blowing angle. Now try moving closer to or farther away from the edge, or changing the size of the opening between your lips, Turn the flute in and out once again to establish the correct angle. If you experiment conscientiously in this manner and listen carefully to the sounds which result, you will be well on the way to establishing the appropriate embouchure for all portions of the flute's range. Kujala agrees that the number and relative strength of harmonics are what determine the quality of the tone, but he adds a new element in his following discussion: The nunber and relative strength of harmonics are what Getermine the color and timbre of the musical sound .... In addition, the player himself, by imaginative control of his breath and enbouchure, sets his on stamp on the harmonic struc- ture of his flute sound, determining the more subtle qualities Of tone, whether it is tobe sweet or coarsg, brilliant or mellow, breathy or focused, light or dark.” Istokes and Condon, op. cit., 23. Txujala, op. cit., 68.96 CHAPTER V CONTROL OF REGISTER Introduction Register refers to the divisions of the entire flute playing range. ‘The compass of each register is usually considered to span one octave. In my own teaching, I consider that the second register begins on £”, which is the first note fingered the sane in two consecutive octaves and requires an embouchure change unaided by a change of finger- fa ing when playing E* to E*, However, due to the fact that some authors delineate registers by octaves from cy, in this paper I will use low, middle and high register to imply the following ranges: 1 Low register (octave) (yc! - B Middle register (octave) High register (octave) For the purpose of comparison, Table V-1 identifies the authors and their preference of embouchure factors that affect control of register. In the discussion that follows, I will present (1) the indi- vidual combination of factors each author says are vital to the emission of tones in the low, middle and high registers of the flute and (2) the authors’ recommended procedures for changing from one register to another.97 szoyany peqeTeS 7 FPA I sarilei|solesneseaa sige eua|osioaasede “ie ‘843 wo3z weeayszTe O43 JO au, ToAcaL 7 -[ Ale rte weesaszFe ous 30 A3TOOTeA. 7{- [A Z 2 man rls aanssoad Burmota 7A AV 7 weeagsaze ey JO woy;09z7G wipe o70u eamenewwe ‘ie cys ‘aya 03 amngsede ay; wox3 s0ueysTa 7A alee e6e0n60 oTou SANYOTOR Palralya Fi z canazede At eu 30 e278 r aanaiede dit aia go odeus e le lzlelel glzlelelele 3 Ee lelele| gel sigi eel Fiz le BEE; es] S)e)e)F eye BLS ig iE Sle) e/a] S$] "18 BIE BS Sea aleale| ee ® 8 z Bl | B 3 al |g ie 3 al |& sacqeonpa/sseureyaea/eseranta || eusroTasre s2030ea UGLSTOMI JO TOWLNOD ONTLIEIY Tea a1avs. SuOLOWE sUNHONOENE98 Factors Affecting Control of Register Acoustical Writings ‘The acousticians Coltman, Fletcher and Benade agree on the Principle of node (register) selection. Coltman states it simply: It is through variation of the travel time of a jet wave across the mouth hole, that the flutist exercises his choice of the mode that will sound. He identifies lip distance and blowing pressure as the enbouchure factors involved in controlling the travel time of the jet wave.” His experimentation shows that pitch is determined through adjustment of Lip distance and blowing pressure, and that flutists generally use shorter lip distances for higher pitches.? "In order to control the sounding, the flutist continually increases the blowing pressure as the scale is ascendea."4 Fletcher states clearly that the travel time depends both on the distance involved (jet length) and on the jet velocity, which in turn Gepends on the blowing pressure. If the jet length is decreased or the blowing pressure increased, a higher pitch will sound.> From the information, photographs and charts in Fletcher's article® in The John W. Coltman, “Acoustics of the Flute," The Instrumentalist 26 (February 1972), 40. wia. Fria. Arpia., 43. Syevitle H. Fletcher, "Some Acoustical Principles of Flute Technique," The Instrumentalist 28 (February 1974), 58. tbid., 59. Photographs show front_and side views of lip posi- tions and apertures for each note cl, c2, c3, G? at three different dynamic levels--pp, mf, and ff. Charts indicate range of blowing pres- sure and jet lengths used by the players.99 Instrumentalist, based on four competent flutists playing successively cl, c?, c?, G?, 1 have formulated the following list of observations relative to the blowing pressure, jet length and size of the aperture. oo Lowest blowing pressure Longest jet length Largest aperture c? Higher blowing pressure Shorter jet length Smaller aperture Steady increase of pressure Still shorter jet Narrower aperture width and height Highest pressure Shortest jet length Smallest aperture Im his experiments, Fletcher found that the aperture size varies with register, but the shape remains approximately an ellipse with the width about fifteen times its height. He considers the lip aperture size a function of pitch and dynamic level.” Figure V-1 below, also from Fletcher's article, illustrates a side view of a flutist's embouchure in relation to the embouchure hole eo 3. The fine wire locates the when playing successively c}, c”, outer edge of the embouchure hole. Tria.100 Figure V-1. Lip positions in relation to the outer edge of the embou- chure hole as presented by Fletcher. ‘These photographs distinctly illustrate Fletcher's observations on the angle of the air jet: The air jet is directed down towards the edge at an angle between about 25° and 40° to the horizontal, the shallower angle being used for low notes.® As will be seen later, this observation is in direct opposition to the instructions given by many flutists concerning the Liowing angle relative to register. Fletcher states the acoustical principle involved in changing register. I£ the jet length is decreased or the blowing pressure increased so that the travel time is halved, then the upper octave will sound, The player apparently has the option of either pushing his lips forward to halve the jet length, or else increasing the blowing pressure by a factor of four (jet speed varies as the square root of the pressure) to sound the upper octave. Measurements that Pletcher has taken of a number of advanced and ®Ipia., 58. Tia.101 professional players indicate a remarkable consistency in the performance procedure utilized in ascending an octave. He explains that the player does not merely decrease the jet length or only increase the pressure, but accomplishes the desired results by combining the two along with a decrease in the size of the lip aperture: ‘To produce a note one octave higher than that being played, retaining the same sort of loudness, timbre and intonation, the air pressure is doubled, the jet length reduced to about 0.8 of its previous value by pushing the lips forward and the area of the lip opening is reduced by about 30 percent.10 Writings of the Flutisis/Performers/Educators Authors of the selected writings on register control advocate one of two principal factors as the determinant of register: velocity of the airstream or direction (angle) of the airstream. The means they recommend for the regulation of these factors vary considerably, a few to the point of uniqueness. In this chapter, T will present the selected writings that advocate control of register by airstream velocity according to the means of regulating the velocity, namely (1) velocity regulated by lip pressure, (2) velocity regulated by diaphragm only and (3) velocity combined with distance from the aperture to the edge. I will examine the writings that advocate control of register by the direc- tion of the airstream according to the two means of adjustment: (1) direction regulated by the lips and (2) direction regulated by the jaw. Table V-2 summarizes each author's choice of factors and means utilized in determining register on the flute. rpia.102 PIAL AL AL AL Ate (joegg0 Bers fe se pajou) abezenos atoy amnyonoqua. s “|e met ous Aq payetniex uversaze ayy 30 uorz0ezTq s cists Sart out 4q payetn6ex weorasaye 943 Jo uoT300z7a 7? Flfle ‘abpe SToH eangonoqus uy 03 eangaade 243 wor soueasta raw 7 lfle YaTA peuTquoo weoryszze 943 30 43790T!A 7 ‘Rquo wberydeyp Aq payetnbes AyyoreA 7| 7 yl ele eanssead dq Aq paqetnbea ATOOTEA elelale/elelelelelele ll elele Pe lelslelElElzlEikl ey ele |e SiZ(2 (s)s (Slee sisi ey | Ris igs BIF(S)e)8 |e )e/S 8 1s | g el? {elFle} fé alg 3 g a] 13 é § g| 2 E 8 ® 5 sueToyasnooe '82030Onpg/s19UI03 184/83STINTS saoyynw paaseTes s10q0eg pazeTnboy USISIOMI TOUINOD OL GSLWINOTA MEW ATHL HOTHM AG SNVIN SHL ONY SOLVE sUNHONOENE za STGvE103 Velocity Regulated by Lip Pressure Alt8s states the following rule regarding register and velocity: RULE. The stream of air for the second octave must have a greater degree of velocity than that necessary for producing the lower notes, so that both octaves, whose fingerings are identi- cally the same, may possess the homogeneousness necessary to equality and perfect intonation, taking care above all that this increase of velocity does not constitute a nuance, but only contributes to equality of tone. To attain the desired result easily ... the lips must be nore pressed together for the mediun register than for the lower. «+. the lips must be less pressed together (looser) for the lower than, for the middle notes, and more pressed together for the upper. Velocity Regulated by Diaphragm only Stevens combines the two aspects, pitch and register, suggesting that they are both determined by the same factor. His method of con- trolling pitch and register based on his “backwall theory" is as follows: Pitch and register are determined by the velocity of the air leaving the backwall. Therefore, pitch and register are deter- nined by the angle of the airstream,directed at the backwall and by the velocity of that airstrean. ‘The more directly at the backwall the player blows (by roll- ing the head-joint out), the higher will be the velocity of air off the wall into the instrument, and the higher the pitch and register. By blowing more directly down into the instrument Uyenry Alt®s, Complete Method for the Flute (Paris: A. Leduc, 1906), 44. Mwia., 39. roger S. Stevens, artistic Flute Technique and Study (Hollywood, California: Highland Music Company, 1967), 30104 (more parallel with the backwall), the lower the velocity of air of€ the wall becomes and the lower the pitch and/or register becomes. He states that diaphragm pressure and airstrean-angle can be used together or independently, according to the demands of the ear.'> after the discussion on the blowing angle, his further reasoning leads to the following conclusion: Since quality, tone color, timbre, and pitch and register are affected by the angle of the airstream, and since, within limits, pitch and register are also affected by the velocity of that airstream, it is best to control color, timbre, and quality by means of angle, and to control pitch {and register] by means of velocity. Primarily: Control Pitch and Register, with airstream velocity (@iaphragm) .17 In discussing the means of avoiding any change in tone color when changing registers, Stevens observes the following interaction of factor: ++. the player must maintain the same embouchure configura- tion and produce the desired register by increasing or decreas- ing the velocity of the airstream by means of the diaphragm; the inevitable dynamic change should be controlled by suitably varying the size of the aperture. (It will be noticed that one side-effect of this technique may become apparent as a change in the amount of coverage of the embouchure hole of the flute. Although this may be found useful in certain instances, it should be considered generally as effect rather than a cause. 18 He has a very analytical approach to the pedagogy of the flute, Mipia., 29. ipia. ipia., 30-31. 7 ia., 31. 8 rpia. + 58.105 especially differing with other authors in his backwall theory. It is interesting that on page twelve of his method he identifies the acousti- cal factor, “length of the airstream to backwall” (see Figure V-2), but Figure V-2, Cross section of flute at the embouchure hole as presented by Stevens. 19 — 3 f= swooucrURe PLATE : = BACKWAL 8% EXTENDED LINE OF BACICWALL y bv AIRSTREAM TO RACKWALL BV = AIRSTREAM OFF BACKWALL ‘Angle EBB! = AIRSTREAM ANGLE in his discussions he does not consider length or distance from aperture to edge as an embouchure factor to be adjusted. Velocity Combined with Distance ‘This third group, in agreement with the acousticians, emphasizes velocity combined with distance from the aperture to the embouchure hole edge to determine register. Neither Stokes/Condon nor Kujala mentions the acoustical principle--if the length of the airstream is decreased or the velocity of the airstream increased, a higher pitch will sound”? but their instructions agree completely with it. Stokes/Condon include Mrpia., 12. 20, A Reference is to the discussion earlier in this chapter under "Acoustical Writings;" p. 98.106 observations concerning the angle of the airstream and Kujala adds con- ments on embouchure hole coverage. Stokes/Condon present front and side view photographs of the flutist's playing embouchure for a low, middle and high register pitch. ‘They observe the following things that take place as one plays from the lower register through the upper registers: LOWER REGISTER: Large opening between the lips; ample distance between lip opening and edge; air jet directed almost horizontally across the blow hole at the edge. MIDDLE REGISTER: Opening between the lips decreases in size; lips move closer to edge; air jet is directed slightly down in order to be split by the edge. UPPER REGISTER: Very small opening between the lips; lips out over blow hole and brought close to the edge; air jet directed sharply down onto edge.” ‘Their observations concerning the direction of the air jet are in opposition to those of many flutists. Recognizing this, they include a footnote explaining their observation. Because the lover lip is pulled back from the edge as far as possible, it feels to some people as though they were blowing down into the flute for low notes. In fact, however, just the opposite is true,.?2 ‘They offer the following explanation of factors involved in controlling and changing register: The pitch produced depends in part upon the speed of the air *lsheridon Stokes and Richard A. Condon, Iilustrated Method for Flute (Culver City, California: Trio Associates, 1969), 19. 22bia,107 jet. In general, high-speed jets produce high notes, and low- speed jets low notes, ‘The speed of the air hitting the edge can be controlled either by the force with which one blows, the size of the opening between the lips, or both. For a given rate of blowing, the speed of the air jet increases as the size of the Lip opening decreases. ‘The pitch produced can also be controlled by changing the distance between the orifice and the far edge of the blow hole. As you move your lips closer to the edge, the tone will go down in pitch slightly, then suddenly jump to a higher note (a har- monic of the first). Increasing the orifice-to-edge distance has the opposite effect. In general, high notes on the flute call for small lip-to-edge distances, while low notes require large lip-to-edge distances.23 Kujala limits the compass of the beginning flutist's range to the lower two octaves in his method, The Flutist's Progress. Thus, his remarks are limited to the low and middle registers; however, the principle extends to the high register. +++ it is not the amount of air flow that aids the response of the higher notes, but its velocity. (Distance is important also.) ‘The necessary increase in velocity is obtained simply py reducing the lip opening and slightly increasing the breath pres- sure, produging a little more pressure to balance the greater resistance. ‘To make an octave leap from the low to middle octave et to 4), Kujala recommends the foJlowing combination of factors: for playing the higher tones you need a slight increase in pressure and more resistance aided by a smaller lip opening. This creates a smaller and faster airstream which is the first requirement for singling out the second harmonic. pia. *Avalfria Kujala, The Flutist's Progress (Winnetka, TLlinois: Progress Press, 1970}, 69.108 The second requirement for successful control of the higher tones calls for a gradual reduction of the distance between the lip opening and the far edge of the embouchure hole, which results in a shorter air stream. This ... results in a greater coverage of the embouchure hole by the lower lip.?> He describes the method used for shortening the airstream in unique terminology. This method calls for a forward pressure of the lips, the lower lip taking the lead as if you were conbining a delicate kiss and a pout. Remember, though, that when you try this distance reduction kissing technigue or DIREKT, the grip you maintain at the corners of your mouth with your normal LCDE (Lower Cheek Deflation Enbouchure) embouchure should prevent the center of your lips fron ectually getting the puckered appearance we usually associate with a kiss. ‘This friendly opposition of the LCDE and DIREKT techniques creates a tension that is adjustable through a remarkably wide range of grada- tions and refinements. DIREKT contributes naturally to the formation of a smaller lip aperture. If you're covering about 1/3 of the embouchure hole for the lower tones, this coverage will increase gradually to as much as 3/5 for the highest tones in the third octave; 1/4 original coverage will grow to about 1/3.27 Direction Regulated by Lips Seven flutist/performer/educator authors advocate that the direction (angle) of the airstream is the principal factor determining register. Of these seven authors, four utilize the lips to alter the angle; while the remaining three adjust it with jaw action. First, I will consider the authors who regulate the airstream angle by means of the lips; then, the advocates of jaw adjustment. Taffanel/Gaubert explain that it is possible but impractical to 5rpia., ne 26rpia. 2" ia., 71-72.109 obtain the octave of a fundamental note by means of increased airstream pressure only. It would make dynamic control virtually inpossibie.”® ‘Therefore, they recommend a narrowing of the airstrean (that is, tighten- ing the lips) to make it easier to emit the harmonic of the fundamental note.”® they feel that the direction of the airstream is also important and give these instructions for its use. Te [the direction of the airstreai] mast be modified accord- ing to the register of the note to be produced, striking the lower part of the opposite edge of the embouchure for the lowest notes, and the upper part for the highest noves, passing all positions for the intermediary notes. To ascend chromatically from the last E on the staff to the extreme limit of the scale, it is therefore necessary to tighten the lips progressively until only the smallest possible hole is left from which the breath may emerge.30 They briefly discuss the adjustments made with the lips in spanning the compass of the flute and in playing larger intervals. ‘The lip pressure and the direction of the breath, the means by which a higher note on the musical scale is produced, will need only the smallest modification in adjacent notes. Larger intervals require a more acute change in the position of the lips. To produce these notes the student should avoid any movenent of the chin; only the lips move, so that the head of the flute shows a movement forward and backwards and vice versa produced bv telaxing or tightening the lips. John Krell, noting William Kincaia's teaching methods, gives the following combination of factors that determine register: 28paul Taffanel and Philippe Gaubert, Méthode compléte de flate (Paris: A, Leduc, 1923), 8. 2 qbia. 30 rpia, 3ypia., a110 For the low register, stretch the lips somewhat at the cor- ners, covering about a fourth of the mouth hole and directing the air downward .... Keep the cheeks relaxed. Play from the smooth moist inside of the lips. The only facial muscles that should be exerted are those immediately around the perimeter of the lips. As you ascend to the upper octaves, relax the corners of the lip, compress them gently forward, pucker over and across the hole and direct the air more across the hole. Keep the cheeks relaxed. The only facial muscles that should be exerted are those immediately around the perimeter of the lips. +++ Basically registration changes are accomplished with the air and the lips.33 He paints a vivid picture in explaining the process of slurring an octave. «++ a musical ramp of intensity is constructed between the notes. Wind velocity is slowly increased from, say, ten to twenty miles per hour by a gradual compression of the lips and added support from the diaphragn. At the critical moment a deft, compressive shift of the lips (forward) and change in air direction (up) will produce a musical glide to the top octave. ‘The action is reversed in the descending octave leap. The intensity on the top octave is slowly reduced by gradually relaxing the lips and diaphragmatic support and at the last moment the enbouchure shift (lips back, air angled down) is made so that the octave settles into the fundamental and is gripped as it sounds. In order to expedite this stubborn transition during the embouchure shift, the lips are almost simultaneously opened and closed in a minute nibble--a kind of musical sleight of hand, like dropping the sound and instantly catching it on a cushion of air. One should note in the discussion above that the direction of the airstream recommended for the low register was downward, and that it was to be directed more across the embouchure hole as one ascends to the 3%John Krell, Kincaidiana: A Flute Player's Notebook (Culver City, California: ‘Trio Associates, 1969), 5. Bipia., 38. 4pia., 39-40.ql upper octaves. In reference to this point, a scientific investigation shows, as pointed out earlier, a difference in what one "feels" he is doing and what is actually happening. ‘he other two authors, Moyse and Altts/Caratgé, emphasize the action and suppleness of the lips in directing the airstream, but sone participation of the jaw is also noted. Moyse does not cite the direction of the airstream. He divides the lower two octaves into two segments: (1) the easy notes (6? up to cf, 6? up to B%) and the difficult notes (G* down to cc} or small B; c? down to D”), based on the assumption that the longer the tube is the nore difficult the response will be. For the difficult notes descending the lower two octaves, "the jaws are more and more tightened, lower jaw more and more advanced and more and more pressure of the lips."*° For the easy notes in the low and middle register, he makes the following remarks: (ct to c#?) the jaws are more and more loose, the lower jaw nore and more drawn back, pressure of the lips less and less strong. (G? up to B%) ‘the pressure of the lips will be slightly Lighter ana the jaws less slack, as a pressure of the lips and a slight relaxation of the jaws are needed to pass to another octave. 3Seietcher, op. cit., 58-58. Stokes and Condon, op. cits, 19-20, Both authors explain the action of the angle and include photo- graphs from which the reader can calculate the angle himself. See also Figure V.1, page 100. 3uarcel Moyse, De la sonorité, (Paris: A. Leduc, 1934), 4. *rwia.12 Moyse points out the important role of the jaw in the actions described above. It is by means of the lower jaw, in fact, that one has to correct the axis of the flute in relation to the lips, and this has the enormous advantage of leaving a great deal of liberty to the,lips ... to slur the notes together with suppleness He explains that the emission of the third register notes results “entirely by the pressure of the lips and the combinations of fingering 03d He states that "the movenent of the lips is greater in propor- tion as the interval enlarges, but so little that it should take place without any jarring.**° Moyse is not specific in any of his renarks. His tone develop- ment exercises are very specific, as will be pointed out later, and more than make up for words unspoken. His philosophy on tone control could be sunned up in the following quotation: ‘The Lips are completely free to channel and propel additional impulses of air with flexibility. The flexibility of the jay muscles permits the axis of the air colunn to change easily. caratgd's edition of the Altts Method contains much information that is new. The following information on airstream direction is of that nature. A cross section of a flute mouth-hole is represented in a drawing accompanied by arrows indicating the approximate directions of ria. rpia., 8. Mapia., 5. 4, Marcel Moyse, The Flute and Its Problems. Tone Development through Interpretation for the Flute (Tokyo, Japan: Muramatsu, 1973), 15.