FOOD SCIENCE t food, our bodies We require food to grow, reproduce and maintain good health. Withow! ae can could not stay warm, build or repair tissues or maintain a heartbeat. Eating Le ae help us avoid certain diseases or recover faster when illness occurs. These and other important functions are fuelled by chemical substances in our food called nutrients. BALANCED DIET 'A balanced diet should not only take care of the different types of nutrients but also Consider the energy requirements of the fadividual. This is because different people have different lifestyles and varied nature of , : work. A man with sedentary habits does not require as much energy as the man who is on his feet for most of the day. The energy requirement is measured in terms of calories. The calorie requirement depends on the age, gender, height, weight, occupation and state of health. “A balanced diet is a diet which includes right ‘amount of all the nutrients such as proteins, vitamins, minerals, fats, carbohydrates, etc. for ProPer ‘growth, development and ‘normal functioning of the body.” 'A balanced diet is required for the growth and development of a person especially the children. A balanced diet has direct relation with the health of a person. A young boy of 15 requires more calories or energy than an adult man who does not do heavy work. Similarly, lactating mothers require high energy and high protein diet for good lactation... ‘Amount of Energy Required by People of Different Age Groups “Let thy food be thy medicine”: Hippocrates Person Required kilo calories (approximate) __ Children age in years 1-3 1200 Children age in years 4-6 1600 Children age in years 7-9 2000 Children age in years 10-12 2500 Women who do not work 2090 ‘Women doing hard work 3000 Men who do not work [Men doing hard work = Scanned with CamScanner197 Components of Balanced Diet 1, Carbohydrates - our main source of energy. ern 2. Proteins - essential to growth and repair. of A calorie (cal) is the amount muscles and other body tissues, of heat energy required to raise the 3. Fats - one source of energy and important in |temperature of 1g of water 1°C relation to fat soluble vitamins. from 14° to 15°C. A kilocalorie 4. Vitamins - water and fat soluble vitamins play |(Kcal) is the amount of heat important roles in many chemical processes in |Tequired to raise the temperature of the body. kg of water 1°C. 5. Minerals - inorganic elements occurring in the body. These are critical to body's normal functioning. 6. Water - essential to normal body functioning - as a vehicle for carrying other nutrients and because 65-75% of the human body is water. 7. Dietary Fibre - the fibrous indigestible portion of our diet essential to health of the digestive system. ‘ BIOMOLECULES Biomolecules are molecules that occur naturally in living organisms. Biomolecules include macromolecules like proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids. It also includes small molecules like primary and secondary metabolites and natural products. Biomolecules consists mainly of carbon and hydrogen with nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur, and phosphorus. Classes of Biomolecules There are four major classes of biomolecules: * Carbohydrates » Proteins * Lipids * Nucleic acids Note: We will discuss carbohydrates, proteins and lij acids will be discussed in chapter cell biology. ids in this chapter while nucleic CARBOHYDRATES Carbohydrates are the human body’s key source of energy, providing 3.9 calories of energy per gram. When carbohydrates are broken down by the body, glucose is produced. Carbohydrates are organic compounds, these comprise of only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen: oxygen ratio is usually is 2:1, The empirical formula of carbohydrates is ‘Cm(H0)n (where m can be different from n). Carbohydrates are also known as saccharides, the word saccharide comes from Greek word sakkron which means sugar. Carbohydrates Classification Carbohydrates are classified into simple carbohydrates (monosaccharide, oligosaccharides) and complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), a Scanned with CamScanner198 Monosaccharides o = one and sakkron = sugar. Monosaccharides are often called simple aoe ral formula is Ca(H20)» ixamples From Greek, mon« gars and cannot be hydrolyzed. The gene! heptoses ete-r They are the simplest su monosaccharides are subdivided into trioses, tetrose, pentoses, hexoses, af monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, erythrulose, ribulose, ete. , ration and “blood sugar”: Glucose: The immediate source of energy for cellular respi Galactose: A sugar in milk and yogurt. Fructose: A sugar found in honey. However, glucose is considered as the fundamental unit of carbohydrates: Oligosaccharides or Oligosaccharoses . wand sugars that yield 2 10 10 jgosaccharides are cOmPO saccharides on CH,OH In Greek, Oligo means few. Ol molecules of the same or different mon hydrolysis. Oligosaccharide yielding 2 molecules of cesnosaccharides on hydrolysis is known as @ disaccharide, ofthe ones yielding 3 or 4 monosaccharides are known as irisaccharides and tetrasaccharides, respectively and so on. ‘The general formula of disaccharides is Cx (H:0) «1 and that Of tisaccharides is Cx(HO)ez and 80° Of Two te linked together to form a “double” disaccharides are: sugar or disa Sucrose — common table sugar = glucose + fructose “ | «Lactose — major sugar in milk = glucose + Figs Structure of Glucese galactose « Mallose — product of starch digestion = glucose + glucose Polysaccharides sugars and yield more than 10 in Greek, poly means many. Polysaccharides are compound smotecules of monosaccharides on hydrolysis. They are further dk ef molecules produced as a result of hydrolysis. They may be homo polysaccharides, ie. nonosaccharides of the same type or hetero polysaccharides, i.e. monosaccharides of different . The general formula is (CsFi0Os)x- Example of homo polysaccharides are starch, glycogen Culose, pectin. Hetero polysaccharides are Hyaluronic acid, and Chondroitin. Functions of Carbohydrates + Carbohydrates are chief energy source, in many ani i 7 , y animals; they are instan! energy. Glucose is broken down by glycolysis/ kreb’s cycle to yield ATP. Glucose is stored as glycogen in animals and starch in plants. Stored carbohydrates acts as energy source instead of proteins. Cae aid in regulation of nerve tissue and is the ee source for brain. bohydrates gets associated with lipids and proteins to f face antigens receptor molecules, vitamins and antibiotics, om assified depending on the type t source of Scanned with CamScanner199 ¢ They form structural and protective components, like i ' organisms. ‘ponents, like in cell wall of plants and micro- In animals they are important constituent of connective tissues, * They participate in biological transport, cell-cell communication and activation of growth factors. Carbohydrates are rich in fibre content help to prevent constipation. Sources Carbohydrates are available in wide variety of foods, for example cereals, fruits (especially dates), honey, milk, sugar beet, potato, pasta and sugarcane. PROTEINS Proteins are the chief-builders of the body. They are complex molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen (sometimes sulphur and phosphorus). Proteins are used to synthesize enzymes (e.g. pepsin, trypsin), hormones (e.g. insulin, adrenaline), carrier proteins (eg. haemoglobin) and contractile proteins (e.g. myosin, actin). Normal protein requirement of an adult is 1g/kg of the body weight. However, growing children, pregnant and nursing mothers need more protein. It provides 4.1 calories of energy per gram. Composition of Proteins we The proteins are polymers made of monomers an 7 called the amino acids. Amino acids are gaa Mmcmonic Device for Essential nitrogen-containing molecules that serve as building # i StS blocks for proteins and other organic compounds. Of the eS me Thee Tee ao Pro : iy _ 22 amino acids in nature, 20 are present in our cells. Histidine, Isoleucine . Thousands of structural proteins, enzymes, hormones, Z Leucine, transport molecules, neurotransmitters and immune molecules are built from these same 20 amino acids, : combined together in slightly different fashions. Our body is capable of manufacturing some amino acids; others must be obtained from our food. Non-essential Amino Acids: Non-essential amino acids can be manufactured from other amino acids or from simpler compounds already present in our body. The non-essential amino acids are alanine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine and tyrosine, Adults can also synthesize an 11th amino acid, arginine, but infants and young children cannot produce enough to meet their metabolic needs, Therefore arginine is also called conditionally essential amino acid. a Essential Amino Acids: Nine of the 20 amino acids needed by adults cannot be synthesized in the body; they must be obtained from dietary sources. One cannot remain healthy if deprived of them for very long, The essential amino acids are histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan and valine. Infants and children al require dietary arginine, as they cannot synthesize it efficiently. Scanned with CamScannerClassification of Proteins Classification of Proteins based on Structure of Proteins There are four structural levels of organization to describe the complex macromolecule, protein based on the degree of complexity of the molecule. They are Primary structure, Secondary structure, Tertiary structure and Quaternary structure. Primary structure of Protein - Here protein exist as Jong chain of amino acids arranged in a particular sequence. They are non-functional proteins. «Secondary structure of protein - Ifthe polypeptide chain is coiled into a spiral or helix to have a three-dimensional structure, where the amino acids interact by the formation of hydrogen bonds e.g. keratin, silk fibres, ee. © Tertiary structure of protein - Long polypeptide chains become more stabilizes by folding and coiling, by the formation ‘of ionic or hydrophobic bonds oF disulphide bridges, this results in the tertiary structure of protein, e.g. globulins of blood. © Quaternary structure of protein - When a protein is an assembly of more than one polypeptide or subunits of its own, this is said to be the quaternary structure of protein. Examples, hemoglobin and insulin. Classification of Proteins on the basis of Biological Function Proteins can be grouped based on their metabolic function they perform. «Enzymatic Proteins: They are the most varied and highly specialized proteins with catalytic activity. Enzymes catalyze a variety of reactions. Example: urease, catalase, cytochrome C, etc. © Structural Protein: structures. Example: collagen, «Transport or Carrier Proteins: the body. Example: myoglobin, haemoglobin, etc. «Nutrient and Storage Proteins: These proteins provide nutrition to growing embryos and store ions. Functions of proteins Proteins build new tissues of the body and maintain. and replace damaged tissues. ® Proteins carry out regulating activities as enzymes and hormones. Proteins are protective as antibodies. «Proteins are responsible for movement as contractile proteins actin and myosin form basic structure of muscles. « Keratin protein forms hair, nails, feathers, horns and beaks. Cartier proteins move molecules from one place to another around the body, ¢8: haemoglobin. s: These proteins aid in strengthening or protecting biological elastin, keratin, etc. These proteins help in transport of ions or molecules in Sources of Protein Sources of protein are of both animal and plant origin. Some of the cot t origin. S ft ymmon sources are plant origi e of the c animal products. , Scanned with CamScannerLipmps (FATS AND OILS) Lipids are naturally occurring organic compounds, commonly known as oils and fats. Lipids occur throughout the living world in microorganisms, higher plants and animals and also innit cell types. Lipids contribute to cell structure, provide stored fuel and also take part in many biological processes. Lipids provide 9.1 calories energy per gram. ‘The basic unit of lipids is a triglyceride, synthesised from glycerol (propane-1, 2, 3-triol) and fatty acids. ‘Triglycerides are the chemical form in which most fat exists in food as well as in the body. The second most common class of lipids are ou phospholipids. They are found in membranes of animal and i hholipids contains glycerol and fatty acids, they WWIYWY0--4 plants. Phospl also contain phosphoric acids and a low-molecular weight - ~~ ~W~AAAAko-¢-H 8 alcohol. Common phospholipids are lecithins and cephalins. Types of Lipids Fats can be classified into saturated, trans fats and : antah ea Moet foods have bath types that is eaturatsdiandl's/ 114.2 Feuy Acids + Glycerol unsaturated fats. But usually there is more of one kind of fat than the other. Saturated fat Saturated fat is solid at room temperature, which is why it is also known as “solid fat.” It is mostly in animal foods, such as milk, cheese, and meat: Poultry and fish have less saturated fat than red meat. Saturated fat is also in tropical oils, such as coconut oil, palm oil, and cocoa butter. You'll find tropical oils in many snacks and in non-dairy foods, such as coffee creamers and whipped toppings. Foods made with butter, margarine, or shortening (cakes, cookies, and other desserts) have a lot of saturated fat. Saturated fat can raise your cholesterol. A healthy diet has less than 10% of daily calories from saturated fat. ‘ Trans fat This is a fat that has been changed by a process called hydrogenation. This process increases the shelf life of fat and makes the fat harder at room temperature. Harder fat makes ctispier crackers and flakier pie crusts. Trans fat can raise your cholesterol, so eat as little trans fat as possible. You'll find it in: . * Processed foods. * Snack foods, such as chips and crackers. * Cookies. * Some margarine and salad dressings. *' Foods made with shortening and partially hydrogenated oils. Unsaturated fat unsan_ saturated fat is liquid at room temperature, It is mostly in oils from plants. If you eat ae! fat instead of saturated fat, it may help improve your cholesterol levels. Try to eat ‘unsaturate " unsaturated fat ed fats. Monounsaturated fat and polyunsaturated fat are types of Fig: Triglyceride Molecule Scanned with CamScannerProperties of Lipids General characters of lipids are: Yee py s Functions of Lipids Lipids perform several biological functions: 40. They protect may v! Cholesterol is a waxy body, and especially liver, ma Pot polesterol is also found in foods from animal sources, such as meat, poultry and full-fat dairy products. Li turated fat: This fat is in avocado, nuts, and vegetable oils, such as can Mone at vat “eating foods that are high in monounsaturated fats may eh nounsaturated fats may also keep "good" lower your "pad" LDL cholesterol. Mor levels high. But eating more unsaturated fat without cutting back cholesterol saturated fat may not lower your cholesterol. Polyunsaturated fat: This type of fat is mainly in vegetable oils such as safflow sunflower, sesame, soybean, and corn oils. Polyunsaturated fat is also the main fat fc ted fat in place of saturated fat may lower LD} in seafood. Eating polyunsatural cholesterol. The two types of polyunsaturated fats are omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. Lipids are relatively insoluble in water. They are soluble in non-polar organic solvents, like ether, chloroform, and methanol. Lipids have high energy content and are metabolized to release calories. Lipids also act as electrical insulators. They insulate nerve axons. Fats contain saturated fatty acids. They are solid at room temperatures. Exampl animal fats. Plant fats are unsaturated and are liquid at room temperatures. 7 The melting point of fats depends on the length of the chain of the constituent fatty acid and the degree of unsaturation. Lipids are storage compounds, triglycerides serve as reserve energy of the body: Lipids are important component of cell membranes structure in eukaryotic cells. Lipids regulate membrane permeability. They serve as source for fat soluble vitamins like A, D, E, and K. They act as electrical insulators to the nerve fibres, where the mye! lipids. Lipids are Some lipids like prostaglandi regulators. Layers of fat Body temperature in sheath contains components of some enzyme systems. ins and steroid hormones act as cellular metabolic in the subcutaneous layer, provides insulation and protection from cold. maintenance is done by brown fat. ital organs like heart and kidney. CHOLESTEROL substance that comes from two sources: human body and food. Our — ‘kes all the cholesterol needed and circulates it through the blood. iver produces more cholesterol when we eat a diet high in saturated and Trans- Scanned with CamScanner1 can form plaque between } .cess cholesterol q ‘een layers of artery w; its PC relate blood. Plaque can break open ards cause bloed en heat seds the brain, it causes a stroke, If it blocks an t a It may surprise you to know that cholesterol i ak the many substances created and used by our bodi o es of cholesterol There are two types of cholesterol: "good" and ! "bad." Too much of one type — or not enough of another — can put you at risk for Coronary heart disease, heart attack or stroke. making it harder for your If a clot blocks an arte artery that feeds the heart, it causes a heat i itself isn't bad. In fact, cholesterol is just one ies to keep us healthy, - Typ is HDL cholesterol, along with one fifth of your triglyceride level, make up your total cholesterol count, which can be determined through a blood test. LDL (Bad) Cholesterol LDL cholesterol is considered the “bad” cholesterol because it contributes to plaque, a thics hard deposit that can clog arteries and make them less flexible. This condition is known ae atherosclerosis. If a clot forms and blocks a narrowed artery, heart attack or stroke can result. sother condition called peripheral artery disease can develop when plaque build-up narrows anattery supplying blood to the legs. HDL Good) Cholesterol HDL cholesterol is considered “good” cholesterol because it helps remove LDL cholesterol ‘fom the arteries. Experts believe HDL acts as a scavenger, carrying LDL cholesterol away from thearteres and back to the liver, where it is broken down and passed from the body. One-fourth ‘© one-third of blood cholesterol is carried by HDL. A healthy level of HDL cholesterol may also Protect against heart attack and stroke, while low levels of HDL cholesterol have been shown to “nctease the risk of heart disease. ‘ply tush levels of triglycerides in the blood are associated with atherosclerosis. Elevated tslycerides can be caused by overweight and obesity, physical inactivity, cigarette smoking, cae 2lcohol consumption and a diet very high in carbohydrates (more than 60 percent of total nati) Underlying diseases or genetic disorders are sometimes the cause of high triglycerides. “ople with high triglycerides often have a high total cholesterol level, including a high LDL qserl (bad) level and a low HDL cholesterol (good) level. Many people with heart disease or also have high triglyceride levels. VITAMINS AND MINERALS Poth Vitamins and minerals are needed by the body in very small amounts to tigger the "acting f Chemical reactions necessary to maintain good health, Many of ise & henica Miner 1,2 linked, with one triggering another. If there is a missing or deficient _ Tn etega 2" here in this chain, this process may break down, with potentially devastating 5 factor. The most prominent function of the vitamins and minerals is that they act as cofacl Scanned with CamScannerAlong with their many functions, they enhance the body’s use of carbohydrate, proteins, and fats. They are critical in the formation of blood cells, hormones, Nervous system chemicals known as neurotransmitters, and the genetic material deoxyribonucjei acid (DNA). ‘One misconception about vitamins and minerals is that they provide energy to the body. Vitamins and minerals don’t provide even a single calorie rather they regulate the metabolism hence ensure the supply of energy to the body. “Vitamin is any of the organic compounds that the body requires in small amounts to maintain health and function properly.” Vitamins are classified into two groups: fat soluble and water soluble. . Fat-soluble vitamins include vitamins A, D, E, and K, which are usually absorbed with the help of foods that contain fat. Fat containing these vitamins is broken down by bile, a liquid released by the liver, and the body then absorbs the breakdown products and vitamins. Excess amounts of fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the body’s fat, liver and kidneys. Because these vitamins can be stored in the body, they do not need to be consumed every day to meet the body's needs. Water-soluble vitamins include vitamin C (also known as ascorbic acid) and vitamin B complex. Vitamin B is composed of eight vitamins, but they are grouped together as vitamin B compléx. The B-complex vitamins are B1 (Thiamine), B2 (Riboflavin), B3 (Niacin), BS (Pantothenic acid), B6 (Pyridoxine), B7 (Biotin), B9 (Folic acid) and B12 (Cyanocobalamin). These cannot be stored and rapidly leave the body in urine if taken in greater quantities than the body can use. Foods that contain water-soluble vitamins need to be eaten daily to replenish the body's needs. Following table enlists various vitamins, their sources health benefits and effects of their deficiency or excess in the body. WRU ou ee eR eee : Mnemonic device to remember water soluble vitamins. In this, “T” for Thiamine, R is Riboflavin, N is Niacin, P is Pantothenic acid, P is| Pyridoxine and C is Cobalamin. Vitamins Table Fat-soluble Sources Health Benefit Deficiency & Excess Effects A (Retinol) Green vegetables, | Component of light- | Night blindness, permanent milk and _its | sensitive pigments | blindness. High dosage can be toxic products, liver, eggs | in eye, epithelial | and can lead to bone fractures and and carrots tissue maintenance birth defects. D(D1 & D3) Dairy —_ products, | Calcium absorption | Rickets (bone deformities) eggs, cod liver oil | and bone | Osteomalacia (softening of bones) and steroid | formation High dose causes excessive calcium containing foods ‘ , prsierries Med deposits and mental retardation. ultraviolet light. E (Tocopherol) Margarine, seeds, | Antioxidant Sterility, anaemia and damages to the green leafy retina. High dosage may be toxic. vegetables, nuts | Scanned with CamScannercamo Green leafy | Blood-lotting | Uncontrolled bleeding, High dosage vegetables and may be toxic especially in infants. synthesized by . intestinal bacteria ee WaterSoluble i (ihiamine) Organ __ meats, | Carbohydrate Se grains, legumes | metabolism, nerve tuscle degeneration, pain and and yeast. and heart function, | swelling). act as coenzyme | B2 (Riboflavin) Milk and dairy Used in cellular | Eye irritation, inflammation and products, liver, | respiration breakdown of skin cells. eggs, grains, legumes and cheese B30 (Niacin or | Liver, lean meats, Oxidation- Pellagra (The 3 D's of pellagra: Nicotinic Acid) grains, legumes | reduction reactions | Dermatitis, Diarrhoea and and yeast. in cellular | Dementia) respiration B5 (Pantothenic Milk products, Energy metabolism Fatigue, loss of coordination. Acid) liver, eggs, grains, legumes B6 (Pyridoxine) Whole-grain Amino acid | Convulsions, irritability, kidney cereals, vegetables, | metabolism stones. meats | B7 (Biotin) Tweats, vegetables, | Fat synthesis and Depression, fatigue, nausea. legumes amind acid metabolism. Cofactor B2(Cobalamin) | Red meats, B85 Nucleic acid | Rernicious anaemia, neurological dairy products production disorders. especially DNA _| C (Ascorbic Aci Citrus fruits, green Collagen formation | Scurvy (breakdown of skin, blood (Ascorbic Acid) | CM TT cetables, | in teeth, bone and | vessels and teeth). tomatoes connective tissue of blood —_vessels. Antioxidant a ‘Whole-wheat Nucleic acid | Anaemi i B9 (Folic Acid) pe green | metabolism ar emia, birth defects. Very vegetables, portant for pregnant women. legumes Scanned with CamScannerMINERALS A mineral, from a dietary sense, is an inorganic compound that is needed in small amounts for the regulation of body processes and health. There are two general classes of minerals. Unlike vitamins (which are organic compounds), minerals ate chemical elements. There are two important groups, or types, of minerals: Macro Minerals = N4@,C|, kK, Ca: These are minerals the body needs in relatively large amounts. The different types of macro minerals include calcium, sodium, chloride and potassium. Mineral Function a RTT ice Needed for proper fluid and electrolyte b>!ance, nerve transmission, Table salt, unprocessed meats —== and muscle contraction. Increased intake leads to high blood pressure Needed for proper fluid and electrolyte. balance, present in stomach acid in the form of hydrochloric acid Aid ‘babe balance Needed for proper fluid and electrolyte balance, nerve transmission, Milk, banana, fruit | Pras | and muscle contraction. Important for cardiac conduction juices legumes Important for healthy bones’ and’ teeth; helps muscles relax and contract; important in nerve functioning. Deficiency leads to weak bones Table salt" Milk and milk products 161 Scanned with CamScannera 2. Micro Minerals also called trace minerals because these are minerals the body needs in relatively Micro minerals are small amounts. Examples of trace minerals include: iron, fluoride, zinc and iodine. Steiger Dei ed Part of a molecule (hemoglobin) found in red | Organ meats; red meats; fish; poultry; egg yolks; legumes; leafy greens vegetables; Meats, fish, poultry blood cells that carries oxygen in the body; deficiency leads to anemia Seafood, foods grown in iodine-rich soil, iodized salt (Ff oid 3 Go Wound healing, normal fetal development, Drinking water (either fluoridated or naturally containing fluoride), fish production of sperm, normal growth and sexual FIBRES — sae. maturation, Found_in thyroid hormone, which helps regulate erdWth, development, . and _ metabolism. Deficiency leads to Goite Tnvolved in formation of bones and teeth; helps prevent tooth decay Fiber is made up of the indigestible parts or compounds of plants, which pass relatively unchanged through our stomach and intestines. Fiber is mainly a carbohydrate. Good sources of fiber include fruits, vegetables, oat bran, barley, seed husks, dried beans, Tentils, peas, and soy milk ahd soy products. Dietary Fiber (roughage) is important for a balanced diet. It consists mainly of cellulose from plant cell walls and ae ot many plant-based food sources, including fresh fruits and vegetables and whole grains and pulses. ae rae poe of dietary fiber concern the health of the large intestine, helping to form soft bulky s, thereby easing defecation and reducing the probability of constipation. ne 356, dey poeone of Fibers 1. Aids in improving digestion, pr ipation, 2. Helps lower cholesterol level event constipation, present com | wes . . & ne “B. Reduc isk of intestinal can u cer, = : 7 ———S = ‘canned with CamScannerENZYMES “Enzyme is specialized organic substance, composed of polymers of amino acids that act as catalysts to regulate the speed of the many chemical reactions involved in the metabolism of living organisms.” There are various types of enzymes and each one is responsible for a Particular chemical reaction only. While, most enzymes are associated with metabolic Processes, like, digestion and breathing, there are some, which are related to blood clotting, healing of wounds, controlling the production of hormones, destroying pathogens and environmental toxins, etc. Individual enzymes are named by adding ase to the name of the substrate (the substance acted upon by an enzyme) with which they react. For example, the enzyme that controls urea decomposition is called urease. Some enzymes, such as trypsin and pepsin, retain the names used before this nomenclature was adopted. Structure of Enzyme Enzymes are highly selective, the 'y catalyse specific reactions only. Enzymes have a part where only certain kind of substrate can bind to it, this site of activity is known as the ‘active site’. The molecules that react and bind to the enzyme is known as the ‘substrate’. Scanned with CamScanner47 © Active site products \ " \ Substrate wz Enzyme-substrate complex Figure : Enzyme Structure & Key Lock Model™ Most of the enzymes consists of the protein and the non protein part is called the ‘cofactor’. ‘he proteins in the enzymes are usually globular proteins. The protein part of the enzymes are iaown ‘apoonzyme’. Together the apoenzyme and cofactors are known as the ‘holoenzyme’. Enzyme’s Characteristics 1. The basic function of an enzyme is to increase the rate of a reaction. Most cellular reactions occur about a million times faster than they would in the absence of an enzyme. 2. Allenzymes are proteinous in nature. 3. Most enzymes act specifically with only one substrate to produce products. For example, pepsin would only act on proteins. 4. Most remarkable characteristic is that enzymes are regulated from a state of low activity to high activity and vice versa. ‘ Enzymes are site specific; they work like a key and lock and it is called key lock model. It means enzymes would only attach on a specific site of the substrate. 6. Enzymes are highly sensitive to pH and temperature changes. Functions of Enzymes Enzymes perform a wide variety of functions in living organisms. They are major Components in signal transduction and cell regulation, kinases and phosphatases help in this tion. They take part in bodily movement with the help of the protein myosin which aids in Muscle contraction. Enzymes play an important role in the digestive activity. Enzymes "eakdown large molecules into absorbable molecules. Variuos enzymes work together in an order forming metabolic pathways, for example glycolysis. Application of Enzymes od j Food P sng . Amylases enzymes are used in production of sugars from starch in f ing Se aera Dane is used in breakdown of starch into sugar, and in baking rmentation roeees of yeast raises the dough. Proterses enzyme help in manufacture of biscuits iz in lowering the protein level. Baby foods - De enzyme is used in pre-digestion of baby Sods. Brewing industry - Enzymes from barley are widely used in brewing industries. Amylases, Blucanases, proteases, betaglucanases, arabinoxylases, gmyloglucosidase, acetolactatedecarboxylases Fe used in prodcution of beer industries. Fruit juices ~ enzymes like cellulases, pectinases are used Scanned with CamScannerit fui i i facture of cheese. Lipases ar, i ifying fruit juices. Dairy Industry - Renin is used in manu! 6 i ty biue-mold cheese. Lactases breaks down lactose to glucose and galactose, Tenderizes - Papain is used to soften meat. Starch Industry - Amylases, amyloglucosidases and glycoamylases converts starch into glucose and syrups. ue CUE e Ct) : additive Seiomaceceunty Paper industry - Enzymes like amylases, xylanases, cellulases and liginases lower the viscosity, and removes lignin to soften paper. Biofuel Industry - Enzymes like cellulases are used in breakdown of cellulose into sugars which can be fermented. Biological detergent - Proteases, amylases, lipases and cellulases assist in removal of protein stains, oily stains and acts as fabric conditioners. Rubber Industry - Catalase enzyme converts latex into foam rubber, Molecular Biology - Restriction enzymes, DNA ligase and polymerases are used in genetic engineering, pharmacology, agriculture, medicine, Polymerised Chain Reaction (PCR) techniques, and are also important in forensic science, Environment - Enzymes are powerful tools that help sustain a clean environment in several ways. They are utilized for environmental purposes in a number of industries including agro-food, oil, animal feed, detergent, pulp and paper, textile, leather, petroleum, and specialty chemical and biochemical industry. Enzymes also help to maintain an unpolluted environment through their use in waste management. Scanned with CamScannerWATER ‘Water is an essential part of the human diet. It is necessary for the body in which it is used asa solvent, a transport medium, a substrate in hydrolytic reactions and for lubrication. It hydrates the body and facilitates the movement of all the other components above. Suggested intake is at least 8 glasses a day, Although humans need water every day it is not necessarily consumed in the form of drinking water itself but as the major part of many drinks and some liquid or partially foods such as soups, sauces, dressings and ice-desserts. Water is the most important nutrient for your teenager's body and is necessary for almost every bodily function. It helps the body control temperature, cushions joints, and gets rid of waste. As much as 75 percent of your teenager’s body weight can be from water. Your teen loses water through sweating, breathing, and urinating and it’s important that your-child stay hydrated. Having enough water can even keep your teen feeling energized. Scanned with CamScanner