!#"%$'&)(*,+.-0/2143*/2657/2(*8%9;:<&)(>=@?<BAC&)(>DFEHGI?#(*&)BG4?KJL/2&)(*M4?KNOE@P#6J*14NO?Q=R/OGSNO?<DUT&%/OGV/ONXW
JL(*&<DK?<8<HY2J*14NO&ZGV145H(>/[/OKG4?\?#EH3*/2HNO14?\=H/]ACEH/O!J*/O3O^`_a?\TH(>14Db/O(*?c?#THG41VNd?<N214e)ACEH/gfH/ONhfH?iT7&<(kj014(L?#N
/Ol!<m`+onpER14/OBJ*(L?#J*eKG4?U/ODb143>14e)9B?#5H3*&)(>NO1Ve)B=H/\GI?K(*?<=H1I?#NO14e< ^o_a?K6EH/2q#?r/OGV/ONsJL(*&p=H1V@P<Db14Nd?
NOE@P<!J*14Nd?bTH(*/2=H14N2/iG4?b/XtR1V3>J*/OHN21I?K=H/cu@EHNsJLE@?<N214&)R/O3v/2B/OGaTHER6J*&rNO/2(*&r=R/iGI?w/OR/O(*8<MI?R+o/O30=H/ON214(2+
GI?\/Xt`143>J*/OHN21I?i=R/xEH%Nd?#DUT&i=H/0q<?#NOM4&\/O%G4?i?<EH3>/OHN21I?i=R/vACEH/O!J*/O3O^@y'&)%/O3zJh?i6EH/sq<?1V=H/O&)GV&)8)M4?R+
y{?<3*1VDU1V( DU&<3>JL(>e0/2K#|!}gn6EH/~EH@?gNO&)R3*/ON2EH/ORNO1I?0=H/OG6Nd?#DUT&]=H/~q#?<N2M4&g/O3EH@?]ACEH/O(>€d?v?JL(L?#N2JL1‚q#?
/O!JL(>/x=H&)3kTHGI?<NO?<3'TH?<(L?<GV/OG4?<3ƒH&FNd?#(*8!?<=H?<3k9bT/O(>AC/2N2JL?<DU/2!JL/xN2&)H=HEHNsJL&)(*?<3O^`3>J*/x/O3{/2G,GVGI?<DU?<=H&
/2AC/ONsJL&Ky{?<3*1VDU1V(O+p=H/OGaN2E@?<G f@?#5HGI?<(>/ODb&)3[DUP<3[=H/2JL?<G4G4?<=@?<Db/O!J*/x/OGI?F3>/ONON214e);)^„|H^
…G4?3>148)ER14/O!J*/U3>EH5H3*/2NON214e)…fH?<(*/2DU&)3cEH…(>/OT@?#3*&B=H/bGI?QNOEH?<!JL14€O?<NO1Ve)†=R/OG~&)3*N214GI?#=H&)(Z?<(‡W
DUe)R14NO&R+TH?<(L?rn6EH/T@?#(>JL1V/OH=R&r=H//O3zJL/THER6J*&H+,q</d?<Db&)3xN2e)DU&K3*/THEH/2=H/NOEH?<!JL14€O?<(x/2GˆNd?#DUT&
/OG4/2N2J*(*&)DU?<8)YsJL14N2&\=R/0AC&)(>DK?Z3*1VDU1VGI?<(S9b=H/23*NO(>145H1V('N2&)DU&\GI?Z3*EHDU?i=H/0&)3*N214G4?<=H&)(>/O3k?<(*Dbe)H1VNO&)3~14`W
=H/OT/OH=R14/O!J*/O3O+#Nd?<=H?vEHH&xN2&)F3>EFTH(*&<TH1I?[AC(*/2NOEH/2HNO14?v=H/{(>/O3*&<@?<HN21I?R^-v?#(*/ODb&)3/O3>T7/2NO1I?#G`Y2RA‰?<3*1V3
/O/OG./O3zJh?<=R&U5@?#3*/<^


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œ\2œ\ ž Ÿ¢¡¤£a¥'¦sŸO§c¨%©cª¬«ªS­ ®\¯%¦O¥'©
'y &<DU&°3L?#57/2DU&)3=R/G4?BDU/2NdP<R14Nd?BN2GIP<3>14NO?R+ˆ/2G[f@?<Db14GVJ*&)H14?<H&=H/QEH±&<3*NO1VGI?<=R&)(F?<(>DUe<H14N2&
JL14/2H/™GI?3>148)EH1V/O!JL/xAC&<(*DU?
H=
p 2
1
+ mω q . 2 2
² )^V³
ƒ%/2G f@?<Db14G‚JL&)R1I?<H&ZN2E@P<!JL1VNO& p 9 q 3>/™NO&)2m!qp14/2(>JL2/2Q/OQ&)T/O(L?#=H&)(*/23{Db/ONd?#H&#W´N2E@P<!JL1VNO&)3'/O%EH
/O3*TH?<NO1V&\=H/v-01VG45/O(>JO^!_a?<3~/ONOEH?<NO1V&)H/O3~=H/gDU&qp14Db14/2!JL&Z=H/0-0/O1V3*/2p5/O(>8\J*14/OR/OKG4?™DU1V3*DU?™AC&<(*DU?
npER/cG4?<3[/ON2E@?<N214&)H/23]=H/c-v?<Db14G‚JL&)rN2GIP<3>14NO?<3O+
1
q̇ = [q, H] = ,
p
² )^µ<³
)^·¶)³
ih̄ m
1
ṗ = [p, H] = −mω q, 2
²
=H&)H=H/ZfH/2DU&<3[ERJL1VG414€O?<=H&FG4?(*/O8<GI?F=H/ZNO&<ih̄HDFERJL?<NO1Ve)
[q, p] ≡ qp − pq = ih̄. ² )^¸|!³
¹gJL1VG41V€d?<H=R&F/OG.&)T/O(*?<=H&)([R&#W‡-g/O(*Db1VJ*1I?<R&
a= √
1
(p − imωq) ² )^·º)³
9%3*E ?<=»>EH!J*& 2mh̄ω

a =√ † 1
(p + imωq), ² )^¸"!³
T7&p=H/ODb&)3[(>/O/O3>NO(>145H1V( q 9 p NO&)Db& 2mh̄ω

q=i
s
h̄
(a − a ), †
² )^µm<³
2mω

p=
s
mh̄ω
(a + a ). †
² )^·})³
¼ =H/ODUP<3O+[3>/°THEH/O=R/;q</O(Qn6EH/<+]=H/25H14=H&½?GI?…2(>/O8)G4?…=H/°NO&)HDiERJh?<N214e)¾=H/°GV&)3%&)T/O(L?#=H&)(*/23Q=H/
DU&)Db/O!J*&B9lT7&<3*14N214e),+ [a, a ] = 1 ^¿ˆ1V@?<GVDU/26J*/rERJ*14G41V€d?<Db&)3\/O3>J*&)3w6EH/2q<&)3KN2&)HNO/2TRJL&<3UT@?#(L?
†

/O3*N2(*1V5H14([/2G.f@?<Db14GVJ*&)H14?<H&c=H/OG.&)3>NO1VGI?<=H&<([?<(*Dbe)H1VNO&N2&)DU&QÀÁOÂ
2
1 † †
H = h̄ω(aa + a a) = h̄ω(a a + ) = h̄ω(N + ),
1 †
2
1
2
² )^·)³
 ˆŠ ‹xŒOŽv‘~’”“)•Q–‡—wŽ‘˜™’[š%kŠ[Šˆ–s›[— ¶
=H&)H=H/14!J*(*&p=HEHNO1VDU&<3/OG]&)T/O(L?#=H&)(w=H/Ã6ÄHDb/O(>& N = a a ^~3KT&)(w/O3>&†n6EH/ G4&)3wH1‚q)/OGV/O3b=H/
†

/OH/2(*8)M4?r=H/OGS&<3*NO1VGI?<=R&)(v?#(*Dbe)H14N2&r3*&<;=R/2JL/2(*Db14@?#=H&)3vT&)(xGV&)3x/2148)/26q#?<GV&)(*/23x=H/2GS&)T/O(L?#=H&)( N ^
Å 1‘=R/OH&<JL?<Db&)3vGV&)3v/2148)/26q#?<GV&)(*/23g9 G4&<30/2148)/2HÆ</sJL3™H&)(>DK?#G414€O?<=H&)3]=H/ N T&)( n 9 |ni (>/O3>T7/2N2JL1ÁW
q<?#DU/26J*/<+@/26J*&)HN2/O3]JL/OR/ODb&)3]npER/
N |ni = n |ni . ² )^‚Ç!³
Å /ZTHEH/O=R/cq</O([A‰P<NO1VG4Db/O!JL/vnpER/
√
a |ni = n |n − 1i , ² )^‚)ȳ
†
√
a |ni = n + 1 |n + 1i . ² )^‚È)³
ɑ&)(‘/O3>J*/{Db&<JL1‚q)&H+ a 9 a 3>&)G4G4?<DU?<=H&)3.&)T/O(*?<=H&)(>/O3‘=H/'=H/23*N2/OH3>&Z9i?<3>NO/OR3*&H+#(*/O3>T7/2N2J*1Vq#?<Db/O!JL/#+
†

9%/O&`NO?<3*1V&)H/23O+H=H/c?<R14n6EH14G4?<NO1Ve)K9%N2(*/O?<NO1Ve) ^
y'&<DU&ÊGV&)3F/O1V8)/O!q#?<GV&)(*/23i=H/ H ² /ON<^ ² )^‚ȳ*³c3*&)&)5!qp1I?<Db/O!J*/rT7&<3*1VJ*1Vq<&)3O+‘GI?Ã3>/ONOER/OHN21I?°=H/
/O3>JL?<=H&)3]8)/2H/O(*?<=H&)3[T&)([1‚JL/O(*?<NO1V&)H/23{=H/ZGI?F/2N<^ ² )^V<ȳ'=H/O5/xJL/2(*Db14@?#(O+RT&)([GV&FNOE@?#GË+HGV&)3{/O1V8)/OpW
q<?#G4&)(>/O3c=H/ N =H/O5/Ol3>/O(\pÄRDU/2(*&)3\/O!JL/2(*&)3FT&)3>1VJL1‚q)&)32^¿ˆ14@?#G4Db/O!JL/#+.G4&)3cH1Vq</OGV/O3i=R/K/OR/O(*8<MI?
=H/OG.&)3>NO1VGI?<=H&<([?<(*Dbe)H1VNO&F/23>JLP<Ã=@?#=H&)3[T&)(
n E = (n + )h̄ω,
1
n = 0, 1, 2, ... ² )^‚¶!³
2
¹]JL1VG414€O?<H=H&™GV&)3&)T/O(*?<=H&)(>/O3ƒ=H/gNO(*/O?<NO1Ve)9b?<H1VnpER14GI?#NO14e<FT7&p=H/2DU&)3GVG4/28!?<(?™q#?<(*14?<3NO&)RNOG4EpW
3*14&<H/O32^`¹g@?Z=H/0/2G4G4?<3/O3~n6EH/ ∆q ∆p = (n + 1/2)h̄ +!=R&)H=H/ (∆q ) ≡ hn |q | ni − hn |q| ni ^ 2 2 2

ƒ3zJL&B/23FNO&<H3*1V3>JL/2!JL/rN2&)…GI?(*/2GI?<N214e);=H/r1VHNO/2(>JL1V=HEHDF5R(*/b8)/OH/2(L?<G ∆q∆p ≥ h̄/2 9;DFEH/O3zJL(*?

n n n

npER/U/2G~/23>JL?<=H&Ã5H?<3*/b=H/OGƒ&)3>NO1VGI?<=H&<(™?<(*Dbe)H1VNO&Q/O3cEHÌ/O3>JL?<=H&=H/bDUMVH14DU?K14RNO/O(zJL1V=HEHDF5H(>/<^a
&<JL(*?<3[T@?<G4?<5H(L?#3O+H/2G./O3>JL?<=H&b5@?<3>/c/23]EH /23>JL?<=H&bNO&)fH/2(*/26J*/KÀ¸Âa=H/2G.&)3*N214G4?<=H&)([?#(*Dbe)H14N2&H^
Šˆ‹xŒOŽv‘~’”“)•Q–‡—wŽ‘˜™’[š%kŠ[Šˆ–s›[— |
œ\*Íb ÎÌ©\£¤­ ©b¨%©\£Ï¨QÐ[ŸÌ¥{§c­ ÑÊ© Ð[Ÿ2Ð]¥kÒ.ª‘©\­ §cÓ\¯%Ô{Òa¦O¥'© ¥k©i­ ©Õ©\£,Ö
¥'¦2Ÿ2§c¨Q©Zª‘Ð]£×§™ªˆ­ ®i¯%¦2¥'©i£
 /O3zJh?B3>/ONON214e)Db&)3>J*(L?<(>/ODb&)3in6EH/%GV&)3iDb&p=H&)3F=H/2G'NO?<DUT&B3>&)/On6EH1Vq#?<GV/O!JL/23?BEH&)3‡W
NO14G4?<=H&)(b?<(>DUe<H14N2&H+ƒDK?#J*/ODUP#JL1VNd?<Db/O!J*/fH?<5HGI?#H=H&H+ƒ9Ø/23>J*/ÊfH/ONhfH&lR&)3r14R=H14NO?<(LP;EHÙNd?<Db14R&
3*/ORNO14GVG4&T@?#(L?NOE@?#6J*14€O?<([/OG.NO?<DUT&w/OGV/ON2J*(*&)DU?<8)RY2JL1VNO&H^
_a?<3~/ON2E@?<N214&)H/23'=H/xÚÃ?tpÛk/OG4GT@?<(*?\EHKNd?<DbT7&cG41V5H(*/]/2KEH@?\(*/O8<14e)b3*1VUACEH/26J*/O3{/2HNO/2(*(*?<=@?
=H/O!JL(>&U=R/cER@?bNO?dq`1V=@?<=Q3*&<
∇·E ~ = 0, ² )^VO|6³
∇·B ~ = 0, ² )^Vº)³
∇×E ~ = − 1 ∂B ,
~
² <^V")³
<^VÈm<³
c ∂t
∇×B ~ = 1 ∂E .
c ∂t
~
²
Ü´6J*(*&p=HEHN214Db&)3x/OGˆT7&<J*/OHN21I?<Gq)/2N2JL&<(*1I?#G A~ +7=@?<=H&QT&)( B~ = ∇ × A~ ^ _?r/2NOE@?#NO14e<;=R/w¿?#(L?<=@?d9
² )^‚"!³‘1VDUTRG414NO?gn6EH/ E~ = −(1/c)∂A/∂t ~ − ∇φ
+)=H&)H=R/ φ /O3/2GHT7&#JL/ORNO1I?#GR/O3>Nd?<G4?<(O^<¿ˆ14H?<G4Db/O!JL/#+
ERJL1VG414€O?<H=H&]G4?0H&)(>DK?]=H/{y'&)EHG4&<DF5 ² ∇·A~ = 0³s+GI?g?<EH3*/2HNO14?v=H/~ACEH/O!JL/23 ² φ = 0³.9\G4?g/2NOE@?#NO14e<
=H/ ¼ DbT7/2(*/sW‡ÚÃ?tpÛk/OG4G ² )^‚Èm)³s+`&)5RJ*/OH/2DU&)3
2
∇A ~ − 1 ∂ A = 0.
2~
² )^Vd}!³
2
c ∂ t 2

Ýg/23*&)G‚q`1V/OH=R&/23>JL?/2NOE@?<N214e);T&)(Z3*/OTH?<(L?<N214e)°=H/wq#?<(*14?<5HGV/O3v9°ERJ*14GV14€d?#H=H&rG4?<3™NO&)R=H14N214&)H/23Z=H/
AC(*&)!JL/2(L?w?<TH(>&)TH14?<=@?<32+H&)5RJ*/OH/2DU&)3]G4?<3{3*&<G4EHN214&)H/23
~ r, t) = α(t)A
A(~ ~ o (~r) + α∗ (t)A
~ ∗ (~r)

² )^Vd!³
o

~ o (~r) + α∗ (0)eiωt A
= α(0)e−iωt A ~ ∗ (~r)
o

=H/{GI?#3‘/2NOE@?<N214&)R/O3=H/{ÚÃ?tpÛ'/2G4GHTH?<(L?v/2G`/23*T@?#NO14&™GV145H(>/k/2GI?gH&)(*DU?0=R/]y'&)EHGV&)DF5 +=H&)H=R/ ~ o (~r)

A
 ˆŠ ‹xŒOŽv‘~’”“)•Q–‡—wŽ‘˜™’[š%kŠ[Šˆ–s›[— º
3L?#J*143>A‰?#NO/™GI?/2NOE@?<N214e)Q=H/c-g/OG4DbfH&)G‚JL€#+
~ o (~r) + k 2 A
∇2 A ~ o (~r) = 0, ² )^·<Ç!³
9 α(t)
3L?JL143zA‰?<NO/cGI?w/ON2E@?<N214e)B=R/iDb&Èqp1VDU1V/O!JL&w=H/\EHB&)3>NO14G4?<=H&)(]?#(*Dbe)H14N2&H+ α̈(t) = −ω α(t) ^ 2

¼ npERMË+ k /O3KGI?;q#?<(>1I?<5RG4/=H/B3*/2T@?<(*?<NO1Ve)¢n6EH/B3>/Bf@?<GVGI?°NOE@?<!J*14€d?#=@?†T&)(UG4?<3KN2&)H=H1VNO1V&)H/O3U=H/
NO&)!JL&<(*H&Ì14DbTHEH/O3zJh?<3b3*&<5H(*/ /OG]T7&#JL/ORNO1I?#Gg/2ØG4?<3UTH?<(*/2=H/O3U=H/ÃG4?;NO?qp1V=@?<= +ƒ1Ë^„/<^‚+ k → k +ƒ9
^@_a?F/ON2E@?<NO1Ve)Q=H/™/O1V8)/O!q#?<GV&)(*/23 ² )^·<Ç!³~H&)3[G4GV/2q#?F?FG4?FG4GI?#DK?<=H?™ÞßXàâáKãsß>äQåsæRä<ç@èéà‚êäpåsàËëç
n

ω = kc
=H/OG.NO?<DUT&H^
¹]JL1VG414€O?<H=H&bGI?#3v/ON2E@?<N214&)H/23x=H/wÚ ?tpÛ'/2G4GË+G4GV/O8!?#DU&)3g?Kn6EH//2G‘NO?<DbT7&r/2G4Y2N2JL(>14N2&U9 /OGˆDU?<8#W
HY2J*14NO&w/23>JhP# =@?#=H&)3]T7&<(
E(~
h
~ r , t) = − 1 α̇(t)A ~ (~r) + α̇ (t)A
o
∗~ (~r) , ∗
o
i
² <^µ`³
² )^µ<)³
c
~ r , t) = α(t)∇ × A
B(~ ~ (~r) + α (t)∇ × A
∗ ~ (~r), ∗

9%GI?F/2H/O(>8)MI?/OGV/ONsJL(*&<DK?<8<HY2J*14Nd?
o o

F H =
Z
1 3
d r(E ~ +B
2 ~ ) = k |α(t)| ,
2
2
2
² <^µ<¶)³
=H&)H=H/ZfH/2DU&<3[3*EHTHER/O3>J*&rn6EH/ A~ /O3zJhPwH&)(>DK?<GV14€O?<=H&H+ d r|A~ (~r| = 1 ^
8π 2π
R 3 2

Å 1a?<fH&)(*?w=R/2ì@H1VDU&<3[GI?<3[NO?<!JL14=H?<=H/O3](>/d?<GV/O3
o o

i
q(t) = √ [α(t) − α (t)], ∗
² )^µ|6³
c 4π
k
p(t) = √ [α(t) + α (t)], ∗
² )^µ<º)³
T7&p=H/ODb&)3[(>/O/O3>NO(>145H1V([GI?F/OR/O(*8<MI?/OGV/ON2J*(*&)DU?<4π8)RY2JL1VNd?FN2&)DU&
1
H = (p + ω q ),
F
2 2 2
² <^µ<")³
npER/™H&F/O3[DUP<3{n6EH/v/OG f@?#DU1VGVJL&<H1I?<R&cN2GIP<3>14N2& ² <^Vȳ~=H/xEH%&)3>NO1VGI?<=H&<({?<(>DUe)R14NO&\=H/vAC(>/ONOER/OHN21I?
2

ω ²
NO&)DU?<3L? m = 1³X^3U=R/ONO1V(O+S/2±TR(*14Db/O(*?BNOE@?#6J*14€O?<NO1Ve) +S/2G[Nd?<DbT7&Ê/2G4/2N2JL(>&)DU?<8)HYsJL14N2&
H&Q/O3cDKP<3™ERÌ3>EHDK?Q=H/w&)3>NO14G4?<=H&)(>/O3Z?<(>DUe<H14N2&)3xNOG4P<3*1VNO&)32+ EHH&T@?<(*?%Nd?<=@?QDb&`=H&%TR(*&)TH1V&Q=H/
&)3*N214GI?#NO14e< ^
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œ\zíK îðïQ§c¯wÒa¦sñ[§c¥'¦2®\¯ ¨%Ð[Ÿ¥{§c­ ÑÊ©
g- /ODb&)3\qp1V3>JL&ÃnpER/KT@?<(*?Ã=H/23*NO(>145H1V(\Db/ONO?<H&#WòNOE@P#6J*14NO?<DU/2!JL/KGV&)3cDU&p=H&)3c=H/OG~Nd?#DUT&H+a3*e)GV&
H/ON2/O3*1‚Jh?<Db&)3F=R/O3*N2(*1V5H14(\3*E/On6EH1‚q<?#G4/O!J*/<óˆ/2G'&)3>NO1VGI?<=H&<(i?<(>DUe<H14N2&H^ Å 1{NO&<DUT@?#(L?<Db&)3cGI?<3\/ONOEH?W
NO14&<H/O3 ² )^µm<³\9 ² <^·}!³iN2&) ² )^·#|6³\9 ² )^·)º)³i(>/O3>T7/2N2JL1‚q#?<DU/2!JL/<+ˆT7&p=H/ODb&)3(>/O/ODbTHG4?<€d?<( α(t) 9
∗
α (t)
=H/ÃGI?;J*/O&)(>MI?;NOGIP#3*14NO?†T&)(UGV&)3K&<T7/2(L?<=H&<(*/O3K=H/BNO(>/d?<N214e)±9Ø?#H14n6EH1VGI?<N214e)½=H/ÃG4?ÌJL/2&)(*M4?
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l

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e

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s

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F =−
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πh̄c
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F =−
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