TES-Compliation 2066 PDF

Technology, Environment and Society: A Compilation mainly Based on Old Syllabus
CHAPTER 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Technology: According to Oxford English Dictionary, Technology is the scientific
application of knowledge. Or, A study of the technical means undertaken in all cultures (a
universal), which involves the systematic application of organized knowledge (synthesis) and
tangibles (tools and materials) for the extension of human faculties that are restricted as a
result of the evolutionary process.
Environment: According to Oxford English Dictionary, Environment, Surroundings
setting or Natural World is known as Environment.
OR
Environment is the Physical and biotic habitat which surrounds us; that which can see, hear,
touch, smell and taste.
OR
Environment: All of the external factors affecting an organism. These factors may be other
living organisms (biotic factors) or nonliving variables (a biotic factors), such as temperature,
rainfall, day length, wind, and ocean currents. The interactions of organisms with biotic and a
biotic factors form an ecosystem. Even minute changes in any one factor in an ecosystem can
influence whether or not a particular plant or animal species will be successful in its
environment.
Society: According to Oxford English Dictionary, Society, An ordered community; a
particular system of ordering the community, an organization or club, wealthy and
fashionable people.
OR
Society: the web of relationships and interactions among human beings. Understanding of
how society works or ought to work has been sought in philosophy, economics, psychology,
and religion.
Stone Age: The period of human technological development characterized by the use of
stone as the principal raw material for tools. In a given geographic region, the Stone Age
normally predated the invention or spread of metal-working technology. Human groups in
different parts of the world began using stone tools at different times and abandoned stone
for metal tools at different times. Broadly speaking, however, the Stone Age began roughly
2.5 million years ago, ended in some parts of the world 5,000 years ago, and ended in other
regions much more recently. Today only a few isolated human populations rely largely on
stone for their technologies, and that reliance is rapidly vanishing with the introduction of
tools from the modern industrialized world.
Prehistoric Flint Tools
Humans have been toolmakers for at least 2.5 million years. The earliest technology was a
practically oriented tool kit of haphazardly shaped chopping, cutting, and scraping
implements fashioned from pebbles. From the later stone ages, archaeologists have identified
some 60 or 70 standard kinds of intricate tools with very specific purposes; some had
ceremonial uses. While the ax-head, arrowhead, scrapers, borers, and flakes in this picture
were all made of stone, materials such as bone and ivory were also used. Tools like these can
be made by direct percussion (using a hammer stone or other implement to knock flakes from
the raw material) or indirect percussion (using the hammer stone to strike a chisel-like tool
that is precisely positioned on the raw material).
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Figure1: Prehistoric flint tools
Human ancestors living before the Stone Age likely used objects as tools, a behavior that
scientists find today among chimpanzees. Wild chimpanzees in Africa exhibit a range of tool
using behaviors. For example, they use bent twigs to fish for termites, chewed wads of leaves
to soak up liquid, and branches and stones as hammers, anvils, missiles, or clubs. However,
when prehistoric humans began to make stone tools they became dramatically distinct from
the rest of the animal world. Although other animals may use stone objects as simple tools,
the intentional modification of stone into tools, as well as using tools to make other tools,
appear to be behaviors unique to humans. This stone tool making and tool using behavior
became central to the way early humans adapted to their environment and almost certainly
had a profound effect on human evolution.
Archaeologists believe the Stone Age began about 2.5 million years ago because that marks
the age of the earliest stone tool remnants ever discovered. The earliest recognizable stone
artifacts mark the beginnings of the archaeological record that is, the sum total of material
remnants of ancient human activities. As recently as 5,000 years ago all human societies on
the face of the earth were essentially still living in the Stone Age. Therefore, over 99.8
percent of human’s time as toolmakers from 2.5 million years ago to 5,000 years ago took
place during the Stone Age. During the Stone Age our ancestors went through many different
stages of biological and cultural evolution. It was long after our lineage became anatomically
modern that we began to experiment with new innovations such as metallurgy, heralding the
end of the Stone Age.
Prehistoric Tools and Their Uses
Prehistoric humans made a great variety of stone tools, many of which were designed for
particular tasks. Larger forms, such as axes and adzes, were used to cut and shape wood.
Knifelike blade tools were used to butcher animals. Small arrowheads of a variety of shapes
and sizes made precise weapons for hunting.
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Figure1: Prehistoric tools and their uses

Objectives:
The main objectives of this chapter are to understand:
 How the civilization started and when. .
 The important civilized states in the past history.
 About the starting of earliest and latest industrial revolution.
 How industrial revolution was run from 1660's to present.
 About the technological change trends and its impact on the activities of earlier
 tribes and rulers.
 About the means of power used by people in the history.
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1.1 Civilization between 3000 B.C. and 1660 A.D.

We owe our knowledge of the general scheme of dynastic history to a compilation made
around 270 BC by Manetho, a priestly chronicler. From the end of the old kingdom
(2160BC) to the beginning of the dynastic period, it allows us to infer a date for this of
around 3100BC. Recent authority has focused on a date consistent with 3100 BC for the
beginning of Egyptian history. In parts of Mesopotamia written records began to be
made early in the 3 rd millennium B.C. The Chinese were another people to show a
particularly intense concern with their history. The Yellow Emperor's successor
founded the Hsiao dynasty ostensibly around the beginning of the second millennium
B.C.
The process may be observed at an early stage in ancient Egypt. This makes a good point
of departure/not merely because the Egyptian civilization was one of the firsts to appear,
but it so clearly stemmed from the coalescence of smaller territorial units. Dynastic
history began in Egypt when upper and lower Egypt was amalgamated by King Menus (or
Narmer). It is still uncertain how the country was organized before it s political verification
led to the beginning of Egyptian history. Though, recent opinion inclines to the view that a
substantial degree of cultural homogeneity already existed during predynastic times. There
was a sound reason for this in geography. Population was concentrated in the narrow
strip of fertile ground either side of the Nile which itself allowed easy movement for
peoples through this. The most important eqipment devised by the ancient Egyptians to
overcome the problem of the space was the boat. By contrast they had to rely for land
transport on the tractive power of human beings and donkeys. .
The archaeological remains of the Harappan civilization which occupied the Indus basin
during the 3rd and 2nd millennia B.C. provided further evidence for long distances
movements at this time. The homogeneity of culture prevailing over a territory
creator than that of ancient Egypt suggests that boats must have played an important role
in the basin itself. The Mediterranean basin was another region to show, how geographical
horizon expanded with civilization the use of boats helped the islanders to extend their
geographical awareness even as early as Neolithic times.
It looks the Greeks some time to emerge from the "Dark Age" marked in the archaeological
record by the disappearance of the Mycenaean style. On the other hand wide spread
adoption of iron working the invention of the alphabet and genesis.
Already in the sixth century B.C. Alexander of Miletus (611- 546B.C.) considered by the
Greeks to have been the father of map making had envisaged the earth as a sphere.
It was at Alexandria also that Ptolemy (A.D. 90-168) compiled his guide to geography,
which exerted a profound influence on the medieval geographers of the west.
At the height of their power the Romans are not merely engulfed most of the territory of the
Persian Empire and the spheres of the Greeks and in the Mediterranean, but expanded
geographical knowledge for the north and east. Roman technology depended to a notable
extent on metals, many of which come from mines situated as far a field as Spain, the
Balkans, Asia Minor and Cyprus. Even more importantly roads played a crucial part in
maintaining official control of Empire from Rome. The map of the Empire prepared by
Agrippa and after his death completed and put on public display by Augustus was to an
important degree based on the road system.
The traditional aim of Roman authority had been to extend the limits of the Empire by
military means followed up by administrative and cultural major to ensure the incorporation
of new territories within the Roman world.
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References in early Chinese literature point to the existence yearly in the first millennium
BC, the cartography department responsible for housing maps that displayed the populations,
raw material and product of different regions. The earliest map so far recovered from China
date from early in the Han Dynasty. They set up a system of province, introduced
standardized weights and measures, regularized the script used in official documents, built
roads and constructed a frontier wall to defend the other empire. Under the Han Dynasty (202
B.C. - 220 A.D.), the empire was extended north to Korea and south to south-east Asia.
Like the Romans, Inca intended their system of communication primarily to serve official
purposes. Rest houses were provided at four or eight mile interval to give shelter to traveling
officials or even the emperor himself, carried on a litter. In this way the Inca were able to
sustain their civilization.
At the time units of measurements were most commonly drawn from the human body e.g. the
royal cubit of ancient Egypt was based on the length of forearm, length of man’s food, his
height. There is good evidence that by using such majors the architect and engineers of the
time were able to achieve accurate results, Great Pyramid of Egypt was constructed so
precisely that though its sides were 228.6m long they differed by less than 20.3cm.
1.2 The Early Industrial Revolution between 1660 and 1815 A.D.
The Industrial Revolution brought great change to people lives, especially in the area of
work. Since machines weren’t employed in the work before all items were produced by hand
and had no need for a large capital or separate workstations. Till the middle of 18 th century,
England’s economy was based on it cottage industries. Workers would buy raw materials
from merchants, take it back to their cottage and produce the goods at their home. It was
usually owned and managed by one or more people, who were generally close to the
workers. There was a good worker-boss relationship, which was destroyed by capitalism.
This industry was good for the workers but productivity was low, making cost higher. The
longer it took one person to manufacture a product, the higher the price. Subsequently, goods
were high in price and exclusive only to the wealthy people.
In the year 1733, the demand for cotton cloth was high, but production was low. To solve this
problem, it was decided to use flying shuttle (invented by John Kay), which cut weaving time
in half. At first, many workers didn’t accept machines and also many inventions were
destroyed but later the machines couldn’t be stopped. The machines had made their way to
England, and nobody could stop them.
By the 1750’s, the industrial revolution had begun. At first, inventions were strictly limited to
cotton weaving but after it spread to other fields also. Screw cutting lathes were made in
1770 by Jesse Ramsden. John Wilkinson invented the cylinder boring machine (1775).
Maudslay in 1817 built the first planning machine for metal, shortly thereafter, first gear
cutting machine. These machines made revolution in the production process. Mass
production had begun. People who has money and space have bought many machines and
stored them in a factory, where hired people worked the whole day manufacturing goods.
The factory system had replaced the cottage industry. Mass production made less expensive
to the items, such as shoes and easily affordable by lower class and less wealthy people.
Development of Engines for generating power has also a great influence in the industrial
revolution. The development started from 1698 with the work of Newcomen and his partner.
They were successful in building their first engine in 1712 and were operated with steam.
Newcomen’s engines were slow and inefficient, but they were better than any other device
yet invented for pumping water out of mines. Then many years later, in 1769 James Watt
designed more efficient engine. Watt’s engines were originally use for pumping out mine
shafts, but within two decades they were powering rotative driving shafts in other machinery.
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To a large extent, Watt’s engine was responsible for many of the improvements in life
brought about by the industrial revolution. After this stem power was also used in
locomotive. The first practical steam boat was built by Wi1lam Symington in Scotland in
1801. Steam boat began operations by carrying fare-playing passengers on the Hudson in
1807, thus insuring its commercial success. Also by this time Richard Trevithick built several
full size steam carriages which were run on the English roads. During the first decade of the
19th centaury, he built several more steam carriages, which were used in coal mines. By this
time steam locomotive were widely used for the transport of raw materials and finished
goods to the required places. Also steam-boats were able to cross Atlantic, providing
merchants with increased ability to exchange their wares for foreign resources.
1.3 The Industrial Revolution in Maturity between 1815 and 1918
Industrial Revolution, widespread replacement of manual labor by a machine that began in
Britain in the 18th century and it is still continuing in some parts of the world. The Industrial
Revolution was the result of many fundamental, interrelated changes that transformed
agricultural economies into industrial ones. The most immediate changes were in the nature
of production: what was produced, as well as where and how. Goods that had traditionally
been made in the home or in small workshops began to be manufactured in the factory.
Productivity and technical efficiency grew dramatically, in part through the systematic
application of scientific and practical knowledge to the manufacturing process. Efficiency
was also enhanced when large groups of business enterprises were located within a limited
area. The Industrial Revolution led to the growth of cities as people moved from rural areas
into urban communities in search of work.
Intermediate level machine can be defined as compound or complex machine that has
interrelated parts with separate functions. An intermediate level machine can be powered by
humans, animals or any of the prime mover using natural forces.
The steam engine is said to have been catalyst for the industrial revolution which begin in
England during the middle of eighteen century. In 1698, Thomas Savory developed the
theory that used a steam created vacuums pump water from coalmines. This miner’s friend as
Savory called device, led to Thomas Newcomen’s discovery of the first practical steam
engine. The connection of the steam engine with manufacturing machine of eighteen century
gave birth to the industrial revolution. But equally important was the steam contribution to
the transportation. Transportation is the basic outcome of the mechanical revolution that
helps in significantly to industrial revolution.
The electrical revolution, or the designing of the electrical motor by Michel Faraday in 1821
replaced the steam engine as prime mover in manufacturing machinery and steam turbine
developed by the Charles parsons in 1884 and the internal combustion diesel engine invented
by Rudolf Diesel in 1893 replaced the steam engine major power source of sea and rail
transportation respectively. The development of material knowledge helps the significant
revolution in the mechanical section. This gave rise to new experiences in human beings. It
went on disconnected from the political life and producing throughout the seventeenth and
eighteenth centaury no striking immediate results in political life. In 1804 Trevithick adapted
the Watts engine to transport and made the first locomotive. In 1825 the first railway between
Stockton and Darlington was opened and Stephension’s Rocket got up to speed up fourty
four miles per hours. From 1830, railway services were multiplied.
The electric telegraphs came into existence in 1835. The first undersea cable was laid
between France and England. The steam railway and the electric telegram were the popular
imagination of the 19th century, the most striking and the revolutionary of the inventions.
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With the mechanical revolution the technical skills and the thinking power of the human
being was going to be increasing. The development of the sheet iron (1728) roll rods and bars
(1783), if not come to existence the steam engine may not be developed. This could have laid
development in imaginations only. As late as 1856 came, the process of extraction of iron
metal (Bessemer process) and presently (1864) the Open Hearth process was developed for
iron and steels. Thus the metals were designed in engine intricate shapes.
1.4 Influence of the First and Second World War on Technology
World War I, military conflict, from August 1914 to November 1918, that involved many of
the countries of Europe as well the United States and other nations throughout the world.
World War I was one of the most violent and destructive wars in European history. Of the 65
million men who were mobilized, more than 10 million were killed and more than 20 million
wounded. The term World War I did not come into general use until a second worldwide
conflict broke out in 1939. Before that year, the war was known as the Great War or the
World War. The World War I (I914 to 1918) in which Great Britain, France, Russia
Belgium, Italy, Japan the United States and other a11ies defeated Germany, Austria,
Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria.
World War II, global military conflict that, in terms of lives lost and material destruction,
was the most devastating war in human history. It began in 1939 as a European conflict
between Germany and an Anglo-French coalition but eventually widened to include most of
the nations of the world. It ended in 1945, leaving a new world order dominated by the
United States and the USSR.
The human race was severely disturbed. At the end of 1918, the world war was stopped
almost for 20 years. This stage was noted as the development of the destructive weapons in
the form of the power contributed by the mechanical and industrial revolution. Finally the
World War II (1939 to1945) in which GB, France, The Soviet Union, The United States,
China and other allies defeated Germany, Japan, Italy, Australia, Hungary, Turkey and
Bulgaria resulted.
The concept of information society was, then, included in the human history. The society
structure was changed to the brain oriented. The information society has its beginning in
1956/1957. The year 1956 was one of the prosperity, productivity and industrial growth for
Americans. The year 1957 marked the beginning of the globalization of the information
revolution. During this period the Russian launched Sputnik, the missing technological
catalyst in a growing; information society. Semiconductor devices were introduced before
hand. A largest computer hardware manufacturer, Intel was formed by 1968. The economic
growth was remarkable during the period 1948 to 1973. It was due to the increased size and
education of the work force. People’s interest in computer was increasing day by day from
the sixties of 20th century. In 1980, there were only one million computers in the world
history. After three years the number of computers sold was increased up to 1.5 million and
in 1990, the rate of computer sales was 11.5 millions per year.
The mechanical revolution gives rise to robotics for industrial purposes during the periods.
Computerized machines reduced the labor force in industry. The society became so
competitive that only the knowledge grew in the world environment. The power
characterized by weapons before the two World Wars now changes to knowledge.
Knowledge became the ultimate power that goes to human beings. The mechanical
revolution had thus far been achieved with different types of material knowledge such as
glass, rubber, plastics, steels, copper, iron etc.
Parallel to the extension with the mechanical revolution the possible outcomes in electrical
sector were growing. It was only in the eighties of the nineteenth century the human mind
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suddenly gave the conceptual creation on electricity, the electric traction and the
transmutation. The British and French were at first the leading people in this great
proliferation of knowledge. A fresh phase in the history of invention opened when in the
eighties a new type of the engine came into use, an engine in which the force of the explosive
mixture replace the expansive force of steam. Initially, a successful flying machine was
discovered by Professor Langley of the Smithsonian Institute of Washington as early as
1897. By 1909 the airplane was available for human locomotion.
The science of agriculture and agricultural chemistry for instance made parallel advances
during the nineteenth century. Men learn so to fertilize the soil as to produce quadruple and
quintuple the crops got from the same areas in the seventeenth century.
The mechanical and the industrial revolution are somewhat different things. Before the
mechanical revolution, there were still the existences of factory. This means the industrial
revolution confined in the social and financial development. The mechanical revolution
concerns with the very different inventories in its origin. It needs the expenditure of the
finance but not concentrated for the business point of view. But we must say that the
revolution had changed the idea of the slave and gang labor to the idea of the mechanical
power and the machine. As already stated that the mechanical revolution had cast very new
experiences to our ancestors, certainly not the social, political, economic and industrial
consequences it might produce. The concentration of the capital in the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries on the other hand lies in the profound differences in the character of
labor that the mechanical revolution was bringing.
This revolution gives the option, not for all but some of them in our today’s society, to live as
a real human being. However the definition of the real human beings is out of my knowledge.
As the nineteenth century went on every human being had to know what he was about i.e. he
had to be educated to secure his industrial efficiency. As the industrial revolution exceeded
the mid of 19th century, the results were more distinctly seen.
1.5 Middle Ages
Middle Ages, the period in the history of Europe that lasted from about AD 350 to about
1450. At the beginning of the middle ages, the western half of the Roman Empire began to
fragment into smaller, weaker kingdoms. By the end of the Middle Ages, many modern
European states had taken shape. During this time, the precursors of many modern
institutions, such as universities and bodies of representative government, were created.
No single event ended the ancient world and began the middle ages. In fact, no one who lived
in what is now called the Middle Ages ever thought of themselves as living in it. In the
middle ages, people thought they were living in modern times, just as people do today.
The term middle ages was invented by people during the Renaissance, a period of cultural
and literary change in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. The term was not meant as a
compliment. During the Renaissance, people thought that their own age and the time of
ancient Greece and Rome were advanced and civilized. They called the period between
themselves and the ancient world "the Middle Age". The adjective medieval comes from the
Latin words for this term, medium (middle) and aevum (age).
Historians adopted this term even though it was originally meant to belittle the period. Since
the Middle Ages covers such a large span of time, historians divided it into three parts: the
Early Middle Ages, lasting from about 350 to about 1050; the High Middle Ages, lasting
from about 1050 to about 1300; and the Late Middle Ages, lasting from about 1300 to about
1450. Historians used to believe that most of the cultural, economic, and political
achievements of the middle ages occurred in the second period, and because of this they
called that period “High.” Only recently, as the accomplishments of the early and late Middle
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Ages have gained appreciation, has this term fallen into disuse. Today, historians often use a
more neutral name, the Central Middle Ages.
The word medieval is often used today to mean barbaric, ignorant, and backward. It is true
that some aspects of the middle ages horrify many people today the ideas of heretics being
burned at the stake, mercenary armies on the rampage, and plagues for which there is no cure
are not pleasant ones. Yet it is also true that there are similar and sometimes worse horrors
today.
The middle ages were a time when the precursors of many important modern institutions
were created. Although the period is often portrayed negatively, the middle ages were a time
when the precursors of many important modern institutions were created. Medieval
universities are the direct ancestors of modern ones. The liberal arts of the middle ages
remain the core of the arts and sciences programs of today's colleges. The English Parliament
that met in London yesterday can trace its origins to the days of Henry III.
Similarly, modern cities grew out of medieval ones. Although ancient cities had existed
before the middle ages, they had been centers of political and religious life, not centers of
commerce. Medieval cities, in contrast, were primarily commercial. They were supported by
trade, exchange, production, consumption, and moneymaking. Many of the sorts of
businesses that exist today, such as banks and corporations, can trace their ancestry to the
middle ages.
The modern state system of Europe is also at least partly a result of medieval evolution. Even
nationalism began in the middle ages, as was demonstrated by the Hundred Years' War and
Joan of Arc. The seeds of the idea of separation of church and state, so important for the
founders of the United States, were planted in the medieval period. After the Gregorian
Reform, kings and emperors could not claim power over the church, but they found value
and dignity in the state alone. The Founding Fathers of the United States went further, seeing
the state as the guarantor and protector for men and women to worship as they please.
It is important, however, to know not only what the Middle Ages produced but also the way
in which these things were produced. The Middle Ages was a period in which different
groups Romans, Franks, and Visigoths, for example mingled, fought, worked together, and
changed. Today there are no Romans (other than citizens of the city of Rome), no Franks,
and no Visigoths. As Germans were absorbed into the Roman army and as Romans dealt
with them day after day, their cultures changed and merged. Similarly, the history of
medieval states shows how they rose, broke apart, and reappeared in new forms. There was
no right or wrong form: The Merovingian kingdoms were as much an achievement in their
own day as the republic of France is today. Medieval social, economic, and artistic
transformations both reflected and provoked creative responses and accommodations. The
Black Death provoked conflict that ultimately led to the end of serfdom in England;
Renaissance artists thought they were breaking away from medieval styles even as they drew
upon the achievements of Gothic sculptors. The history of the middle ages is a story of
ceaseless borrowing, adaptation, and change.
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CHAPTER 2
2.0 THE TECHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY

2.1 The Machine Age
The entirely new thing in human experience is arising out of the development of organized
science, a new step like the invention of agriculture or the discovery of metals, with
something else, quite different in its origin that makes the social and financial development
which is called the industrial revolution. From the ideas of slave and of gang labor to the idea
of mechanical revolution, the process of mechanical invention and discovery was a new thing
in human experience and it went on regardless of the social, political, economic and
industrial consequences it might produce. The extension of facilities and the output of
commodities increased much more. As the nineteenth century went on, the logic of the new
situation asserted itself more clearly, human beings were no longer wanted as a source of
more indiscriminate power. What could be done faster and batter by a machine. The human
being was needed now only where choice and intelligence had to be exercised. The invention
of steam engine brought a revolution, and then the discovery of Otto, diesel and the gas
engine takes place. The flying machines are possible, so that a man may sit in the middle
turning some device by which artificial wings may beat the air in the manner of flying bird.
The present age is the machine age, which increases the life standard of people, productivity
and quality improvement.
The sequence of development of machine is listed below.
6000 BC Camel caravan ’ 8mph
1600 BC Chariots (Driven by horse) 20 mph
1784 AD Mail coach 10mph
1825 AD First steam locomotive 13mph
1825 AD Sailing ships 6.5 mph
1880 AD Advanced steam locomotive 100 mph
1938 AD Aeroplane 400 mph
1958 AD Aeroplane 4,000 mph
1960 AD Rocket plant 18,000 mph.
Profound Impact of Transportation on the Society
1. Increase mobility 6. Accidents
2. Cultural diffusion 7. Wars
3. Trade expansion 8. Time saving
4. Economic growth 9. Destroy of valuable land
5. Standard of living 10. Pollution/Deforestation
11. Slope stability problems.
Thus, we increase our capacity to travel, as well as frequency of traveling.
2.2 The Steam Locomotive and its Impact on Transportation
1710 First successful propelled vehicle, steam automobile (Nicolas Joseph cognate French
engineer)
1711-1763 AD James Watt (Scotland) tested the previous model invented by Newcomen
which was used for pumping water. The engine was very insufficient, extravagant in fuel.
After two years, Watt found the condensation effect in the steam engine. This is hailed as the
greatest invention in the whole history of the steam engine.
1786 AD William Symington, working model (British)
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1781-1788 Watt incorporated further modification for a more efficient utilization of steam,
the use of double acting piston, a rotary motion, the centrifugal governor for automatic
control of the speed.
1790 Pressure gauge to indicate the steam pressure and degree of vacuum within the
cylinder completed the watt engine.
1801 Richard Trevithick (automotive transportation) to carry passenger.
1 83- Oliver Evans, self propelled steam dredge American road
2.3 The Telephone and Telegram and their Impact on Telecommunication
In the primitive stage, the means of communication were man. After sometime animals for
did it easy. Different kinds of sound also used for easy mass communication. But we are in
technological society. The telegram was developed by SAMUE F.B., in USA on 1837. But
Alexander Graham Bell invented the Telephone on 1875. He was an American. Telephone
and Telegram are approximately same but Telegram is one way of communication. It is now
rarely used. Telephone is the electronic communication of information over distance. It
communicates voice. It plays vital role in our personal life. It is the brain of
telecommunication system which offers the meanings to relay or transport that information to
others. The impact of Telecommunication on society always is positive in the past or future.
Advantage
a) It saves the transportation cost
b) It helps to competitive business
c) It helps in Industrialization.
d) It is a sign of development of a society as well as country.
e) The Government as well as public can flow the information in very shot time. Hence,
telecommunication technology is the lifeline, of the information age and the future.
2.4 Automobile and Impact on Mobility
Automobile refers the self -movement. The stages of development of automobile are
as follows.
1801AD - First Auto Passenger
1860 IC Engine has Efficiency about 3%. (Coal gas)
1867 Otto engine has efficiency 9%. (2-Stroke)
1876 Otto Engine has efficiency about 15%. (4- Stroke)
1912 Self starter
1936 - Diesel engine car
1950 - Gas turbine engine (England)
1957 - Wangle engine
1998 - Hybrid (Battery and Petrol)
Now, we are in modern age of Automobile. If body changes, the mileage will change by 12 -
15 Kilometer. Engine management system and Alternative Fuel concepts have developed to
control pollution.
Advantages
• It provides easy and luxurious transportation
• Saves time and money in transportation
• Life became fast and fast communication
Disadvantages
• Pollution increase
• Social crime,
• Accidents.
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2.5 Development of Electronic and Silicon Chips

Although the invention of’ electronic and computer chips is one of many other inventions
done by scientists, it carries a difference importance. It is true that the invention of computer
precedes the invention of silicon chips but computers that time ‘were very unusual. These
computer using vacuum tubes occupied a large rooms and also sluggish. Doing work in
computer was just like working with other machine. Besides, there was not much facility in
computer as today. If there had not been improvement in computers, these would be having
been no longer as useful as nowadays. After invention of silicon chips, it replaced the
vacuum tubes of computers and also improved other electronic equipment. After, then there
is drastically changed in the electronic equipment. Slowly people preferred to use electronic
part place of mechanical part due to its accurate working capability. Further, the use of
silicon chips became so widespread that the most developed countries concentrated on
improving it. Also, nowadays the electronic equipment is changing the fastest among other
technology. This is because world has considered it as very important and largest number of
scientists are involved here. So it seems that the development of electronic chips has also
contribution in shifting world’s industrial era to information era.
2.6 The Computer and its Impacts
The advent of computer was in the year of 1950s. The computer is also a machine but unlike
other machine, it is more widely used than others. The wide spread use of computer in almost
every type of work is due to its very large power for analysis and storage of data. It is said
that the computing power doubles in every 18 th month. Besides, due to the technology of
manufacturing, the cost is also decreasing. Due to these reasons, the user of computer is also
increasing which is clear from the fact that in the beginning of 1980s, only 1 million people
were using however nowadays, computer can be found in every household.
Impacts of Computer
1) Social Applications
For solving many human and social problems computer can be utilized such as medical
diagnosis, environmental quality controls and law enforcement. Computers’ nowadays are
very helpful for learning purpose by student remote from universities. Also, the computer
technology has become so advanced that sophisticated operations can be accomplished by
doctors at remote areas. Beside, government agencies can use computer in urban planning,
population density and land use studies, highway planning, level of employment etc.
2) Impact on Employment and Productivity
The impact of computer on employment is both beneficial and adverse. The works previously
accomplished by clerks or machinist are nowadays accomplished by computers in office
information process or for numerical control of machine tools. So they become unemployed
unless they are retrained for new responsibility.
On the other hand, the use of computers has created new jobs too. Computer using
organization requires employee having skill of computer. Similarly the computer industry has
also created new job opportunities such as system analyst, computer programmer and
computer operator. Further, computers make possible the production of complex industrial
goods and service, so additional jobs are also created such as space exploration, micro
electronic technology and many scientific research.
3) Impact on Competition
When any organization grows, there will be too many activities and relations, which may be
complex for controlling. For large organization or firm, computer-based information system
12
is necessary which is capable of controlling these complex activities and relations. This
makes competition between large companies but cause anticompetitive effects in the sense
that the small business firms that could exist because of the inefficiencies of larger firms
have to be out of business. Nowadays the merger of larger firms into one is made possible by
computer based managerial system.
4) Impact on Individuality
For an information system, it is more efficient to deal with an individual as a number than as
a name. Many people felt a loss of identity. So the computer-based systems are criticized for
dehumanize and depersonalize persons by eliminating human relationship present in real life.
However, computer based systems can be improved so that it minimizes depersonalization
and regimentation by using “People oriented’ and “user friendly” information. These systems
are preferred by public and are highly increasing computer based society.
5) Impact on Quality of Life
With less effort and time, computerized system can accomplish the same work than that of by
non-computerized systems. It helps in saving time for enjoyment. Besides, the computer has
eliminated monotonous tasks in the office and factory that had to be performed by people
otherwise. These provide people to concentrate on interesting and challenging assignment.
Thus computers help to upgrade the quality of life by upgrading the quality of working
conditions.
6) Impact on Privacy
By using computers it is very easy to collect, store, integrate, interchange and information
quickly. This characteristic nature has many beneficial effects but on the other hand negative
effect right to privacy of individual. Very private information of an individuals stored in
centralized computer database could be misused so there is risk to store secret data in such
system.
7) Computer Crime
The development of computer has also enhanced computer crimes. It is very difficult to
apprehend the computer criminal. Computer crime involves theft of money, service,
programme and data, destruction of data and programmes by computer virus and violation of
privacy etc. Examples of many thefts are dollar 21 million wells involve bank left and the
dollar 10.2 million security pacific bank theft. As the data and programs are valuables things
so these may be things of theft.
Theft of money 36%
Theft of service 34%
Theft of information 12%
Data alteration 8%
-Extortion 4%
Harassment 2%
Hardware damage 2%
Software damage 2%
2.7 Information Society

No body knows the exact date of the beginning of information Society. But once we look
after the past history and development of different society, we may find out the year 1956
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and 1957. The year 1956 was one of the prosperity, productivity and industrial growth for
United States of America. Also in 1956 the white color workers outnumbered the blue color
workers in technical, managerial and clerical positions. Industrial America was giving way to
new society, where most of them worked with information rather than producing goods.
The year 1957 marked the beginning of the globalization of the information revolution. In
this year Russian lunched the sputnik. The real importance of sputnik is not that it began the
space age, but that it introduce the era of global satellite communications. Hence these two
years are taken as bench mark of the programming of information society.
This is the society in which majority of services workers are actually engaged with the
creation, processing and distribution of information as programmers, teachers, engineers,
system analyst, accountants, lawyers, stock brokers, insurance people, scientist, technicians,
bureaucrats etc. rather than with the production of goods. Within the goods manufacturing
factory itself, many workers hold information jobs.
In the industrial society also kind of knowledge was required to do a job. The difference
between industrial and information workers is that for the industrial worker the information
is a means to achieve the final results, while for the information worker , the information is in
itself the final result. In an industrial society, the essential resource was capital and since not
many people had access to enough capital, the access to the economic system was limited.
But in the information society, the harnessing of the collective information has become
critical, where creative and innovative use of information can provide a competitive
advantage.
2.8 Information as a Source of ‘Knowledge and Power’
In the stage of information society most of workers are engaged with the creation,
processing, and distribution of information. To get information of a particular thing/object is
itself knowledge and having knowledge of that is the power.
In an industrial society, we have systematized the production of knowledge and amplified
our brainpower. To use an industrial metaphor, we now mass-produce knowledge and this
knowledge is the driving forces our economy. The new source of power is not money in the
hands of a few but information in the hand of many. Unlike other forces in the universe,
however knowledge is not subject to the law of conservation. It can be destroyed, and most
importantly it is synergetic that is, the whole is usually greater than the sum of the parts.
The productivity of knowledge is a key to productivity, competitive strength, and economic
achievement. Knowledge is the primary industry, the industry that supplies the economy the
essential and central resources of production.
In most of the offices the boss has more information than the low-level officers, so the
collective information, some of them is most important. To have a power boss rarely tells to
their subordinate. This results that after his (Boss) retirement also office needs his presence
to get that information. In this way, information is a power also.
In this age of information, as economy of country largely depends upon the information so,
we can not raise our economy level without proper utilization of information.
2.9 Importance of Technology in Modern Houses
Technology is most important in the modern houses because with the help of the technology,
our 1ife has become so easier than the previous society e.g., telephone, television, computer,
air condition, refrigerator, washing machine, dish washer, vacuum cleaner etc. The modern
cooking utensils make our life very faster and easier as well.
Technology has saved our time. For example, in early days when we didn’t have the facility
of electronic mail system, it would take one month to reach a letter to a particular place,
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nowadays that could be within a minute. With this saved time we could do lots of things.
With the help of technology, we are becoming more informative. This helps in getting
knowledge and becoming powerful.
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CHAPTER 3
3.0 SOCIETY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

OBJECTIVES:
Now days, nothing is more important than the protection of the previous environment that
sustains our life. To give birth to a broad range of technological development for the
abatement and disposal of air and water pollution and solid waste, technical manpower must
be sincere. The polluted environment day by day is challenging to the unsystematic urban
planning and to the technical personnel. This lesson raises the conscience to protect the
society and environment from the pollutants due to municipal and industrial wastes.
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENT, ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEM
Ecology:
 Ecology concerns itself with the interrelationships of living organisms, plant or
animal, and their environments; these are studied with a view to discovering the
principles which govern the relationship.
 That such principles exist is a basic assumption and an act of faith of the ecologists
 The substance of ecology is found in the multitude of a biotic and biotic structure,
processes, and interrelations involved in moving energy and nutrients and in
regulating population and community structure and dynamics.
Ecosystem: According to Encarta Dictionary, Organisms and their environment or a
localized group of interdependent organisms together with the environment that they inhabit
and depend on.
Ecosystem:
 An ecosystem is a system formed by the interactions of a variety of individual
organisms with each other and with their physical environment. Ecosystems are
nearly selves contained so that the exchange of nutrients within the system is much
greater than exchanges with other systems.
 An ecosystem consists of a community of organisms and its local nonliving
environment. Thus an ecosystem is not entirely biological entity and hence any
complete description of an ecosystem must include the physical environment as well
as the biological components, and the interactions between the two.
OR
Ecosystem may be defined as a unit or system that includes the entire organism in a given
area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly
defined tropic structure, biotic diversity and material cycle. Or it is the sum of the
communities and non living environment in area where interdependency on each other exists.
An ecosystem consists of various components and it can be recognized with different
characteristics. The main characteristics of an ecosystem are listed below:
The Nature of Ecosystem
(Ecosystem has Several Fundamental Characteristics)
An ecosystem has Structure-Non living and Living Part
An Ecosystem has Processes- Energy Flow and Chemical Elements’ Cycling
An Ecosystem Changes Over Time, through a Process called Succession
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1. Biotic Component
It includes living organism, such as plants animals and microorganism, respectively known
as producer, consumer and reducer. Its subcomponents are:
a) Autotrophic organism : These are self nourishing e.g. green plants.
b) Heterotrophic organism: These are dependent on others for nourishing e.g. animals
(Carnivorous and Herbivorous).
c) Micro organism : That breaks down the complex organic compound into simpler,
absorbed decomposed products and release minerals, nutrients which are put to use
by producers.
2. A biotic Components
These are physical components like land air and water. It controls the structure through the
restriction on range of organisms.
3. Energy Flow
Main sources of energy are the sun. Energy flows within the ecosystem. Green plant utilizes
solar energy to make glucose; plants are energy sources for animals and microorganism
obtain energy from dead plans and animal.
4. Matter
All organisms require mater to sustain life. In the ecosystem, there is a permanent recycling
of mater alternating between organic and inorganic forms brought by the living organism that
is plants, animals and micro-organism.
5. Interrelationship
All the components of the ecosystem, living or nonliving are interrelated. A change in one
component will have an effect in all other components with in an ecosystem.
6. Biological integration
The ecosystem is formed by high level integration of different biological unit. There is a
complex relationship between structure and function of ecosystem. The cause and effect
relationship can not be easily established in an ecosystem.
7. Flexibility
Ecosystem are flexible not static. The structural as well as ecological units are changed
frequently and influence the living organism and not living environment.
8. Ecosystem regulation
The ecosystem is regulated by interactions with in the systems and by interaction with others
system. The type of interactions within the ecosystem are; i) competition between the
individuals of one population, ii) inter-specific competition, iii) inter-specific co-operation,
iv) interactions of livings components (Biotic) with non living components (A biotic).
Environment: Environment may be defined as physical and biotic habitat, which
surrounds us, supports life and sustains various human activities. There are definite
interactions between all living (biotic-plants, animals and microorganisms) and non-living
components (abiotic-land, air and water) and these interactions are necessary to fulfill
physiological, social and economic need of human beings.
3.2 HUMAN AND THEIR IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT
Human beings are the most sensitive and superior living component in any environment.
They have practiced every possible way to improve their living standard and still trying to
find more. To raise living standard means need for more energy and matters, which they
17
exploit from the surrounding environment. The exploitation is so immense that these
activities are affecting ecological balance. Men made threats to the environment are mainly
summarized as follows:
1 Destruction or modification of habitat
2 Overexploitation for commercial, scientific and educational purpose
3 Overgrazing for domesticated animals
4 Regeneration of scrub
5 Change in arable farming
6 Forestry
7 Traditional rural practices
8 Industrialization, urbanization, building township, road dams
9 Tourism and tourist development that is coastal and inland
10 Mining and quarrying
11 Pressure from introduced plants
12 Population pressure
13 Destruction of ecological balance because of habits, game and commercial
exploitation
14 Use of drug and chemicals
The man has no control on the natural catastrophes. The untimely changes in the nature are
beyond the control of man and it will affect the environment. The population created through
the unmindful activities of a man can however be easily controlled. But the speed and nature
of man induced environmental change have brought increasing disharmony between him and
nature. The degradation of environment have been caused mostly by his activities such as
burning of wood fuel, smelting of ores, tanning of lather, primitive of sewage disposal. The
following some of the major sources of environmental pollution by man and his activities.
Human impacts on environment are as follows:
 Population density
 Standard of living
 Degree of recycling
 Technological Innovations
 Industries
 Thermal power stations
 Transport vehicles
 Modern agricultural methods
 Urbanization
 Insecticide and pesticides
 Ecological changes
3.3 GARBAGE COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL
Garbage: It includes all types of semi solids and solid waste food and products as vegetables
peelings of fruits waste means etc.
Refuse: It includes all kinds of dry wastes of the community i.e. street and house sweeping,
garbage etc.
Rubbish: It means all sundry solid wastes as paper, broken furniture, pottery, waste building
material etc.
Garbage collection and disposal
By dumping into sea
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By sanitary land filling

By incineration
By composting
By ploughing in fields
By grinding and discharging to sewer
By Salvaging
By fermentation and biological digestion
Garbage from a town

or city
Garbage from
Garbage from Garbage from house
industrial waste
Street sweepings waste products
products
Non
Combustible
combustible
Filling of low
Incineration
land area
3.4 SEWAGE DISPOSAL AND ITS POLLUTION TO ENVIRONMENT

The term sewage is used to indicate the liquid waste from the community and it includes
sullage discharge from latrines, urinals, industrial waste and storm water etc. So the term
sewage can be defined as wastes from a community containing solid and liquid excreta. It is
mainly derived from the house, streets, and yard washing, factories and industries. Sewage
contains 99.9% water and 0.1% solids. The solids contain inorganic and organic matter and
also diseases producing organisms.
The presence of sewage can be in the form of combined sewage, raw sewage, sanitary
sewage, dilute sewage, septic sewage, and industrial sewage etc. The amount of sewage of
sewage which flows into the drainage system depends on habits of the people, combined with
rain water and time of the day. For example if more water is used, sewage will be more.
Sewage is a major source of pollution particularly when raw or partially treated sewage is
discharged into rivers, lakes and streams. The discharge of huge quantity of industrial and
domestic sewage into rivers and canals pollute almost all the rivers and canals. The sewage,
after conveying from sewers, can be disposed of without treatment or after suitable treatment.
It is disposed either in natural water course or on land.
METHODS OF SEWAGE DISPOSAL

Generally waste disposal is the disposal of waste resulting from the human activity. The
disposal of the waste has become a pressing problem in the 21 st century because of the
19
growth of population and industry and the toxicity of many new byproducts, traditionally;
waste was often dumped into nearby streams. In the absence of sewerage, waste was often
been stored in underground cesspools, which leach liquid into the soil but retain solids e.g.
septic tank in which organic matter disintegrates. Raw sewage is now commonly treated
before being discharge, usually by reducing solid components to a semi liquid sludge.
The sanitary waste includes solids, semisolids, liquid etc. The disposal is mainly completed
in three steps.
 Collection of sewage
 Treatment of sewage
 Disposing
Sewage disposal method can be categorized in the following manner
1. Natural
 Dilution
 Land treatment
 Filtration
 Sewage farming or broad irrigation
2. Artificial
 Primary treatment
 Secondary treatment
 Tertiary treatment
Natural treatment
In this system sewage is naturally treated as by natural purification process or natural land
treatment. It includes:
Dilution method
In this method, the sewage is discharged to a river, lake, sea etc. this method is suitable if the
city is situated in the nearby large water body. This is done on the assumption that sufficient
dissolved oxygen is available in the water body so that biological oxygen demand is satisfied.
If however, the diluting water is not sufficient to supply the biological (biochemical) oxygen
demand to oxidize the entire matter present; there will be nuisance of foul odour and
unsightly islands of half-digested floating; putrefying matter at the surface. In addition to this
problem, the depletion of oxygen would kill the aquatic life, and if this dilution water is used
at the downstream side for drinking water purpose, it will cause danger to public health. It
should be always taken into the account that there should not be any harmful impact in the
environment near water body. The sewage should be inspected before introducing it into the
water. The principle of dilution method is that the water gets self-purified after traveling
some distance towards downstream. It should be cared that the sewage should not pollute the
water for a long distance affecting aquatic life.
Land treatment
When the wastewater, either raw or partly treated, is applied or spread on the surface of land,
the method is cal disposal by land treatment. Both physical and biological phenomenon
occurs in this method. Some part of the wastewater evaporates which other part percolates in
the ground leaving behind suspended solids which are partially act upon by bacteria and
partly oxidized by exposure to atmospheric actions of air, heat and light. This method is
suitable when there is a large unused area and other methods become ineffective and
uneconomic. In this method, sewage is first made harmless and evenly spread over the
ground and solid and semisolids remain over the ground surface. This method has advantage
20
that sewage is turned to fertilizer after some treatment and disadvantage that the pierce water
when mixed with underground water gets contaminated.
There are two methods for land treatment. First is filtration, more depth below the ground
takes part in sewage treatment. Second method is sewage farming, lesser depth is utilized.
Sewage is stabilized by aerobic action.
Artificial treatment
In this method, sewage is artificially treated and disposed off. Number of treatment plants
and machinery is utilized in the process. It includes:
Primary treatment
Primary treatment includes those physical unit operations and chemical unit process by
which large suspended solids are removed from the wastewater. That is, it consists of
separating materials having different specific gravity. Floating material like grass, wood,
paper, leaves etc are separated out. Heavy inorganic solids as sand, gravel, stone dusts, and
metals are separated in grit chamber while grease etc is separated in skimming tanks. Large
suspended organic solids are settled in setting basis.
Secondary treatment
The product from the primary treatment is again treated by biological decomposition in
aerobic and anaerobic condition. Aerobic bacteria decompose organic matter. Biological
treatment systems are designed to maintain a large active mass of bacteria within the systems
confines. Attached (Film) growth process, suspended growth process and combined process
are the techniques mainly used in their application. Secondary treatment systems remove the
soluble and colloidal organic matter which remains after primary treatment.
Tertiary treatment
This treatment is usually carried out when sewage to be dumped is to be less harmful or it has
to be disposed in a water body being used for water supply scheme. The pollutants to be
removed may includes inorganic compounds such as phosphorus or nitrogen which may
support algal growth in receiving water; organic materials contributing biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), color, taste and odour; bacteria; virus;
colloidal solids contributing turbidity; or soluble minerals which may interfere with
subsequent re-use of the wastewater. Tertiary treatment may be aimed at the re-use of
wastewater. In this treatment, chlorination is done for killing pathogenic bacteria.
Disposal of Solid Waste
The disposal of the waste material include the types,
 Land filling
 Incineration
 Composting
Land filing
Most of the developed countries do not permit the disposal of municipal solids wastes as sea,
river etc. so solid wastes or their residues in some form, must go to the land. Land filing is
the most economical and the most common method of solid waste dispose. The area needed
for land filing or solid waste is about 1hactre per year for 25,000 people and at least 1.5 km
downward from residential and commercial neighbors. The capacity of that area should not
be less than 3 years. The soil of the land must have low permeability and well above ground
water. So detail hydrological study is required before land filled.
21
Incineration
Land fill capacity is decreased due to growth of population, so volume reduction of the waste
is much more necessary. As a result incineration can reduce volume 90% and reduce weight
75% with possibility of energy recovery. The energy content is given as below,
Refuse : 10,500J/kg
Organic : 5,800kJ/kg
Paper : 16,300kJ/kg
Solid waste : 9,300-12,900kJ/kg
Composting
It is an aerobic process of disposing solid waste. It can reduce volume up to 30%. If the
organic matter (proteins, amino acids, lipids, carbohydrates, cellulose, lignin, and ash) are
subjects to aerobic micro bacterial decomposition, the end product remaining after
microbiological activity has essentially ceased is a humus material commonly known as
compost and the phenomenon is know as composting. The general objectives of composting
are 1) to transform the biodegradable organic materials into a biologically stable material,
and in the process reduce the original volume of waste; 2) destroys pathogens, insects eggs,
and other unwanted organisms and weed seeds that may present in insect municipal solid
waste; 3) to retain the maximum nutrient (nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium) content,
and 4) to product a product that can be used to support plant growth and as s soil conditioner.
Effect of Sewage Disposal in the Environment:
 Effect on Water
 Effect on Air
 Effect on Land
3.5 INDUSTRIAL WASTES, ITS GENERATION, COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL
The industrial or trade wastes are mainly responsible for the pollution of the rivers, as wastes
from the industrial areas are directly discharged into river without treatment. In some area,
the trade waste requiring partial treatment is passed through the public sewer and is treated
with some domestic sewage. The rapid industrialization has created tremendous problems for
the disposal of the industrial wastes, as their disposal requires special considerations for the
view point of the manufacturer, the public and sewerage engineer.
In some cases the by products recovered from the industrial wastes are valuable and the
problem of their disposal is not passed to the public. From the public point of view, the
public places such as streams, rivers and other places should not becomes unfit for domestic
recreational and commercial purposes.
Various types of industrial wastes require various types of treatment before their safe
disposal. The industrial waste can be mainly classified as inorganic wastes, organic wastes,
and radioactive wastes.
As a consequence of rapid industrialization in the post independence period, prior to which
our economy was largely agrarian, the problem of industrial effluents and solid waste has
grown significantly. Since the large majority of industries are water based, a considerable
volume of wastewater emanates from them. As industrial effluents and solid waste are as
varied in nature as industry themselves, the problem gets further aggravated as no standard
procedure for treatment can be recommended. For a variety of reasons industrial effluents
and solid waste are dispose either untreated or inadequately treated. This has created the
problem in soil and water following schematic diagram shows the pollution to the
environment and population.
22
Industrial Waste
Discharged into Discharged Deposited on,

water into the air in land
Pollution
Environment and population
Solid wastes consist of packaging and worn out materials, flue gases existed from chemical
used, sludge and used water etc. mainly contains different pollutants. Generation of industrial
wastes depends upon;
 Type of industry
 Raw material used
 Process applied
 Final product
Few examples industrial wastes, their source and examples are listed below.
Industrial use or source Waste type Example Probable destination
Electroplating bath Metal inorganic Cyanide Water
Manufacture of plastics Pesticides Chlordane Sediment biota
Pharmaceutical wastes Vinyl ether Ethers Water sediments
Industrial waste treatment should be handled in a systematic planned way. That’s why
analysis the rate of production of different wastes, proposed expansion of the plant and
concentration of pollutants and the different types of wastes treatment program should be
separately planned.
SOURCES AND TREATMENT OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE

Sources of Industrial Wastes
The major sources of industrial wastes are as follows;
 Effluents obtained from various industrial processes.
 Industries floor washing.
 Condensate water
 Sanitary and faecal waste
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The quantity of industrial waste varies from industry to industry, therefore each industry or
group of industries requires thorough study to choose the best treatment for its sewage. It is
always not necessary to treat the entire industries waste.
Following are the common methods used for the industrial waste pre treatment
 Use of soft detergent instead of hard detergent, for eliminating the foam nuisance.
This is known as “process change”.
 Recovery of silver from photographic waste, which provides a preliminary treatment.
It is known as recovery of materials.
 Reuse of water in industrial processes, such as collecting cooling water from boilers,
eliminating its heats and reusing it.
 Mixing of acidic and alkaline solution together for neutralizing each other and
making the mixture more nearer to normal value of pH. This process is known as
mixing of trade waste.
The industrial wastes are usually treated by the following processes:
 The suspended solids are removed by screening or settling tanks.
 Oils, grease, and fats are removed by flotation and skimming. This process can be
aided by chemical treatment if necessary.
 Colloidal matter is removed by flotation with coagulants and electrolysis followed by
sedimentation and filtration.
 Excessive alkalinity or acidity is removed by adding chemical or mixing acidic waste
with alkaline waste or vice versa.
 Re-oxygenation of wastes is done by aeration.
 De-colorization of waste is done by chemical treatment with sedimentation or
filtration or both.
Treatment methods are mainly classified into the following three groups.
1. Physical
 Solid liquid separation
 Sedimentation
 Filtration
 Flotation
 Centrifuge
 Activated carbon
 Reverse osmosis
 Electro dialysis
 Stripping and distillation
 Liquid –liquid separation
2. Chemical
 Oxidation reduction
 Precipitation
 Neutralization
 Ion exchange
 Chemical fixation
3. Biological
 Aerobic
 Anaerobic
The environment problem due to the industrial wastes is giving the great challenge to the
modern industrialized world so it is essential to dispose the industrial wastes in the most
economic way consistent with the protection of the environment and hence public health.
24
Because of the variations of waste constituents and their complexities it is difficult to have a
central collection of these and it is also due to the separate location of industries. In single
industry or industries with in certain area, categorizing the different types of pollutants on the
basis of treatment process, concentration and type of wastes can collect wastes.
Industrial wastes may or may not be allowed to enter in to the municipal waste streams. If
they are allowed also pretreatment is mandatory in most of the cases depends on the
regulation of municipalities. If industrial wastes are termed as hazardous then treatment and
disposal are more strictly controlled. Following parameters identifies the degree of
hazardous.
 Toxicity
 Reactivity
 Corrosiveness
 Ignition ability
We have already discussed that the industrial wastes are disposed into water, into the air and
in land. Wastes disposal is very costly with comparison to the total operating cost of industry.
Again for proper management of wastes about 80% of total cost is goes to transportation for
the solid wastes. Effluents are generally mixed in river, lakes and canals without treatment or
adequately treatment. This wastewater is treated then by primary, secondary and tertiary
methods as requirements and cost available. Solid wastes can be disposed by different
methods. Some of them are described above.
3.6 PROBLEMS RESULTING FROM THE DISPOSAL OF SLUDGE AND
INDUSTRIAL WASTES IN RIVER, LAKES AND CANALS:
Organic compounds present in industrial wastes are proteins, carbohydrates, fats, sugars,
rubber, waxes, oils, coal, dyes, tar, synthetic, detergents, ketons, amines, acids and alcohols
etc. and these pollutant add color, taste, and odor in receiving water, make the water oily,
greasy, corrosive and unfit for industrial, recreational, and domestic use. They also impart
hardness, change pH value, increase temperature and algae growth destroy the aquatic life
and increase the insects nuisance.
Inorganic wastes: Waste produced from metals or minerals etc.
Effects: Creates foaming, odor and turbidity etc.
When the organic pollution load is small and D.O. content of receiving water are high, the
aerobic bacteria break down the organic matters into simple compounds, which are relatively
harmless, stable and odorless. If D.O. is unable to cope with the load the anaerobic bacteria
decompose the organic loads into compounds such as organic sulphate compound and
organics amines, hydrogen disulfide, phosphine etc. which are highly odoriferous. Therefore
the discharge of such pollutant into the receiving water converts into obnoxious matter
objectionable should be removed for the utilization of the matter for various purposes.
Therefore the industrial wastes should be given proper treatment, before disposal into the
water courses.
A large quantity of water used for domestic and industrial applications requires certain
specifications. After disposing the sludge i.e. industrial waste to the water then this water
can’t fulfill the minimum requirement for use. Generally solid wastes from the industries are
not biodegradable. If these wastes are not treated before mixed to rivers, lakes and canals it is
harmful for living things in water or for aquatic animals and plants because of their toxicity
and the reduction of the normal oxygen level of the water. The pollution of water results bad
effects in environment and hence for living peoples also.
Different effects of wastewater to natural water are listed and described below.
 Effect on public health and safety
25
 Effect on aquatic and other life

 Damage of property
 Economic losses
3.7 WATER POLLUTION AND ITS IMPACT ON THE HEALTH OF HUMAN AND
ANIMALS
Meaning: Water is an essential ingredient for life. A man can survive few days without food,
but starts struggling for life, if water is not made available for one day. Water is also needed
for maintenance of plant and animals, for navigation, hydropower and for disposal of
sewerage. Standard of health also depends on the quality and purity of water supply of fresh
water provide aquatic organism with dissolved oxygen and some essential minerals and
nutrients, Making it most vital element for life. In the primitive stages, civilization perished
or migrated to better location for search of water.
The lack of availability of fresh water for drinking causes water borne diseases, which wiped
out entire population of cities in the earlier days. At present, the menace of water borne
diseases and epidemics are still large in all the countries. Polluted water is the main culprit
for such diseases. Water may get contaminated with a number of impurities like dust
particles, dissolved gases, minerals and micro-organism. Waterborne disease due to presence
of infectious agents is caused by bacterial, viral, protozoa and worms. Similarly presence of
chemical agents like fluoride and nitrates is responsible for causing human diseases.
Definition: Generally the water pollution is a state of deviation from the pure condition,
whereby its normal function and properties are affected. Water is said to be polluted when it
is contaminated with:
(a) dissolved gases like H2S, CO2, NH3, and N2,
(b) dissolved minerals like sodium, calcium and magnesium salts,
(c) suspended impurities like clay, sand, mud and organic matter
(d) infested with micro-organisms like bacterial, viruses, protozoa and worms and
(e) contamination of isotopes (radiologically active substances)
Pollution of water is defined as the presence of foreign organic, inorganic, biological and
physical substance of property in the water that tends to degrade its quality and either
constitutes a health hazard or otherwise decreases the utility of water.
G.M. fair and J.C. Geyer has defined water pollution as “introduction into a body of water of
substances of such character and in such quality that its natural quality is also altered as to
impair its usefulness or render it offensive to the sense of slight, test or smell”.
Thus, water pollution may be defined as the addition of any foreign material or any physical
change in natural water which may adversely affect living life directly or indirectly either in
short run or in the long run.
Though the problems of water are age old but in the modern era, the problem like population
increase sewerage disposal, industrial waste etc have polluted our water resources
considerably. The prominent contributors to water pollution are sewerage, oil, industry,
agriculture and radioactive waste etc. Water pollution not only change the physical properties
of water like color, odor, turbidity, taste and temperature but also makes it acidic or saline
due to presence of dissolved or suspended chemical pollutants.
Sources of Water Pollution
The water pollution mainly occurs due to sewage, industrial and trade waste, agricultural
pollutant like heat and radioactive materials. The sources of water pollution can be classified
controllable depends upon their nature. The sources of water pollution have also can be
summarized in below.
26
The water sources can be divided into two parts:

A. Natural sources
B. Man-made sources (Anthropogenic sources)
Sometimes water pollution takes place naturally in the form of soil erosion deposition of
animal waste and fallen leaves; solution of minerals in water etc. nature plays an important
role to pollute the water. Some of the major pollutant of natural and man made source of
water pollution are as under:
Natural Sources: Man-Made:
Aerial Contaminants Agriculture
Earthquakes and Storms Drainage
Rain water Wastes
Coastal water pollution Industrials
Organic matter
Thermal power
Radioactive
Factors contributing to water pollution are as follows:
 Organic substance
 Inorganic substance
 Heat
 Radioactive factors
 Sedimentary factors
Effects of Water Pollution:
The water pollution has become a manor threats to the survival of man in this earth. The
water borne diseases and epidemics have increased in manifold in the recent years. Water
pollution has far reaching effects and consequences on the living as well as non living
environment. The polluted water disturbs the public water supply, recreation, aesthetics,
aquatic and wild life, agriculture, industries and poverty. The main effects of water pollution
have been summarized in figure below. The major effects of water pollution on the living and
non living environment are as follows:
27
Economics
losses
Human Water Chemical

Hazards Pollution Hazards
Non-living
Environment
1. Health Hazards to Human and Animals

Survival of man without water is impossible. In many areas, there is paucity of water but in
others water resources have been degraded beyond use by water pollution resulting from
natural resources or man’s activities. The major hazards to public health from polluted stream
are mainly due to the presence of pathogenic bacteria from domestic sewerage, toxic
materials and industrial waste. The health problem may be due to direct as well as indirect
consumption of contaminated water. Communicable diseases are transmitted by the use of
contaminated water. Communicable diseases are transmitted by the use of contaminated
water for drinking, ablution and preparation of food. The improper disposal of human wastes
is the chief causes of contamination of water.
The water born diseases includes typhoid and paratyphoid fevers, cholera, dysentery, and
infectious hepatitis. The micro organisms causing these diseases are found in the intestinal
and urinary discharges of infected person. Food may be another means for the spreading of
infectious diseases on several ways. For example, fish in the polluted water absorbs many
poisonous, substances and eating of fish therefore may be more dangerous than drinking the
polluted water. Food also acts as medium for the growth of diseases, organism, producing
large number of bacteria. Hence water pollution not only affects health of human beings but
also animals.
2. Effects of Chemical Hazards
Water pollution also affects aquatic and other life. Pollution of natural water may be
dangerous to the organism naturally inhibiting the streams, lakes, and oceans. Organics
wastes under the influence of bacterial action deplete dissolved oxygen by consuming it in
biological oxidation reaction. This may suffocates the fish and other aquatic animals and it
will be unfit for use as food. Many chemicals in the liquid wastes effluents find their way to
water supply. Natural exposures to toxic animals may occur where water dissolves the
chemicals in percolating through the ground. High concentration of nitrates and fluorides
may be acquired in this process. Chlorine is used to destroy the pathogens in drinking water
28
and swimming pools and to oxidize waste but when inhaled is extremely toxic. Suspended
solids like silt and coal in water create many problems for the survival of aquatic organisms.
Water pollution is a state of deviation from the pure condition. Whereby, its normal
functions and properties are affected. And the major use of water are drinking, washing,
bathing, and supporting fish culture, industrial purposes including cooling, power generation,
transportation, waste disposal, which also add to increase the volume of polluted water.
Other Sources of Water Pollution: The pollution of rivers and streams with chemical
contaminants has become one of the most critical environmental problems of the century.
Chemical pollution entering rivers and streams can be classified according to the nature of
its sources: Point pollution and Non point pollution. Point pollution involves pollution from a
single concentrated source that can be identified, such as an outfall pipe from a factory or
refinery. Non point pollution involves pollution from dispersed sources that cannot be
precisely identified, such as runoff from agricultural or mining operations or seepage from
septic tanks or sewage drain fields. Industrial pollutants that run into streams, rivers, or lakes
can have serious effects on wildlife, plants, and humans.
Wastewater can be classified by their origin into three categories, namely
i. Drainage from irrigated agriculture
ii. Domestic waste water, and
iii. Industrial effluents
Drainage from irrigated agriculture causes not naturally degradable chemicals drainage like
chemical fertilizers, insecticides, and weed killers through over land drainage of irrigated
land water pollution occurs.
Domestic wastewater is that water which is discharged from residential and commercial
establishments. It contains pollutants like pathogenic bacteria, suspended solids oxygen
consuming organic matter along with other chemical salts such as nitric nitrates, chlorides,
sulfates and phosphorus.
Industrials effluents are the quantity of water, which is discharged from manufacturing
plants. Chief constituents are toxic chemicals, pathogenic organisms etc.
Impact of water pollution on the health of human can be categories by different pollutants
and its impact on health. They are:
2) Oxygen demanding waste: Dissolved oxygen (D.O.) is necessary for sustaining
animal and plant life in the water bodies.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (B.O.D.) is direct measure of oxygen requirements; it
is indirect measure of biodegradable organic matter.
3) Pathogenic Bacteria: water containing pathogenic borne bacteria cause disease like
cholera, typhoid, amoebic dysentery and gastroenteritis etc. Also feces and sewage
contains animal’s parasites like various types of worms.
4) Non degradable organic compounds: Compounds like pesticides, detergents and some
other chemical causes accumulative toxic poisons and ultimately may reach
objectionable level in aquatic life. Chlorinated organic pesticides like DDT, dicidrin
and aldrin are hazardous due to their concentrations in food chain.
5) Inorganic chemicals: these chemicals are in toxic in nature and are capable of killing
aquatic life and also increase acidity in natural waters.
6) Fertilizers: it reduces re-oxygenation of water due to reduction in light penetration.
The anaerobic condition created by rotting algae proves health hazards.
7) Radioactive Substance: Radionuclide of radium, bismuth etc. produced by refining of
ores (Uranium) is most significant waste products cause hazards when present in
drinking water.
29
8) Thermal effluents: Thermal plants increases temperature of water, hence D.O. is

reduced causes deficit of oxygen.
9) Oil spills: The toxic contents destroy aquatic life. Also it leads to very low D.O.
levels.
10) Sediments: It increases turbidity on water then the amount of sunlight entry in water
decreases, which causes the destruction of plants and fish life due to decreased food
supply.
In summer impacts are health hazards to human and animals and chemical hazards.
3.8 IMPACT OF WATER POLLUTION ON FISH LIFE:
Water pollution causes greatest impact in the aquatic system. Fish can die increased acidity,
more commonly they fail to reproduce. New generation fail to enter the stock or enter in
much diminished number. After a number of years of this reproductive failure the species
eventually die out from that ecosystem. Most of the eggs and embryos either fails to hatch or
deformity occur. Molasses can not survive in acidic water because readily dissolves calcium
carbonate which is most required compound for their survival.
3.9 CONTROL OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
For the purpose of monitoring, enforcing, and the controlling on pollution of water, the apex
body of the Government as center for pollution control (CPS) is formed. Special action plans
have been drawn up for control the water pollution as well as air pollution by cement
industries, metals industries (foundry) oil refineries, paper and pulp industries, drug
manufacturing, sugar mills etc.
Environment education and information needs to grow up awareness to the people. As in
Nepal there are so many uneducated people who can not understand easily. So,
demonstration type information required. The cartoons, films, and figures can be used to
demonstrate environmental impact of pollutants and there should be such a section that aware
knowledge, attitude, skill, evaluation ability of the participation. Environment education
programs should be conducted on different disciplines like environmental studies,
environment science and environmental engineering. That should be included in different
level of national education system that is from lower secondary education to University
Education.
Non-formal Environmental Education should be designed for adult education. Rural youth,
non-student, youth, trebles ore’s dweller, children activities, eco-development camps, non-
government organizations, public representatives, training for senior executives
(administrators), foundations courses, research and development programs, centre of
excellence, development and employment of trained manpower, development of education
materials and teaching aids related with control of environment, world environment day,
national environment awareness campaign/national environment month also effectively
aware the knowledge, attitude, skill, evaluation ability of the those people.
Possible action to improve rivers in Kathmandu valley are; make institutions more effective
and apply more appropriate laws, control and relate polluting industries, reduce growth rate
of Kathmandu valley population and hence improve sewage collection and treatment, resolve
rights in land issues, builds weirs in critical reaches.
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THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
1. SOME IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS

Environment is the physical and biotic habitat which surrounds us: that which we can see,
hear, touch, smell, and taste.
System, according to Webster’s dictionary, is defined as “a set or arrangement of things so
related or connected as to form a unit or organic whole: as, a solar system, irrigation system,
supply system, the world or universes’.
Pollution can be defined as an undesirable change in the physical, chemical, or biological
characteristics of the air, water, or land that can harmfully affect the health, survival, or
activities of humans or other living organisms.
When the goal of improving environmental quality is taken to be improving human well-
being, the word “environment” broadens to include all kinds of social, economic, and cultural
aspects. Such broadness is unworkable in many real situations and impractical in a textbook
designed for a one semester course. Our examination of environmental problem is therefore
limited by our definition of “environment.”
2. INTERACTIONS OF SYSTEMS
Now, we shall deal with a number of different environmental problems associated with
water, air, or land systems. Many of these problems will app1y only within one of these
systems, justifying the breakdown into these categories. Such a classification is also useful
for easier comprehension of related problems within one system. Moreover, it is sensible
because, for managerial and administrative reasons, such subfields as air pollution, water
supply, wastewater disposal, and solid waste disposal are often dealt with separately by
governmental agencies.
Unfortunately, many important environmental problems arc not confined to an air, water, or
land system, but involve interactions between systems. A current example is the acid rain
problem stemming from the emission of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide gases into the
atmosphere from the stacks of generating stations, smelter, and automobile exhausts. These
gases arc then transported by air currents over wide regions. Rainfall “washes them out,”
creating acid rain which is harmful to aquatic life, forests, and agricultural crops.
While many environmental problems discussed in later chapters are local or regional and
may be dealt with effectively at these levels, others must be viewed from an overall water-
air-land interaction standpoint on a national, continental, or global basis. A simple illustration
of this interaction is shown in Figure 1 and helps to explain how an insecticide like DDT is
now ubiquitous.
31
Air
Precipitation
Evapotranspiration
Surface
Land Water Ocean
Ground
Water
Figure1 Water, air and land interactions

3. ENVIRONMENTAL DISTURBANCES
Many major improvements to our standard of living can be attributed to the application of
science and technology. A few examples are noted here.
 The production of more and better quality food.
 The creation of housing as protection from extremes of climate and as living space.
 The building of fast and reliable means of transportation.
 The invention of various systems of communication.
 The invention of machines to replace human or animal power.
 The supply of sale water and the disposal of wastes.
 The elimination of many infectious diseases
 The elimination of most water-borne diseases in the developed world through improved
water technology.
 The availability of leisure time through greater productivity, providing the opportunity
for cultural and recreational activities.
 The protection from the worst effects of natural disasters such as floods, droughts,
earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions.
With these improvements, however, have come disturbing side effects, such as lost arable
land, disappearing forests, environmental pollution, and new organisms resistant to controls.
Many effects originally considered to be just nuisances arc now recognized as potential
threats to nature and to humans In an agrarian society, people lived essentially in harmony
with nature, raising food, gathering firewood, and making clothing and tools from the land.
The wastes from animals and humans were returned to the soil as fertilizer. Few, if any,
problems of water, land, or air pollution occurred (Figure 2). For the small settlements which
grew up, the supply of food, water, and other essentials and the disposal o wastes had to be
32
kept in balance with the changing community, but no serious environmental problems were
created.
The cities of ancient times, particularly those of the Roman Empire, had systems to supply
water and to dispose of wastes. The aqueducts supplying the ancient city of Rome
(population about 1 million) with safe water from the Apennine Mountains, and the Cloacae
Maxima, the best known and one of the earliest sewers to be built, are examples of such
systems. The municipal technology of ancient cities seems to have been lrgo1cn for many
centuries by those who built cities throughout Europe. Water supply and waste disposal were
neglected, resulting in many outbreaks of dysentery, cholera, typhoid, and other waterborne
diseases. Until the middle of the nineteenth century, it was not realized that improper waste
disposal polluted water supplies with disease-carrying organisms. The industrial revolution in
nineteenth-century Britain, Europe and North America aggravated the environmental
problems since it brought increased urbanization with the industrialization. Phenomena,
urbanization and industrialization, were and are fundamental causes of water and air
pollution which the cities of that time were unable to handle.
Rapid advances in technology for the treatment of water and the partial treatment of
wastewater took place in the developed countries over the next few decades. This led to a
dramatic decrease in the incidence of waterborne disease. Figure 2 illustrates the waste
disposal cycle for an industrialized society. Note that all wastes discharge into the
environment, and thus pollute our water, air, and land systems.
Following the Second World War the industrialized countries experienced an economic
boom fueled by a burgeoning population, advanced technology, and a rapid rise in energy
consumption. During the 1950s and 1960s this activity significantly increased the quantity of
wastes discharged to die environment. New chemicals, including insecticide and pesticides,
used without sufficient testing for their environmental and health effect, caused, and continue
cause, enormous problems no anticipated when they were introduced. Unfortunately, the
problem is worsening as the variety and amounts of pollutants discharged to the environment
increase inexorably while the capacity of our air, water, and land systems to assimilate
wastes is limited.
During the decades of the l960’s and 1970’s the percentage of the Third World residents’
with ready access to clean water and sanitary facilities rose significantly. But as population
soared, the absolute numbers lacking these necessities still climbed. Against this backdrop,
the United Nations declared the 1980’s the international drinking Water Supply and
Sanitation Decade. The hope-known to hollow even as it was announced-was that Third
World governments and international aid donors would drastically step up their investments
in water and sanitation, providing these goods to all by 1990. Achieving this goal would
require a three fold to five fold increases in expenditures over the 1979 investment level of
$6-$7 billion, one-third of which was provided as international aid. It would also require
ending the urban bias in water and sanitation spending, wider use of simple technologies, and
pursuit of new forms of community involvements and education to ensure that new wells and
latrines arc better maintained than they have often been.
The needed funs sound large until they are compared to other global expenditures. Meeting
the financial needs at the Decade would require global spending of some $80 million a day-
this in a world that lays out more than $250 million a day on cigarettes and $1.4 billion a day
on arms. No genuine political commitment to providing universal access in water and
sanitation has emerged among aid givers or most Third World governments.
33
Figure 2 Waste cycles—agrarian society
Waste Producer
Physical Environment Human and Animal
Waste Producer
Waste Products
Human and Animal Waste
Processing
Fuel Burning Crop Residue
The difficult economic times of the late 1970s and the early 1980s forced changes in the
priorities of the public and its governments. Inflation, unemployment, and energy became the
major concerns, and understandably so. Disarmament (or better, the lack thereof), the threat
of nuclear war, crime, education, medical care, family breakdown, and racial and sex-related
discrimination compete for the politician’s attention. The gal loping increases in energy costs
of the past and the enormous increases in the social costs of welfare and unemployment have
caused huge financial deficits for governments of the developed world and have brought
many underdeveloped countries to the brink of financial disaster. It will take extraordinary
statesmanship and wisdom at national and international levels to steer us through the nest
decade. How high the priority for environmental improvement will be in these difficult times
remains to be seen. However, it seems clear that public concerns about the health and safety
aspects of toxic and hazardous wastes will continue to increase for a long lime.
34
CHAPTER 4
4.0 TECHNOLOGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Technology
“A discourse or treatise on a art or arts; the scientific study of the practical and or
industrial arts" this was the first definition of technology traced in 1615 in England,
which is written in "A New English dictionary on Historical Principle":
. •
Crabb's universal dictionary (1823) defines the technology as description of arts

especially those, which are mechanical.
Some definition of technology is:
technology embraces the mean by which man controls or modifies his natural
environment.(Spier ,1968)
the information , technique and tool with which people utilized the material
resources of their environment to satisfy their need and desire (Lenski ,1974)
that great, growling engine of change - technology( Toffler, 1970)
"Now a days technology is define as a study of the technical means under taken in a l l
culture (a universal), which involve the systematic application of organized knowledge
(synthesis) and tangible (tools and materials) for the extension of human faculties that are
restricted as a result of the evolutionary process. This definition is more appropriate
because it identifies following characteristics of technology.
It is evident in all cultures regardless of their stage of development
It is knowledge based and involves the application of knowledge to
solve the problem
It is accumulative
It is fundamental to humanity
It is fundamental to survival
It alters the culture and society
It is future oriented
It seeks a harmonious relationship between human life and nature
It is an extension of human faculties
Everybody including human has always struggled for survival in his or her particular
environment. In this process, they acquire the ability to develop the sophisticated
contrivances to help ensure their survival. But we cannot ignore the challenges of the future,
which introduces on us in dramatic and unexpected way such as over pollution, finite
resources etc.
The most significant change that the new worldview of technology forces. It is alleged,
is progressive erosion of the self. Jacques Ellul in his “Technolog ical Society" provides
one of the most vigorous and comprehensive arguments for the view that technology
today determines the human life. Ellul identifies a single force at the central power of
technology and he traces its effects in every segment of human life. He argues that the
central motive of modern technology is technique is a way of thinking that applies to al l
human life. A consequence of technological way of thinking is to change human life into
something that is no longer human according to Ellul. A progressive erosion of selfhood
gains momentum when all people in a culture are forced to submit to the technological
way of thinking. Ellul finds further erosion of human selfhood to take place because it is
the essence of techniques to compel the qualitative to become the quantitative. He thinks
that domination by technology is curse to humanity.
35
The lure of technology is its promise of a better life for all people than also he argues the
threefold contradiction exists between the promise and the actuality of the human life.
1. The world of technique is a world of material things subjected to quantitative
analysis but the essence of human life is quality not quantity.
2. Technological thinking produces great human achievement but also threatens
annihilation of humanity. This contradiction occurs because the power to achieve
something is looped upon by the technological value system as a good in self. When
power becomes the reason for human activity, distinction can no longer be made
good or evil. This contradiction creates in modern world the absurd situation where
nation stockpiles nuclear weapons as a way to guarantee the world piece.
3. Technology appears to create freedom for humanity, it actually doesn't and can't.
Technology makes human lame.
Technology is a part of divine plan for humanity. Technological thinking and its result,
therefore, are simply a part of universal evolutionary process. There is no way to stop
technological development and there is no good reason to want to stop it. Technology is
a tool which helps to do some tasks e.g. Automobile are the extended legs of human
Technology has altered the sensory organ of human. The environment formed by new
electronic media helps to create a new sensory pattern. The technology of tele vision
provides direct visual contact with politician a situation similar to Athenian democracy
of ancient Greece. Television offers the sense of participation.
Economy changes by technology:
1. Increase in production power
2. Nature of what society consume
3. Improve telecommunication system
Influence of technology:
1. Modifications of genetic code
2. Genes selection by control mating
3. Nutritional influence on human behavior
4. Drug research.
Thus technology is both the curse and the blessing according to its application;
Technology as curse and as a blessing: The technology is taken as the blessing if it is
controlled by us or we can use it as our desire for good purpose only and is taken as the
great achievement. If technology controls us and is used for our harm, then it is curse. If
it is used as selfhood it is curse and makes us slave. So technology is both curse and
blessing.
Curse: The technology actually dominates human life. It determines human values,
character and density. Technology of this era shapes and reshapes human life according
to its own dictates. Technology has made the progressive erosion of self; consequence of
technological way of thinking is to change human life to something that is no longer
human according to Ellul. Being systemized is not human nature. But technology has
destroyed individuality, freedom, autonomy etc. a single force of central power of
technology has its affect in every segment of human life- economics, politics, law,
education, religion etc. Ellul’s three fold contradiction for technology is curse:
1. The world of technique is a world of materials things subjected to quantitative
analysis but the essence of human life is quality not quantity.
2. Technology thinking produces great human achievements, standardization of life etc,
but also threatens annihilation of humanity. The power to achieve something is said to
be good by technological values. But when power becomes the season for human
36
activity distinction can no longer be good or evil. The modern world is in absurd
situation because of same reason.
3. Technology appears to create freedom for humanity but actually it does not and can’t
not. Technology also makes human lame.
Blessing: Technology is a tool to do same tasks e.g.; Automobiles are the extended legs
of human, electronics media helps to create a new sensory pattern. Technology of
television provides direct visual contact with everyday situations allover the world and it
offers the sense of participation on these situations etc. Standard of life has been raised.
The modification of genetic code, nutritional influence and human behavior, drug
researches etc are the influence of technology. So technology is both curse and blessing
according to its application.
The Environment of Technology and Its Irreversibility
From the ancient times, man has been able to create new technology to make
certain change in their society and the environment. The need or the requisites at the
present status on that time had made men to create such new technology; of course
technology of that time would not have been sufficient and efficient like today and the
progress upon the use of the technology developed were too slow.
Previously, men used to move from one place to another, they used to enter the forest and kill
the animal for the food and for that they used wood, stone etc. Later on they started to
fashion those into useful shapes and start making tire with which they could cook foods. In
this way, new and news technology started creating on.
The levels of technology can be grouped into three categories as:
1. Low level technological development
2. Intermediate level technological development
3. High level technological development
Low level technological development includes those tools and machines developed by earlier
human beings. Those primitive tools may be further divided into natural, adapted and
manufactured tools. Natural tools mean those found in natural state 1ike stone and wood.
Adapted tools implies for those slightly modified in size and shape like stones and wood
sharpened at one edge for cutting and piercing etc. Manufactured tools are created by
combination of two or more natural and adapted tools like bows and arrows, harpoons etc.
Most of these tools were developed during Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods.
The primitive machines were just been able to do modify the force applied and do the things
that could not have been able to do using only human or animal strength. Such machines in
this development are lever, pulley, inclined plane, wedge, wheel and screw and screw jack.
Most of those primitive machines were developed during Neolithic and metal periods. This
level of technological development took place from development of human beings until
3200BC.
Intermediate level technological development is the second stage of development, in which
the primitive tools are improved, combined, to make them a better and suitable complicated
job. The hammer made of stone, which they used to put on hand, was modified gradually up
to one with the handle and sharpened at one side and dull at the other with which they just
need less force for what they were doing previously. The discovery of metal in this age
helped them for more application in such works.
Intermediate level machines are the compound diverse machines that have interrelated parts
with separate functions. They can be powered by humans, animals, or any of the prime
movers including natural forces. The first steam engine was used to pump water from coal
mines and its contribution toward transportation was felt and later on steam powered railroad
37
car was made. Later, electric motor replaced steam engine in manufacturing industry and
internal combustion engines replaced the steam engine in transportation. The majority of
human beings now on this earth live at this stage of technological development i.e. it’s a
period from 3200BC to the present.
High level technological development includes the sophisticated machines and tools utilizing
human thought like processes within its functions. Only few western societies have
undergone to this level. The tools in the high level technological development need not the
power from humans. For example, jack hammers, electric power hand drill etc.
High level machine are those complex machines whose functions are combined with special
facets of human activity to form a unique process. The subdivisions high level technological
development are the assembly line the automation and the cybernetics. The assembly line
was discovered more than 600 years ago, automation in 1946 and cybernetics in 1948. The
most well known machine in cybernetics is computer which has mad the life much easier.
In modern age, technology has reached in so much high level that it has influenced to almost
all the fields and areas in such fashion that people have completely dependant on those
sophisticated technologies. Man has been able to travel worldwide in few times. Resting on
the space has already been started. In agricultural sectors also various products have been
produced, as per the requirement in the places that ones like in own way. Information and
industrial sector has also been much advanced in technology. One can talk to another in any
part of the world and even he can see another with the use of modern technology. The
development of the technology in computer software and their application has made the
modern life ease inside of various works and computations. The gradual development in
technologies has brought such stages that we are always willing to desire easier, faster and
simpler not knowing the result could be more adverse. Like in the case of mathematical
computation, previously, people sun and multiply numbers by scribbling in papers. Later,
algorithm charts came on and electronic computers. At the present sage, computers have
been doing all the operation. Then also people want more sophisticated types of computers
that do all the programming.
In the other sectors also like in manufacturing industries, the use of sophisticated and
computerized machines has made the productivity rise and to the quality standard which
wouldn’t have been possible without using such machines. As we have been provided with
the user friendly technologies, we cannot move backwards of living without them.
Those factors lead to that technology is now irreversible. One cannot think returning back
being on this current technological environment.
Air Pollution from Automobiles and Truck Emissions
With the development of automotive industry, man has been able to move one place to
another much fast and safe. However side-by-side, such has created an environmental
problem that has been one of the main considerations in the present world. Because of their
versatility, flexibility and low initial cost, the motorized road vehicles overwhelmingly
dominating the markets for passenger and foreign transport throughout the world. In all but
the poorest developing countries economic growth has triggered a boom in the number and
use of motor vehicles.
Owing to their rapidly increasing numbers and very limited use of the emission control
technologies, motor vehicles are emerging as the largest source of air pollution in the
developing world. Common air pollutants from the automobiles are as follows:
1. Respirable particulate matter from smoky diesel vehicles, 2- stroke motorcycles and 3
wheelers.
2. Lead aerosol from combustion of leaded gasoline.
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3. Carbon monoxide from the gasoline vehicles.

4. Photochemical smog (ozone) produced by the reaction of volatile organic compounds
and nitrogen oxides in the presence of sunlight, both being emitted from the motor
vehicles.
5. Sulfur oxides from combustion of oxides.
6. Secondary particulate matter formed in atmosphere by reaction involving ozone
sulfur and nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds.
7. Known and suspected carcinogens such as benzene, 1-3 butadiene, aldehydes and
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons.
Emissions and Their Effects
Most of the automobiles are either gasoline or diesel powered. Depending upon the types of
vehicles their emissions differ. Gasoline powered vehicles usually emit carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides and lead if leaded gasoline is used while diesel powered
vehicles like truck particulate matters, hydrocarbons, sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides.
Carbon monoxides cause suffocating resulting in reducing ability of blood in delivering to
tissues affecting cardiovascular and nervous system. Hydroxides cause lung related problems
and form smog in the atmosphere. Nitrogen oxides cause cancer respiratory problem and help
in smog formation. Lead and particulate matters cause cancer. Sulfur oxides later on from
acid rain being harmful to vegetation and fish farming.
Control of the Air Pollution from Automobiles
With the increase in the vehicles use in the country, as the air pollution from the vehicles also
increases, preventive measures have to be taken for the control of the emission. Most of the
emissions are caused due to improper mixing of the air and fuel, incomplete burning of the
mixture, improper injection and ignition timing etc. Such defect in the old vehicles have been
minimized by the use of modern systems like electronic fuel injection systems, use of
charcoal canister and catalytic converter etc. through which most of the emissions are greatly
minimized. By the use of electronic fuel injection system, mixing and injection will be
perfect according to the timing required and the use of charcoal canister and catalytic
converter, emissions like hydrocarbon and carbon monoxides and nitrogen oxides re greatly
reduced.
TECHNOLOGICAL IMPACTS ON DIFFERENT ASPECTS

IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EDUATION:
Objective:
To team the development of technology on an education system.
In ancient times, people used slates and while color stone (especially limestone) for learning
and teaching purpose. After some years, people used paper pencils, book. Black boards etc.
But the recently available technologies like audiotapes and television are used for language
instruction and for prerecorded lecture demonstrations. The most advance technology on the
learning and teaching process is by the use of computer.
In the traditional way of education system, students cannot learn alone Students and teachers
meet in a classroom and exchange of information takes place. During those times, teachers
are the main resources of information. The modern technology in education system makes
the traditional education system obsolete because students can do their works alone and meet
the teacher occasionally, for the guidance. It might eliminate the traditional classroom and
teachers because students can get more information from various resources.
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There are three major questions that have to be answered by the education theorists. Firstly,
the resources of information are much more in modern technological education system. So,
what information is needed for an education should be declared. Secondly the kind of
education that is best for technological society has to be known. Finally, selection of the most
important techniques of education from the many possibilities must be carried out
MODERN TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMIC SYSTEMS:
Objectives:
Major changes in the economic situation due to the development of technology.
Technology and economic system of nation are interrelated. If a nation has a good economic
situation it can advance its technology and if the nation has an advanced technology then the
economic condition of the nation is improved. Due to the advancement of technology there
are three major changes in the economic situation
A. Increase the productive power of society: By using the latest technical equipment modern
society can produce the good in large scales but these equipments may shift the labor force
and create unemployment of the society. This effect of replacement of the man by the
equipment is significant in economy.
B. Increased technology has also altered the nature of consuming matter and also the
consumption rate in the society. This consuming matter includes transportation,
communication, health, education and other main component for our life.
C. The use of computers and telecommunication system increased the multinational banks
and corporation. Thus the money moves rapidly from one hand to another. Rules and
regulations made by the government also play an important role in the economic situation of
the society. Government should provide security, education and advanced technology so that
money of the society will rise. On the other hand business man should control the price,
shortages and excess of goods and should be able to fulfill the employees’ requirement.
IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON POLITICS:
The set of means by which, human develop social organization is called politics. Politics
contains all the structure and procedures that deals with allocation and distribution of wealth
and power in a society. This implies that the world political perhaps should mean decision-
making by businessman, labor union, churches, political parties and trade association that all
relate to the allocation and distribution of wealth and power in a society.
Technology is the application of scientific discoveries to the production of goods, machines
and services for human use to improve the human environment. Technology so defined
affects the politics or the political activities directly and indirectly.
Direct Effect
Technology provides the government with the tools that speed of the collection, processing
and monitoring of information. These provide grater efficiency and accuracy in planning,
policy formation, decision-making, and programme implementation. Computers are invented
as tools for government, so the efficiency and speed of collecting, analyzing, processing the
data and information is increased and so increase the power of politics.
The technology influences the public participation in politics through difference
communication media. These media include television, radio, telephone, internet, and other
electronics media. Through these media politicians can put their thoughts in front of public
and public get chance to recognize their leader and know their policies and built indirect
interaction. Public can regularly kept as eyes on the activities of government and evaluate it
with providing feedbacks, if necessary. This has been possible only because of the
technology available today.
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Indirect Effect:
Indirect effects take place in two ways. First technology assists periodic organization of
political forces. Secondly, technology occasionally becomes a political asset.
The irrigation technology changes the social and political organization of Mesopotamia,
Egypt, India and China. The indirect consequences of irrigation technology are: an
established government as distinct and permanent institution the developing of standing
armies to protect surplus commodities, emergence of social classes forming around new
occupations and the creations of sense of individuality.
Once, the gunpowder, the cannon and the rocket were introduced. People could no longer
maintain their political power in the traditional form. So both feudal aristocracy and one form
of slavery were rendered obsolete by the new technology of warfare. The king who had a
superior military technology had the means by which to extend and consolidate his power as
political asset.
IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON RELIGION
When nothings in the society remain untouched from the ever-growing effects of the
technology, religion has also been colonized by the growing technology reign.
The good utilization of technology by men has spread knowledge and information proved to
be a boon for the propagation of religion. Religion, in the past has to be disseminated through
sermons that would take place from one village to another, one city to another and it would
take years to propagate. But now, technological innovations like television, radio, printing
press makes it much easier and faster for religion and religious doctrines to spread around the
world. An Eskimo in Alaska may follow Buddhism now and a Hawaiian may follow
Hinduism. The advances in transportation technology have also boosted this propagation up.
Pilgrimages can be done easily and comfortably.
When all this being done to boost religions around the world, there is also this ever looming
threat hovering over the existence of the religion itself.
Technology breeds rationalizing of everything that occurs around us. When everything that
happens is questioned and nothing is taken for granted or based in faith how can religion
escape this barrage and hide itself in the cloak of auspicious silence and blind reverence. The
very arguments that religious devote give to explain the importance of religion are weak.
Arguments like religious doctrines are worthy of behalf just because they were written by
people who were speaking truth and great men of the past held them to be true and the very
questioning of religion itself is wrong and impious are not longer accepted. These mere
foundations on which religion and religious doctrines, saying of sages are based on, when
scrutinized by the light of technological advances and discoveries, reveals blunders and fatal
error which cannot be accepted by the rational minds of today’s technological men,
All these may represent that God is being slowly replaced from the consciousness of modern
men and technology is functioning as religion.
But when something happens and that cannot be answered in the light of technology and the
human analytical power seems to have reached its limits. Then humans gain reverts back to
“faith” which was once denounced technology when it questioned the existence of religion.
Similarly, when religion is seen as man’s attempt to fight evils, bafflement, sufferings,
technology cannot usurp religion’s place, which has been implanted in every human being
who has come under its influence.
So, basic human religious needs still persist but the surrounding and the atmosphere in which
it has been practiced in the past may change. As scientific observations and statistics are
made, it shows that religion may take different from but the very gist of it will still survive.
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IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON FAMILY STRUCTURES

It is known that modern technology has direct impact upon the families. The first factor
affecting the families is changing the family structure or changing the function of family by
eliminating the family as a producing agent within society. In most of the traditional
societies, family functions as a producer rather than consumer. All the family members work
together and more or less contribute to the economy of the family according to their physical
capacity and knowledge and produce goods and other necessary things. But modern
technology breaks down the family structure by changing the function of family members. In
modem society generally father only contribute to the family. Family members are engaged
in different fields. This dispersion of the family members causes the increased contact with
the stranger resulting development of increasing number of possible interpersonal relations
and family automatically trends to break down the traditional family pattern.
Economic diversification in the modern family also allows the women to do jobs and other
activities outside the home. A working woman is economically freed from a man, especially,
her husband. A woman engaged in social job and other activities finds a different
significance and meaning of life compared to household. This situation tires readjustment of
relation within the family. Modern technology also affects the order of sexual relation within
a family and society.
The Persistence of Family Relationship
In this modern age, family is indicated as a social institution. Two factor account for the
strength and persistence of the family which are as follows
1. Family becomes consumer rather than producer
2. Change of structural pattern of family
Technology defines the family as a consumer rather than producer. Mainly in developed
countries, the households still remain the backbone of the economy. Families purchase most
of the automobiles, televisions, cosmetics, washing machines, dryers, heaters and many other
things. A lot of money is spent in purchasing the household necessities. Many people get jobs
and earn money by supplying these objects in different countries mainly developed countries
the second factor accounting for the persistence of the family is the change in the pattern of
the family, which is the conversion of the traditional family pattern to companionship
pattern. The traditional family is the one where the family members are united by rules,
regulation duties and obligation. Religion, law and duties are given top priority rather than
feeling and emotion of a person. The father makes important family decisions autocratically.
In companionship family pattern mutual affection, understanding, mutual, acceptance
cooperation unites the family members. The feature of this family is to respect one another’s
feelings and emotions. In this sense, companionship family is simply an adjustment to the
realities of life. The Indian joint society holds an inheritance rule that divide property equal
among adult males as many as four generation, and adapts well to industrialization also
which is contrary to the beliefs of many social scientist who consider that joint family are
incapable of adjusting to industrialization. But there is some advantage of joint family.
Joint family means capability of providing a nucleus of capital. Also contains a well structure
pattern of authority and procedures causing more industrialization and more development.
But it has limitations too and absolute cooperation and mutual understanding should be
devoted to their job and profession equally for its survival.
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CHAPTER 5
5.0 TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY
5.1 Technology creates opportunity for social change

Science and Technology are overall advantageous to society. We realize that society should
be thankful for all the benefits that technology has provided, allowing humans to lead
comfortable and convenient lives. If society could understand that technology does create
many problems and actively participate in the effort to resolve these problems, they would
see that the positive effects could outweigh the negative effects, Who would give up all that
technology and science has provided to avoid the detriments that could possibly result?
Although technology creates many problems, the solution is not to give up all that we have
gained from it, but to address these problems, and then continue to reap their benefits.
Technology has created new opportunities in the society.
 It is seen to be motor of all progress as holding the solution to most of our social
problems,
 As helping to liberate the individual from the clutches of a highly organized society
 As the source of permanent prosperity.
 In short as a promise of utopia of our time.
This view has its modern origins in the social philosophies of such 19m century thinkers as
Saint Simon, Karl Marx and Auguste Kumte. It tends to be held by many scientist and
engineers and many military leaders, aerospace industrialists, by people who believe that
man is fully in command of his tools and his destiny, and many of the devotees of modem
techniques of scientific management.
5.2 Importance of Technology in controlling prices
Technology of Value Engineering (VE) is able to control the prices. With an advent of the
VE as a technique in which the value of a system’s outputs are optimized by crafting a mix of
performance (function) and costs. In most cases this practice identifies and removes
unnecessary expenditures, thereby increasing the value for the manufacturer and/or their
customers.
Value engineering is often done by systematically following a multi-stage job plan. Larry
Mile's original system was a six-step procedure which he called the "value analysis job plan."
Others have varied the job plan to tit their constraints. Depending on the application, there
may be four, five, six, or more stages. One modem version has the following eight steps:
1. Preparation
2. Information
3. Analysis
4. Creation
5. Evaluation
2. Development
3. Presentation
4. Follow-up
Four basic steps in the job plan are:
 Information gathering - This asks what the requirements are for the object. Function
analysis, an important technique in value engineering, is usually done in this initial
stage. It tries to determine what functions or performance characteristics are
important. It asks questions like; what does the object do? What must it do? What
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should it do? What could it do? What must it not do?

 Alternative generation (creation) - In this stage value engineers ask; what are the
various alternative ways of meeting requirements'? What else will perform the desired
function?
 Evaluation - In this stage all the alternatives are assessed by evaluating how well they
meet the required functions and how great will the cost savings be. Presentation - In
the final stage, the best alternative will be chosen and resented to the client for final
decision.
One of the significant examples of price control can be seen in the travel costs cut in a drastic
manner through the use of online travel services, in the companies such as the Xerox. The
field of value engineering looks after the different alternatives and arrives at the optimum
cost.
5.3 Interaction between technology and the labor forces
Technology has created a mechanism to interact with the labor forces.
The labors with the highest wage of all the construction trades, contracting firms don't have a
reliable method of tracking their labor hours. As a result, these labors may write down more
hours than they actually work. This can undercut a firm’s profitability.
To regain control of their businesses, contracting firms are turning to labor management
software. By recording the labor hours electronically, these companies no longer have to
worry about paper time cards getting lost, tom, or trampled on a construction site.
Software developers and manufacturers have developed new technology to increase a firm's
productivity and profitability. Labors can now swipe their identification badges through a
time clock system, place their finger on a scanner, or type a password on a keypad.
While many different types of automated payroll systems are available-clocking in and out
using electronic time clocks and tracking labor hours on handheld electronic devices.
Following are some of the methods to keep the track of the labor hours.
Keeping Track of Labor Hours
Employees swipe their ID badges of place the card's bar code under a
Badge
scanner. A computer then records the in/out punches
Employees place their finger on a screen, which scans their fingerprint. With
Fingerprint Recognition System
this system, employees have no cards to carry with then to work.
Employees type in a unique code on a keypad in order to clock-in and clock-
Punch-In System
out of a jobsite.
Employees insert their paper time cards into a time clock, which stamps the
date and time on the cards. Many of these electronics time clocks offer built-
Electronics Time Clocks in battery-backup to maintain clock and program data during a power failure.
Because power may not be available on a jobsite some manufacture also
offer models that don't require AC power and run on batteries.
Employees are responsible for recording their labor hours and writing them
Paper Time Cards on a paper them on a paper time cards. At the end of the works week, they
fax these cards to the main office or hand them to a supervisor
5.4 Societies control over Technology

Culture and society evolve over time just as the societies and technologies evolve. Moreover,
some of the effects new technology can have are often unanticipated ones but can often be as
important as the intended effect of the technology. Take the printing press for example.
The news papers of 100 years ago arc hugely different to those of today. The conventions we
know today like the headline, front page story, advertising space etc have evolved over the
intervening period from the first printing run till now.
A more recent example would be the internet. Originally developed for the military, the
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internet came into its own with the dot com boom in the 90`s. It's developed from a few
hundred basic pages displaying information and small images to today's internet, which with
the development of far greater internet speed, and innovative coding and new software, a
highly multimedia and personal experience. Looking back at history, it doesn't take long to
find examples of technologies changing cultures. We have historical ages that reflect
technological development. e.g. the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, Iron Age and more recently
the industrial revolution. However the industrial revolution was wholly different to the others
because it fundamentally changed society and culture.
The mass explosion of new technologies, knowledge & understanding began to challenge
traditional norms and values. The social fabrics began to change. While the unflavored lower
classes remained an undesirable pan of society, they became an essential driving force behind
the revolution as they became proverbial moving parts in the mighty industrial machine. It
wasn't long before both the upper and lower classes realized the potential and power of the
lower classes. The upper classes realized that without the lower classes to work in their
factories they couldn't make any money. The lower classes in tern realized their potential
power and that they could ask for more from their employers, thus unions where born.
We now live an age where everyone has realized the potential of technology and continued
technological development, be it to make our lives easier, furthering the understanding of the
universe, economic gain or national security.
But it is still the individual, the everyday consumer that continues to have a huge influence
over technology. History has shown that many technologies have developed to make our
lives easier e.g. the ability to complete more tasks in less time. This is a notion that continues
to appeal to society. The resulting effect is that a society that has the power to control the
level and direction of technology through the consumer choices they make.
But what a society enjoys the most in choice. Choice has fuelled modem consumerism. You
only have to go as far as your comer shop to discover this. At one time, you went down your
local shop and you would buy a tin of soup because that was the only tin of soup being
produced, now you go down the shop and you have a good half a dozen at least. With all this
choice, would you still want to live in a world where you are essential told what you buy?
5.5 Effects of emission from coal and gasoline engine on public health
Air pollutant emission factors are the emitting the pollutant (e.g. kilograms of particulate
emitted per megagram of coal burned). The United States Environmental Protection Agency
has published a compilation of air pollutant emission factors for a multitude of industrial
sources. The United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and other countries have published similar
compilations, as has the European Environment Agency.
Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning and fatalities are often caused by faulty vents and
chimneys, or by the burning of charcoal indoors.
Health effects
The World Health Organization states that 2.4 million people die each year from causes
directly attributable to air pollution arising out of the pollution caused because of the coal
and gasoline emission mostly. "Epidemiological studies suggest that more than 500,000
Americans die each year from cardiopulmonary disease linked to breathing tine particle air
pollution.
A study by the University of Birmingham has shown a strong correlation between pneumonia
related deaths and air pollution from motor vehicles. Worldwide more deaths per year are
linked to air pollution than to automobile accidents.
Published in 2005 suggests that 310,000 Europeans die from air pollution annually caused
45
mostly by the coal and the gasoline emission. Direct causes of air pollution related deaths
include aggravated asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, lung and heart diseases, and respiratory
allergies.
The worst short term civilian pollution crisis in India was the 1984 Bhopal Disaster. Leaked
industrial vapors from the Union Carbide factory belonging to Union Carbide Inc., USA
killed more than 2.000 people outright and injured anywhere from 150,000 to 600,000 others
some 6,000, of whom would later die from their injuries.
The United Kingdom suffered its worst air pollution event when the December 4 Great Smog
of 1952 formed over London. In six days more than 4,000 died, and 8,000 more died within
the following months.
The health effects caused by air pollutants may range from subtle biochemical and
physiological changes to difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing and aggravation of
existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. These effects can result in increased medication
use, increased doctor or emergency room visits, more hospital admissions and premature
death. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the
body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants
depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, the
individual's health status and genetics.
5.6 Benefits of society from new technological innovation
There are a number of areas xi here the new technological innovations has resulted a lot of
benefit to the society. For instance:
 Aerospace technology: It facilitates the communication system through satellites
Construction works under the water. India-Oman Gas pipeline project is envisaged
based on the concept of Aerospace technology.
 Information technology: it is need less to say how the information technology has
revolutionaries the world. The world has become a global village.
 Mass communications: Mass commuters has enabled majority of the people to
wander around.
 Automobiles
 Biomedical technologies: Has facilitated for the medical diagnosis
 Agricultural technology: Has helped increase the production and productivity
 Communication system
The list goes on.

Science is certainly a significant contributor to economic growth, but that narrow view
ignores much of what research can accomplish. We need to think of ways to link scientific
research more closely to the societal results that we want to achieve.
Two standard assumptions from the past are far too simple to be productive guides to today's
complex science policy: those socially optimal outcomes will result from the amalgamation
of the results of individual scientific projects, and that science always benefits humanity.
In particular, knowledge and innovation that drive up health-care costs can lead to reduced
access to health care by poor people.
Consider, as an example, the science of crop genetics. Our quest for expanded yields, year-
round products, reduced parishes ability, and other improvements have resulted in the
development of genetically modified organisms.
We will need better ways to assess the social and economic impacts of scientific discoveries.
Science and its power continue to advance, yet our ability to harness that power for
maximum social benefit remains stagnant. That mismatch means that the societal costs of our
46
current approach to science policy are likely to grow in the future. Policies that focus on
social outcomes are a key pan of the solution.
The unalterable march of information technology continues to revolutionize our global
economy, just as it continues to create new challenges close to home.
5.7 Technological development can unmask old social problem
Today we are witnessing a high-tech revolution promising a huge amount of benefits.
Technology enters the classroom today in a whirl of public discourses that valorize or
demonize computers and the Internet. Structuring subjectivity in a bi-polar fashion, these
discourses offer educators only two positions: either proponents or opponents of new
technology.
Social issues are matters which directly or indirectly affect many or all members of a society
and are considered to be problems, controversies related to moral values, or both.
Social issues include poverty, violence, pollution, injustice, suppression of human rights,
discrimination, and crime, as well as abortion, gay marriage, gun control, and the teaching of
evolution, to name a few.
Technological advancement has been able to expose the old social problems in many ways.
Mass media communications has revealed the social problems in the form of apartheid in
many countries. The problems such as poverty and the million of the people in the world
dying as a result of the poverty have been greatly unmasked because of the advent of the
television and mass media. Technology has enabled for computer tracking of the pollution
level of the environment. Ultra sonogram has been able to facilitate sex detection during
pregnancy has exposed the general psychology to avoid some specific gender mostly in the
Asian countries. It is observed to be social problems and most of the governments were
compelled to bring about the legal framework to avoid this as it would have enormous impact
over the society.
It is the information technology and the mass media, and news papers that one could know
the increasing rate of adolescent pregnancy in the United States. Similarly rate of Abortion
has been tremendously increasing as well. The Installation of TVs in the Grocery stores has
enabled detecting theft in the department store and robbery in the Bank. Rule violation
tendencies in crossing the speed limit on the highway has been exposed similarly. Various
kinds of abuses can also detect through these. Medical technology has been able to find the
population affected from HIV/AIDS.
The advent of technology has facilitated to create classes in the society the lower or the
marginalized class being discriminated from the society. The unflavored lower classes
remained an undesirable part of society has strongly exposed the societal psychology. Drug
trafficking has been exposed with the development of technology.
5.8 Impact of industrialization on the less developed countries with technology

A great economic, social and political transformation is sweeping the underdeveloped
countries. This transformation is manifested in new aspirations and expectations. a new
eagerness to plan and promote economic growth and acquires modem technology, a
challenging of age old traditions, the rise to power of new leaders, and the emergence of new
nations. (Staley, 1961: xiii)
Exposing oneself to the growing literature on underdeveloped and developing countries, a
person coming from one of these countries can not but be troubled by the statement such as
this.
One immediate reaction to such statement may be: Why this is not so in my country'?
Perhaps to some extent it is, but how far down the sweeping transformation actually gone'?
47
Doubt arises, even if one is generous enough to treat statements as well meant and optimistic
hopes of the sympathetic observers. In any event, they do serve a useful function. They
stimulate one to inquire little further.
The developing countries like ours where there is very low level of living, a very large
percentage of illiteracy and a very low per capita income in contrast to the nation like United
States how do we expect the people to participate in the country's total effort of
The saying what JFK stated in his address to the nation Ask not what your country can do for
you, ask what you can do for your country may not well fit in the context where the majority
is held by the low income level people.
Logically the question becomes to what extent the factors such as economic and social
factors related to the industrialization. Answer to this question needs to be explored.
Industrialization and development to some extent yes however would not help significantly
to the upliftment of the overall social and economic development of the people. The first und
foremost requirement is the adequate access to the education system, economic opportunities
for the people who holds the majority and lies in the class which has the characteristics being
the low income living, low per capita income and the high illiteracy should be addressed the
first based on the principle of the social justice.
5.9 Shifts in Employment
Employment in any industry is impacted by the introduction of new technology whose
objective is to increase productivity. The initial result of such technological introduction is
the reduction of workers to some extent. At some point, the productivity from the new
technology reaches a plateau. lf the business requirements are increasing, it is possible that
the firm or industry must start to hire new workers to meet the increased industry demands.
The introduction of technological improvements starts the cycle a new. Will the adoption of
new technologies by U.S. industry lead to widespread unemployment'? Or will the resulting
use of new processes and techniques, as well as the introduction of new products, open new
opportunities for American workers? There is now the need to recommend to aid industry in
developing and adopting the new technology it needs to compete successfully in the world
economy.
Increase in employment and productivity: Development of technology has created new jobs
for the manufacture, sale and maintenance of computer hardware and software in the field of
information technology. Many new jobs such as system analysts, computer programmers,
and computer operators have been created in the computer using organizations. Similarly
increased use of machines has opened an arena for the employment perspectives o the
technologists and engineers. New jobs have been created in service industries that provide
service to the computer industry and to computer using firms.
Additional jobs also have been created because the technologies made possible the
production of complex industrial and technical goods and services that would otherwise be
impossible to produce. Thus jobs have been created to the scientist, computer experts and the
technologists, the mechanics in such areas as space explorations, micro-electronic technology
and the scientific research.
Reduction in some type of job: Use of computers has also caused significant reduction in
some type of job opportunities. Computers used for office information processing or for the
numerical control of machine tools are accomplishing tasks formerly performed by many
clerks and machinist. Therefore, individuals within an organization may become unemployed
unless they can be retrained for new positions or new responsibilities. Use of robotics in the
factories has created reduction in some jobs carried out by the men.
After the industrial revolution man vs. machine was the much talked topic. Welfare theorist
48
were against the unemployment created and advocated for the employment for the displaced
ones whereas the market theorist of the belief that productivity is of prime importance and
one has to compete for the existence.
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CHAPTER 6
6.0 GREEN HOUSE EFFECTS

The chapter includes following topics as per as curriculum.
Definition
Factor’s controlling to the Green house warming effects.
Global impact on land, water agriculture, humans, animals, etc
Present international effort towards finding solutions.
Need and objective of the Course:
At the present context, green house effect has become the global issue. Many conferences
and discussions have been conducted on this topic. The increasing greenhouse effect in early
may create many dreadful problems. It may pay have with the most living things. So, it has
become more essential to talk about, discuss about and more specifically act to decrease the
effect of the greenhouse effect. Now time has come to think globally and act globally. As the
increasing greenhouse effect is the impact of technological development and human
activities, so it is quite necessary for the technical persons to know about this. Being a
student of mechanical engineering, it is more necessary to have some knowledge about
greenhouse effects and the global warming as many thermodynamic processes and the
components use and release the green houses gases.
Main objectives of this chapter are to make familiar with the green house effects, the cause
for the enhancement of green house effects, their global impacts on different sectors and
present international efforts to minimize the increasing greenhouse effect.
Definition:
According to the Concise Oxford Dictionary, ‘Green house Effect’ is the trapping of the
sun’s warmth in the lower atmosphere of the earth caused by an increase in carbon dioxide
which is more transparent to solar radiation than to the reflected radiation from the earth.
In simple the radiation from the earth’s surface are absorbed or reflected back to the
troposphere by the green house gasses and short waves from sun are allowed to enter the
earth the process is known as green house effect.
Green house effect is the positive effect due to which earth has become habitable otherwise
there would be abrupt temperature fall to about –18 degree centigrade, taking mean
temperature as the reference. Polar Regions of the earth might have the least possible
temperature (of –273 degree centigrade). So in sense, green house effect is the boon for life.
The increasing green house effect is causing the global warming effect and may create many
desperate problems in the near future.
Logic behind the Green house Effect:
The mean temperature of earth is more than the predicted temperature (i.e. 255 oK or -18
degree centigrade). This predicted temperature is calculated by accounting the earth’s albedo.
The fraction of incoming solar radiation that is reflected is known as the albedo and is
estimated to be about 30 percent.
To understanding the increasing earth’s temperature, we can begin from the Wien’s
displacement rule relationship between the spectrum of the wavelength radiated by an object
and its temperature. The wavelength at which a black body spectrum reaches its maximum is
given by; λmax = 2898/(T); where, T is Kelvin and where λmax is in micrometers. The sun’s
(Ts = 600K) spectrum peaks around the 0.5pm while the earth’s (Te = 288. K) spectrum
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peaks around 10.1. So relatively shorten wavelength radiation from sun easily penetrate the
earth’s atmosphere while the reflected long wave length radiation is trapped in the earth
atmosphere by the greenhouse gases.
(b)
Figure 1 (a) Normalized blackbody radiation curves for the sun and earth. (b) Atmospheric absorption on a
clear day. (Adapted from Wallace and Hobbs, 1977.)
Figure 1 shows the two spectra normalized to have same areas and all incoming solar energy
arrives with wavelengths less than 4μm, while the out going energy radiated by earth has
essentially all of its energy in wavelengths greater than 4μm. With so little overlap, it is
convenient to speak of solar energy as being short-wave length radiation, while energy
radiated from earth is long-wave length or thermal radiation. In Figure 1, the ability of
various gases in the atmosphere to absorb radiation is shown as function of wave length.
Most of the long wavelength energy radiated by the earth is affected by a combination of
relatively actives gases, most importantly water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous
oxide (N2O), and methane (CH4).
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Figure 2 Greenhouse gases trap long-wavelength energy from the earth’s surface, heating the atmosphere,
which in turn heats the earth.
Radioactively active gases that absorb wavelengths longer than 4μm are called greenhouse
gases. As Figure 1 suggests, these gases trap most of the outgoing thermal radiation
attempting to leave the earth’s surface. This absorption heats the atmosphere, which in turn,
radiates energy back to the earth as well as out to space shown in Figure 2.These greenhouse
gases acts as a thermal blanket around the globe, raising the earth’s surface temperature
beyond the equivalent temperature.
Since the atmosphere is colder than earth’s surface, the atmosphere traps the longer wave
length radiation then it releases. About 20% of the earth long wavelength radiation is
absorbed in the lower 80 cm of atmosphere and 99% is absorbed in first 4 km. The Figure 1
in above shows the solar radiation spectrum and the earth radiation.
Factors Contributing and Controlling the Greenhouse Effect:
Methane:
Methane is a naturally occurring gas that is increasing in concentration as a result of human
activities. It is produced by bacterial fermentation under anaerobic conditions, such as occur
in swamps, marshes, rice paddies, as well as in the digestive systems of ruminants and
termites. Significant contributions of methane to the atmosphere are the result of human
food-growing activities, such as increased cattle production and increases in areas planted in
rice paddies. It also released during the, production, transportation ion and consumption of
fossil fuels as well as when biomass luck are burned.
Nitrous Oxide:
N2O is added to the atmosphere by the activity of microbes in soil mainly on nitrogen
fertilizers, by burning of the fossil fuels and is released by the chemical industries. It absorbs
200 times more heat than CO2. Many fertilizers have nitrous oxide and it easily gets released
from the fertilizer. So in place of the chemical fertilizers containing nitrous oxides, bio-
fertilizers can be used soil conditioners can be the good alternatives along with the bio-
fertilizers.
Nitrous oxide is another naturally occurring greenhouse gas that has been increasing in
concentration due to human activities. It is released into the atmosphere mostly during the
nitrification portion of the nitrogen cycle. The reverse reaction of denitrification is no longer
considered significant source of atmospheric N2O. Combustion of fossil fuels and nitrogen
fertilizer consumption are thought to be the two most important human activities leading to
increase in nitrous oxide levels. It apparently has no significant troposphere sinks and is only
slowly degraded in the stratosphere by photolysis.
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Carbon Dioxide:
Carbon dioxide is released in almost energy conversion processes. Biological respiration
process in the fossil fuel burning in the burning or decay of the organic matters and in the
natural carbon dioxide cycle. So simply we cannot considerably decreases the release of
carbon dioxide. Though, we may look for the other alternative sources of energy that do not
release of carbon dioxide. We can enhance the rate of storage of carbon dioxide in the form
organic matters by preserving the forest areas and increasing the plantation. The balanced
carbon dioxide will control much more increasing greenhouse effect.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs):
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are molecules of that contain chlorine, fluorine, and carbon. As
opposed to the other greenhouse gases, CFCs do not occur naturally and their presence in the
atmosphere is entirely due to human activities. CFCs absorb strongly in the atmospheric
window and tend to have long atmospheric residence times; hence they are potent
greenhouse gases. CFCs are mainly used as refrigerants, solvents, foaming agent in the
production of rigid and flexible foams and as aerosol propellants for such products as
deodorants, hairspray, and spray paint.
Most of the developed countries have stopped manufacturing the CFCs. There are lots of
alternatives in place of CFCs. So in the near future there may be no more CFCs in the
market.
When the CFCs molecules contain only fluorine, chlorine, and carbon, they are called fully
halogenated CFCs. Some CFCs contain hydrogen as well as chlorine, fluorine, and carbon
and they are called hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). HCFCs have the environmental
advantage that, due to the hydrogen bond, they are less stable is the atmosphere and hence,
less likely to reach ozone layer. Finally, when no chlorine is presented in the molecule they
are called hydro-fluorocarbons, or HFCs. HFCs are especially important replacements for
CFCs since their lack of chlorine means they do not threaten to ozone layer.
Ozone:
Ozone plays important roles in both the troposphere and stratosphere, and in each of those
regions of the atmosphere it impacts both life and climate. About 90 percent of atmospheric
ozone resides in the stratosphere, and it is there that it protects life by absorbing short-
wavelength ultraviolet radiation. Stratospheric ozone also affects climate, but in a very
complex way. Incoming solar energy is absorbed, which heats the stratosphere. This,
however, reduces the radiation arriving at the earth’s surface, thereby cooling the surface. On
the other hand, the warmed stratosphere radiates energy back to the earth’s surface, thereby
heating it. The net effect is still uncertain.
In the troposphere, ozone is a component of photochemical smog, and it poses a serious
health problem in many cities. As a factor in climate, troposphere ozone absorbs strongly at
around 9.6 µm right in the middle of the atmospheric window. Increasing concentrations
could contribute to raising global temperatures. Ozone, however, has a rather short residence
time in the troposphere, measured in days. It is irregularly distributed by time of day,
geographic location, and altitude, so it has been difficult to assess its overall change with
lime, leaving us uncertain as to its impact on climate.
Others Greenhouse Effect Enhancement

Thus far, the greenhouse effect has been described as a natural phenomenon that is
responsible for earth having an average near-surface air temperature 33 °C warmer (288 vs
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255 K) than it would have if it did not have radioactively active gases in the troposphere. As
is now well known, anthropogenic sources of a number of gases arc enhancing the
greenhouse effect, leading us into a future of uncertain global climate.
Figure3 An overview of the global warming problem

Figure 3 provides an overview for our discussion of global climate change. Driving factors in
the problem are population, economic activity, and the technology used to produce the goods
and services used by society. In the process of meeting our wants and needs, greenhouse
gases arc added to the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide from the combustion of fossil fuels and
deforestation has received the most attention, but other greenhouse gases, including nitrous
oxide, methane, and chlorofluorocarbons, are rapidly becoming as important as CO 2 in
changing our climate. These gases all absorb within the 7 to 13p.m. atmospheric window, so
they are especially effective at influencing the earth’s radioactive balance.
Table 1 Major Greenhouse gases and their Characteristics
Table1, summarizes some of the characteristics of these gases, including the relative
greenhouse efficiency of each compared with carbon dioxide. A molecule of CFCs, for
example, exerts approximately 15000 times the greenhouse warming effect as a molecule of
CO2. Table 1 also points out the relative global warming importance of each of these
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greenhouse gases. Carbon dioxide is the dominant contributor, with 57 percent. The next
biggest source of global warming in the late 1980s was chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
While the easiest measure of global climate is average temperature, of greater importance is
how temperature affects such factors as the timing and length of agricultural growing seasons
and the amount, location, and timing of precipitation. Climate changes obviously have
important implications for agriculture. Some areas of the world may become better suited to
agriculture, while others will be adversely affected. Many models, for example, project that
the grain belt in North America will shift northward from the mid western states in the
United States up into Canada. Unfortunately, shifts in agricultural land use pat terns will not
respect political boundaries, and although the developed countries may well be able to adapt
to the changes, the potential for international conflict in the overcrowded developing world is
extreme. Climate changes can also have disastrous effects on ecosystems since they cannot
very easily move to keep up with shifting climate patterns.
Increasing temperatures will also cause thermal expansion of the oceans. This could raise sea
level by significant amounts, possibly flooding large areas of coastlines. Calculations
indicate a rise in sea level of about 1/4 m per °C, with most projections indicating a total rise
of on the order of 1-3 m by the end of the next century (Hoffman and Keyes, l983). If the
West Antarctic ice sheet ultimately slides into the sea, levels could rise another 5 or 6 m,
though this might take several hundred years.
Figure3 suggests two complementary approaches to dealing with potential climate change.
One approach is labeled adaptation, where attention is focused on steps that can be taken to
adjust to the changing climate. Adaptive strategies might include construction of conveyance
systems to redistribute water, fortification of sensitive coastal areas to avoid damage from
rising sea levels, and migration of populations toward regions that are more conducive to
continued survival. The second strategy is prevention, where steps arc taken to delay or limit
the emission of greenhouse gases in the first place. Energy efficiency improvements, shifts
from fossil fuels to nuclear or solar energy, reductions in CFCs production, and reforestation
projects are examples.
Global Impacts on Land, Water, Agriculture, Humans, and Animals
It is known that the effect of a global warming is the temperature rise in the surface of the
earth, thus the increase in carbon dioxide and water vapors combine together to have a long-
range impact on the global on the global climate. The evaporation of surface water increases,
thereby raising the temperature further. It has been estimated that this combined effect will
bring about a 30C rise in surface temperature for a doubling of the carbon dioxide
concentration, which may occur around 2050 AD. The main point to analysis is that what
will be the impact of this temperature rise on land, water, agriculture, human, sea, animal etc.
Impact of Temperature on Sea:
The impact on sea is that the level of the sea rises due to the melting of glaciers and the
thermal expansions of the ocean. These two effects will cause the sea level to rise by about
5mm per year compare with a rate little more than 1mm per year today. This rise in sea level
will result in direct impact upon human beings because those countries, which are nearer
from the sea like Maldives, Bangladesh may be totally submerged the final result is the
migration of the peoples. The biological productivity of the ocean would also decrease due to
the warming of the surface level.
Impact of Temperature on Water
As the increase in temperature cause the increase in sea level but problems of water
availability in the ground and at the taps are more likely to be serious and perhaps more
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expensive to solve which result in more severe in summer. Most of the land will be converted
into desert and finally the impact on human is to migrate from one place to another. All the
grazing land will convert into arid, which will directly affect the animal
Impact on Agriculture
As rising temperature could alter climate radically, fertile land would convert into barren as a
result of which agriculture growth decreases and nobody exits.
Thus, as sum up, the impact of temperature rise is conversion of fertile soil to arid soil,
human existence difficult, shortage of water, flood, Social economic effects, Ecological
effects and erosion of soil.
Present International Efforts towards Finding Solutions
It is well known that the depletion of stratospheric ozone layer is increasing. To overcome
this, the international agreement known as the Montreal protocol was established in 1998.
The protocol aims to reduce the halocarbon that enhances the greenhouse effect. It searches
for the substitutes, which are less chemically active in the stratosphere, but still possess
greenhouse properties in the troposphere.
The immediate outcome of the UN Environment and Development Conference held in Brazil
in 1992 was disappointing for those who hoped for early action to reduce our use of fossil
fuels. In 1997, Kyoto Summit was established by Organization for Economic Co-operation at
Development. It is critical to understand how economic, environmental, social and
development policies can best reinforce catch other to accomplish sustainable development.
The debate though objectives assessments of viable response strategies.
- Policy and subsidy reforms
- Greenhouse gas inventories
- International greenhouse gas emission trading
- Technology’s impact
Fact Findings
- Rapid emission growth if no action taken
- Responsible action now
- Mix of Domestic and International policy responses
- Policies to encourage innovation in technology and behavior
- International monitoring reporting
- Partnership with developing countries
Currently the Canadian government is one of the most ambitious with a proposal to seek a
reduction in carbon dioxide output to 20% below its 1990 level by the year 2000.
The EC aims at getting back to 1990 levels by 2000, though compliance will be difficult to
establish since current measurements of CO2, emissions are estimates and collected by
several different methods. At present, such reductions are regarded as unattainable, and likely
to disrupt the world economy even more than the global warming. This is evident by the vary
fact that the US did not rectify the Kyoto Protocol last year. Now US agree to reduce the
production of greenhouse gases during the Summit of G-8 in Germany 2007.
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GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC CHANGE
INTRODUCTION
Global Warming, increase in the average temperature of the atmosphere, oceans, and
landmasses of Earth. The planet has warmed (and cooled) many times during the 4.65 billion
years of its history. At present Earth appears to be facing a rapid warming, which most
scientists believe results, at least in part, from human activities. The chief cause of this
warming is thought to be the burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, which
releases into the atmosphere carbon dioxide and other substances known as greenhouse
gases. As the atmosphere becomes richer in these gases, it becomes a better insulator,
retaining more of the heat provided to the planet by the Sun.
The average surface temperature of Earth is about 15°C (59°F). Over the last century, this
average has risen by about 0.6 Celsius degrees (1 Fahrenheit degree). Scientists predict
further warming of 1.4 to 5.8 Celsius degrees (2.5 to10.4 Fahrenheit degrees) by the year
2100. This temperature rise is expected to melt polar ice caps and glaciers as well as warm
the oceans, all of which will expand ocean volume and raise sea level by an estimated 9 to
100 cm (4 to 40 in), flooding some coastal regions and even entire islands. Some regions in
warmer climates will receive more rainfall than before, but soils will dry out faster between
storms. This soil desiccation may damage food crops, disrupting food supplies in some parts
of the world. Plant and animal species will shift their ranges toward the poles or to higher
elevations seeking cooler temperatures and species that cannot do so may become extinct.
The potential consequences of global warming are so great that many of the world's leading
scientists have called for international cooperation and immediate action to counteract the
problem.
THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
The energy that lights and warms Earth comes from the Sun. Most of the energy that floods
onto our planet is short-wave radiation, including visible light. When this energy strikes the
surface of Earth, the energy changes from light to heat and warms Earth. Earth’s surface, in
turn, releases some of this heat as long-wave infrared radiation.
Much of this long-wave infrared radiation makes it all the way back out to space, but a
portion remains trapped in Earth’s atmosphere. Certain gases in the atmosphere, including
water vapor, carbon dioxide, and methane, provide the trap. Absorbing and reflecting
infrared waves radiated by Earth, these gases conserve heat as the glass in a greenhouse does
and are thus known as greenhouse gases. As the concentration of these greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere increases, more heat energy remains trapped below. All life on Earth relies on
this greenhouse effect without it, the planet would be colder by about 33 degrees Celsius (59
Fahrenheit degrees), and ice would cover Earth from pole to pole. However, a growing
excess of greenhouse gases in Earth’s atmosphere threatens to tip the balance in the other
direction toward continual warming.
Carbon Cycle
Photosynthesis plays a crucial role in the carbon cycle. Carbon continuously circulates in the
earth’s ecosystem. In the atmosphere, it exists as colorless, odorless carbon dioxide gas,
which is used by plants in the process of photosynthesis. Animals acquire the carbon stored
in plant tissue when they eat and exhale carbon dioxide as a by-product of metabolism.
Although some carbon is removed from circulation temporarily as coal, petroleum, fossil
fuels, gas, and limestone deposits, cellular respiration and photosynthesis balance to keep the
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amount of atmospheric carbon relatively stable. Industrialization, however, has contributed

additional carbon dioxide to the environment.
TYPES OF GREENHOUSE GASES

Earth’s atmosphere is primarily composed of nitrogen (78 percent) and oxygen (21 percent).
These two most common atmospheric gases have chemical structures that restrict absorption
of infrared energy. Only the few greenhouse gases, which make up less than 1 percent of the
atmosphere, offer the Earth any insulation. Greenhouse gases occur naturally or are
manufactured. The most abundant naturally occurring greenhouse gas is water vapor,
followed by carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. Human-made chemicals that act as
greenhouse gases include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs),
and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).
Since the 1700s, human activities have substantially increased the levels of greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere. Scientists are concerned that expected increases in the concentrations of
greenhouse gases will powerfully enhance the atmosphere’s capacity to retain infrared
radiation, leading to an artificial warming of the Earth’s surface.
Water Vapor
Water vapor is the most common greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, accounting for about 60
to 70 percent of the natural greenhouse effect. Humans do not have a significant direct
impact on water vapor levels in the atmosphere. However, as human activities increase the
concentration of other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (producing warmer temperatures
on Earth), the evaporation of oceans, lakes, and rivers, as well as water evaporation from
plants, increase and raise the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere.
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide constantly circulates in the environment through a variety of natural
processes known as the carbon cycle. Volcanic eruptions and the decay of plant and animal
matter both release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. In respiration, animals break down
food to release the energy required to build and maintain cellular activity. A byproduct of
respiration is the formation of carbon dioxide, which is exhaled from animals into the
environment. Oceans, lakes, and rivers absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Through
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photosynthesis, plants collect carbon dioxide and use it to make their own food, in the
process incorporating carbon into new plant tissue and releasing oxygen to the environment
as a byproduct.
In order to provide energy to the heat buildings, power automobiles, and fuel electricity-
producing power plants, humans burn objects that contain carbon, such as the fossil fuels oil,
coal, and natural gas; wood or wood products; and some solid wastes. When these products
are burned, they release carbon dioxide into the air. In addition, humans cut down huge tracts
of trees for lumber or to clear land for farming or building. This process, known as
deforestation, can both release the carbon stored in trees and significantly reduce the number
of trees available to absorb carbon dioxide.
As a result of these human activities, carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is accumulating faster
than the Earth’s natural processes can absorb the gas. By analyzing air bubbles trapped in
glacier ice that is many centuries old, scientists have determined that carbon dioxide levels in
the atmosphere have risen by 31 percent since 1750. And since carbon dioxide increases can
remain in the atmosphere for centuries, scientists expect these concentrations to double or
triple in the next century if current trends continue.
Methane
Many natural processes produce methane, also known as natural gas. Decomposition of
carbon-containing substances found in oxygen-free environments, such as wastes in landfills,
release methane. Ruminating animals such as cattle and sheep belch methane into the air as a
byproduct of digestion. Microorganisms that live in damp soils, such as rice fields, produce
methane when they break down organic matter. Methane is also emitted during coal mining
and the production and transport of other fossil fuels.
Methane has more than doubled in the atmosphere since 1750, and could double again in the
next century. Atmospheric concentrations of methane are far less than carbon dioxide, and
methane only stays in the atmosphere for a decade or so. But scientists consider methane an
extremely effective heat-trapping gas one molecule of methane is 20 times more efficient at
trapping infrared radiation radiated from the Earth’s surface than a molecule of carbon
dioxide.
Nitrous Oxide
Nitrous oxide is released by the burning of fossil fuels, and automobile exhaust is a large
source of this gas. In addition, many farmers use nitrogen-containing fertilizers to provide
nutrients to their crops. When these fertilizers break down in the soil, they emit nitrous oxide
into the air. Plowing fields also releases nitrous oxide.
Since 1750 nitrous oxide has risen by 17 percent in the atmosphere. Although this increase is
smaller than for the other greenhouse gases, nitrous oxide traps heat about 300 times more
effectively than carbon dioxide and can stay in the atmosphere for a century.
Fluorinated Compounds
Some of the most potent greenhouse gases emitted is produced solely by human activities.
Fluorinated compounds, including CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs, are used in a variety of
manufacturing processes. For each of these synthetic compounds, one molecule is several
thousand times more effective in trapping heat than a single molecule of carbon dioxide.
CFCs, first synthesized in 1928, were widely used in the manufacture of aerosol sprays,
blowing agents for foams and packing materials, as solvents, and as refrigerants. Nontoxic
and safe to use in most applications, CFCs are harmless in the lower atmosphere. However,
in the upper atmosphere, ultraviolet radiation breaks down CFCs, releasing chlorine into the
atmosphere. In the mid-1970s, scientists began observing that higher concentrations of
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chlorine were destroying the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere. Ozone protects the Earth
from harmful ultraviolet radiation, which can cause cancer and other damage to plants and
animals. Beginning in 1987 with the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone
Layer, representatives from 47 countries established control measures that limited the
consumption of CFCs. By 1992 the Montreal Protocol was amended to completely ban the
manufacture and use of CFCs worldwide, except in certain developing countries and for use
in special medical processes such as asthma inhalers.
Scientists devised substitutes for CFCs, developing HCFCs and HFCs. Since HCFCs still
release ozone-destroying chlorine in the atmosphere, production of this chemical will be
phased out by the year 2030, providing scientists some time to develop a new generation of
safer, effective chemicals. HFCs, which do not contain chlorine and only remain in the
atmosphere for a short time, are now considered the most effective and safest substitute for
CFCs.
Other Synthetic Chemicals
Experts are concerned about other industrial chemicals that may have heat-trapping abilities.
In 2000 scientists observed rising concentrations of a previously unreported compound called
trifluoromethyl sulphur pentafluoride. Although present in extremely low concentrations in
the environment, the gas still poses a significant threat because it traps heat more effectively
than all other known greenhouse gases. The exact sources of the gas, undisputedly produced
from industrial processes, still remain uncertain.
OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
Aerosols, also known as particulates, are airborne particles that absorb, scatter, and reflect
radiation back into space. Clouds, windblown dust, and particles that can be traced to
erupting volcanoes are examples of natural aerosols. Human activities, including the burning
of fossil fuels and slash-and-burn farming techniques used to clear forestland, contribute
additional aerosols to the atmosphere. Although aerosols are not considered a heat-trapping
greenhouse gas, they do affect the transfer of heat energy radiated from the Earth to space.
The effect of aerosols on climate change is still debated, but scientists believe that light-
colored aerosols cool the earth’s surface, while dark aerosols like soot actually warm the
atmosphere. The increase in global temperature in the last century is lower than many
scientists predicted when only taking into account increasing levels of carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide, and fluorinated compounds. Some scientists believe that aerosol
cooling may be the cause of this unexpectedly reduced warming.
However, scientists do not expect that aerosols will ever play a significant role in offsetting
global warming. As pollutants, aerosols typically pose a health threat, and the manufacturing
or agricultural processes that produce them are subject to air-pollution control efforts. As a
result, scientists do not expect aerosols to increase as fast as other greenhouse gases in the
21st century.
EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING
Scientists use elaborate computer models of temperature, precipitation patterns, and
atmosphere circulation to study global warming. Based on these models, scientists have made
several predictions about how global warming will affect weather, sea levels, coastlines,
agriculture, wildlife, and human health.
Weather
Scientists predict that during global warming, the northern regions of the Northern
Hemisphere will heat up more than other areas of the planet, northern and mountain glaciers
will shrink, and less ice will float on northern oceans. Regions that now experience light
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winter snows may receive no snow at all. In temperate mountains, snowlines will be higher
and snow packs will melt earlier. Growing seasons will be longer in some areas. Winter and
nighttime temperatures will tend to raise more than summer and daytime ones.
The warmed world will be generally more humid as a result of more water evaporating from
the oceans. Scientists are not sure whether a more humid atmosphere will encourage or
discourage further warming. On the one hand, water vapor is a greenhouse gas, and its
increased presence should add to the insulating effect. On the other hand, more vapors in the
atmosphere will produce more clouds, which reflect sunlight back into space, which should
slow the warming process.
Greater humidity will increase rainfall, on average, about 1 percent for each Fahrenheit
degree of warming. (Rainfall over the continents has already increased by about 1 percent in
the last 100 years.) Storms are expected to be more frequent and more intense. However,
water will also evaporate more rapidly from soil, causing it to dry out faster between rains.
Some regions might actually become drier than before. Winds will blow harder and perhaps
in different patterns. Hurricanes, which gain their force from the evaporation of water, are
likely to be more severe. Against the background of warming, some very cold periods will
still occur. Weather patterns are expected to be less predictable and more extreme.
Sea Levels
As the atmosphere warms, the surface layer of the ocean warms as well, expanding in
volume and thus raising sea level. Warming will also melt much glacier ice, especially
around Greenland, further swelling the sea. Sea levels worldwide rose 10 to 25 cm (4 to 10
inch) during the 20th century, and IPCC scientists predict a further rise of 9 to 88 cm (4 to 35
inch) in the 21st century.
Sea level changes will complicate life in many coastal regions. A 100cm (40 inch) rise could
submerge 6 percent of The Netherlands, 17.5 percent of Bangladesh, and most or all of many
islands. Erosion of cliffs, beaches, and dunes will increase. Storm surges, in which winds
locally pile up water and raise the sea, will become more frequent and damaging. As the sea
invades the mouths of rivers, flooding from runoff will also increase upstream. Wealthier
countries will spend huge amounts of money to protect their shorelines, while poor countries
may simply evacuate low lying coastal regions.
Even a modest rise in sea level will greatly change coastal ecosystems. A 50cm (20inch) rise
will submerge about half of the present coastal wetlands of the United States. New marshes
will form in many places, but not where urban areas and developed landscapes block the
way. This sea level rise will cover much of the Florida Everglades.
Agriculture
A warmed globe will probably produce as much food as before, but not necessarily in the
same places. Southern Canada, for example, may benefit from more rainfall and a longer
growing season. At the same time, the semiarid tropical farmlands in some parts of Africa
may become further impoverished. Desert farm regions that bring in irrigation water from
distant mountains may suffer if the winter snow pack, which functions as a natural reservoir,
melts before the peak growing months. Crops and woodlands may also be afflicted by more
insects and plant diseases.
Animals and Plants
Animals and plants will find it difficult to escape from or adjust to the effects of warming
because humans occupy so much land. Under global warming, animals will tend to migrate
toward the poles and up mountainsides toward higher elevations, and plants will shift their
ranges, seeking new areas as old habitats grow too warm. In many places, however, human
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development will prevent this shift. Species that find cities or farmlands blocking their way
north or south may die out. Some types of forests, unable to propagate toward the poles fast
enough, may disappear.
Human Health
In a warmer world, scientists predict that more people will get sick or die from heat stress,
due less to hotter days than to warmer nights (giving the sufferers less relief). Diseases now
found in the tropics, transmitted by mosquitoes and other animal hosts, will widen their range
as these animal hosts move into regions formerly too cold for them. Today 45 percent of the
world’s people live where they might get bitten by a mosquito carrying the parasite that
causes malaria; that percentage may increase to 60 percent if temperatures rise. Other tropical
diseases may spread similarly, including dengue fever, yellow fever, and encephalitis.
Scientists also predict rising incidence of allergies and respiratory diseases as warmer air
grows more charged with pollutants, mold spores, and pollens.
EFFORTS TO CONTROL GLOBAL WARMING
The total consumption of fossil fuels is increasing by about 1 percent per year. No steps
currently being taken or under serious discussion will likely prevent global warming in the
near future. The challenge today is managing the probable effects while taking steps to
prevent detrimental climate changes in the future.
Damage can be curbed locally in various ways. Coastlines can be armored with dikes and
barriers to block encroachments of the sea. Alternatively, governments can assist coastal
populations in moving to higher ground. Some countries, such as the United States, still have
the chance to help plant and animal species survive by preserving habitat corridors, strips of
relatively undeveloped land running north and south. Species can gradually shift their ranges
along these corridors, moving toward cooler habitats.
There are two major approaches to slowing the buildup of greenhouse gases. The first is to
keep carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere by storing the gas or its carbon component
somewhere else, a strategy called carbon sequestration. The second major approach is to
reduce the production of greenhouse gases.
Carbon Sequestration
The simplest way to sequester carbon is to preserve trees and to plant more. Trees, especially
young and fast-growing ones, soak up a great deal of carbon dioxide, break it down in
photosynthesis, and store the carbon in new wood. Worldwide, forests are being cut down at
an alarming rate, particularly in the tropics. In many areas, there is little regrowth as land
loses fertility or is changed to other uses, such as farming or building housing developments.
Reforestation could offset these losses and counter part of the greenhouse buildup.
Many companies and governments in the United States, Norway, Brazil, Malaysia, Russia,
and Australia have initiated reforestation projects. In Guatemala, the AES Corporation, a
U.S. based electrical company, has joined forces with the World Resources Institute and the
relief agency CARE to create community woodlots and to teach local residents about tree-
farming practices. The trees planted are expected to absorb up to 58 million tons of carbon
dioxide over 40 years.
Carbon dioxide gas can also be sequestered directly. Carbon dioxide has traditionally been
injected into oil wells to force more petroleum out of the ground or seafloor. Now it is being
injected simply to isolate it underground in oil fields, coal beds, or aquifers. At one natural
gas drilling platform off the coast of Norway, carbon dioxide brought to the surface with the
natural gas is captured and reinjected into an aquifer from which it cannot escape. The same
process can be used to store carbon dioxide released by a power plant, factory, or any large
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stationary source. Deep ocean waters could also absorb a great deal of carbon dioxide. The
feasibility and environmental effects of both these options are now under study by
international teams.
In an encouraging trend, energy use around the world has slowly shifted away from fuels that
release a great deal of carbon dioxide toward fuels that release somewhat less of this heat-
trapping gas. Wood was the first major source of energy used by humans. With the dawn of
the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century, coal became the dominant energy source. By the
mid-19th century oil had replaced coal in dominance, fueling the internal combustion engines
that were eventually used in automobiles. By the 20th century, natural gas began to be used
worldwide for heating and lighting. In this progression, combustion of natural gas releases
less carbon dioxide than oil, which in turn releases less of the gas than do either coal or
wood.
Nuclear energy, though controversial for reasons of safety and the high costs of nuclear
waste disposal, releases no carbon dioxide at all. Solar power, wind power, and hydrogen
fuel cells also emit no greenhouse gases. Someday these alternative energy sources may
prove to be practical, low pollution energy sources, although progress today is slow.
National and Local Programs of foreign Country
The developed countries are all working to reduce greenhouse emissions. Several European
countries impose heavy taxes on energy usage, designed partly to curb such emissions.
Norway taxes industries according to the amount of carbon dioxide they emit. In The
Netherlands, government and industry have negotiated agreements aimed at increasing
energy efficiency, promoting alternative energy sources, and cutting down greenhouse gas
output.
In the United States, the Department of Energy, the Environmental Protection Agency,
product manufacturers, local utilities, and retailers have collaborated to implement the
Energy Star program. This voluntary program rates appliances for energy use and gives some
money back to consumers who buy efficient machines. The Canadian government has
established the Fleet Wise program to cut carbon dioxide emissions from federal vehicles by
reducing the number of vehicles it owns and by training drivers to use them more efficiently.
By 2004, 75 percent of Canadian federal vehicles are to run on alternative fuels, such as
methanol and ethanol.
Many local governments are also working against greenhouse emissions by conserving
energy in buildings, modernizing their vehicles, and advising the public. Individuals, too, can
take steps. The same choices that reduce other kinds of pollution work against global
warming. Every time a consumer buys an energy efficient appliance; adds insulation to a
house; recycles paper, metal, and glass; chooses to live near work; or commutes by public
transportation, he or she is fighting global warming.
International Agreements
International cooperation is required for the successful reduction of greenhouse gases. In
1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 150 countries pledged to confront the
problem of greenhouse gases and agreed to meet again to translate these good intentions into
a binding treaty.
In 1997 in Japan, 160 nations drafted a much stronger agreement known as the Kyoto
Protocol. This treaty, which has not yet been implemented, calls for the 38 industrialized
countries that now release the most greenhouse gases to cut their emissions to levels 5
percent below those of 1990. This reduction is to be achieved no later than 2012. Initially, the
United States voluntarily accepted a more ambitious target, promising to reduce emissions to
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7 percent below 1990 levels; the European Union, which had wanted a much tougher treaty,
committed to 8 percent; and Japan, to 6 percent. The remaining 122 nations, mostly
developing nations, were not asked to commit to a reduction in gas emissions.
But in 2001 newly elected U.S. president George W. Bush renounced the treaty saying that
such carbon-dioxide reductions in the United States would be too costly. He also objected
that developing nations would not be bound by similar carbon-dioxide reducing obligations.
The Kyoto Protocol will not be binding until nations accounting for 55 percent of 1990
greenhouse gas emissions have ratified it. Most countries are waiting for ratification by the
United States, at present the source of one fifth of greenhouse gas emissions.
Some critics find the Kyoto Protocol too weak. Even if it were enforced immediately, it
would only slightly slow the buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Much stronger
action would be required later, particularly because the developing nations exempted from
the Kyoto rules are expected to produce half the world’s greenhouse gases by 2035. The most
influential opponents of the protocol, however, find it too strong. Opposition to the treaty in
the United States is spurred by the oil industry, the coal industry, and other enterprises that
manufacture or depend on fossil fuels. These opponents claim that the economic costs to
carry out the Kyoto Protocol could be as much as $300 billion, due mainly to higher energy
prices. Proponents of the Kyoto sanctions believe the costs will prove more modest—$88
billion or less much of which will be recovered as Americans save money after switching to
more efficient appliances, vehicles, and industrial processes.
Behind the issue of cost lies a larger question: Can an economy grow without increasing its
greenhouse gas emissions at the same time? In the past, prosperity and pollution have tended
to go together. Can they now be separated, or decoupled, as economists say? In nations with
strong environmental policies, economies have continued to grow even as many types of
pollution have been reduced. However, limiting the emission of carbon dioxide has proved
especially difficult. For example, The Netherlands, a heavily industrialized country that is
also an environmental leader, has done very well against most kinds of pollution but has
failed to meet its goal of reducing carbon dioxide output.
Representatives have met regularly to negotiate a consensus about certain unresolved issues
of the Kyoto Protocol, such as the rules, methods, and penalties that should be enforced in
each country to slow greenhouse emissions. A particularly contentious issue is a proposed
system for trading in pollution “rights” or credits. Negotiators are working to design a system
in which nations with successful cleanup programs could profit by selling unused pollution
rights to other nations. Nations that find further improvement difficult, such as The
Netherlands, could buy pollution credits on the market, or perhaps earn them by helping
reduce greenhouse gas emissions in less developed countries, where more can be achieved at
less expense. Treaty representatives at a meeting held at The Hague, The Netherlands, in
November 2000 came close to an agreement on this and other treaty issues, but the talks
ultimately failed. Negotiators plan to continue discussions periodically through 2001.
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CHAPTER 7
7.0 ACID RAIN

INTRODUCTION
Acid Rain, the regular raising of both wet and dry acidic deposition, is a fairly recent
addition to our language. Although the term was actually copied 110 years ago by the British
chemist Angus Smith from his studies of air in Manchester, England, it was not until a ran
quality monitoring network was developed in northern Europe in the 1950s that the
widespread occurrence of acid rain was recognized. For the last decade, acid rain has been a
major concern as it continues to defile major areas of our planet.
Acid rain occur within, and downwind of, areas of major industrial emissions of sulfur
dioxide (SO2) and the oxides of nitrogen (NO2), after SO2 and NO2 are emitted into the
atmosphere, they are transformed into sulfate or nitrate particles and, by combining with
water vapor, into mild sulfuric or nitric acids, these acids then return to earth as dew, drizzle,
fog, sleet, snow, and rain. When the pollutant materials that come down with rains is called
wet deposition, and of course includes particulates and gases scavenged from the air by
raindrops. The material reaching the ground by gravity during dry intervals is called dry
deposition, and includes particulates, gases, and aerosols.
Normal, clean rain is slightly acidic, with a pH level of about 5.6. This is due to the
equilibrium between rainwater and the CO2 in the air, which dissolve to a sufficient extend in
the droplets to give a weak carbonic acid solution. Today, over wide areas of eastern North
America and northern Europe where heavy rainfalls predominate, rain falls with a pH value
close to 4.0 and, on rare occasions, 3.0. The concern relates largely to the effect of the
acidity on fish populations and other aquatic animals to potential damages to crop and
forests, and to accelerating deterioration of building materials. It even seems likely that
acidified rains may enter the groundwater storage and increase the solubility of toxic metals.
Acid waters can also dissolve metals, such as lead and copper, from hot and cold water pipes.
These problems are now very widespread. The potential effects on tourism and on the
recreational uses of lakes and rives are enormous. Estimates for Ontario alone are for a
multimillion dollar loss of tourist dollars per year unless the problem is ameliorated.
Acid Rain is also the form of air pollution in which airborne acids produced by electric utility
plants and other sources fall to Earth in distant regions. The corrosive nature of acid rain
causes widespread damage to the environment. The problem begins with the production of
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides from the burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, natural gas,
and oil, and from certain kinds of manufacturing. Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides react
with water and other chemicals in the air to form sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and other
pollutants. These acid pollutants reach high into the atmosphere, travel with the wind for
hundreds of miles, and eventually return to the ground by way of rain, snow, or fog, and as
invisible “dry” forms.
Damage from acid rain has been widespread in eastern North America and throughout
Europe, and in Japan, China, and Southeast Asia. Acid rain leaches nutrients from soils,
slows the growth of trees, and makes lakes uninhabitable for fish and other wildlife. In cities,
acid pollutants corrode almost everything they touch, accelerating natural wear and tear on
structures such as buildings and statues. Acids combine with other chemicals to form urban
smog, which attacks the lungs, causing illness and premature deaths.
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FORMATION OF ACID RAIN
Figure 1 Acid Rain and their Effects on Lake, Forest and Soils
Air Pollution and Acid Rain
Rainwater once was the purest form of water available but now is often contaminated by pollutants in the air.
Acid rain is caused when industrial emissions mix with atmospheric moisture. Pollutants may be carried in
clouds for long distances before falling, which mean that forests and lakes far away from factories may be
damaged by acid rain. In the near vicinity of the factories, additional damage is caused by deposition, a kind of
dry rain in which the larger pollutant particles fall to the ground. Air pollution has been increasing since the
Industrial Revolution but only recently have side effects such as acid rain become severe and widespread
enough to evoke international concern.
The process that leads to acid rain begins with the burning of fossil fuels. Burning, or
combustion, is a chemical reaction in which oxygen from the air combines with carbon,
nitrogen, sulfur, and other elements in the substance being burned. The new compounds
formed are gases called oxides. When, sulfur and nitrogen are present in the fuel, their
reaction with oxygen yields sulfur dioxide and various nitrogen oxide compounds. In the
United States, 70 percent of sulfur dioxide pollution comes from power plants, especially
those that burn coal. In Canada, industrial activities, including oil refining and metal
smelting, account for 61 percent of sulfur dioxide pollution. Nitrogen oxides enter the
atmosphere from many sources, with motor vehicles emitting the largest share 43 percent in
the United States and 60 percent in Canada.
Once in the atmosphere, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides undergo complex reactions with
water vapor and other chemicals to yield sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and other pollutants called
nitrates and sulfates. The acid compounds are carried by air currents and the wind, sometimes
over long distances. When clouds or fog form in acid laden air, they too are acidic, and so is
the rain or snow that falls from them. Acid pollutants also occur as dry particles and as gases,
which may reach the ground without the help of water. When these “dry” acids are washed
from ground surfaces by rain, they add to the acids in the rain itself to produce a still more
corrosive solution. The combination of acid rain and dry acids is known as acid deposition.
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EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN

The acids in acid rain react chemically with any object they contact. Acids are corrosive
chemicals that react with other chemicals by giving up hydrogen atoms. The acidity of a
substance comes from the abundance of free hydrogen atoms when the substance is dissolved
in water. Acidity is measured using a pH scale with units from 0 to 14. Acidic substances
have pH numbers from 1 to 6 the lower the pH number, the stronger, or more corrosive, the
substance. Some non acidic substances, called bases or alkalis, are like acids in reverse, they
readily accept the hydrogen atoms that the acids offer. Bases have pH numbers from 8 to 14,
with the higher values indicating increased alkalinity. Pure water has a neutral pH of 7; it is
not acidic or basic. Rain, snow, or fog with a pH below 5.6 is considered acid rain.
When bases mix with acids, the bases lessen the strength of an acid (see Acids and Bases).
This buffering action regularly occurs in nature. Rain, snow, and fog formed in regions free
of acid pollutants are slightly acidic, having a pH near 5.6. Alkaline chemicals in the
environment, found in rocks, soils, lakes, and streams, regularly neutralize this precipitation.
But when precipitation is highly acidic, with a pH below 5.6, naturally occurring acid buffers
become depleted over time, and nature’s ability to neutralize the acids is impaired. Acid rain
has been linked to widespread environmental damage, including soil and plant degradation,
depleted life in lakes and streams, and erosion of human-made structures.
Soil
In soil, acid rain dissolves and washes away nutrients needed by plants. It can also dissolve
toxic substances, such as aluminum and mercury, which are naturally present in some soils,
freeing these toxins to pollute water or to poison plants that absorb them. Some soils are
quite alkaline and can neutralize acid deposition indefinitely; others, especially thin mountain
soils derived from granite or gneiss, buffer acid only briefly
Trees
By removing useful nutrients from the soil, acid rain slows the growth of plants, especially
trees. It also attacks trees more directly by eating holes in the waxy coating of leaves and
needles, causing brown dead spots. If many such spots form, a tree loses some of its ability to
make food through photosynthesis. Also, organisms that cause disease can infect the tree
through its injured leaves. Once weakened, trees are more vulnerable to other stresses, such
as insect infestations, drought, and cold temperatures.
Spruce and fir forests at higher elevations, where the trees literally touch the acid clouds,
seem to be most at risk. Acid rain has been blamed for the decline of spruce forests on the
highest ridges of the Appalachian Mountains in the eastern United States. In the Black Forest
of southwestern Germany, half of the trees are damaged from acid rain and other forms of
pollution.
Agriculture
Most farm crops are less affected by acid rain than are forests. The deep soils of many farm
regions, such as those in the Midwestern United States, can absorb and neutralize large
amounts of acid. Mountain farms are more at risk, the thin soils in these higher elevations
cannot neutralize so much acid. Farmers can prevent acid rain damage by monitoring the
condition of the soil and, when necessary, adding crushed limestone to the soil to neutralize
acid. If excessive amounts of nutrients have been leached out of the soil, farmers can replace
them by adding nutrient-rich fertilizer.
Surface Waters
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Acid rain falls into and drains into streams, lakes, and marshes. Where there is snow cover in
winter, local waters grow suddenly more acidic when the snow melts in the spring. Most
natural waters are close to chemically neutral, neither acidic nor alkaline: their pH is between
6 and 8. In the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada, the water in some lakes
now has a pH value of less than 5 as a result of acid rain. This means they are at least ten
times more acidic than they should be. In the Adirondack Mountains of New York State, a
quarter of the lakes and ponds are acidic, and many have lost their brook trout and other fish.
In the middle Appalachian Mountains, over 1,300 streams are afflicted. All of Norway’s
major rivers have been damaged by acid rain, severely reducing salmon and trout
populations.
Plants and Animals
The effects of acid rain on wildlife can be far-reaching. If a population of one plant or animal
is adversely affected by acid rain, animals that feed on that organism may also suffer.
Ultimately, an entire ecosystem may become endangered. Some species that live in water are
very sensitive to acidity, some less so. Freshwater clams and mayfly young, for instance,
begin dying when the water pH reaches 6.0. Frogs can generally survive more acidic water,
but if their supply of mayflies is destroyed by acid rain, frog populations may also decline.
Fish eggs of most species stop hatching at a pH of 5.0. Below a pH of 4.5, water is nearly
sterile, unable to support any wildlife.
Land animals dependent on aquatic organisms are also affected. Scientists have found that
populations of snails living in or near water polluted by acid rain are declining in some
regions. In The Netherlands songbirds are finding fewer snails to eat. The eggs these birds
lay have weakened shells because the birds are receiving less calcium from snail shells.
Man-Made Structures
Figure 2 Deteriorating of structure by Acid Rain

Acid rain and the dry deposition of acidic particles damage buildings, statues, automobiles,
and other structures made of stone, metal, or any other material exposed to weather for long
periods. The corrosive damage can be expensive and, in cities with very historic buildings,
68
tragic. Both the Parthenon in Athens, Greece, and the Taj Mahal in Agra, India, is
deteriorating due to acid pollution
Human Health
The acidification of surface waters causes little direct harm to people. It is safe to swim in
even the most acidified lakes. However, toxic substances leached from soil can pollute local
water supplies. In Sweden, as many as 10,000 lakes have been polluted by mercury released
from soils damaged by acid rain, and residents have been warned to avoid eating fish caught
in these lakes. In the air, acids join with other chemicals to produce urban smog, which can
irritate the lungs and make breathing difficult, especially for people who already have
asthma, bronchitis, or other respiratory diseases. Solid particles of sulfates, a class of
minerals derived from sulfur dioxide, are thought to be especially damaging to the lungs.
Acid Rain and Global Warming
Acid pollution has one surprising effect that may be beneficial. Sulfates in the upper
atmosphere reflect some sunlight out into space, and thus tend to slow down global warming.
Scientists believe that acid pollution may have delayed the onset of warming by several
decades in the middle of the 20th century.
EFFORTS TO CONTROL ACID RAIN
Figure 3 Anatomy of an Air Scrubber

A venturi air scrubber removes polluting particles from gas emissions by spraying a scrubber liquid directly into
the emissions. The scrubber liquid surrounds the dirty particles, which are carried with the gas emissions into
the separator cylinder. As the gas cycles upward through the cylinder, the liquid-covered particles drop from the
gas into the contaminated liquid reservoir.
Acid rain can best be curtailed by reducing the amount of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides
released by power plants, motorized vehicles, and factories. The simplest way to cut these
emissions is to use less energy from fossil fuels. Individuals can help. Every time a consumer
buys an energy-efficient appliance, adds insulation to a house, or takes a bus to work, he or
she conserves energy and, as a result, fights acid rain.
Another way to cut emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides is by switching to
cleaner-burning fuels. For instance, coal can be high or low in sulfur, and some coal contains
sulfur in a form that can be washed out easily before burning. By using more of the low-
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sulfur or cleanable types of coal, electric utility companies and other industries can pollute
less. The gasoline and diesel oil that run most motor vehicles can also be formulated to burn
more cleanly, producing less nitrogen oxide pollution. Clean-burning fuels such as natural
gas are being used increasingly in vehicles. Natural gas contains almost no sulfur and
produces very low nitrogen oxides. Unfortunately, natural gas and the less-polluting coals
tend to be more expensive, placing them out of the reach of nations that are struggling
economically. Pollution can also be reduced at the moment the fuel is burned. Several new
kinds of burners and boilers alter the burning process to produce less nitrogen oxides and
more free nitrogen, which is harmless. Limestone or sandstone added to the combustion
chamber can capture some of the sulfur released by burning coal.
Once sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen have been formed, there is one more chance to
keep them out of the atmosphere. In smokestacks, devices called scrubbers spray a mixture of
water and powdered limestone into the waste gases (flue gases), recapturing the sulfur.
Pollutants can also be removed by catalytic converters. In a converter, waste gases pass over
small beads coated with metals. These metals promote chemical reactions that change
harmful substances to less harmful ones. In the United States and Canada, these devices are
required in cars, but they are not often used in smokestacks.
Once acid rain has occurred, a few techniques can limit environmental damage. In a process
known as liming, powdered limestone can be added to water or soil to neutralize the acid
dropping from the sky. In Norway and Sweden, nations much afflicted with acid rain, lakes
are commonly treated this way. Rural water companies may need to lime their reservoirs so
that acid does not eat away water pipes. In cities, exposed surfaces vulnerable to acid rain
destruction can be coated with acid-resistant paints. Delicate objects like statues can be
sheltered indoors in climate-controlled rooms.
Cleaning up sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides will reduce not only acid rain but also smog,
which will make the air look clearer. Based on a study of the value that visitors to national
parks place on clear scenic vistas, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency thinks that
improving the vistas in eastern national parks alone will be worth $1 billion in tourist
revenue a year.
Emissions trading
A more recent regulatory scheme involves emissions trading. In this scheme, every current
polluting facility is given or may purchase on an open market an emissions allowance for
each ton of a designated pollutant it emits. Operators can then install pollution control
equipment, and sell portions of their emissions allowances they no longer need for their own
operations, thereby recovering some of the capital cost of their investment in such
equipment. The intention of this is to give operators economic incentives to install pollution
controls.
In the United States, a market for emissions trading was established by enactment of the
Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990. The overall goal of the Acid Rain Program established
by the Act is to achieve significant environmental and public health benefits through
reductions in emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), the primary
causes of acid rain. To achieve this goal at the lowest cost to society, the program employs
both regulatory and market based approaches for controlling air pollution.
Title IV of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 set as its primary goal the reduction of
annual SO2 emissions by 10 million tons below 1980 levels of about 18.9 million tons. To
achieve these reductions by 2000, when a nationwide sulfur dioxide emissions cap of 8,95
70
million tons per year began. the law required a two phase tightening of operating restrictions
placed on fossil fuel tired (e.g. coal, oil, natural gas) power plants. The operation and pricing
of a market for emissions allowances would not be viable in the absence of an effective
regulatory cap on the total number of allowances available.
National Legislation for Foreign Country
In the United States, legislative efforts to control sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides began
with passage of the Clean Air Act of 1970. This act established emissions standards for
pollutants from automobiles and industry. In 1990 Congress approved a set of amendments to
the act that impose stricter limits on pollution emissions, particularly pollutants that cause
acid rain. These amendments aim to cut the national output of sulfur dioxide from 23.5
million tons to 16 million tons by the year 2010. Although no national target is set for
nitrogen oxides, the amendments require that power plants, which emit about one-third of all
nitrogen oxides released to the atmosphere, reduce their emissions from 7.5 million tons to 5
million tons by 2010. These rules were applied first to selected large power plants in Eastern
and Midwestern states. In the year 2000, smaller, cleaner power plants across the country
came under the law.
These 1990 amendments include a novel provision for sulfur dioxide control. Each year the
government gives companies permits to release a specified number of tons of sulfur dioxide.
Polluters are allowed to buy and sell their emissions permits. For instance, a company can
choose to reduce its sulfur dioxide emissions more than the law requires and sell its unused
pollution emission allowance to another company that is further from meeting emission
goals; the buyer may then pollute above the limit for a certain time. Unused pollution rights
can also be "banked" and kept for later use. It is hoped that this flexible market system will
clean up emissions more quickly and cheaply than a set of rigid rules.
Legislation enacted in Canada restricts the annual amount of sulfur dioxide emissions to 2.3
million tons in all of Canada’s seven easternmost provinces, where acid rain causes the most
damage. A national cap for sulfur dioxide emissions has been set at 3.2 million tons per year.
Legislation is currently being developed to enforce stricter pollution emissions by 2010.
Norwegian law sets the goal of reducing sulfur dioxide emission to 76 percent of 1980 levels
and nitrogen oxides emissions to 70 percent of the 1986 levels. To encourage cleanup,
Norway collects a hefty tax from industries that emit acid pollutants. In some cases these
taxes make it more expensive to emit acid pollutants than to reduce emissions.
International Agreements
Acid rain typically crosses national borders, making pollution control an international issue.
Canada receives much of its acid pollution from the United States by some estimates as much
as 50 percent. Norway and Sweden receive acid pollutants from Britain, Germany, Poland,
and Russia. The majority of acid pollution in Japan comes from China. Debates about
responsibilities and cleanup costs for acid pollutants led to international cooperation. In 1988,
as part of the long range Tran boundary Air Pollution Agreement sponsored by the United
Nations, the United States and 24 other nations ratified a protocol promising to hold yearly
nitrogen oxide emissions at or below 1987 levels. In 1991 the United States and Canada
signed an Air Quality Agreement setting national limits on annual sulfur dioxide emissions
from power plants and factories. In 1994 in Oslo, Norway, 12 European nations agreed to
reduce sulfur dioxide emissions by as much as 87 percent by 2010.
Legislative actions to prevent acid rain have results. The targets established in laws and
treaties are being met, usually ahead of schedule. Sulfur emissions in Europe decreased by 40
percent from 1980 to 1994. In Norway sulfur dioxide emissions fell by 75 percent during the
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same period. Since 1980 annual sulfur dioxide emissions in the United States have dropped
from 26 million tons to 18.3 million tons. Canada reports sulfur dioxide emissions have been
reduced to 2.6 million tons, 18 percent below the proposed limit of 3.2 million tons.
Monitoring stations in several nations report that precipitation is actually becoming less
acidic. In Europe, lakes and streams are now growing less acid. However, this does not seem
to be the case in the United States and Canada. The reasons are not completely understood,
but apparently, controls reducing nitrogen oxide emissions only began recently and their
effects have yet to make a mark. In addition, soils in some areas have absorbed so much acid
that they contain no more neutralizing alkaline chemicals. The weathering of rock will
gradually replace the missing alkaline chemicals, but scientists fear that improvement will be
very slow unless pollution controls are made even stricter.
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CHAPTER 8
8.0 TCHNOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SITUATION IN NEPAL

INDUSTRIES, AIR AND WATER POLLUTION IN NEPAL
Development has brought several undesirable changes, particularly in urban environment.
The countries of South Asia have the high rates of urbanization. Rural environment is
different. Poverty is the major cause in degrading environment in rural area. Air pollution is
global but its most immediate effects are local. Air pollution is caused by an interaction of
large amounts of pollutants poured into the air.
Nepal’s air is relatively unpolluted but increasing industries, growing urbanization and
proliferation of automobiles have affected the air quality unfavorably in urban settlements.
The most polluting factors are: smog and dust from fires and burning, road traffic, transport
and automobile exhaust, dust particles, building industry, mining and domestic wastes. There
are over 10,000 establishments including cottage and small scale industries in the country.
Among the establishment, oil and grain mills have the highest number followed by bricks
and tiles industry. Density of these establishment is highest in the Central Development
Region, particularly in and Katmandu, but the atmospheric pollution has also increased in
Biratnagar, Birgung, Pokhara, Janakpur, and Hetauda. The smoky atmosphere in the
industrial area and domestic smoke pollution irritates the upper respiratory passages and is
thus responsible for chronic bronchitis and cor pulmonale in Chandannath (Jumla) is striking.
Such a high prevalence (5.6percentage) rate using the strict WHO criteria has not been
reported from any other study (Pandey, 1987). Most of the cooking is done indoors in
unvented stoves and biomass fuels. Women, young children and infants are mostly exposed
to the indoor smoke. Indoor air pollution from biofuel combustion is 8800 micrograms of
pollutant per cubic meter of air. This particulate concentration can be reduced with improved
stove to 3000 micrograms per cubic meter of air. Tobacco smoking is another important
source of indoor air pollution.
The road transport development in the last 30 years has progressed and has facilitated easy
movement of man and material within the country. As the country is mountainous, road
development is difficult which has made a negative impact on the environment such as
increase in landslides, debris fall on river flow, siltation on riverbed, deforestation, erosion
etc. There are over 100,000 vehicles in the country and out of that about 55 percentage
vehicles are concentrated in Bagmati zone.
Nepal requires about 250 million liter of petroleum products every year (110 million liter of
diesel, 90 million liter of kerosene, 20 million liter of petrol and 27 million liter of other
petroleum products) .The demand for petroleum products in Nepal is expected to increase by
an average of 10 percent every year. Total global daily production of petroleum is 51.4 mil
barrels with an average consumption rate of 2.5litre per head per day. Compared with this
data, the situation in Nepal appears different. Petroleum consumption per head in Nepalese is
about 700 parts lower than world rate. But most of the petroleum product consumption is
concentrated in urban areas, thus aggravating particularly the urban environment. Lead
content recorded by Bhattarai and Shrestha (1981)in the atmosphere on different roads of
Katmandu ranged between 17 to 544 ppm (544 ppm at Maitighar, 374 ppm at post office
traffic crossing, 221 ppm at Sinamangal airport,119 at Kalimati,153 at Tripureswor,51 ppm
at Balaju and 17 at Budanilkantha). In the last ten years traffic has largely increased on these
roads, worsening the situation.
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The water quality in Katmandu is particularly not satisfactory and even chlorinated water of
Katmandu is found heavily contaminated with a feacal material. An efficient and well
managed sewerage system is essentially required. Drinking water resources tested in various
localities by Sharma (1987) shows the presence of coli form bacteria up to 460/100 ml in
summer, 4800/100 ml in rainy and 75/100 ml in winter. Biological oxygen demand (BOD)
ranged from 980 to 2210, ph from 4.1 to 8.5 and water hardness from 92 to 260.
It is a fact that different industrial effluents have increased the chloride, nitrate, coliform
bacteria, sulphate, iron hardness, and biological and chemical oxygen in the streams and
rivers in Katmandu. The sewerage disposal system of Katmandu is unhygienic. The gastro
intestinal diseases are mostly transmitted by contaminated water, especially from June to
October. Most of the people are aware of the risk of drinking water and simple techniques of
water treatments as boiling and filtering the water using halogen tablets etc. have been
generally practiced.
Although HMG has fixed a target to provide 100 percent drinking water coverage for the
urban and 90 percent for the rural population. The government must strictly look towards the
water quality. Present situation is very dangerous for the public health and outbreaks of
waterborne epidemics could occur at any time.
The water pollution status in Nepal can be best understood by the situation analysis report of
UNICEF (1987) which states that “water and hygienic related diseases are responsible for 15
percent of all cases and 8 percent of all deaths in the general population. From birth to the
age of four years, however, water related diseases are responsible for 41 percent of all cases
and 32 percent of all the number of death”. Therefore improvement in water quality and
water supply is direly needed.
It is apparent that noise pollution, yet another unwanted environmental side effects of
technological progress, adversely affects the human health to a degree that the general public
has been only dimly aware. Intense noise of sudden onset cause marked physiological and
psychological changes. Air pollution kills us slowly but silently, noise makes each day a
torment. Noise level in urban areas generally crosses the permissible level of 70-75 db
causing disturbances and psychological problems. The higher noise level at working places,
industries and public places deserves attention. A study indicates that noise level reaches
above 80 db in Trichandra Campus, 72-88 db in Ratna Park, 90-95 db near the hospital.73-80
db in Asan market, 86-109 db in Balaju auto works and 85-100 db in Teku area.
One of the vexatious problems faced by the civic authorities in city areas is the safe and
hygienic disposal of city refuse and other solid wastes generated due to our modern living
pattern. Solid waste problems have increased in urban areas of Nepal too. Out of 400 cubic
meter generated per day in Katmandu and lalitpur,75%is collectable and out of that 264 cubic
meter of wastes are being collected by the solid waste management and resource
mobilization centre(SWMRMC), Katmandu. A compost plant of the capacity 15 tons per day
has been established by the centre which consumes about 75 cubic meters of solid wastes
daily. The centre has also established a sanitary landfill site for final disposal of solid waste,
for the protection of environment from the adverse effects of haphazard dumping of waste in
inappropriate places (Joshi, 1988).
Unfortunately, large areas of agricultural land are slowly encroached upon for building
houses and factories on. It is supposed that one third of the world’s arable land will be
destroyed in the next 20 years if the current rate of land degradation continues.
Air Pollution, addition of harmful substances to the atmosphere resulting in damage to the
environment, human health, and quality of life. One of many forms of pollution, air pollution
74
occurs inside homes, schools, and offices; in cities; across continents; and even globally. Air
pollution makes people sick it causes breathing problems and promotes cancer and it harms
plants, animals, and the ecosystems in which they live. Some air pollutants return to Earth in
the form of acid rain and snow, which corrode statues and buildings, damage crops and
forests, and make lakes and streams unsuitable for fish and other plant and animal life.
Pollution is changing Earth’s atmosphere so that it lets in more harmful radiation from the
Sun. At the same time, our polluted atmosphere is becoming a better insulator, preventing
heat from escaping back into space and leading to a rise in global average temperatures.
Scientists predict that the temperature increase, referred to as global warming, will affect
world food supply, alter sea level, make weather more extreme, and increase the spread of
tropical disease.
MAJOR AIR POLLUTANTS
Sources of major air pollutants include individual actions, such as driving a car, and
industrial activities, such as manufacturing products or generating electricity. Major,
pollutants, their sources and health impacts are given in table below.
.Pollutants Majors Sources Impacts
Carbon Motor-vehicle exhaust; some Heartbeat increases, chest pain,
monoxide (CO) industrial processes dizziness and headache
Sulfur dioxide Heat and power generation Effect aquatic lives, serious damage to
(SO2) facilities that use oil or coal buildings, increase heavy metal conc.,
containing sulfur; sulfuric acid effect on forest, vegetation and animals
plants etc.
Particulate Motor-vehicle exhaust; industrial Acute respiratory infection, bronchitis,
matter processes; refuse incineration; heat asthma, cardiac disorders, pneumonia,
and power generation; reaction of emphysema etc.
pollution gases in the atmosphere
Lead (Pb) Motor-vehicle exhaust; lead Aggressive, hostile, destructive
smelters; battery plants behavioral changes, severe brain
damage, great risk to children and
pregnant women etc.
Nitrogen Motor-vehicle exhaust; heat and Damage due to acid rain, effect to
dioxide (NO2) power generation; nitric acid; aquatic life, terrestrial ecosystem,
explosives; fertilizer plants headache, chest tightness and eye, nose
and throat irritation etc.
Ozone (O3) Formed in the atmosphere by Damage to foliage, reduce to growth
reaction of nitrogen oxides, rate, reduces yields of crops, wheat,
hydrocarbons, and sunlight soybeans and peanuts etc.
PRESSURE
Air pollution is not a new phenomenon in Nepal, and it is now becoming the most rapidly
growing environmental problem. There are a host of factors contributing to air pollution in
Nepal. Following are the main pressuring factors for air pollution.
 Increased energy consumption.
 Increase transportation.
 Expansion of industry.
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 Population growth and urbanization.

 Use of ozone depleting substances (ODS).
 Other: Apart from the factors stated, the decrease in forests and shrubs in Nepal has
also contributed to air pollution. The annual carbon release as a result of deforestation
is estimated to be 7,768,000 tones (SEAMCAP 2000).
STATE
Ambient air quality
The concentration of air pollutants is primarily due to source emissions and meteorological
conditions, and these are closely related to population density and land-use patterns.
Generally, there are more air pollutants from human activity in and around major cities and
industrial areas than in rural areas.
Urban area
 TSP and PM-10 above WHO guidelines levels.
Rural area
 Indoor air pollution a major health problems.
IMPACT
(a) Health
 Acute respiratory infection (ARI); among the top five diseases: responsible for more
than 30% of death in children under 5.
 31% of bronchitis cases in Jumla were due to indoor smoke.
(b) Vegetation
ENPHO (1999) reported that the activities of Himal Cement have had a negative impact on
vegetation in the surrounding area. The study showed that foliar injury and low yield of crops
were due to photosynthetic disturbance as dust deposition on leaves blocked the stomata. The
soil became hard because of calcium deposition, affecting the germination of seeds. Among
the plants, Pinus roxburghii was the most affected because of the resiniferous nature of the
plant.
(c) Visibility
The atmospheric data obtained from the Kathmandu airport from 1970 onwards show that
there has been a very substantial decrease in visibility in the valley since 1980. The number
of days with good visibility (> 8,000m) around noon decreased in the winter months from
more than 25 days/month in 1970 to 5 days/month in 1992. Low visibility and poor sunlight
during the winter are also associated with dust from Himal Cement.
RESPONSES
 Industrial Enterprise Act (1992).
 Environmental Protection Act (1996)
 Vehicles exhaust emission tests.
 Ban on three-wheel diesel tempos in Kathmandu valley; introduction of electric and
gas powered vehicles
 Project to establish air quality monitoring stations in Kathmandu.
 Nepal’s signature on international conventions and treaties.
Nepal has signed various international conventions and treaties related to air pollution, as
shown in Table 1.
Table 1: International conventions and treaties on air pollution
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Description Date Nepal’s Main objectives Major obligations

signature
Vienna Protect human health and the
22
Convention for 6 Apr environment against adverse Limit the use of ozone layer
Mar
the Protection of 1994 effects of modification of the depleting substances
1985
the Ozone Layer ozone layer
Montreal Protocol 16 Protect the ozone layer by Control annual consumption and
on Substances 6 Jul
Sep controlling the emissions of production of substances that
that Deplete the 1994
1987 substances that deplete it deplete the zone layer
Ozone Layer
London Phase out the production of
Amendment Strengthen the control substances that deplete the ozone
to the Montreal 29
6 Jul procedures and establish a layer and establish financial
Protocol on Jun
1994 financial mechanism for the mechanisms and a clearing-house
Substances that 1990
Protocol function for implementation of
Deplete the the Protocol
Ozone Layer
United Nations Stabilize greenhouse gas Adopt precautionary measures to
Framework 5 Jun 12 Jun concentrations in the minimize or prevent the release
Convention on 1992 1992 atmosphere within a time of greenhouse gases and mitigate
Climate Change frame the effects of climate change
GAPS
 Assessment of air quality has not been carried out systematically in Nepal because of
lack of a strategic air quality monitoring policy, infrastructure, and technology.
Furthermore, the concept of an Air Quality Management System (AQMS) is absent
from the national policy.
 Similarly, there is no Air Quality Information System (AQIS), and this has limited the
scope for comprehensive presentation of the state of the atmospheric environment.
 No ambient air quality standards.
 Low priority is given to research work.
 No organization responsible for air quality monitoring.
 Lack of quality assurance.
 Lack of information on ambient air quality near brick and other air polluting
industries.
 Paucity of information on the impact of air pollution on tourism.
 Lack of data on the impact of the brick and cement industries on human health, and
biotic and abiotic components.
CONCLUSION
The sources of air pollution in Nepal are varied and include combustion of fossil fuel,
vehicular exhaust, industrial emissions and effluents, unmanaged solid waste, and smoke
emissions caused by combustion of biomass.
At present, the air pollution problem of immediate concern includes particulate matter in
major urban areas. Indoor air quality is aggravated by the extensive use of biomass as a
source of energy. Ongoing development activities and changes in lifestyles, particularly in
the large cities, have caused an increase in concentrations of air pollutants such as TSP, CO,
Pb, SO2, and NO2 in the ambient air.
Therefore, Nepal needs to introduce measures, first focusing on preventing the problems of
air pollution at source, and then on control measures to abate other problems. A wide data
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gap exists on different aspects of air pollution, as well as between Kathmandu and other parts
of the country. In many parts of the country, no monitoring of air pollution caused by
different factors has been carried out. Every municipality should introduce measures to
control air pollution according to its own requirements under the Local Governance Act. For
instance, Pokhara sub-metropolitan area restricted the use of diesel operated, three-wheeled
vehicles some years ago.
RECOMMENDATIONS
(i) General
 Establishment of air quality monitoring stations at major traffic points, industrial
areas, and major commercial points.
 Mass awareness programmes.
 Provision of mass transportation.
 Carry out studies on the impacts of air pollution on the general health of people, and
on abiotic and biotic components.
(ii) Specific
 Air quality standards to be established.
 Policy framework for promotion of alternative fuels to bring down fuel wood
consumption.
 Promotion of mass transport systems (private sector).
 Proper road planning for cities.
 Promotion of cleaner fuels.
 Unleaded fuels (catalytic converters)
 Desulphurization of diesel
POLLUTION CLEANUP AND PREVENTION
In the United States, the serious effort against local and regional air pollution began with the
Clean Air Act of 1970, which was amended in 1977 and 1990. This law requires that the air
contain no more than specified levels of particulate matter, lead, carbon monoxide, sulfur
dioxide, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, ozone, and various toxic substances.
To avoid the mere shifting of pollution from dirty areas to clean ones, stricter standards apply
where the air is comparatively clean. In national parks, for instance, the air is supposed to
remain as clean as it was when the law was passed. The act sets deadlines by which standards
must be met. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is in charge of refining and
enforcing these standards, but the day-to-day work of fighting pollution falls to the state
governments and to local air pollution control districts. Some states, notably California, have
imposed tougher air pollution standards of their own. In an effort to enforce pollution
standards, pollution control authorities measure both the amounts of pollutants present in the
atmosphere and the amounts entering it from certain sources. The usual approach is to
sample the open, or ambient, air and test it for the presence of specified pollutants. The
amount of each pollutant is counted in parts per million or, in some cases, milligrams or
micrograms per cubic meter. To learn how much pollution is coming from specific sources,
measurements are also taken at industrial smokestacks and automobile tailpipes.
Pollution is controlled in two ways: with end-of-the-pipe devices that capture pollutants
already created and by limiting the quantity of pollutants produced in the first place. End-of-
the-pipe devices include catalytic converters in automobiles and various kinds of filters and
scrubbers in industrial plants. In a catalytic converter, exhaust gases pass over small beads
coated with metals that promote reactions changing harmful substances into less harmful
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ones. When end-of-the-pipe devices first began to be used, they dramatically reduced
pollution at a relatively low cost. As air pollution standards become stricter, it becomes more
and more expensive to further clean the air. In order to lower pollution overall, industrial
polluters are sometimes allowed to make cooperative deals. For instance, a power company
may fulfill its pollution control requirements by investing in pollution control at another plant
or factory, where more effective pollution control can be accomplished at a lower cost.
End-of-the-pipe controls, however sophisticated, can only do so much. As pollution efforts
evolve, keeping the air clean will depend much more on preventing pollution than on curing
it. Gasoline, for instance, has been reformulated several times to achieve cleaner burning.
Various manufacturing processes have been redesigned so that less waste is produced. Car
manufacturers are experimenting with automobiles that run on electricity or on cleaner-
burning fuels. Buildings are being designed to take advantage of sun in winter and shade and
breezes in summer to reduce the need for artificial heating and cooling, which are usually
powered by the burning of fossil fuels. The choices people make in their daily lives can have
a significant impact on the state of the air. Using public transportation instead of driving, for
instance, reduces pollution by limiting the number of pollution-emitting automobiles on the
road. During periods of particularly intense smog, pollution control authorities often urge
people to avoid trips by car. To encourage transit use during bad-air periods, authorities in
Paris, France, make bus and subway travel temporarily free.
Indoor pollution control must be accomplished building by building or even room by room.
Proper ventilation mimics natural outdoor air currents, reducing levels of indoor air
pollutants by continually circulating fresh air. After improving ventilation, the most effective
single step is probably banning smoking in public rooms. Where asbestos has been used in
insulation, it can be removed or sealed behind sheathes so that it won’t be shredded and get
into the air. Sealing foundations and installing special pipes and pumps can prevent radon
from seeping into buildings. On the global scale, pollution control standards are the result of
complex negotiations among nations. Typically, developed countries, having already gone
through a period of rapid (and dirty) industrialization, are ready to demand cleaner
technologies. Less developed nations, hoping for rapid economic growth, are less
enthusiastic about pollution controls. They seek lenient deadlines and financial help from
developed countries to make the expensive changes necessary to reduce pollutant emissions
in their industrial processes.
Nonetheless, several important international accords have been reached. In 1988 the United
States and 24 other nations agreed in the Long-Range Tran-boundary Air Pollution
Agreement to hold their production of nitrogen oxides, a key contributor to acid rain, to
current levels. In the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, adopted
in 1987 and strengthened in 1990 and 1992, most nations agreed to stop or reduce the
manufacture of CFCs. In 1992 the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change negotiated a treaty outlining cooperative efforts to curb global warming. The treaty,
which took effect in March 1994, has been legally accepted by 160 of the 165 participating
countries. In December 1997 at the Third Conference of the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change in Japan, more than 160 nations formally adopted the Kyoto
Protocol. This agreement calls for industrialized nations to reduce their emissions of
greenhouse gases to levels 5 percent below 1990 emission levels between 2008 and 2012.
Negotiators have met regularly since 1995 to iron out the details of how this treaty could be
enforced in ways that are agreeable for industrialized countries such as the United States,
which releases more greenhouse gases than any other nation, and developing countries that
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are struggling to become industrialized and often cannot afford the expense that restrictions
on greenhouse gas emissions would require.
Antipollution measures have helped stem the increase of global pollution emission levels.
Between 1970, when the Clean Air Act was passed, and 1995, total emissions of the major
air pollutants in the United States decreased by nearly 30 percent. During the same 25-year
period, the U.S. population increased 28 percent and vehicle miles traveled increased 116
percent. Air pollution control is a race between the reduction of pollution from each source,
such as a factory or a car, and the rapid multiplication of sources. Smog in cities in the
United States is expected to increase again as the number of cars and miles driven continue to
rise. Meanwhile, developing countries are building up their own industries, and their citizens
are buying cars as soon as they can afford them. Ominous changes continue in the global
atmosphere. New efforts to control air pollution will be necessary as long as these trends
continue.
Water Pollution, contamination of streams, lakes, underground water, bays, or oceans by
substances harmful to living things. Water is necessary to life on earth. All organisms contain
it; some live in it; some drink it. Plants and animals require water that is moderately pure,
and they cannot survive if their water is loaded with toxic chemicals or harmful
microorganisms. If severe, water pollution can kill large numbers of fish, birds, and other
animals, in some cases killing all members of a species in an affected area. Pollution makes
streams, lakes, and coastal waters unpleasant to look at, to smell, and to swim in. Fish and
shellfish harvested from polluted waters may be unsafe to eat. People who ingest polluted
water can become ill, and, with prolonged exposure, may develop cancers or bear children
with birth defects.
MAJOR TYPES OF WATER POLLUTANTS
The major water pollutants are chemical, biological, or physical materials that degrade water
quality. Pollutants can be classed into eight categories, each of which presents its own set of
hazards.
A) Petroleum Products
Oil and chemicals derived from oil are used for fuel, lubrication, plastics manufacturing, and
many other purposes. These petroleum products get into water mainly by means of accidental
spills from ships, tanker trucks, pipelines, and leaky underground storage tanks. Many
petroleum products are poisonous if ingested by animals, and spilled oil damages the feathers
of birds or the fur of animals, often causing death. In addition, spilled oil may be
contaminated with other harmful substances, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).
B) Pesticides and Herbicides
Chemicals used to kill unwanted animals and plants, for instance on farms or in suburban
yards, may be collected by rainwater runoff and carried into streams, especially if these
substances are applied too lavishly. Some of these chemicals are biodegradable and quickly
decay into harmless or less harmful forms, while others are nonbiodegradable and remain
dangerous for a long time.
When animals consume plants that have been treated with certain nonbiodegradable
chemicals, such as chlordane and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), these chemicals
are absorbed into the tissues or organs of the animals. When other animals feed on these
contaminated animals, the chemicals are passed up the food chain. With each step up the
food chain, the concentration of the pollutant increases. In one study, DDT levels in ospreys
(a family of fish-eating birds) were found to be 10 to 50 times higher than in the fish that
they ate, 600 times the level in the plankton that the fish ate, and 10 million times higher than
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in the water. Animals at the top of food chains may, as a result of these chemical
concentrations, suffer cancers, reproductive problems, and death.
Many drinking water supplies are contaminated with pesticides from widespread agricultural
use. More than 14 million Americans drink water contaminated with pesticides, and the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that 10 percent of wells contain
pesticides. Nitrates, a pollutant often derived from fertilizer runoff, can cause
methemoglobinemia in infants, a potentially lethal form of anemia that is also called blue
baby syndrome.
C) Heavy Metals
In the 1950s, residents of Minamata, Japan, began experiencing unusual symptoms, including
numbness, vision problems, and convulsions. Several hundred people died. The cause was
discovered to be mercury ingestion: A local industry had dumped the toxic chemical into
Minamata Bay, poisoning fish and thousands of people. In 1997, after a massive cleanup,
Japan announced that the bay had been cleared of the contaminant.
Heavy metals such as copper, lead, mercury, and selenium, get into water from many
sources, including industries, automobile exhaust, mines, and even natural soil. Like
pesticides, heavy metals become more concentrated as animals feed on plants and are
consumed in turn by other animals. When they reach high levels in the body, heavy metals
can be immediately poisonous, or can result in long-term health problems similar to those
caused by pesticides and herbicides. For example, cadmium in fertilizer derived from sewage
sludge can be absorbed by crops. If these crops are eaten by humans in sufficient amounts,
the metal can cause diarrhea and, over time, liver and kidney damage. Lead can get into
water from lead pipes and solder in older water systems; children exposed to lead in water
can suffer mental retardation.
D) Hazardous Wastes
Hazardous wastes are chemical wastes that are either toxic (poisonous), reactive (capable of
producing explosive or toxic gases), corrosive (capable of corroding steel), or ignitable
(flammable). If improperly treated or stored, hazardous wastes can pollute water supplies. In
1969 the Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, Ohio, was so polluted with hazardous wastes that it
caught fire and burned. PCBs, a class of chemicals once widely used in electrical equipment
such as transformers, can get into the environment through oil spills and can reach toxic
levels as organisms eat one another.
E) Excess Organic Matter
Fertilizers and other nutrients used to promote plant growth on farms and in gardens may
find their way into water. At first, these nutrients encourage the growth of plants and algae in
water. However, when the plant matter and algae die and settle underwater, microorganisms
decompose them. In the process of decomposition, these microorganisms consume oxygen
that is dissolved in the water. Oxygen levels in the water may drop to such dangerously low
levels that oxygen-dependent animals in the water, such as fish, die. This process of
depleting oxygen to deadly levels is called eutrophication.
F) Sediment
Sediment, soil particles carried to a streambed, lake, or ocean, can also be a pollutant if it is
present in large enough amounts. Soil erosion produced by the removal of soil-trapping trees
near waterways, or carried by rainwater and floodwater from croplands, strip mines, and
roads, can damage a stream or lake by introducing too much nutrient matter. This leads to
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eutrophication. Sedimentation can also cover streambed gravel in which many fish, such as
salmon and trout, lay their eggs.
G) Infectious Organisms
A 1994 study by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimated that about
900,000 people get sick annually in the United States because of organisms in their drinking
water, and around 900 people die. Many disease-causing organisms that are present in small
numbers in most natural waters are considered pollutants when found in drinking water. Such
parasites as Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum occasionally turn up in urban
water supplies. These parasites can cause illness, especially in people who are very old or
very young, and in people who are already suffering from other diseases. In 1993 an outbreak
of Cryptosporidium in the water supply of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, sickened more than
400,000 people and killed more than 100.
H) Thermal Pollution
Water is often drawn from rivers, lakes, or the ocean for use as a coolant in factories and
power plants. The water is usually returned to the source warmer than when it was taken.
Even small temperature changes in a body of water can drive away the fish and other species
that were originally present, and attract other species in place of them. Thermal pollution can
accelerate biological processes in plants and animals or deplete oxygen levels in water. The
result may be fish and other wildlife deaths near the discharge source. Thermal pollution can
also be caused by the removal of trees and vegetation that shade and cool streams.
SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTANTS
Water pollutants result from many human activities. Pollutants from industrial sources may
pour out from the outfall pipes of factories or may leak from pipelines and underground
storage tanks. Polluted water may flow from mines where the water has leached through
mineral-rich rocks or has been contaminated by the chemicals used in processing the ores.
Cities and other residential communities contribute mostly sewage, with traces of household
chemicals mixed in. Sometimes industries discharge pollutants into city sewers, increasing
the variety of pollutants in municipal areas. Pollutants from such agricultural sources as
farms, pastures, feedlots, and ranches contribute animal wastes, agricultural chemicals, and
sediment from erosion.
The oceans, vast as they are, are not invulnerable to pollution. Pollutants reach the sea from
adjacent shorelines, from ships, and from offshore oil platforms. Sewage and food waste
discarded from ships on the open sea do little harm, but plastics thrown overboard can kill
birds or marine animals by entangling them, choking them, or blocking their digestive tracts
if swallowed.
An oil spill has its worst effects when the oil slick encounters a shoreline. Oil in coastal
waters kills tidepool life and harms birds and marine mammals by causing feathers and fur to
lose their natural waterproof quality, which causes the animals to drown or die of cold.
Additionally, these animals can become sick or poisoned when they swallow the oil while
preening (grooming their feathers or fur).
Water pollution can also be caused by other types of pollution. For example, sulfur dioxide
from a power plant’s chimney begins as air pollution. The polluted air mixes with
atmospheric moisture to produce airborne sulfuric acid, which falls to the earth as acid rain.
In turn, the acid rain can be carried into a stream or lake, becoming a form of water pollution
that can harm or even eliminate wildlife. Similarly, the garbage in a landfill can create water
pollution if rainwater percolating through the garbage absorbs toxins before it sinks into the
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soil and contaminates the underlying groundwater (water that is naturally stored underground
in beds of gravel and sand, called aquifers).
Pollution may reach natural waters at spots we can easily identify, known as point sources,
such as waste pipes or mine shafts. Nonpoint sources are more difficult to recognize.
Pollutants from these sources may appear a little at a time from large areas, carried along by
rainfall or snowmelt. For instance, the small oil leaks from automobiles that produce
discolored spots on the asphalt of parking lots become nonpoint sources of water pollution
when rain carries the oil into local waters. Most agricultural pollution is nonpoint since it
typically originates from many fields.
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WATER QUALITY
MAJOR SOURCES OF WATER

Water is Nepal’s largest known natural resource. The major sources of water are rainfall,
glaciers, rivers, and groundwater. Of these, rivers are the most important running surface
water in terms of water volume and potential development. There are over 6,000 rivers in
Nepal with an estimated total length of more than 45,000 km (CBS 1995). These rivers flow
through the high mountains in the country and thus have turbulent and rapid flow and
considerable self cleansing abilities through mechanical and oxidation processes. All large
rivers are fed by snowmelt from the Himalayas, and hence they are perennial. The country
has 660 lakes with stagnant surface water of more than one hectare in area. Mean annual
rainfall is about 1,700 mm, 75% of which occurs during the monsoon season from June
through September. The average annual renewable water volume of the country is about 224
billion m3 (Yogacharya 1998).
PRESSURE
There is intense pressure on the water resources being used in Nepal due to the limited
amount available with respect to demand. Over the last few decades, the population in the
country has grown rapidly at over two per cent per annum. Urbanization caused by natural
growth and migration is another factor that puts pressure on the existing water supply in
urban areas. Other activities that need water are industries, irrigation, motor workshops, and
so on. Natural factors, such as landslides and floods, also put pressure on water resources by
damaging reservoirs and irrigation canals. All these activities affect the quality of water.
Main pressuring factors for water quality are as follows:
 Rapid growth of population
 Rapid urbanization
 Increase in industries
 Development of infrastructure: irrigation
 Damaged caused to water reservoirs, and irrigation canals by landslides, floods, and
others disasters
Figure 1: Factors leading to deterioration in water quality

STATES
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The total available surface and groundwater potential of the country is 224 billion m3 and 12
billion m3 respectively (WECS 1999) and the total estimated water demand in 1998
(domestic, industries, commerce) 1240 mld.
Ground Water
 Main source of drinking water in the Terai.
 Annual potential extraction = 5.8-9.6 billion m3, current withdrawal = 0.52 billion
m3/year.
 High concentration of iron and manganese; wide spread coliform.
Kathmandu valley
 Total sustainable withdrawal of groundwater = 26.3 mld -current extraction = 58.6
mld-dropping water table.
 Headwaters of almost all major rivers have been tapped for drinking water.
 Supply of (piped) drinking water at best = 115 mld, estimated daily demand 145mld
(1998).
 No source, not even piped water, guaranteed free of faecal contamination.
IMPACTS
Water pollution is the most serious public health issue in Nepal. There is a vital connection
between water and health. The rivers are the main places for disposal of urban solid waste,
domestic effluents, and industrial effluents, which are responsible for polluting the water and
causing waterborne diseases. Yet, government policy has given little emphasis to this issue
(UNICEF 1987).
 Water quality and water related diseases
 Impact on water ecology
 Impact on aesthetic values
RESPONSE
Realizing the ecological, economic and social importance of water resources, various
attempts have been made by the government to improve the situation through adoption of
various development programmes, organizational adjustments, and research activities.
Government and semi-government organizations have been directly or indirectly involved in
development, management, conservation, and planning of water resources in the country,
either through their own efforts or through economic and/or technical assistance from
international and bilateral agencies.
(a) Wastewater management efforts in Kathmandu city.
(b) Local initiatives (Recycling used motor oil; NGO effort on waste-water
management, The Gorkha Brewery treats its waste etc).
(c) Water rights
(d) Policy responses
(i) Legislations
(ii) International conventions and treaties
85
Table 1: Condition of waste-water treatment plants in Kathmandu

Treatment Year of Capacity Type of Area Existing situation
plant est. (mld) plant coverage
Hanumanghat 1975 0.5 Aerated lagoon A part of Operating inefficiently
Bhaktapur city as a non-aerated lagoon
Operating inefficiently
North and south
as non-aerated lagoon
Sallaghari 1983 1 Aerated lagoon part of
and receives waste
Bhaktapur city
water only from the
southern part of the city
Waste water
Stabilization from the north-
Dhobighat 1982 15.4 Out of order
pond east part of
Kathmandu
Kodku 1982 1.1 Stabilization A part of Patan Operating inefficiently
pond city
GAPS
 Lack of data on water quality and quantity for all parts of the country.
 Inadequate monitoring of water quality.
 No lead agency to manage and coordinate water quality among the water
organizations at national level.
 Lack of a central data bank on water quality.
 No water quality standards.
 No drinking water guidelines for industrial effluents.
 Lack of commitment in implementing and enforcement of industrial standards.
 Lack of commitment in implementing water quality control measures.
 Lack of effective awareness programmes at local level about the conservation of
water sources.
 Lack of storm-water drainage systems.
 Lack of study on health impact of components such as Fe, As, NO 3, NH4, Hg, Cr.
 Lack of study on the impact of water pollution on tourism.
CONCLUSION
Although Nepal is rich in water resources, its people are not getting enough water to meet
their needs nor is the available water potable. Incidence of water-borne diseases is rising
mainly due to consumption of contaminated water.
Human activity is one of the major causes of polluted drinking water. The causes of water
pollution are unprotected water sources, broken sewer lines, discharge of untreated industrial
effluent into streams, municipal sewage, urban runoff, agricultural runoff, interrupted water
supply, and open defecation and garbage disposal in communal areas.
The issue of water pollution in the urban area of Nepal is related to the municipal sewerage
system and storm-water drainage. The municipal sewerage system has a direct connection to
the river environment since untreated sewage is discharged directly into rivers.
The existing laws and byelaws for managing the urban environment are not adequate.
Furthermore, failure to enforce laws and byelaws and absence of clear-cut institutional
responsibilities are major reasons for pollution of urban rivers.
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RECOMMENDATIONS
 Efforts for managing waste disposal, maintaining drinking water and sewer pipelines,
controlling open defecation, and imposing minimum urban housing standards are
urgently required.
 The ongoing practice of direct discharge of domestic sewage and industrial waste into
rivers is one of the main causes of pollution. To solve this problem a practical,
reliable and cheaper method of treating effluent before being passed into the river
should be sought; biological wastewater treatment would be one of the best
alternatives. Such treatment plants should be planned to treat the majority of
industrial and domestic waste.
 Introduce proper management of solid wastes.
 Provide potable water to the general population; in the long run the cost for treated
water would be less than the cost for medicines for curing water-borne diseases.
 Set up a lead agency to coordinate water-related organizations, and for water quality
control, management, and planning (urgent).
 Introduce a water quality monitoring programme at national level through a proper
agency.
 Provide appropriate techniques for rainwater harvesting, particularly for major urban
areas in Nepal, as there is a great seasonal disparity in rainfall distribution.
 Conduct effective awareness activities about conserving water quality and quantity in
all parts of the country.
 Introduce techniques to recycle domestic grey water.
 Minimize leakage of piped drinking water through adopting efficient monitoring
mechanisms.
 Carry out research on water source protection and management.
 Introduce on-site treatment plants for treating domestic waste at the community level.
 Analyze the effect of water-borne pollutants such as heavy metals on health.
 Adopt and enforce industrial effluent standards.
(c) Emerging issues
(i) Inadequate supply of drinking water
This is basically related to the demand for water for household consumption and other
economic activities such as industry, hotels and restaurants, transport, and others. The piped
water supply is far below the needs of the people. The gap between demand and supply is
widening each year.
(ii) Deteriorating quality of water
The quality of water for drinking purposes has deteriorated because of the inadequacy of
treatment plants, direct discharge of untreated sewage into rivers, and inefficient technical
management of the piped water distribution system. Also the quality of water in rivers,
ponds, and lakes in major urban areas is deteriorating rapidly. As a consequence of such
unhygienic water quality conditions, waterborne diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentery, and
gastro-enteritis occur often. These diseases are prevalent in both urban and rural areas
throughout the kingdom. The aesthetic value of the so-called sacred rivers, lakes, and ponds
has been badly damaged. Therefore, their religious importance and recreational activities,
such as bathing, swimming, and fishing in the rivers, have declined.
(iii) Depletion of groundwater table and drying up of spring sources and ponds
The overexploitation of groundwater not only affects the groundwater table but may also
have adverse health effects due to the change in the geological source.
87
(iv) Water rights

Awareness in local communities of Nepal is rising about water-use rights to the streams
flowing through their own areas.
88
SOLIDS WASTE
INTRODUCTION
In general terms, Solid Waste (sometimes called refuse) can be defined as waste not
transported by water, which has been rejected for further use. For municipals solidwastes,
more specific terms are applied to the putrescible (biodragadable) food wastes, called
garbage, and the nonputrescible solid wastes referred to as rubbish. Rubbish can include
verities of materials that may be combustible (papers, plastics, textiles etc) or non
combustible (glass, metal, masonry etc). Most of these kinds of waste are discarded on a
regular basis from specific locations. However, these are wastes sometimes called “special
wastes” such as construction debris, leaves and street litter, abandoned automobiles, and old
appliances that are collected at sporadic interval from different places.
The objectives of solid waste management are to control, collect, process, utilize, and dispose
of solid waste in the most economical way consistence with the protection of public health
and the wishes of those served by the system. Information on the amounts and characteristics
of solid wastes helps to explain why this “refuse” is now a major concern and why
conservation of these “resources” is receiving more attention. The root causes for the
increasing urgency of solid wastes problems are urbanization and industrialization.
Solid waste is an inevitable by-product of human activities. In the past, this was not a major
problem because almost everything was reused or recycled and whatever remained was taken
care of by nature. However, the introduction of new materials and changing consumption
patterns, especially in urban areas, have resulted in increasing volumes of waste and, as a
result, breakdown of traditional systems of waste management has taken place. In Nepal, as
in many other developing countries, these changes have taken place rapidly over the past few
decades, while the government and the people have failed to realize their serious implications
and the urgent need to address them. As a result, many cities in Nepal are now suffering from
the adverse impacts of unmanaged waste. The problem is acute, particularly in large cities
like Kathmandu, Lalitpur, and Pokhara where improper management of waste has led to
environmental pollution, public health hazards, and adverse effects on an urban economy that
depends heavily on tourism.
PRESSURE
Urbanization in Nepal is characterized by rapid and haphazard growth, and this has exerted
tremendous pressure on the urban environment as well as on the capacities of the government
and the people to manage this change. One of the most visible indicators of this growth is the
heaps of garbage that can often be seen littering the city streets or at dump sites on river
banks and in other public places
 Rapid and haphazard urban growth 6.5% per annum, the highest in south Asia
 Migration to the cities especially from the hill areas
 Composition of municipals waste has changed tremendously with the introduction of
new materials such as plastics, paper, and glass
 People in large cities dump their waste on the streets or in other public places and
only a very small portion of the waste is recycled
 Use of chemical fertilizer in place of organic fertilizer derived from waste
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STATE
Compared to other countries, Nepal still generates very little waste and most of what is
generated is not hazardous and easily recyclable. Therefore, the increasing volumes of waste
being generated would not be a problem if waste was viewed as a resource and managed
properly. This, however, is not the case as most of the waste is just dumped in public places.
This is causing problems related to environmental pollution and public health, especially in
the big cities. The composition of solid waste in Kathmandu valley is shown in Table 2.
Table1: Composition of Waste in Kathmandu
Components % of waste (by weight)
19761 19812 19853 19884 19955 19996
Organic Materials 67.8 60.0 67.5 58.1 65.0 67.5
Paper 6.5 19.3 6.0 6.2 4.0 8.8
Plastics 0.3 3.6 2.6 2.0 5.0 11.4
Glass 1.3 3.4 4.0 1.6 1.0 1.6
Metals 4.9 3.4 2.2 0.4 1.0 0.9
Textile 6.5 5.3 2.7 2.0 3.0 3.6
Rubber and leather 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 1.0 0.3
Wood 2.7 1.6 0.0 0.5 3.0 0.6
Dust/construction debris 10.0 3.4 15.0 28.9 17.0 5.3
Sources:
1. Mean value of two samples taken at Thamel on 30/7/76 and at Bhonsiko Street on 3/8/76
(Tabasaran 1976)
2. Tabsaran and Bidlingmaier’s report on the possibility of composting municipal waste in
Kathmandu Valley (Mutz 1990)
3. Survey on waste generation in households and small shops in Kathmandu and Patan
(Mutz 1990)
4. Survey of waste from six sites in Kathmandu conducted in May 1988 (Mutz 1990)
5. Survey conducted by NESS (Thapa and Devkota 1999)
6. Average of samples from seven sites (RESTUC 1999)
a) Municipal Waste
Households are the main sources of solid waste in Nepal. Based on the figures estimated for
the urban population and the assumption of per capita waste generation ranging from 0.25 to
0.5 kg/day depending on the size of the city (Table 2), it is estimated that, in 1997, the
residents of the country’s 58 municipalities generated approximately 304,848 tonnes of
municipal waste. This accounts for about 83% of all solid waste generated in Nepal. In
comparison, agricultural waste accounts for 11% and industrial waste for 6% of the total
solid waste.
Table2: Per capita municipal waste generation
-
Municipality classes by Estimated waste generation

population size (kg/person/day)
Less than 20,000 0.25
20,001 to 50,000 0.30
50,001 to 100,000 0.35
100,001 to 400,000 0.40
More than 400,000 0.50
Source: Mishra and Kayastha (1998)
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b) Hazardous Waste
Due to the low level of industrialization and limited use of hazardous chemicals, such as
pesticides and persistent organic pollutants, it is safe to say that Nepal probably generates
very little hazardous waste compared to other countries. Hazardous waste is, however, a
major concern because the small amount that is generated is not properly managed and
policy-makers and society as a whole have not taken any steps to minimize the potential
environmental and health risks associated with such waste.
The main types of hazardous waste generated in the country are medical waste, obsolete
pesticides, batteries, and a few types of industrial waste. Tuladhar (1999a) estimated that a
total of 6,521 hospital beds in Nepal generated approximately 500 tones of hazardous waste
per year. Most of the waste is mixed with other garbage and is either dumped or burned in
ordinary kilns.
RESPONSES
‘Out of sight, out of mind’, is the most common response to the problem of solid waste
management in Nepal. The attitude of most people as well as of the authorities is to sweep
the streets and dump the garbage in an area where no one will complain. Waste is often
treated as a nuisance rather than a resource, and the long-term implication of poorly managed
waste is not considered seriously. The country has formulated some policies on waste
management, but implementation of these policies is clearly lacking. In recent years,
however, the waste management crisis in Kathmandu has prompted local community groups
and the municipalities to make some improvements. There is now an urgent need to build on
these efforts and coordinate the activities of the government, municipalities, and local
communities. Followings are the some responses followed by country;
 Implementation of the solid waste management project with support of the German
government (1980)
 Establishment of solid waste management and resource mobilization centre
(SWMRMC)
 Establishment of a small compost plant at Teku and the Gokarna landfill
Currently SWMRMC is only a small unit under the ministry of local development.
 Solid Waste Management National Policy 1996
 Local Self Governance Act, 1999 makes the municipalities totally responsible for
solid waste management
 Cities such as Kathmandu and Biratnager have begun involving the private sector in
waste management.
The National Policy which has the following objectives to be fulfilled through different
agencies in central level, municipality level, local community, private sector and I/NGOs.
 To make solid waste management simple and effective
 To minimize environmental pollution and adverse effects on public health caused by
solid waste
 To mobilize solid waste as a resource
 To privatize solid waste management
 To obtain public support by increasing public awareness about waste management.
 Recycling will be promoted by motivating people engaged in the recycling business
 Make legal provisions for mobilizing NGOs and the private sector effectively in the
field of waste management
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Table3: Method of household waste disposal

Method of waste disposal Households Households All house-
with toilets (¾) without toilets (¾) holds (¾)
Dumping in public places 21.19 24.95 22.10
Dumping in fixed places 28.52 9.64 23.97
Picked up by waste collector 21.33 2.36 16.76
Burying or burning 18.25 13.58 17.12
Composting 8.43 35.32 14.92
Other 2.27 14.14 05.13
Source: CBS (1997)
IMPACTS
Very few studies have been carried out on the impacts of municipal waste on the surrounding
environment and human health. One major impact of municipal waste is on the health value
of rivers and the health of the street people working with waste. Throwing household waste
into local streams has affected the quality of water in local streams as well as the aesthetic
value of the cities of the Kathmandu Valley. A study of health hazards to municipal sanitary
workers in Kathmandu indicates that scheduled caste people working with municipal waste
particularly have become prone to health hazards on account of their lacking awareness of
the changing pattern of waste and of not using protective measures while collecting it. Such
impacts are also observed on their infants and children because they often carry them while
working with municipal waste. Because there are no protective measures, such workers most
likely carry the pathogens from their working places and may transmit them to other family
members at home.
GAPS
(i) Policy gaps: Similarly, many government regulations are also not synchronized with its
policies. The scrap tax, which is charged by the District Development Committees (DDC)
and the SWMRMC, on materials collected for recycling, is a perfect example. While the
policy says recycling should be promoted, the scrap tax is hurting the recycling industry.
Instead of abolishing this regressive tax, the government has recently increased the rates on
the request of the DDC. The scrap tax needs to be abolished.
The current legislation for waste management, the Solid Waste Management and Resource
Mobilization Act (1987), is obsolete and needs to be changed. A new legislation on waste
management, which clearly defines the responsibilities of various organizations, such as
municipalities, SWMRMC, MoPE, Ministry of Health, and so on, and states the applicable
standards and guidelines for effective waste management practices, should be enacted.
There is also an urgent need to develop policies and legislation related to hazardous waste
management. The government should also clarify responsibilities for managing various types
of hazardous waste and issue guidelines for their handling, storage, transportation, treatment,
and disposal.
(ii) Information gaps: Effective management of waste requires information on the amount
of waste generated, characteristics of various types of waste, resources allocated for waste
management, effectiveness of waste management systems, and impact of waste on human
health, the environment, and the economy. This information is lacking. There should be a
system for regularly collecting such information and storing it so that it is easily accessible,
can be used for analysis for planning and management purposes, and can be disseminated to
92
all stakeholders. At the municipal level, municipalities should be responsible for collecting
and managing this information; and at the national level, SWMRMC should be responsible
for collecting the information from all the municipalities and regularly monitoring their
activities.
CONCLUSION
Rapid and haphazard urbanization has led to increasing volumes of waste being generated in
the urban areas of Nepal. Although the total amount of waste is still small compared to other
countries, poor government response and weakness of institutions at the local level have
resulted in improper management of the waste. This is causing major problems related to
environmental pollution and public health, especially in Kathmandu. The problem is
therefore more at the institutional and managerial level than technical. If left unchecked, the
waste management problem is expected to become more severe in the future because of the
continued increase in the amount of waste generated and in the generation of potentially
hazardous waste. In recent years, some municipalities and communities have started to take
effective action such as door to door collection, composting, involving the private sector, and
mobilizing public participation. The challenge is to replicate these efforts on a larger scale
and coordinate efforts to solve the growing problem of waste management. More efforts are
required to create awareness among city dwellers at the local level about managing solid
waste.
RECOMMENDATIONS
 There is an urgent need to prepare plans and programmes to implement the Solid Waste
Management National Policy (1993).
 New legislation to replace the Solid Waste (Management and Resource Mobilization) Act
(1987) should be enacted.
 The government should define hazardous waste and formulate appropriate policies,
legislation, and guidelines for its management.
 The Scrap Tax, which discourages recycling of waste, should be abolished and incentives
should be provided for promoting recycling.
 As organic waste is the main type of waste currently not being recycled, production of
organic fertilizer from waste should be promoted.
 The capacity of SWMRMC should be strengthened.
 The Ministry of Local Development should provide municipalities with technical and
financial assistance for managing their waste.
 As there is a significant gap in the information available on waste management issues,
regular waste surveys and analysis of waste management practices in various cities
should be conducted by the SWMRMC.
DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTE
Solid Waste Disposal, disposal of normally solid or semisolid materials, resulting from
human and animal activities that are useless, unwanted, or hazardous. Solid wastes typically
may be classified as follows:
Garbage: decomposable wastes from food
Rubbish: nondecomposable wastes, either combustible (such as paper, wood, and cloth) or
noncombustible (such as metal, glass, and ceramics)
Ashes: residues of the combustion of solid fuels
Large wastes: demolition and construction debris and trees Dead animals
93
Sewage-treatment solids: material retained on sewage-treatment screens, settled solids, and

biomass sludge
Industrial wastes: such materials as chemicals, paints, and sand
Mining wastes: slag heaps and coal refuses piles
Agricultural wastes: farm animal manure and crop residues.
SOLID WASTES DISPOSAL METHODS
Disposal of solid wastes on land is by far the most common method in the U.S. and probably
accounts for more than 90 percent of the nation's municipal refuse. Incineration accounts for
most of the remainder, whereas composting of solid wastes accounts for only an insignificant
amount. Selecting a disposal method depends almost entirely on costs, which in turn are
likely to reflect local circumstances.
A) Landfill
Sanitary landfill is the cheapest satisfactory means of disposal, but only if suitable land is
within economic range of the source of the wastes; typically, collection and transportation
account for 75 percent of the total cost of solid waste management. In a modern landfill,
refuse is spread in thin layers, each of which is compacted by a bulldozer before the next is
spread. When about 3 m (about 10 ft) of refuse has been laid down, it is covered by a thin
layer of clean earth, which also is compacted. Pollution of surface and groundwater is
minimized by lining and contouring the fill, compacting and planting the cover, selecting
proper soil, diverting upland drainage, and placing wastes in sites not subject to flooding or
high groundwater levels. Gases are generated in landfills through anaerobic decomposition of
organic solid waste. If a significant amount of methane is present, it may be explosive;
proper venting eliminates this problem.
B) Incinerators
In incinerators of conventional design, refuse is burned on moving grates in refractory lined
chambers; combustible gases and the solids they carry are burned in secondary chambers.
Combustion is 85 to 90 percent complete for the combustible materials. In addition to heat,
the products of incineration include the normal primary products of combustion carbon
dioxide and water as well as oxides of sulfur and nitrogen and other gaseous pollutants;
nongaseous products are fly ash and unburned solid residue. Emissions of fly ash and other
particles are often controlled by wet scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators, and bag filters.
C) Resource Recovery
Plant generates energy from Garbage. Garbage is converted to useful energy in this solid
waste plant. The plant generates energy for businesses in downtown Akron, Ohio, by burning
certain types of refuse in a high-temperature furnace. Steam produced by incineration drives
a turbine on a generator, and the energy from the generator is converted for use in the city.
Numerous thermal processes, now in various stages of development, recover energy in one
form or another from solid waste. These systems fall into two groups: combustion processes
and pyrolysis processes. A number of companies burn in-plant wastes in conventional
incinerators to produce steam. A few municipalities produce steam in incinerators in which
the walls of the combustion chamber are lined with boiler tubes; the water circulated through
the tubes absorbs heat generated in the combustion chamber and produces steam.
Pyrolysis, also called destructive distillation, is the process of chemically decomposing solid
wastes by heat in an oxygen-reduced atmosphere. This result in a gas, stream containing
94
primarily hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and various other gases and
inert ash, depending on the organic characteristics of the material being pyrolyzed.
D) Composting
Composting operations of solid wastes include preparing refuse and degrading organic matter
by aerobic microorganisms. Refuse is presorted, to remove materials that might have salvage
value or cannot be composted, and is ground up to improve the efficiency of the
decomposition process. The refuse is placed in long piles on the ground or deposited in
mechanical systems, where it is degraded biologically to humus with a total nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium content of 1 to 3 percent, depending on the material being
composted. After about three weeks, the product is ready for curing, blending with additives,
bagging, and marketing.
Figure 1: Composting of Organic Waste

Waste from the garden, yard, and table does not have to be thrown away. It may be condensed and reused as a
fertilizer through a process called composting. A compost pile may be built by layering different kinds of waste
in a bin, leaving space between the layers for air to circulate. Nitrogen is added to the pile in the form of
manure, meal, or greenery to generate heat. Heat facilitates rotting and kills all undesirable organisms. Once the
pile is slightly dampened, it is covered. As heat and steam build up, the waste decomposes over time into a
nutrient-rich substance called compost. The compost is then applied to plants as a fertilizer.
E) Recycling
Recycling newspapers are shredded and bailed at the Dakota Recyclables Collection Center
in Minnesota. The papers will be used for making recycled paper products. Mixed resource
collection necessitates costly separation of paper from metal and plastics, while collection of
paper alone reduces the recycling costs.
The practice of recycling solid waste is an ancient one. Metal implements were melted down
and recast in prehistoric times. Today, recyclable materials are recovered from municipal
refuse by a number of methods, including shredding, magnetic separation of metals, air
classification that separates light and heavy fractions, screening, and washing. Another
method of recovery is the wet pulping process: Incoming refuse is mixed with water and
ground into slurry in the wet pulper, which resembles a large kitchen disposal unit. Large
95
pieces of metal and other nonpulpable materials are pulled out by a magnetic device before
the slurry from the pulper is loaded into a centrifuge called a liquid cyclone. Here the heavier
noncombustibles, such as glass, metals, and ceramics, are separated out and sent on to a
glass- and metal-recovery system; other, lighter materials go to a paper-fiber-recovery
system. The final residue is either incinerated or is used as landfill.
Increasingly, municipalities and private refuse-collection organizations are requiring those
who generate solid waste to keep bottles, cans, newspapers, cardboard, and other recyclable
items separate from other waste. Special trucks pick up this waste and cart it to transfer
stations or directly to recycling facilities, thus lessening the load at incinerators and landfills.
96
FOREST DEPLETION
INTRODUCTION
The forests of Nepal are the second largest natural resource after water. However, during the
last four decades, the forest area has decreased considerably due to uncontrolled use of
forests and their products. Diminishing forest area can be attributed primarily to the rapid
growth of population. The number of people dependent on agriculture is rising; and as a
result agricultural land has increased, mostly encroaching upon forest areas. One of the major
challenges faced by the country is how to conserve forest resources. Some programmes, such
as community forestry programmes, have carried out exemplary work on conserving forest
resources. But, on the other hand, there are also activities responsible for the dwindling of
forest resources in the country. It is important in this context to understand the status of forest
resources in terms of use and misuse, measures undertaken to conserve the forests, and
programmes laid down for the future by the national government. However, the forest data
available are characterized by being both scanty and scattered.
PRESSURE
The forest, according to the Department of Forest Research and Survey (DFRS 1999b), refers
to land having trees with more than 10% crown cover and not used primarily for purposes
other than forestry. This also includes temporarily cut forest area. Forest depletion refers to
the diminishing forests in terms of quantity and quality. Quantity refers to the gross area
covered by the forest whereas quality signifies the density of trees in the forest area.
Following are the pressuring factor for forest depletion:
 Population growth
 Increasing demand for fuel, timber, leaf litter and other forest products; fuel wood
constitutes 79% of total fuel consumption.
 Increasing the number of livestock; 10% of livestock feed comes from forest.
 Population migration to the Terai.
 Expansion of agriculture land along the hill slopes
 Building of Bhutanese refugee camps in and around the forests in eastern Nepal.
 Tran boundary smuggling of logs to India along the Indo-Nepal Border.
STATE
 Forest area down from 38% in 1978 to 29% in 1994; rate of deforestation 1.7% per
year- 2.3% per year in the Hills and 1.3% in the Terai.
Table1: Per capita forest distribution by physiographic zone
Physiographic regions Area Population Forest area Per capita
(‘000 ha) (‘000) ‘91 per 100 ha forest area
Mountain 3,507.8 1,442.3 3.37 0.08
Hill 7,203.2 8,413.4 33.80 0.29
Terai 4,007.1 8,635.3 29.86 0.14
Total/Average 14,718.1 18,491.0 29.00 0.23
Source: DFRS (1999a); CBS (1998)
 Growing stock of forests decreased from 522 million m3 in 1985-86 to 388 million m3
in 1999.
 Increase time for local inhabitants to collect fuel wood.
97
 Threat to biodiversity.
IMPACTS
The forest in Nepal has three important functions: production of goods, protection of natural
environment, and regulation of atmospheric conditions. In the Nepalese context, the
production function of the forest is to be enhanced for the economic benefit of the
community, while the protection and regulation functions are for ecological betterment. The
ongoing trend of deforestation is having a negative impact on both the production and the
protection functions of forests. Impacts of deforestation are perceived on the following
fronts.
 Impact on forest structure
 Impact on biodiversity
 Impact on ecosystem
 Impact on the atmosphere
 Impact on forest access
RESPONSES
Until 1951, the policies for forest development in Nepal adopted by the Rana rulers identified
forests located in strategic places for protection and maintenance as security zones for
defense. Forest resources were used as one of the main sources of government revenue. But
the land tax policy for agricultural development converted many forests into agricultural
lands in the Terai during this time. After 1951, the government undertook the following
activities with regard to forest resource development.
Policy:
 The Natural Forestry Plan 1976
 The Master Plan for the Forestry Sector 1989-2010
 Forestry Sector Policy 1989
 Nepal Environmental Policy and Action Plan 1993
Programme:
 Community forestry
 Leasehold forest management
 Protected areas and buffer zone management programme
 Biogas plants, improved cooking stoves
CONCLUSION
In order for the forestry sector to achieve significant growth and continue to contribute to
Nepal’s national economy, forest resources need to be used and managed in an integrated as
well as an intensive manner. There is also a need to ensure that ecological constraints are
addressed regularly and in a sustainable way. The main objective of forest resource
management should be to develop and implement an integrated programme of resource
management, including watershed management and biodiversity conservation.
There is a need to generate large-scale employment in the forestry sector through involving
people in forest management, protection, plantation, harvesting and transportation, and
wood-processing industries. Concomitantly, supplementary incomes can be generated for
rural farm families through community, leasehold, and private forestry. In this context, it
should be realized that generation of income and employment are more important than
government revenue alone and government agencies, NGOs, and private firms should work
98
constructively for the benefit of society. The new and more responsible roles of the Nepalese
forestry sector will guide it in new directions during the twenty-first century.
This objective calls for pragmatic and practical policies and legislations in forest
development. There is no doubt that the existing policies and legislation are not adequate.
Some of the issues that have been observed and discussed here should be addressed. The
changes needed in policy issues are stated below under recommendations.
(a) Gaps
Some of the data gaps identified in the forestry sector include the following.
 The total forest area that has been encroached upon by different sectors.
 Considerable numbers of trees are outside the public forest. Villagers use many of
them for fodder, fuel wood, and timber. Their existence therefore diminishes pressure
on the forest.
 However, there is a data gap on the area covered by such trees.
 There is no detailed information on endangered plant species. Surveys should be
conducted to collect information on such plant species.
(b) Recommendations
 All the forests of the Siwalik Hills need to be declared protected forests for
conservation of the ecosystem.
 Extensive plantation of trees should be undertaken wherever there are vacant public
lands such as village wastelands, in and around farms, rural and urban parks, temple
and school premises, and along roads and rivers. NGOs should be involved
extensively in such activities. For this, the relevant government agencies should be
activated.
 Plant resources should be surveyed and catalogued so that the conservation of
endangered and vulnerable plant species can be carried out.
 The private sector should be encouraged to participate in the use and management of
forests as far as possible.
 The provision of a leasehold forestry programme for groups of people living below
the poverty line needs to be reassessed so that no conflict between the programme and
the User Group Community Forestry Programme exists.
 Public awareness about the importance of forests and the consequences of
deforestation is very important. Public awareness about forest conservation needs to
be raised through public media, posters, drama, school education programmes, and so
on. The local elite, political leaders, social activists, and NGOs should be involved in
public awareness programmes about forest conservation.
 Forest research should focus on basic issues of forest conservation at local level so
that more realistic measures and policy programmes can be devised.
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SOIL DEGRADATION
Soil is a mixture of mineral and organic components. Its degradation refers to diminishment
of the present potential capability of fertility. Soil degradation is of two basic types: soil
erosion and in situ soil deterioration. Soil erosion refers to the physical wearing down of the
earth’s surface and includes surface erosion and mass wasting. While surface erosion is the
loss of top materials due to the action of water or wind, mass wasting involves the movement
of large masses of fractured rock or other unconsolidated materials, including soil, from a
mountain slope. Soil erosion can either be natural or man-induced. In situ soil deterioration
includes acidification, loss of nutrients, salinisation, and others.
The magnitude of soil degradation in a place depends on the local geology, soil type,
landform, land use, rainfall intensity, and human activity. The flow diagram shown in Figure
1 summarizes the causes of soil degradation in Nepal.
Causes of Soil Degradation
Figure 1: Causes of soil degradation and their relationships, Nepal
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PRESSURE
Soil degradation is recognized as a serious environmental problem in Nepal. The country is
mountainous for the most part (>80%) and the terrain is rugged and characterized by unstable
and steep slopes, making it vulnerable to exogenous factors. Of these, the torrential monsoon
rainfall that occurs within a short span of time is an important cause of soil erosion from
mountain slopes. On the other hand, different forms of mass wasting, such as landslides,
slumps, rock falls, and river cuttings are responsible for sedimentation in the valleys, plains,
and river basins, which also causes degradation of soil fertility. Major factors affecting soil
degradation are as follows:
 Population growth
 Fragility
 Rainfall intensity
 Expansion of agriculture on to steep slopes
 Encroachment on forests
 Livestock pressure on grazing land
 Construction of roads over hill slopes
STATES
 High rate of erosion through the Hills, particularly on bare and cultivated land
 Occurrence of rapid erosion during pre monsoon season
 Siltation due to floods in valleys and plains
 Low soil fertility
Table1: Effects of erosion, landslides and floods on land and families
Particulars 1987 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1998 1999
Number of families affected 96,151 5,165 1,621 545 85,254 3,697 33,549 2,846
Degraded land area (ha) 18,860 1,130 280 140 5,580 390 326 69.5
Number of human deaths 391 307 93 71 1336 49 273 97
Source: MOHA (1999); DPTC (1997)
IMPACTS
The impacts of soil degradation are many and all are closely related to environmental
degradation. One of the direct impacts of soil degradation is the loss of fine topsoil. There is
also depletion of organic matter and plant nutrients along with the topsoil, which ultimately
affects soil fertility. Others impacts of soil degradation are as follows:
 Loss of fine top soil
 Impact on biodiversity
 Impact on ecosystem
 Depletion of organic matter and plant nutrients
 Loss of 5 tones/ha soil- equivalent to loss of: 75 kg/ha of organic matter, 3.8 kg/ha of
nitrogen, 10 kg/ha of potassium and 5 kg/ha of phosphorus.
 Landslides
RESPONSE
 Establishment of the Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management
(DSCWM) in 1974
 Soil and Watershed Conservation Act 1982 and its Regulation 1984
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 Community Forestry- more than 650,000 ha of public forests converted into

community managed forests
 Agricultural Perspective Plan (APP)
 Signatory to the United Nations Conventional to Combat Desertification,
Table 1: International conventions and treaties on soil conservation
Conventions Date Nepal’s Signature Main objective Major obligation
Plant Protection Prevent introduction
Agreement for South 27 Feb and spread of Regulate trade of plants
12 Aug ,1965
East Asia and the 1956 destructive plant and plant products
Pacific Region diseases and pests
Ensure conservation Prepare and implement

Convention on 5 Jun national strategies for
15 Jun, 1992 and sustainable use of
Biological Diversity 1992 the conservation of
biological resources
biodiversity
UN Convention to Prepare national action
17 Jun Combat plan and implement
Combat 12 Oct, 1995
1994 desertification programmes for poverty
Desertification
alleviation
CONCLUSION
(a) Gaps
 Lack of an exhaustive information base on different dimensions of soil
 Lack of economic analysis of soil erosion issues
 Lack of a coordinate agency
 Lack of information of shifting cultivation areas and cultivators
(b) Recommendations
 Population control
 Formulation of policies for sustainable use of land
 Promotion of use of combination of organic and inorganic fertilizers
 Practice of minimum tillage, mulching, planting hedgerows, and maintaining green
land cover
 Integrating management of soil fertility with land use activities
 Environmental regeneration activities like afforestration, management of degrade
lands, agro forestry, and horticulture
 Investment in erosion control measures
(c) Emerging issues
The following are the major emerging issues related to land resources.
 Land degradation caused by frequent landslides on the hill slopes and flash floods in
the lowlands of the Terai.
 The expansion of agricultural land over sloping areas, encroachment upon forest areas
 Diminishing fertility of agricultural land due to loss of topsoil
 Bank erosion by rivers
 Increasing dependency on agriculture
 Skewed distribution of land holdings
 Uncontrolled land-use development
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HAZARDOUS WASTES
INTRODUCTION
Hazardous wastes have been defined by the federal Environmental Protection Agency as
wastes that pose a potential hazard to humans or other living organisms for one or more of
the following reasons: (1) Such wastes are nondegradable or persistent in nature; (2) their
effects can be magnified by organisms in the environment; (3) they can be lethal; or (4) they
may cause detrimental cumulative effects. General categories of hazardous wastes include
toxic chemicals and flammable, radioactive, or biological substances. These wastes can be in
the form of sludge, liquid, or gas, and solid.
Radioactive substances are hazardous because prolonged exposure to ionizing radiation often
results in damage to living organisms, and the substances may persist over long periods of
time. Management of radioactive and other hazardous wastes is subject to federal and state
regulation, but no satisfactory method has yet been demonstrated for disposing permanently
of radioactive wastes.
Hazardous Wastes, solid, liquid, or gas wastes that can cause death, illness, or injury to
people or destruction of the environment if improperly treated, stored, transported, or
discarded. Substances are considered hazardous wastes if they are ignitable (capable of
burning or causing a fire), corrosive (able to corrode steel or harm organisms because of
extreme acidic or basic properties), reactive (able to explode or produce toxic cyanide or
sulfide gas), or toxic (containing substances that are poisonous). Mixtures, residues, or
materials containing hazardous wastes are also considered hazardous wastes.
Many dangerous substances can be used only with special precautions that decrease their
risks. When discarded, these substances are no longer under the direct control of the user and
may pose special hazards to people or other organisms that come in contact with them.
Because of such potential risks, hazardous wastes are processed separately from ordinary
wastes. In the United States in 1993, about 250 million metric tons of hazardous waste was
produced, and hazardous waste went to 2584 treatment, storage, or disposal sites.
SOURCES OF HAZARDOUS WASTES
A) Industrial Wastes
Hazardous wastes are generated by nearly every industry; those industries that themselves
generate few hazardous wastes nonetheless use products from hazardous waste generating
industries. For example, in the computer software industry, writing software generates little
hazardous waste, but the manufacture of computers involves many industrial processes.
Making a computer circuit board generates spent electroplating baths that contain metal salts,
and the production of computer chips uses acids, other caustic chemicals, and solvents. Other
hazardous wastes are generated in the manufacture of fiber optics and copper wire used in
electronic transmission, as well as magnetic disks, paper for technical manuals, photographs
for packaging and publicity, and trucks for transportation of the finished product.
B) Agricultural Wastes
Industry is not alone in generating hazardous wastes. Agriculture produces such wastes as
pesticides and herbicides and the materials used in their application. Fluoride wastes are by-
products of phosphate fertilizer production. Even soluble nitrates from manure may dissolve
into groundwater and contaminate drinking-water wells; high levels of nitrates may cause
health problems.
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C) Household Wastes
Household sources of hazardous wastes include toxic paints, flammable solvents, caustic
cleaners, toxic batteries, pesticides, drugs, and mercury from broken fever thermometers.
Local waste-disposal systems may refuse these items. If they are accepted, careful
monitoring may be required to make sure soil or groundwater is not contaminated. The
householder may be asked to recycle or dispose of these items separately. Renovations of
older homes may cause toxic lead paint to flake off from walls. Insulation material on
furnace pipes may contain asbestos particles, which can break off and hang suspended in air;
when inhaled, they can cause lung disease and cancer.
D) Medical Wastes
Hospitals use special care in disposing of wastes contaminated with blood and tissue,
separating these hazardous wastes from ordinary waste. Hospitals and doctors' offices must
be especially careful with needles, scalpels, and glassware, called “sharps.” Pharmacies
discard outdated and unused drugs; testing laboratories dispose of chemical wastes. Medicine
also makes use of significant amounts of radioactive isotopes for diagnosis and treatment,
and these substances must be tracked and disposed of carefully.
EFFECTS OF HAZARDOUS WASTES
Hazardous wastes may pollute soil, air, surface water, or underground water. Pollution of soil
may affect people who live on it, plants that put roots into it, and animals that move over it.
In Times Beach, Missouri, in 1983, oil contaminated with dioxin was spread on roads to keep
dust down; thus, residents were exposed to high levels of dioxin. Sludge from municipal
sewage disposal may contain toxic elements if industrial waste is mixed with domestic
sewage. If the sludge is used as a fertilizer, these elements may contaminate fields. Toxic
substances that do not break down or bind tightly to the soil may be taken up by growing
plants; the toxic substances may later appear in animals that eat crops grown there and
possibly in people who do so.
Air may become contaminated by direct emission of hazardous wastes. Evaporation of toxic
solvents from paints and cleaning agents is a common problem. The air above hazardous
waste may become dangerously contaminated by escaping gas, as can occur in houses built
on mine tailings or old dump sites. Basements of homes built over uranium mine tailings
often contain high levels of radioactive radon gas escaping from the radioactivity below.
River and lake pollution, if it is toxic enough, may kill animal and plant life immediately, or
it may injure slowly. For example, fluoride concentrates in teeth and bone, and too much
fluoride in water may cause dental and bone problems. Compounds such as
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), Poly chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and dioxins are
more soluble in fats than in water and therefore tend to build up in the fats within plants and
animals. These substances may be present in very low concentrations in water but
accumulate to higher concentrations within algae and insects, and build up to even higher
levels in fish. Birds or people that feed on these fish are then exposed to very high levels of
hazardous substances. In birds, these substances can interfere with egg production and bone
formation.
Even pollution that is not toxic can kill. Phosphates and nitrates, usually harmless, can
fertilize the algae that grow in lakes or rivers. When algae grow, in the presence of sunlight,
they produce oxygen. But if algae grow too much or too fast, they consume great amounts of
oxygen, both when the sun is not shining and when the algae die and begin to decay. Lack of
oxygen eventually suffocates other life; some living things may be poisoned by toxins
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contained in the algae. This process of algal overgrowth, called eutrophication, can kill life in
lakes and rivers. In some cases, particular algae can also poison the drinking water of people
and livestock. Underground pollutants can be carried by underground water flow. These
wastes form spreading underground plumes (long, featherlike columns) of contaminants,
which may reach the surface if the water emerges in a spring or is pumped by wells.
HAZARDOUS WASTE CONTROL
A) Source Reduction
The best way to eliminate hazardous wastes is not to generate them in the first place. For
example, improvements have been made in the production of integrated circuits: The toxic
chlorinated hydrocarbons commonly used in the 1970s were replaced in the 1980s by less
toxic glycol ethers and in the 1990s by low-toxicity esters and alcohols.
B) Recycling
Recycling is the recovery or reuse of usable materials from waste. About 5 percent of
hazardous waste in the United States is recycled as solvents; a similar amount is recovered as
metals. For example, approximately 15 percent of sulfuric acid is recycled in chemical
manufacturing. In the past, most sulfur used for sulfuric acid production was mined; now the
amount of sulfur recovered from smelters (facilities that remove metals from ores), refineries
(facilities that purify substances), and manufacturers is more than double that produced by
mining.
In the United States, the practice of using industrial wastes, which often contain hazardous
wastes, as ingredients in commercial fertilizers is encouraged as a means of recycling
hazardous wastes. The safety of this practice has recently been called into question, however,
and some states are starting to regulate it.
C) Treatment
Wastes may be made less hazardous by physical, chemical, or biological treatment. Nearly
10 percent of hazardous waste in the United States is treated with water; another 11 percent
undergoes other treatment. For example, sodium hydroxide has been used to treat acid wastes
at integrated-circuit plants. Some newer plants now treat hydrofluoric acid wastes with lime,
producing relatively harmless calcium fluoride, the mineral fluorite. Sulfuric acid wastes, if
not recycled, can be treated with ammonia wastes from the same plant, forming ammonium
sulfate, a fertilizer.
Incineration has been used since human beings learned to control fire. It is the preferred
method of handling infectious medical wastes. However, it should not be used for wastes that
contain toxic heavy metals or chlorinated hydrocarbons: When burned, old painted surfaces
can release lead or arsenic into the air, whereas chlorinated hydrocarbons produce
hydrochloric acid and dioxins. Solids left over from incineration may have to be disposed of
as hazardous waste. About 6 percent of hazardous waste in the United States is incinerated,
and another 11 percent is burned along with fuel.
Solidification of wastes involves melting them and mixing them with a binder, a substance
that eventually hardens the mix into an impenetrable mass. One suggested treatment of
radioactive waste involves turning it into a glass through a process known as vitrification.
Approximately 8 percent of hazardous waste in the United States is stabilized kept from
moving through groundwater and air. Sometimes waste can be stabilized on-site; simple
remedies such as covering the waste may be sufficient. Other stabilization methods involve
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building a barrier around the waste. This barrier can be of plastic, steel, concrete, clay, or
even glass.
D) Disposal
Surface impoundment (placing liquid or semi liquid wastes in unlined pits) keeps waste in
long-term storage, but it is not considered a method of final disposal. About 8 percent of
hazardous waste is injected into deep wells; 21 percent enters landfills (large, unlined pits
into which solid wastes are placed) as its ultimate resting place.
The serious problem of underground plumes of hazardous materials leaving the original
disposal sites has only partial solutions at this time. The typical method of handling this
problem is the drilling of wells around a plume's perimeter. Hazardous materials are then
removed from some wells, and water may be injected into other wells to produce a barrier to
the plume's motion. Drilling wells and monitoring holes near a toxic site carries risks; a
plume originally confined between strata (horizontal layers of rock) may penetrate vertically
through a drilled hole and escape confinement.
A recent method of treatment for shallow plumes of chlorinated solvents depends on their
chemical reactivity. A trench is dug around the leaking waste site and filled with a mixture of
soil and powdered iron. The iron then reacts with the chlorinated solvents, turning them into
simple hydrocarbons, which are less hazardous.
TECHONOLOGICAL IMPACTON DIFFERENT ASPECTS
IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON ECONOMICS SYSTEM
Technology, the application of scientific discoveries to the production of goods and services
that improve the human environment it includes the development of new materials,
machinery, and processes that improve production and solve technical problems. Since
World War II, technology has been increasingly applied at the microscopic level. Recent
advances include the development of computers, the invention of the laser and new synthetic
substances, improvement in medical research, and space travel and exploration. Technology
has also created such problems as technological unemployment and environmental pollution.
Technology and educational system of nation are interrelated. If a nation has a good
economic situation it can advance its technology and if the nation has an advanced
technology then the economic condition of the nation is improved. Due to the advancement
of technology there are three major changes in the economic situation
A. Increase the productive power of society: By using the latest technical equipment modern
society can produce the good in large scales but these equipments may shift the labor force
and create unemployment of the society. This effect of replacement of the man by the
equipment is significant in economy.
B. Increased technology has also altered the nature of consuming matter and also the
consumption rate in the society. This consuming matter includes transportation,
communication, health, education and other main component for our life.
C. The use of computers and telecommunication system increased the multinational banks
and corporation. Thus the money moves rapidly from one hand to another. Rules and
regulations made by the government also play an important role in the economic situation of
the society. Government should provide security, education and advanced technology so that
money of the society will rise. On the other hand business man should control the price,
shortages and excess of goods and should be able to fulfill the employees’ requirement.
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These days, technology is mostly designed to increase industrial output by rationalizing the
production process. Over the course of the nineteenth century, machines had begun to replace
skilled craftsmen. Yet because of their specialized knowledge, the more skilled workers
continued to exert considerable control over the pace of work, the methods used, and the
levels of output. At present age, it has been proved that to increase production, managers
must take control of the process, starting by doing time studies of each factory job. This
involved observing workers meticulously, analyzing each step in terms of time spent and
energy expended, and using the result to determine the best method for each task. Thus,
technology has changed the economic system of a country by industrialization,
commercialization and increasing the trade.
Here, it is to be noted that, economic system and technology for a nation are mutually
interrelated parameters. If a nation has good economic system, it can improve its technical
environment easily and quickly. On the other hand, if a nation has an advanced technological
system, it can quickly improve its economic condition.
Technology has also altered the nature of the consumption rate and consuming materials in
the society. Here the term material does not identify only to goods but to all those things that
are put down by the society such as education, health, transportation etc. these factors will
also affect the economic system.
By the introduction of computers and telecommunication, the transaction activity within the
institutional banks and corporations has increased very fast. Money moves at a very fast rate
around the world. This alters the economic system of whole world very quickly. As a thumb
rule, the expenditure increases with increase in money speed.
IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EMPLOYMENT
The impact of technology on employment is both beneficial and adverse. The works
previously accomplished by clerks or machinist are nowadays accomplished by computers in
office information process or for numerical control of machine tools. So they become
unemployed unless they are retrained for new responsibility.
On the other hand, the use of computers has created new jobs too. Computer using
organization requires employee having skill of computer. Similarly the computer industry has
also created new job opportunities such as system analyst, computer programmer and
computer operator. Further, computers make possible the production of complex industrial
goods and service, so additional jobs are also created such as space exploration, micro
electronic technology and many scientific research.
On the other hand, in an industrial society, we have systematized the production of
knowledge and amplified our brainpower. To use an industrial metaphor, we now mass-
produce knowledge and this knowledge is the driving forces our economy. The new source
of power is not money in the hands of a few but information in the hand of many. Unlike
other forces in the universe, however knowledge is not subject to the law of conservation. It
can be destroyed, and most importantly it is synergetic that is, the whole is usually greater
than the sum of the parts. So, ultimately people are encouraged to involve in brain oriented
jobs that have great scope in modern society.
The productivity of knowledge is a key to productivity, competitive strength, and economic
achievement. Knowledge is the primary industry, the industry that supplies the economy the
essential and central resources of production.
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IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EDUCATION

In ancient times, people used slates and while color stone (especially limestone) for learning
and teaching purpose. After some years, people used paper pencils, book. Black boards etc.
But the recently available technologies like audiotapes and television are used for language
instruction and for prerecorded lecture demonstrations. The most advance technology on the
learning and teaching process is by the use of computer.
In the traditional way of education system, students cannot learn alone Students and teachers
meet in a classroom and exchange of information takes place. During those times, teachers
are the main resources of information. The modern technology in education system makes
the traditional education system obsolete because students can do their works alone and meet
the teacher occasionally, for the guidance. It might eliminate the traditional classroom and
teachers because students can get more information from various resources.
There are three major questions that have to be answered by the education theorists. Firstly,
the resources of information are much more in modern technological education system. So,
what information is needed for an education should be declared. Secondly the kind of
education that is best for technological society has to be known. Finally, selection of the most
important techniques of education from the many possibilities must be carried out
IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON SOCIAL VALUES
Due to technology, families are getting more and more facilities and their living standard is
being raised. They can use every kind of comfortness as they wish such as furniture, cloths,
entertainment such T.V., telephone, computer etc. The introduction of fuels and other energy
sources has replaced the physical activities to mechanical activities.
As we are human beings, more than half percent of our life remains within our family
boundary. But people are changing their family system along with the improvement of the
technology they have known and availability of physical facilities. Due to busy life, family
members get less time to discuss family problems. Hence the joint family system is now
being replaced by nuclear family system.
Within the family itself, every family member may have different fields of working and there
may not be any interconnection among them which may cause lack of information about
family problems among them. Every member has job oriented, commercialized thinking and
money minded. They are concerned for time saving. Sharing of time of the members within
the family is being decreased day by day resulting creation of conflict between the family
members.
In Nepalese family system, women mostly manage family system. Without effectiveness of
women in managing the family, the family system gets strongly damaged. So, technology has
also played great role in changing women life system. Followings are some examples:
1. Women are considered equal to men in all aspects.
2. Problem to dowry has been reduced to some extent.
3. Women in urban areas have got more opportunities to employment.
In present situation, every body should know the technological operation of tools, machine
and electronics, otherwise they will be back in technological society and their social value
will be less.
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OVERVIEW OF MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL DEVELOPMENTS AND

TRENDS IN NEPAL
1.0 Introduction
Nepal has an area of 147,181 sq.km and an average north-south width of 193 km and east-
west length of 850 km. It consists of three main physiographic regions, viz., Mountains,
Hills, and Terai (plains). Of the country’s total area, the mountain and hill regions together
account for nearly 77% while the Terai region accounts for the remaining 23% of the area.
But in terms of population, the Terai region had nearly 47% of the country’s estimated total
population of 22.37 million in 1999 and the Mountains and Hills the rest.
The overview of the general environmental conditions of the country is given under two
headings: environmental resources and social and economic driving forces. The country has
diverse environmental resources: water, forests, land, climate and weather, and biodiversity.
The country has enormous hydropower potential. Forests still occupy the largest proportion
of the land area. The diverse climatic condition makes it possible to grow a wide variety of
agricultural crops. With the diverse climatic conditions, together with the forests, the country
is rich in biodiversity. Due to the lack of capital and human resources, commitment on the
part of the government, and awareness among the general mass of the people, the country has
not been able to utilize these vast resources to the extent desired. The resources are
deteriorating instead. Landslides, soil erosion, deforestation, forest fires, and so on have
caused the land to deteriorate, water sources to dwindle away, rivers to flood, biodiversity to
deplete, and people to migrate into urban areas and elsewhere.
Urban areas have developed haphazardly creating acute problems of solid waste, water
pollution, air pollution, noise pollution, and others. The country has a broad-based population
structure, indicating a high fertility rate. The gainful population is increasing, and is quite
large compared to the availability of employment opportunities. Roads, the backbone of
industrial development and social, economic, political, and spatial integration, have not yet
reached all 75 district headquarters and, therefore, most of the human settlements cannot be
reached by road. The existing infrastructural facilities, including roads, electricity, health,
schools, and water are inadequate, not only for the needs of the people but also in terms of
use of existing resources.
2.0 Key National Environmental Issues
The key environmental issues of Nepal are related to forests, soil, solid waste, water, and air.
These environmental resource bases are described in terms of a pressure-state-impact-
response framework.
2.1 Forest Depletion
The forests, a major resource base of Nepal, cover an area of 42,682 sq.km, 29% of the total
land area, and shrub covers 15,601 sq.km or l0.6% of the total area. Forest depletion is one of
the major environmental issues in the country. The forests have decreased in both area
coverage and density over previous decades. Landslides, soil erosion, floods, encroachment
of forests by cultivated land and people for settlement, among others, have been responsible
for this.
 Out of the total land area in the country, the forest area, according to the Land
Resources Mapping Project (LRMP) accounted for 38% in 1978/79; in 1994 the area
had declined to 29%. The shrub area increased during the same period from 4.7 to
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l0.6%. This has been mainly due to uncontrolled cutting of trees for fuel wood and
forest clearance for agricultural land.
 Between 1978/79 and 1994, the estimated rate of annual deforestation in the Hills was
2.3% compared to l.3% in the Terai, while for the country as a whole it was l.7%.
During the same period, the annual decrease in forest and shrub together was 0.5%. In
terms of area, the forests of the country decreased by 24%, while shrub area increased
l26%.
 The agricultural area increased from 235,900 ha in 1980 to 2,968,000 ha in 1985 and
then remained constant up to 1999. This increment was mainly due to the encroachment
on forest areas. The forest was also encroached by development works and human
settlements. In eastern Nepal, the forest area decreased as a result of construction of
Bhutanese refugee camps in and around the forests.
 There has been a decrease in the growing stock rate of the trees. In 1985, the total
growing stock was 522 million cubic meters of bark up to 10 cm top diameter, and this
dwindled down to 387.5 million cubic meters in 1999. The growing stock for Sal
(Shorea robusta) in the Terai forests declined from 101 m3/ha to 72 m3/ha and for other
hardwood forests the decline was from 76 m3/ha to 58 m3/ha.
 Fuel wood constitutes 78% of the total fuel consumption and its use is one of the main
causes of forest depletion. This is basically due to the lack of alternative fuel to wood.
As a result, distances from the villages to the forests have increased.
 The forest has also been under great pressure from the ever-increasing demand of the
livestock population for grazing and fodder.
 Species of flora and fauna have also declined due to forest depletion. In 1996, 47
endemic plant species were found to be under immense threat. The country’s threatened
animal species, including mammals and birds, had shares of 3.8 and 2.3% respectively
of the world’s endangered species.
 Landslides, soil erosion, and floods have occurred as a result of the clearing of forests,
particularly in the hills. While sedimentation has taken place in downstream areas, the
occurrence of floods and landslides has also affected human life and property.
 Some government policies have appeared to contribute to forest depletion. For instance,
the ‘Private Forest Nationalization Act 1957’, which was implemented to consolidate
the protection and management of the forests, rather led to degradation of the forests by
providing people with uncontrolled access to forest areas. Similarly, the Land Tax Act
1977 encouraged people to cut trees standing around their farms, as the act defined land
with forest as government land.
 Nepal has tried to mitigate forest depletion by passing legislation such as the Forest
Protection Act (1967), National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act (1973), National
Forestry Plan (1976), Master Plan for the Forestry Sector (1989-2010), Nepal
Environmental Policy and Action Plan (1993), Buffer Zone Regulation (1996), and
Plant Protection Act (1997) and introduction of programmes like the community
forestry programme. The government has adopted an appropriate technology for
alternative energy to fuel wood. The Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) has
prepared a twenty-year master plan to provide alternative energy sources such as
biogas, improved cooking stoves (ICS), and solar energy from photovoltaic systems.
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2.2 Soil Degradation

Nepal’s mountains and hills are inherently vulnerable to landslides and soil erosion. The
rapid growth of human and livestock population is putting severe pressure on Nepal’s natural
resources, especially soil.
 Deforestation, degradation of grasslands, encroachment of steep slopes, and intensive
agriculture are leading to soil degradation. Unbalanced use of chemical fertilizers is
also causing soil degradation through change in soil structure and acidification.
 Development works, particularly the construction of mountain roads without adequate
conservation measures, have also contributed to landslides and soil erosion.
Studies have shown that 60-80% of the total annual soil loss from cultivated terraces
occurs during the pre-monsoon season.
 The declining soil fertility has resulted in stagnancy in the production of major food
crops.
 The one-way flow of nutrients from forest to farmland has resulted in rapid depletion of
nutrients in forest soils.
 The Ninth Plan (1997-2002) realized that the decline in crop production is mainly due
to soil degradation.
 The policy responses of the government in terms of addressing the problem of soil
degradation are the establishment of the Department of Soil Conservation and
Watershed Management; formulation of the Soil and Watershed Conservation Act 1982
and its Regulations 1984; Forestry Master Plan; Community Forestry Programme; and
Agricultural Perspective Plan.
2.3 Solid Waste Management
Solid waste management problems are caused by the introduction of plastic materials and
changing consumption patterns, especially in urban areas, and these have resulted in an
increase in the volume of solid waste.
 The urban population makes up about 15% of the country’s total population. However,
the rapid growth in urban population by over 5% per annum in Nepal has exerted
tremendous pressure on the urban environment. One consequence of this is an
increasing amount of garbage, which is often seen littering city streets or in dumps on
the river banks and in other public places.
 Urbanization in Nepal is characterized by haphazard and unplanned urban growth,
inviting many environmental problems such as encroachment of public areas and river
banks, air pollution, water pollution, and solid waste. Among these, solid waste seems
to be the most visible problem.
 Households are the main sources of solid waste in Nepal. The per capita waste
generation is estimated to be 0.48 kg per day. In 1999, about three million urban
residents in Nepal’s 58 municipalities generated a total of 426,486 tones of waste, to
which the city of Kathmandu alone contributed 29%. Of the total waste generation in
the country, solid waste made up about 83%, agricultural waste constituted 11%, and
industrial waste accounted for 6%.
 The major types of hazardous waste generated in the country are medical waste, battery
wastes, pesticides, and a few types of industrial waste. An estimated 500 tones of
hazardous waste is generated per year from hospitals and 235 tones from dry cell
batteries including factory waste. Most of these wastes are either dumped with the rest
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of the garbage or burned in ordinary kilns. The total consumption of pesticides in the
country is approximately 55 tones of active ingredients per year. BHC, aldrin, and
endosulfan are commonly used pesticides. Most unused pesticides are thrown on to
open dumps. Obsolete pesticides are classified as hazardous waste. Currently, about 67
tones of obsolete pesticides are stockpiled in unsafe conditions at various locations in
the country. In 1980 solid waste management was introduced by establishing the Solid
Waste Management and Resource Mobilization Centre (SWMRMC) and a landfill site
for solid waste in Kathmandu. Other policy responses include the Solid Waste
Management National Policy (1996), Local Self- Governance Act (1999), and the
involvement of the private sector in waste management in Kathmandu and Biratnagar.
2.4 Water Quality
Rivers and groundwater are major sources of drinking water in Nepal. Over time, the
country’s requirements for water for drinking and personal hygiene, agriculture, religious
activities, industrial production, and hydropower generation have increased.
 Major towns and cities in the Hills have acute problems of water availability. In the
Kathmandu Valley, water supply meets only 79% of the total urban demand of 145
million liters/day during the rainy season. The carpet industries alone consume about 6.1
million liters of water per day and generate 5.5 million liters of waste water daily.
 In 1998, the total annual withdrawal of water for consumptive uses was 16.70 billion
m3/year, which accounted for 7.4% of the total capacity. In 1994, it was 5.8%. In other
words, the annual per capita withdrawal of water was 760 m3 in 1998, an increase from
650 m3 in 1994.
 Nepal’s rural settlements and the majority of urban areas do not have access to sewerage
networks. The domestic waste water generated by these areas is discharged into local
rivers without treatment.
 Forty per cent of Nepal’s total industrial units (4,271) in 1992 were related to water
pollution. In Kathmandu Valley, this accounted for 57% of total industrial units (2,174).
All industrial wastes in most cases are directly discharged into local water bodies without
treatment.
 The use of chemical fertilizers (NPK) per hectare increased tremendously from 7.6 kg in
1975 to 26.6 kg in 1998.
 The decline in forest area reduced the water recharge capacity of groundwater sources.
 The water quality of rivers and lakes flowing through the large urban areas is
deteriorating.
 The water quality of rivers flowing in remote areas is still acceptable. The quantity of
water for household uses is severely limited and the quality of drinking water is poor in
most cases, mainly due to the lack of treatment plants.
 The rivers are also major places for disposal of urban solid waste and industrial effluents.
 Patient visits to hospitals because of diarrhea problems have increased tremendously. A
report obtained from a local hospital in Kathmandu showed that 16.5% of all deaths were
due to water-borne diseases.
 Rivers, ponds, and lakes, particularly in the major urban areas, have been greatly affected
by dumping and discharging of household waste, sewerage, and industrial effluents into
them. The aesthetic value and biodiversity of water bodies have also been affected.
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 The policy measures for water resource conservation include the Water Aquatic Animals
Protection Act (1965), Solid Waste Act (1987), Solid Waste Regulations (1989), Water
Resources Act (1992), and Resources Regulations (1993).
2.5 Air Pollution
Air quality, particularly in the large urban areas of Nepal, has deteriorated. Several factors
are responsible for this.
 The energy supply in Nepal comes largely from traditional sources such as fuel wood,
agricultural residues, and animal waste. These sources make up nearly 90% of the total
energy consumption. Other sources like petroleum fuel, coal, and electricity share the
remaining 10%.
 The number of vehicles is rising rapidly, particularly in the major urban areas. The total
number of vehicles in the country increased from 75,159 in 1990 to 220,000 in 1998. The
two-wheeler was the largest, accounting for nearly 51% of the total vehicles. As a
consequence, the consumption of petrol and diesel increased from 31,056,000 liters and
195,689,000 liters in 1993 to 49,994,000 liters and 315,780,000 liters in 1998. All the
vehicles (four wheels and two wheels) are responsible for emitting pollutants such as
carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide, suspended particulate
matter, smoke, and soot.
 In 1994, Nepal’s total industries numbered 4,487, of which 74% were classified as air
polluting industries. Of the total air polluting industries, Kathmandu alone had 33%.
 Emission of carbon dioxide was estimated to be 15.45x107 tones in 1999. Annual
emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) from petroleum products was estimated at 72,000
tones of carbon and 1790 tones of nitrogen from 1970-1990. Methane production was 1.2
million tones in 1997. Due to deforestation and burning of fuel wood, the concentration
of carbon dioxide (C02) in the atmosphere has increased. It is estimated that the annual
deforestation of 26,602 hectares of land has emitted 7.77 million tones of CO2 into the
atmosphere.
 The 1996 survey identified CFC-12 and HCFC-22 as the only ODS (Ozone Depleting
Substance) consumed in Nepal, about 29.058 tones and 23.04 tones per annum
respectively. There is no production of ODS substances in Nepal.
 The impacts of air pollution in Nepal are as follow.
Air pollution has had a direct impact on human health. Respiratory diseases
increased from 10.9% of the total outpatient visits (5,167,378) in 1996 to 11.6% of
the total outpatient visits (7,115,981) in 1998.
The inhabitants of Nepal’s mountain region are much more vulnerable to
respiratory diseases because of the burning of fuel wood in poorly ventilated
houses. Hospital records show that a greater number of respiratory diseases
occurred in the urban population than in the rural population; and this may be due to
the smoke and dust emitted from vehicles and industries. Acute Respiratory
Infection (ART) accounted for more than 30% of total deaths in children fewer than
five years of age. A significant proportion of the population, in both rural and urban
areas, is affected by bronchitis caused by domestic smoke.
The air quality in Nepal’s major urban areas has deteriorated because of the
emission of smoke from vehicular traffic. Dust particles emitted by cement factories
have caused an adverse impact on vegetation growth, as well as low visibility and
low degree of incoming sunlight.
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The measures undertaken by His Majesty’s Government of Nepal to mitigate air

pollution are the Industrial Enterprises Act (1992), Vehicles and Transport
Management Act (1993), Nepal Petroleum Products Act (1993), Nepal Mines Act
(1996), Environmental Protection Act (1996), and Nepal Vehicle Mass Emission
Standard (2000). Restriction of the registration of two-stroke engine vehicles in
important tourist towns is an important measure for mitigating air pollution in
Nepal. Nepal had ratified the Montreal Protocol in 1996 and, accordingly, the
Ministry of Industry has introduced activities to phase out ODS by 2010.
3.0 Conclusions
The discussion of the five key environmental issues, viz., forests, soil, solid waste, water,
and air, indicates that environmental conditions are deteriorating, despite several policy
measures undertaken by the Government of Nepal. The rapid and uncontrolled growth of
population and poor management and use of the available resources are the major reasons for
the deterioration. The reason for these is the inadequacy of capital and human resources and
lack of public awareness. For sustainable development of the environment, strong
commitment on the part of the government to implement programmes that are appropriate
and encourage already existing programmes is required.
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Er. Mukunda Neupane

Reader, Department of Civil Engineering
EVOLUTION OF HUMAN CIVILIZATION: AT A GLANCE
EVOLUTION OF EARTH
The most widely accepted theory about the origin of the universe is the Big Bang theory,
which states that the universe came into being in a huge explosion-the Big Bang -that took
place between 10 to 20 billion years ago. No body knows how big the universe is, but
astronomers estimate that it contains about 100 billion galaxies each comprising about 100
billion stars. There are small stars and there are massive stars. The sun is the star at the centre
of the solar system. It is about five billion years old and will continue to shine as it does now
for about another five billion years. The earth is the third of eight planets that orbit the sun.
The earth formed from a cloud of dust and gas drifting through space about 4600 million
years ago. The first primitive life forms algae and bacteria appeared around 3400 million
years ago. The first vertebrates appeared about 470 million years ago and the first land
animals came into existence about 370 million years ago.
Since the extinction of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago, mammals have been the dominant
vertebrates on the earth. Humans belong to the mammalian order of primates which
originated about 55 million years ago. Homosapiens (modern humans) appeared in Africa
(Rhodesian man) about 100,000years ago. However, we have history of civilization only for
5000 years.
EARLY CIVILIZATION
By 4000 B.C. there were quasi-civilized communities. It is in Mesopotamia and in Egypt that
first appears cities, temples, systematic irrigation and social organization indicating above the
level of barbaric village, town. They discovered the use of bronze and they built temples of
sun dried bricks. At the same time there were civilizations in China, India and South
America. Maya civilization of South America (Peru) invented potato which is available all
over the world.
When Hebrew (Jews) conquered Mesopotamia and Egypt nearly 4500 years ago, they built
Babylon the capital. They invented Semetics mixing Sumerian writing cuneiform (wedge
shaped) and Egyptian hieroglyphic (priest writing). All the major languages of the world
Sanskrit, Latin, Greek, French, Arabian and Portuguese etc. were derived from Semetics.
Only in China the pictorial writing was developed and later reached in Japan. The pictorial
writings do not have roots in Semetics. The language helped a lot to put agreements, laws
and record.
Semetics people (Hebrews) were settled in Judea long before 1000 B.C. and by that time they
had already Old Testament, the Hebrew Bible. The literature appears in history at least in the
two century B.C.Abraham, Moses, Hammurabi, Solomon ever if they were born before
1000B.C. Our Beda and Upanisada must have been documented by that time. Yoga Sastra
written by Patanjali was definitely there at that time and there are various techniques such as
yoga, meditation etc to achieve siddhi; the knowledge of past, present and future. It is very
likely that Hindu religion was also flourished in India during that time.
The Jews were persuaded that God, One god of the whole world, was a righteous god. But
they also thought of him as a trading god who made a bargain with their father Abraham
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about them. It is later Jesus Christ taught. His teachings are four gospels and kingdom of
heaven is main teaching of Jesus that God was no bargainer. God was loving father of all life.
And all men were brothers. His teaching condemned all private wealth and personal
advantages. He said that it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of needle, than for a
rich man to enter kingdom of heaven. Actually a series of writing by the follower of Jesus
had outlined Christian belief. The chief among the makers of Christian doctrine was St. Paul.
It is worth nothing that when St. Paul was teaching Christian doctrine, pyramids in Egypt
were already 3000 years old monuments.
Human begin enters into adolescence: The first man born with great wisdom is Gautam
Buddha nearly at 550B.C. about the same time when Isaiah was prophesying among the Jews
in Babylon. However, it is great Emperor Ashoka Maurya who helped to flourish Buddhism
in Kashmir, Persia, Ceylon, China and Alexandria (the capital of Roman Empire). Ashoka
ruled from Afghanistan to Madras from 264 B.C. to 236 B.C. The reign of Ashoka was one
of the brightest interludes in the troubled history of mankind. He organized digging of wells
and planting trees for shade. He founded hospitals and public garden and gardens for
growing of medical herbs. He created a ministry for the care of aborigines. He made the
provision for the education of women. Ashoka pillar at Lumbini authenticates that Buddha’s
home at Lumbini in Nepal. After 170 years of his death, Bikramaditya Maurya initiated new
Bikram Sambat Calendar, just 56 years and some months before the death of Jesus Christ. In
fact, in the sixth century B.C. human race had reached a stage of adolescence- after a
childhood of 20,000 years. In the same century two wise men Confucius and Lao Tse lived in
China and helped to arrive adolescence of mankind. The gist of the teaching of Confucius
was the way of noble man. He was concerned with personal conduct as much as Buddha was
concerned with peace of self forgetfulness and Greek with external knowledge and Jew with
righteousness. The teaching of Lao Tse was much more mystical and he seemed to have
preached a stoical indifference to the pleasures and power of the world and return to
imaginary simple life of the past. However, North China became Confucian in thought and
sprit and south China became Taoist. Two great religions of the world thus flourished.
At 900 B.C. Aryans were still barbarians. From 900 B.C. to 600 B.C., these Aryan people
subjugated the whole ancient world Sematic, Egyptian, Greek and Indian except China. In
India, speaking Sanskrit they pushed down Dravidian people to south and learned much from
them. The success of Aryans was indeed unparallel in ancient period. They were very vocal.
Nevertheless, the struggle between Semetics, Aryan and Egyptian idea still continues today.
We know that all the majors’ languages are based on Semetics similarly, Hindu gave
numbers but it is the Arabian to whom the credit had gone because they transferred those
numbers in the entire civilized world. However zero had been invented by the Arabians.
Decimal was also invented in India.
GREEK EXPERIMENTS
While the Hebrew prophets, Ashoka, Confucius, and Lao Tse were giving knowledge, the
Greek Philosophers were training the human mind in a new method and spirit of intellectual
adventure. The Greek tribe as we have found was a branch of Aryan stem. For over thirty
years (466 to 428 B.C.) Athens was dominated by Pericles who rebuilt Athens intellectually.
Socrates and his disciple Plato dominated after him. Then Plato’s pupil Aristotle’s work upon
methods of thinking carried the science of logic. He began the systematic collection of
knowledge which nowadays we call science. He was the father of history and founder of
political science also. In the second century A.D. the scientific leadership passed to
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Alexandria, the new trading city the great Alexander had founded. Here in museum of
Alexandria scientist like Euclid, Eratosthenes, Hipparchus, Hero (devised steam engine but
not materialized for more than 1000 years), Herophilus, Archimedes did experiments.
However, soon those scientific experiments ceased due to various reasons. The fall of Roman
Empire is also one of the causes. Nevertheless, at this time the whole Europe had accepted
the Christian doctrine and church dominated free thinking of human beings. Then Europe had
entered into the Dark Age.
In two century B.C., China started building the great wall and it look nearly five centuries to
complete it. Ajanta and Allora of India took about seven centuries to complete. However,
China was prosperous during this time and Mongolians have already been all over the world.
In Nepal the first inhabitants are likely to be Mongolians and now we are likely to mixture of
Aryan, Mongolians and Dravidians just as Europeans are mixture of Aryans, Mongolians and
Nordic (Blue eyed race).
At that time war used to be a common feature. Paper was invented in China at least in 200
B.C. but it reached in Europe only in the 9th century and good quality of paper was available
in Europe only in 13th century. During the war between China and Persia in the 5 th century
some prisoners held in Persia were Chinese paper markers. Arabian world knew how to make
paper from these prisoners. Similarly tea was also invented in China. Also wood-block
printing began first in China.
We are at the heart of Asia. Our festivals like Gai-Jatra, Indra-Jatra, Matsendra Nath ko
Ratha Jatra and other traditions have reached China, Korea and Japan. In Kyoto, the ancient
capital of Japan, all these festivals are celebrated till today.
From the fifth century onwards, Europe became more religious and entered the Dark Age,
however, scientific inventions were continued in China and Arab without knowing what is
happening in other parts of world.
In the beginning of the seventh century, another great man Muhammad began to preach
against the prevalent idolatry. He dictated a book of injunctions and expositions, the Koran,
which he declared was communicated to him from God. The Koran consists of all good
things which Christian doctrine have and excludes all those bad things it is so believed by
Muslims. Thus another great religion of the world began from this century.
ARAB’S SUPREMACY
As Islam flourished, the Arab empire became roasts powerful during this time. They learned
paper and printing from China, they came in touch with Indian mathematics and philosophy
they translated Greek literature. The seed of Aristotle and the Museum of Alexandria that had
lain so long inactive and neglected now germinated and began to grow towards fruition in
Arab. Very great advances were made in mathematics, medical and physical science. The
clumsy Roman numerical was replaced by the Arabic figures invented by Hindu sand the
zero sign was first employed. The very name algebra is Arabic. So is the word chemistry.
The Arab experimental chemist were called alchemist and even Newton was also an
alchemist. The Arabian came upon many metallurgical and technical devices of the utmost
value; alloys and dyes, distilling, tinctures and essences, optical glass etc. In summery at that
time The Arabians were masters and the Europeans were pupils.
MONGOLIAN’S VICTORY
In the beginning of the 13th century Jengis Khan, Mongolian Emperor conquered China,
Turkmenistan, Persia, Armenia, part of India down to Lahore, south Russia, and Hungary.
His successor Ogdai Khan founded permanent capital at Karakoram and completed the
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conquest of whole China and all Russia (former Soviet Union). Mangu Khan succeeded
Ogdai Khan as great Khan in 1251 and made his brother Kublai Khan Emperor of China.
Another brother Hulagu Khan became the emperor of Persia Syria and other Arab world.
Their descendent Baber conquested India and his grandson, Akabar (1556-1605) completed
his conquest and this Mongol or Mogul as the Arab called it, dynasty ruled India until the
18th century. However, the western mangolian became Moslim and chinese mangolian
became Buddhist. They opened Silk Road to Europe which helped, open interactions in ideas
and trade between Asia and Europe directly.
GREAT RENAISSANCE
13th, 14th and 15th century were brightest period of human civilization and it is known as the
renaissance of Europe. Good quality of paper and printing reached Europe. There was direct
contact and trading with Asia. Arabian literature and scientific experiments were translated
into common language. Common people started reading. Western Europe was revitalized
with this revival of intellectual knowledge. Rozer Bacon 1210 to 1239 A.D., the father of
modern experimental science deserves a prominence in our history second only to that of
Aristotle. He stressed on experiments and experiments. Marco polo, Columbus, Vasco-de-
gama traveled to unreached part of the world. Thus with substantial input form Semetic,
Mangol and Hindus and rediscovery of Greek classies, European Aryans became intellectual
and material leadership of mankind by the 16th century.
INDUSTRIALIZATION AND COLONIZATION
Aftermath of the great renaissance is industrial revolution. Industrial revolution differs from
mechanical revolution. Mechanically produced energy made free to human beings and being
slave. Prior to this only human muscle and sometimes draft animals were used for producing
energy and slaves were essential to do muscles work. However, factory methods came before
power and machinery; factories were the products not of machinery but of the “division of
labor”.
Great many discoveries took place in Europe at that time. Most note worthy are Science of
Geology by Leonardo-da-Vinci (1452-1519), Trevithick made the first locomotive in 1804,
investigation of voltage, Faraday and Galvani into various electrical phenomenon, discovery
of electric telegraphs in 1835, Blast Furnace in 18 th and later Open Hearth process, by 1909
aeroplane for human locomotion. Parallel with this extension of mechanical possibilities, the
new science of electricity and metallurgy grew up. The first underground cable was laid in
1851 between France and England. Clock was invented in the 14 th in Europe, prior to that
water clock which leaks water in certain intervals and stick and shade clock which did not
work at night were used.
These inventions and discoveries led to material growth and subsequent colonization by
European countries. The first overseas settlement of the Dutch was not for colonization but
for trade and mining. The Dutch, the Portuguese and the Spanish (not the British) were first
in this race. Spain claimed the domination of north and South America but the Portuguese
also asked for their share. The intervention of Pope made division possible Brazil to Portugal
and all the rest to Spain. Later, other states the Netherlands, England, Sweden also claimed
North America and West Indies. In the long run the English were victorious and the most
successful in this scramble for overseas possession including North America. In India also,
the Dutch, The French, the Portuguese came before the East India company. It was a private
company and only after the mutiny of troops in 1859, the empire of the East India Company
was annexed to British Crown by an Act, An Act for better governance. By 1790 all Africa
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was mapped, exploded, estimated and divided between Europeans power. In African
continent only three countries Liberia, Morocco, and Abyssinia remained unannexed.
The rise of German in the beginning of 20th century led to the First World War. In Russia
new social order took place. The Second World War is mainly due to dictator Hitler.
However, World War I and II help in discoveries of many new technologies especially in
speed and arms. Aftermath of war is the liberation of colonized countries. And another
important transformation of society took place that is the end of industrial era and beginning
to information age.
INFORMATION AGE
The information society had its beginning in 1956 when white collar workers in technical,
managerial and clerical position outnumbered industrial workers (blue color workers) in the
USA. The following year 1957 marked the beginning of the globalization of the information
revolution. The Russian launched Sputnik. The real important of Sputnik is not that it began
the space age, but it introduced the era of global satellite communication.
Today’s information technology from computers to cables television did not bring the
information society. It was already underway by late 1950s. Today’s sophisticated
technology (computer) only accelerated our plunge into information society. Similarly,
television did not make a global village but communication satellite transformed our world
into a global village.
In Europe and North America, thousands and thousands jobs were reduced in factories in last
fifty years. However, more than that job was created in information sector. Lawyers,
teachers, engineers, computer programmer, system analyst, architects, accountants,
Liberians, newspaper reporters, social workers, nurses, stock brokers, managers, insurance
people, bankers etc all are engaged in creating, processing and distributing information rather
than producing good. The transition from an industrial to an information society does not
mean manufacturing will cease to exist or become unimportant. Did farming end with
industrial era? 90% people produced 100% food in agricultural era; now 3% of people
produce 120% food in developed countries.
In an industrial society, the strategic resource was capital but in information society
information is wealth. The new source of power is not money in the hands of a few but
information in the hands of many. The information economy is real and it is renewable.
Computer technology is to the information age what mechanization was to the industrial
revolution.
However, a country like Nepal is in various stages of agricultural, industrial and information
society simultaneously. Nepal is predominantly in agriculture era. However, there is slender
base of industries. Now, it has also entered into information era. Similar comparisons are that
majority of Nepalese live in 19th century. A few live in 20th century and a handful live in 21 st
century.
Due to the information era, in the past forty years, the stock of scientific knowledge has been
increased many fold; one can imagine that among all the scientists of all the time, 90%
scientists are living today. In computer age we are dealing with conceptual space connected
by electronics rather than physical space connected by motor car.
IN FUTURE CONFLICTING ISSUES
Now, we have twin problems of population and environment. World population was three
billion in 1960 and by 1997 the world population became 6 billion. In 1925 the world
population was only two billion. In information age the growth of population is mainly due to
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better handling of information in health sector particularly in developing countries. This

increased in population had added many environmental concerns. Prior to information age,
only water pollution, sanitation and drinking water were main environmental issues. By
1980, Acid pollution, global warming, ozone layer depletion, declining fish population, soil
erosion, landslide, flooding, deforestation, air pollution, biodiversity are also added in the
agenda as major environmental issues. In Nepal, clean water and sanitation, soil erosion, and
landslide flooding, indoor air pollution in rural areas, conservation of biodiversity are priority
environmental concerns.
In future, it is certain that biotechnology (genetic engineering) will come into market
especially in health and agriculture sector. Human life will again enter different phase. How
easy that transformation will be and what will be environmental consequences no one really
knows. It took nearly 100 years for the transformation from the agriculture era to the
industrial era where as it took only two decades to enter information era from the industrial
era.
In South East Asia, we have nearly 1.5 billions populations now. It is very likely that the
population will double in 25 to 30 years time. In Nepal also the population will be nearly 5
crores in 25 to 30 years time. Our vision for future must consider this fact.
Even in this information age, there are millions of absolute poor in developing countries.
These poor people can not exercise their legal and political rights. Further more, they are
illiterate and no sanitation and no health facilities. This is a growing challenge for scientists,
technocrats, politicians and beaurocrats of all over the world. Can biotechnology help these
poor people of the developing countries or the bulk of benefit will be taken by developed
countries as a means of intellectual property right? But how can on the one side affluent
prevails and on the other side abject poverty remains? Similarly the impending crisis of fresh
water resources in the 21st century compounded with depletion of fossil fuel reserves will
bring real conflict between have and have not. To resolve all these issues human beings have
yet to struggle in political, social, economical and technological fronts continuously in the
21st century.
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Q.No.1 What is Acid Rain? How is it caused? Explain its impact on human health and
fish life?
Acid rain is term for polluted rainfall caused when sulphur and nitrogen dioxides combine
with atmospheric moisture to produce highly acidic rain, snow, hail, or fog. The pollutant
material brought down by the rains is called wet deposition and the materials reaching the
ground by gravity during intervals is termed dry deposition.
Industrial processes such as burning of fuels, smelting of ores, oil-refining and other
processes generally produce sulphur and nitrogen oxides. After SO 2 and NO2 are emitted into
the atmosphere, they are transformed into sulphate or nitrate particles and by combing with
water vapour, into mild sulphuric or nitric acids. These acids then return to the earth as dew,
drizzle, fog, sleet, snow hall or rain. This type precipitation is then called acid rain. The pH
value of “clean” rain is generally considered to be about 5.6; a measure whose slight acidity
comes primarily from the interaction of the rainwater with the carbon dioxide in the air. The
pH values of the acid rain ranges close to 4.0 and on rare occasions around 3.0
Environmental damage from acid rain has been reported in northern Europe and North
America. High levels of acid rain have also been detected in other areas of the world, such as
above the tropical rain forests of Africa.
Although some of the damage attributed to acid rains is a result of natural causes, it is
believed that much of the increase in the past half-century comes from the sulphur dioxides
produced by oil and coal combination and the nitrogen oxides emitted in automobile
exhausts. Other chemicals also contribute to the complex of reactions that cause
acidification-for example, ammonia from animal waste that is oxidized to nitric acid in soil,
and a class of chemicals called volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that also contribute to the
formation of ozone and other pollutants. When they are gaseous, these substances can be
carried for thousands of miles by the prevailing winds.
Scientists agree that acid rain is harmful, but reports concerning its severity conflict. The
major areas of concern due to the acid rain are on the effects of the acidity on fish
populations and other aquatic animals, to potential damages to crops and forests, and to
acceleration deterioration of the building materials, and the possibility that the acidic water
may infiltrate the around water storage and increase the solubility of toxic metals.
The greatest impact of acid rain is in the aquatic ecosystem. Increased acidity in the water
can cause various types of diseases among the aquatic life forms. Although fish can die of
increased acidity, more commonly they fail to reproduce. New generations fail to enter the
stock or enter in much diminished numbers. After a number of years of this reproductive
failure the species eventually die cut from that ecosystem. Many species of amphibians,
which breed in the temporary pools of spring rains and melted snow, are also affected due to
the acid rains. Most of the eggs and embryos either fail to hatch or deformity occurs.
Decline of the amphibian species, which from an important link in the food chain, can wreak
havoc on entire ecosystem.
Molluses (snails, mussels, oysters, etc.), with their calcium carbonate exoskeletons, are
strongly dependent upon calcium for their survival. Since acidic water readily dissolves
calcium carbonates these animals cannot survive in these waters.
Zoo plankton (microscope animals of various types) is extremely sensitive to increased
acidity in fresh waters and cannot survive increased acidic conditions. Since these are
important source of food for fish, elimination of these animals will also result in the demise
of many species of fishes even if they are directly not affected by the acidic conditions.
121
Acidity also affects the aquatic plant life. The green plants are the support system for the
entire aquatic ecosystem and destruction of plant life will result in the collapse of the entire
food chain.
The acid rain affects the human health by affecting the crops and the drinking water quality.
The ground water will be polluted by infiltration of the rain. In the rural areas depending
upon ground water and without effective treatment plants, the polluted water is directly
supplied for drinking. Acidification of drinking water will make it prone to contamination by
toxic acid soluble metals such as lead, copper, zinc, etc. which may be leached from the
supply pipes and containers and aluminum coming directly from the bed rock itself. The risk
that groundwater will become contaminated with heavy metals and aluminum will increase
substantially as the pH of the soil water drops to 4.0, leading to adverse health effects.
Most of the water supply pipes are either galvanized (zinc plated) or copper. Old lead pipes
also exist in some places. These pipes are corroded by acidic water. The metals leached from
these pipe walls can then directly reach human through water consumption with toxic effects
on the human health.
The occurrences of acid rains can be reduced by reducing the emissions of sulphur oxides.
This can be achieved by various means such as, the installation of scrubbers in smokestacks,
the burning of low sulphur oil and coal and the use of “cleaned” high sulphur coal, and the
installation of catalytic converters to clean automobile exhausts.
Q.No.2 What do you understand by information society? Discuss the impact of
computer and telecommunication for creating information society.
Industrial Revolution describes the historical transformation of traditional societies into
modern societies by industrialization of the economy. The main defining feature of the
revolution was dramatic increase in per capita production that was made possible by the
mechanization of manufacturing and other processes that were carried out in factories. Its
main social impact was that it changed an agricultural society into an urban industrial
society.
In similar terms, the information revolution describes the transformation of the industrial
society into the information society. The defining feature of the information society is that
the economy of a state or a nation is driven by the creation and the efficient use of
information. This does not mean that there is no manufacturing process. However, the
construction and manufacturing sector has expanded little while the information sector has
experienced a tremendous growth. The information society is based on the motto that
“Knowledge is Power”. The information society is basically future oriented.
In an information society (in most of the developed countries) most of the service workers
are engaged in the creation, processing and distribution of the information as programmers,
teachers, engineers, systems analysts, accountants, lawyers, stock brokers, insurance people,
scientists, technicians, bureaucrats, etc. Within goods manufacturing factory it selves many
workers hold information jobs. In the industrial society also some kind of knowledge was
required to do jobs. The difference between industrial and information workers is that for the
industrial worker the information is a means to achieve the final results, while for the
information worker the information is in itself the final result i.e. the creation, processing and
distribution of the information is itself the job. In an industrial society, the essential resource
was capital and since not many people had access to enough capital, the access to the
economic system was limited. But in the information society, the harnessing of the collective
122
information has become critical, where creative and innovative use of information can
provide a competitive advantage.
The impact on the information society by the advent of the computers in the 1950s and by the
development of the satellite technology has been of mammoth proportions.
Computer technology is to the information age what mechanization was to the industrial age.
With its unprecedented power for analysis and dissemination of extremely varied kinds of
data in unbelievable quantities and at mind-boggling speeds, the computer has become the
major force in the development of the information society. The development in the field of
computers has been colossal. The computing power of the early computers which covering
several rooms has been far outclasses by today’s computers which are far smaller than them.
It is said that computing power doubles every eighteen months. The number of people
utilizing this power of computers has grown also from only 1 million computers all over the
world in the beginning of 1980 to computers in almost every household today. One cannot
imagine today’s society without the computers. Computers are becoming smaller, shrinking
into palmtop devices and cellular phones, as vast amount of information becomes accessible
at all times.
The advent of the internet in the mid-1990s has given a new boots to the information age.
The internet has made it even easier for people to create process and disseminate
information. Also, with databases created around the world to tore information on the
finances, inventories, transaction records, personnel details, scientific data and other
information crucial to the businesses the internet has come as a boon to those wishing to
access this wealth of information.
The information age has also been greatly accelerated by the developments in the
telecommunications especially in the development of the communication satellites. People
now have the means to easily access and distribute the required information form anywhere
in the world.
Telecommunications networks have been enhanced in the last 30 years by new broadcasting,
wire, and optical transmission technologies. The communications satellite, for example,
overcomes the limitations that radio waves travel in more-or-less straight lines, which limits
their range unless they are bounced off the upper atmosphere. Communications satellites,
which are orbiting receive-and-retransmit broadcast facilities, vastly extend the range of
broadcast coverage: when they are interconnected broadcast signals can be sent to virtually
any spot on the Earth’s surface. Satellite telecommunications has greatly extended the range
and availability of communications services, bringing long-dreamed-of telephone and radio
broadcasting to countries that could not afford traditional facilities.
Since the 1960s, computer design has included the development of systems for the remote
linkage of users to computers (time-sharing), and of computers to one another. Networks that
have arisen for military, government, and large-company commercial users evolved
beginning in the 1970s in Western Europe, Japan, and the United States. These networks
have become increasingly interconnected and have included new additions from other
regions of the world. In the 1990s, with large increases in the numbers of desktop computers
on these networks and further connections over the public telephone networks, it has become
possible to exchange messages (electronic mail, or e-mail), computer bulletin-board postings,
information files, and computer programs with thousands of other computers in the same
network. The commercial forms of these services are usually called online services.
123
Among the best known noncommercial computer networks is the internet, which, in the mid-
1990s, connected some 25 million users worldwide. In many respects, the internet offers a
preview of computer-based public telecommunications of the future.
As the start of the twenty-first century draws nearer and nearer it is being clearer that the
information technology has brought about radical changes in the way we study, think, work,
make relationships, interact in short, how we live our very lives. It is perfectly clear to every
one that the future of the mankind lies in the rightful creation, processing and distribution of
the information technology.
Q.No.3 In your opinion what are the main aspects of society that can be changed with
technology?
Technology, the application of scientific discoveries to the production of goods and services
that improve the human environment it includes the development of new materials,
machinery, and processes that improve production and solve technical problems. Since
World War II, technology has been increasingly applied at the microscopic level. Recent
advances include the development of computers, the invention of the laser and new synthetic
substances, improvement in medical research, and space travel and exploration. Technology
has also created such problems as technological unemployment and environmental pollution.
Followings are the main aspects that can be changed with technology:
1. Social institutions such as family
2. Politics
3. Economics
4. Religion
Changes in the Family Life System: Due to technology, families are getting more and more
facilities and their living standard is being raised. They can use every kind of comfortness as
they wish such as furniture, cloths, entertainment such T.V., telephone, computer etc. The
introduction of fuels and other energy sources has replaced the physical activities to
mechanical activities.
As we are human beings, more than half percent of our life remains within our family
boundary. But people are changing their family system along with the improvement of the
technology they have known and availability of physical facilities. Due to busy life, family
members get less time to discuss family problems. Hence the joint family system is now
being replaced by nuclear family system.
Within the family itself, every family member may have different fields of working and there
may not be any interconnection among them which may cause lack of information about
family problems among them. Every member has jobs oriented, commercialized thinking and
money minded. They are concerned for time saving. Sharing of time of the members within
the family is being decreased day by day resulting creation of conflict between the family
members.
In Nepalese family system, women mostly manage family system. Without effectiveness of
women in managing the family, the family system gets strongly damaged. So, technology has
also played great role in changing women life system. Followings are some examples:
4. Women are considered equal to men in all aspects.
5. Problem to dowry has been reduced to some extent.
6. Women in urban areas have got more opportunities to employment.
Political Changes: technology affects politics both directly and indirectly. The effect can be
seen on the political organization. The technical capacity to organize the state is sharply
124
increased. The power of the politics directly increases with increases in skill efficiency and
speed with which the information is processed. All these factors are largely influenced by the
introduction of modern technology. For example, Management has to process information,
collect data, and monitor various agencies and branches of government. In the modern
society, there is introduced computer for analyzing, processing and transferring data and
information quickly and accurately. This sharply increases the efficiency of management.
Another aspect is politics through communication in the modern age; technology has direct
impact on public participation in politics. The technology of television, newspaper, radio, and
internet provides direct contact to politics immediately. Public can regularly watch on the job
of the governmental officials, evaluate it and if necessary, provide feedback to the
government.
Economic Changes: These days, technology is mostly designed to increase industrial output
by rationalizing the production process. Over the course of the nineteenth century, machines
had begun to replace skilled craftsmen. Yet because of their specialized knowledge, the more
skilled workers continued to exert considerable control over the pace of work, the methods
used, and the levels of output. At present age, it has been proved that to increase production,
managers must take control of the process, starting by doing time studies of each factory job.
This involved observing workers meticulously, analyzing each step in terms of time spent
and energy expended, and using the result to determine the best method for each task. Thus,
technology has changed the economic system of a country by industrialization,
commercialization and increasing the trade.
Here, it is to be noted that, economic system and technology for a nation are mutually
interrelated parameters. If a nation has good economic system, it can improve its technical
environment easily and quickly. On the other hand, if a nation has an advanced technological
system, it can quickly improve its economic condition.
Technology has also altered the nature of the consumption rate and consuming materials in
the society. Here the term material does not identify only to goods but to all those things that
are put down by the society such as education, health, transportation etc. these factors will
also affect the economic system.
By the introduction of computers and telecommunication, the transaction activity within the
institutional banks and corporations has increased very fast. Money moves at a very fast rate
around the world. This alters the economic system of whole world very quickly. As a thumb
rule, the expenditure increases with increase in money speed.
Religion Changes: We are living in the age of advanced science and technology. The effect
of technology can be felt in each and every part of our day life. Obviously, religion is also no
longer left unaffected by it.
People are divided into different religious system. Within each system, there are different
groups. The social faith and concepts, rules and regulations vary in each of these groups. The
basic concept of all the religion is the existence of god.
With the improvement in technology, some of the religious hypothesis is proved to be false.
In past, people said that moon was the god, but now it has been proved that it is only a
satellite. Orthodox in religious thinking has been replaced by wider outlook. After the
improvement in the information technology and transportation facilities, people can feel and
see the religion of another community far away from them and thus religion system of one
place is easily transferred from one place to another.
125
Others:
Analysis of religious doctrines and traditions
The rigidity in caste has been relaxed
Men and free from religious rituals
Religion has become the secondary thin not a primary one.
4) Is Technology reversible? Discuss considering the current technological environment.
Technology can be defined utilizing terms as “technique” and “things”. Technology is the
application of the knowledge, the scientific study of the practical or industrial arts. The object
of the technology is not the art itself, but the principles, which underlies it. The term
technology can be defined, from the very specific to broad and general. All of them confine
the term technology in a sense of “how things are commonly done or made” and “what things
are done or made”.
Technology is a study of the universal means, which involves the systematic application of
organized knowledge, tools and materials for the extension of the human faculties that are
restricted as a result of evolutionary process. Technology is evident in all culture regardless
of their stage of development. It is knowledge base and involves the application of
knowledge to solve problems. It seeks a harmonious relationship between human life and
nature. It is future-oriented and is accumulative and observable.
The technology development is a continuous process. Historians have traced the development
of technology from prehistoric times to the present and have labeled the important stage on
the continuous the stone, bronze, iron, dark, industrial revolution, atomic and space ages. In
general, these ages are chronological, but they are not naturally exclusive. Technological
development is a fluid, continuous process that can not be divided into distinct stages.
At first, human technology was a few bits of wood, stones and animal skins. They learned to
fashion these into useful shape and then open a new door by mastering fire with which he not
only keep warm and cooked food but also harden wood and extracted and use metal. As, they
learned to build houses, farm land and domestic animals, their technology advanced in
parallel, until in historic times he learned to transport himself in every environment on,
under, above and remote from the earth. Today his technology includes not only his hardware
made from tangible materials but also his analytical techniques, his mathematics, his
computer programme even his thinking process. Together these tool from any impressive
armory with which meets the formidable task of the future.
As we know that the current technology or so called, modern technology is a part of the
universal evolutionary process. The modern technology has influenced to almost al the fields
and areas in such fashion, that people are completely dependent on these new, modern
complicated and sophisticated technologies. The gradual envelopment in technology has
broad such stages that we are always willing to desire easier, faster and simpler not knowing
the result could be more adverse. We can take example in the case of mathematical
calculation. People in previous days use to sum, multiply the numbers by scrubbing in
papers. Later Pascal and Babbage introduced log scales and algorithm charts to provide
easier calculation, then came electronics calculators in which we have to just press few keys
and the output come in no time. Still people desired more and result was the invent of digital
computers which can not only perform huge computation and calculations but now people
can program the software and store them into retrieve as necessary. These news technologies
have made possible to solve large problems and mathematical calculations. This leads to the
fact that the technology is somehow irreversible process. As we have been provided with the
126
habit of using “user friendly” technologies, we cannot move backward of living without
them. We can also take another simple example of hammer. Primitive people used a piece of
stone as a hammer. Later people modeled the hammer from the iron which was a lot easer
and accurate then previous one. Now we can not think of hammering a nail with stone. As
the technology developed the manual hammer is not being replaced by pneumatic hammers,
by which one has not to leave the hammer to strike a nail, but he has to just hold the hammer
above head of nail and the hammer will strike automatically.
The modern technology has made us to think all the processes to be automatic. Therefore, as
we go deeper we can easily observe that the technology seems an irreversible process
considering the current technological environment. Since technology is being renewable and
complicated and sophisticated day by day, one cannot think of the return back.
Acronyms and Abbreviations

ADB Asian Development Bank
AEPC Alternative Energy Promotion Centre
AIC Agricultural Inputs Corporation
AlT Asian Institute of Technology
APP Agricultural Prospective Plan
APROSC Agricultural Projects Services Centre
ARI acute respiratory infection
ASD Agricultural Statistics Division
BHC benzene hexachloride
BOD biological oxygen demand
BOD5 biological oxygen demand (5 days)
BPP Biodiversity Profile Project
CBO community-based organization
CBS Central Bureau of Statistics
CDG Central Department of Geography
CDR Central Development Region
CEDA Centre for Economic Development and Administration
CFC-12 chlorofluorocarbon
CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora
COD chemical oxygen demand
DDC district development committee
DFI district forest inventory
DFRS Department of Forest Research and Survey
DHM Department of Hydrology and Meteorology
DHS Department of Health Services
DMG Department of Mines and Geology
DNPWC Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation
DISCO District Soil Conservation Office
127
DO dissolved oxygen
DoA Department of Agriculture
DoC Department of Customs
DoF Department of Forests
DoF Department of Finance
DoHS Department of Health Services
DoI Department of Irrigation
DoR Department of Roads
DPR Department of Plant Resources
DPTC Disaster Prevention Technical Centre
DSCWM Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management
ECOS Environmental Conservation through Education and Research
EDR Eastern Development Region
EIA environmental impact assessment
ENPHO Environment and Public Health Organization
ESPS Environment Sector Programme Support
EPA Environmental Protection Act
EPC Environmental Protection Council
EPR Environmental Protection Rule
EURO-I European Standard One
FINNIDA Finnish International Development Agency
FSD Forest Survey Division
GDP gross domestic product
GEO Global Environment Outlook
GHG greenhouse gas
GIS geographic information systems
GLOF glacial lake outburst flood
GTZ German Agency for Technical Co-operation
GWRDP Groundwater Resource Development Project
HC hydrocarbon
HCFC hydro-chlorofluorocarbon
HMG His Majesty’s Government
HMGN His Majesty’s Government of Nepal
HOPE Hidden Opportunities for Productivity and Environment
HSD high speed diesel
HSU Hartridge smoke unit
HVS high volume sampler
ICS improved cooking stove
ICIMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
IEC information, education, and communication
INGO international government organization
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ITTA International Tropical Timber Agreement
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
J EC Japan Environment Corporation
KMC Kathmandu Metropolitan City
128
KVVECP Kathmandu Valley Vehicular Emission Control Programme

LEADERS Legal and Environmental Analysis and Development Research
LPG liquefied petroleum gas
LRMP Land Resources Mapping Project
LRTI lower respiratory tract infection
LWK live weight of killed animal
MENRIS Mountain Environment and Natural Resources Information System
MFSC Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation
MHPP Ministry of Housing and Physical Planning
MLD Ministry of Local Development
MNR Mountain Natural Resources
MoA Ministry of Agriculture
MoE Ministry of Education
MoF Ministry of Finance
MoH Ministry of Health
MoHA Ministry of Home Affairs
Mol Ministry of Industry
MoPE Ministry of Population and Environment
MoWR Ministry of Water Resources
MPFS Master Plan for the Forestry Sector
MUAN Municipal Association of Nepal
MWDR Mid-Western Development Region
NAA Nepal Agricultural Association
NARC Nepal Agricultural Research Council
NARMSAPNatural Resource Management Sector Assistance Programme
NBSM Nepal Bureau of Standards and Metrology
NEA Nepal Electricity Authority
NECG Nepal Environment Conservation Group
NEPAP Nepal Environmental Policy and Action Plan
NESS Nepal Environmental and Scientific Services
NFl National Forest Inventory
NGO non-government organization
NHDR Nepal Human Development Report
NOC Nepal Oil Corporation
NORAD Norwegian Agency for Cooperation and Development
NPC National Planning Commission
NSIC Nepal Standard of Industrial Classification
NTFP non-timber forest product
NTU nephelometer turbidity unit
NVMES Nepal Vehicular Mass Emission Standard
NWSC Nepal Water Supply Corporation
ODS ozone depleting substance
OPD outpatients department
PAH poly aromatic hydrocarbon
PARDYP People and Resource Dynamics in Mountain Watersheds of the Hindu Kush
Himalayas
129
RWSSP Rural Water Supply and Sewerage Project

SACEP South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme
SEAMCAP Strengthening Environmental Assessment and Monitoring Capabilities in South
Asia and the Greater Mekong
SEI Stockholm Environment Institute
SEI significant environmental issues
SlDA Swedish International Co-operative Development Agency
SoE State of the Environment
SWMRMC Solid Waste Management and Resource Mobilization Centre
TDFB Town Development Fund Board
TDN total digestible nutrients
TDS total dissolved solid
TFR total fertility rate
TPC Trade Promotion Centre
TSP total suspended particulates
TSS total suspended solids
TU Tribhuvan University (Kathmandu)
UBC University of British Columbia
UDLE Urban Development Through Local Efforts
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNEP/EAP-AP United Nations Environment Programme/Environmental Assessment
Programme for Asia and the Pacific
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
URBAIR Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia
URTT upper respiratory tract infection
USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
VDC village development committee
VOC volatile organic matter
WDR Western Development Region
WECS Water and Energy Commission Secretariat
WHO World Health Organization
130
References:
S.K. Aggrawal, Gurucharan singh and Indrajeet Sethi), The Degrading Environment
(cause for global concern).
By Gilbert M. Masters, Prentice Hall 1995, Introduction to Environmental
Engineering and Science.
J.Glynn Henry, Gary W. Heinke; Environmental Science and Engineering
Encarta Reference Library, 2004.
ICIMOD, NORAD and UNEP, State of the Environment, Nepal, 2001
Dorling Kindersley. Ultimate Visual Dictionary (21st century supplement)
Naisbitt, J.1982. Megatrends, Warners Books.
Wells, H. G. 1933. A Short History of the World.
M. Neupane, Evolution of Human Civilization: At a Glance
131

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Technology, Environment and Society: A Compilation mainly Based on Old Syllabus

Figure1: Prehistoric flint tools

Figure1: Prehistoric tools and their uses

1.1 Civilization between 3000 B.C. and 1660 A.D.

2.0 THE TECHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY

2.5 Development of Electronic and Silicon Chips

2.7 Information Society

3.0 SOCIETY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

By sanitary land filling

Garbage from a town

3.4 SEWAGE DISPOSAL AND ITS POLLUTION TO ENVIRONMENT

METHODS OF SEWAGE DISPOSAL

Discharged into Discharged Deposited on,

Environment and population

SOURCES AND TREATMENT OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE

 Effect on aquatic and other life

The water sources can be divided into two parts:

Human Water Chemical

1. Health Hazards to Human and Animals

8) Thermal effluents: Thermal plants increases temperature of water, hence D.O. is

THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

1. SOME IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS

Figure1 Water, air and land interactions

Figure 2 Waste cycles—agrarian society

4.0 TECHNOLOGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Crabb's universal dictionary (1823) defines the technology as description of arts

3. Carbon monoxide from the gasoline vehicles.

TECHNOLOGICAL IMPACTS ON DIFFERENT ASPECTS

IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON FAMILY STRUCTURES

5.1 Technology creates opportunity for social change

should it do? What could it do? What must it not do?

5.4 Societies control over Technology

The list goes on.

5.8 Impact of industrialization on the less developed countries with technology

6.0 GREEN HOUSE EFFECTS

Others Greenhouse Effect Enhancement

Figure3 An overview of the global warming problem

GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC CHANGE

amount of atmospheric carbon relatively stable. Industrialization, however, has contributed

TYPES OF GREENHOUSE GASES

7.0 ACID RAIN

FORMATION OF ACID RAIN

EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN

Figure 2 Deteriorating of structure by Acid Rain

Figure 3 Anatomy of an Air Scrubber

8.0 TCHNOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SITUATION IN NEPAL

 Population growth and urbanization.

Description Date Nepal’s Main objectives Major obligations

MAJOR SOURCES OF WATER

Figure 1: Factors leading to deterioration in water quality

Table 1: Condition of waste-water treatment plants in Kathmandu

(iv) Water rights

Municipality classes by Estimated waste generation

Table3: Method of household waste disposal

Sewage-treatment solids: material retained on sewage-treatment screens, settled solids, and

Figure 1: Composting of Organic Waste

Figure 1: Causes of soil degradation and their relationships, Nepal

 Community Forestry- more than 650,000 ha of public forests converted into

Ensure conservation Prepare and implement

IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EDUCATION

OVERVIEW OF MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL DEVELOPMENTS AND

2.2 Soil Degradation

The measures undertaken by His Majesty’s Government of Nepal to mitigate air