Succession to the British throne is determined by descent, sex (for people born on or before 28 October

2011), legitimacy, and religion. Under common law, the Crown is inherited by a sovereign's children or by
a childless sovereign's nearest collateral line. The Bill of Rights 1689 and the Act of Settlement
1701 restrict succession to the throne to the legitimate Protestant descendants of Sophia of Hanover who
are in "communion with the Church of England".[1] Spouses of Roman Catholics were disqualified from
1689 until the law was amended in 2015. Protestant descendants of those excluded for being Roman
Catholics are eligible.[2]
Queen Elizabeth II is the sovereign, and her heir apparent is her eldest son, Charles, Prince of Wales. Next
in line after him is Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, the Prince of Wales's elder son. Third in line
is Prince George, the eldest child of the Duke of Cambridge, followed by his sister, Princess Charlotte, and
younger brother, Prince Louis. Sixth in line is Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex, the younger son of the Prince
of Wales. Under the Perth Agreement, which came into effect in 2015, only the first six in line of
succession require the sovereign's consent before they marry; without such consent, they and their children
would be disqualified from succession.
The first four individuals in the line of succession who are over 21, and the sovereign's consort, may be
appointed Counsellors of State. Counsellors of State perform some of the sovereign's duties in the United
Kingdom while he or she is out of the country or temporarily incapacitated. Otherwise, individuals in the
line of succession need not have specific legal or official roles.
The United Kingdom is one of the 16 Commonwealth realms. Each of those countries has the same person
as monarch and the same order of succession. In 2011, the prime ministers of the realms agreed
unanimously to adopt a common approach to amending the rules on the succession to their
respective Crowns so that absolute primogeniture would apply for persons born after the date of the
agreement, instead of male-preference primogeniture, and the ban on marriages to Roman Catholics would
be lifted, but the monarch would still need to be in communion with the Church of England. After the
necessary legislation had been enacted in accordance with each realm's constitution, the changes took
effect on 26 March 2015.1

1
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Current line of succession

No official, complete version of the line of succession is currently maintained. The exact number, in
remoter collateral lines, of the people who would be eligible is uncertain. In 2001, American
genealogist William Addams Reitwiesner compiled a list of 4,973 living descendants of the Electress
Sophia in order of succession, but did so disregarding Roman Catholic status.[3] When updated in January
2011, the number was 5,753.[4]
The annotated list below covers the first part of this line of succession, being limited to descendants of the
sons of George V, Elizabeth II's grandfather. The order of the first eighteen numbered in the list is given on
the official website of the British Monarchy;[1] other list numbers and exclusions are explained by
annotations (Notes and sources below) and footnotes. People named in italics are unnumbered either
because they are deceased or because sources report them to be excluded from the succession
 King George V (1865–1936)
  King Edward VIII (1894–1972)
 King George VI  (1895–1952)
o  Queen Elizabeth II (born 1926)
(1) Charles, Prince of Wales (b. 1948) B D W
(2) Prince William, Duke of Cambridge (b. 1982) B D W
(3) Prince George of Cambridge (b. 2013) B D W
(4) Princess Charlotte of Cambridge (b. 2015) B D W
(5) Prince Louis of Cambridge (b. 2018) B D
(6) Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex (b. 1984) B D W
(7) Archie Mountbatten-Windsor (b. 2019) B D
(8) Prince Andrew, Duke of York (b. 1960) B D W
(9) Princess Beatrice of York (b. 1988) B D W
(10) Princess Eugenie, Mrs Jack Brooksbank (b. 1990) B D W
(11) Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex (b. 1964) B D W
(12) James Mountbatten-Windsor, Viscount Severn (b. 2007) B D W
(13) Lady Louise Mountbatten-Windsor (b. 2003) B D W
(14) Anne, Princess Royal (b. 1950) B D W
(15) Peter Phillips (b. 1977) B D W
(16) Savannah Phillips (b. 2010) B D W
(17) Isla Phillips (b. 2012) B D W
(18) Zara Tindall (née Phillips; b. 1981) B D W
(19) Mia Tindall (b. 2014) D W
(20) Lena Tindall (b. 2018)[5] D
Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon  (1930–2002) 1952
(21) David Armstrong-Jones, 2nd Earl of Snowdon (b. 1961) D W
(22) Charles Armstrong-Jones, Viscount Linley (b. 1999) D W
(23) Lady Margarita Armstrong-Jones (b. 2002) D W
(24) Lady Sarah Chatto (née Armstrong-Jones; b. 1964) D W
(25) Samuel Chatto (b. 1996) D W
(26) Arthur Chatto (b. 1999) D W
Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester  (1900–1974) 1952
(27) Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester (b. 1944) D W
(28) Alexander Windsor, Earl of Ulster (b. 1974) D W
(29) Xan Windsor, Lord Culloden (b. 2007) D W
(30) Lady Cosima Windsor (b. 2010) D W
(31) Lady Davina Windsor (b. 1977) D W
(32) Senna Lewis (b. 2010) D W
(33) Tāne Lewis (b. 2012) D W
(34) Lady Rose Gilman (née Windsor; b. 1980) D W
(35) Lyla Gilman (b. 2010) D W
(36) Rufus Gilman (b. 2012) D W
Prince George, Duke of Kent (1902–1942)
(37) Prince Edward, Duke of Kent (b. 1935) D W
(38) George Windsor, Earl of St Andrews (b. 1962) M D W
Edward Windsor, Lord Downpatrick (b. 1988) X D W
Lady Marina Windsor (b. 1992) X D W [n 2]
(39) Lady Amelia Windsor (b. 1995) D W
Lord Nicholas Windsor (b. 1970) X D W
(40) Albert Windsor (b. 2007) D W [n 3]
(41) Leopold Windsor (b. 2009) D W [n 3]
(42) Louis Windsor (b. 2014) D W
(43) Lady Helen Taylor (née Windsor; b. 1964) D W
(44) Columbus Taylor (b. 1994) D W
(45) Cassius Taylor (b. 1996) D W
(46) Eloise Taylor (b. 2003) D W
(47) Estella Taylor (b. 2004) D W
(48) Prince Michael of Kent (b. 1942) M W
(49) Lord Frederick Windsor (b. 1979) W
(50) Maud Windsor (b. 2013) W
(51) Isabella Windsor (b. 2016)
(52) Lady Gabriella Kingston (née Windsor; b. 1981) W
(53) Princess Alexandra, The Honorable Lady Ogilvy (b. 1936) W
(54) James Ogilvy (b. 1964) W
(55) Alexander Ogilvy (b. 1996) W
(56) Flora Ogilvy (b. 1994) W
(57) Marina Ogilvy (b. 1966) W
(58) Christian Mowatt (b. 1993) W
(59) ZenouskaMowatt (b. 1990) W2
3

 The monarchy of the United Kingdom (commonly referred to as the British monarchy) is the
constitutional monarchy of the United Kingdom and its overseas territories.
A constitutional monarchy is a form of government in which a monarch acts as head of state within the
parameters of a constitution. This form of government differs from absolute monarchy in that an absolute
monarch serves as the sole source of political power in the state and is not legally bound by any
constitution.  Yes, this means that England does not have a written constitution, in fact it's a bit of a
political hot potato.
The present monarch of the United Kingdom, Queen Elizabeth II, has reigned since 6 February 1952. She
and her immediate family undertake various official, ceremonial and representational duties. As a
constitutional monarch, the Queen is limited to non-partisan functions such as bestowing honours,
dissolving Parliament and appointing the Prime Minister.  Though the ultimate executive authority over the
government of the United Kingdom is still by and through the monarch's royal prerogative, in practice
these powers are only used according to certain laws and strictures.  Today the monarchy in Britain is
politically neutral and by convention the role is largely ceremonial, that said, no person may accept
significant public office without swearing an oath of allegiance to the Queen.
The British monarchy traces its origins from the Kings of the Angles and the early Scottish Kings. By the
year 1000, the kingdoms of England and Scotland had developed from the petty kingdoms of early
medieval Britain. The last Anglo-Saxon monarch (Harold II) was defeated and killed in the Norman
invasion of 1066 and the English monarchy passed to the Norman conquerors. In the thirteenth century, the
principality of Wales was absorbed by England, and the Magna Carta began the process of reducing the
political powers of the monarch.

2
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3
The Act of Settlement 1701, which is still in force, excluded Roman Catholics, or those married to
Catholics, from succession to the English throne. In 1707, the kingdoms of England and Scotland were
merged to create the Kingdom of Great Britain and, in 1801, the Kingdom of Ireland joined to create the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The British monarch became nominal head of the vast
British Empire, which covered a quarter of the world's surface at its greatest extent in 1921.
In the 1920s, five sixths of Ireland seceded from the Union as the Irish Free State, and the Balfour
Declaration recognised the evolution of the dominions of the empire into separate, self-governing countries
within a Commonwealth of Nations. After the Second World War, the vast majority of British colonies and
territories became independent, effectively bringing the empire to an end. George VI and his successor,
Elizabeth II, adopted the title Head of the Commonwealth as a symbol of the free association of its
independent member states.
The Commonwealth includes both republics and monarchies. At present, fifteen other Commonwealth
countries share with the United Kingdom the same person as their monarch. The terms British monarchy
and British monarch are frequently still employed in reference to the person and institution shared amongst
all sixteen of the Commonwealth realms, and to the distinct monarchies within each of these independent
countries, often at variance with the different, specific, and official national titles and styles for each
jurisdiction.
Queen Elizabeth II's full style and title is "Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, of the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of
the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith".  The title "Head of the Commonwealth" is held by the Queen
personally, and is not vested in the British Crown.  Pope Leo X first granted the title "Defender of the
Faith" to King Henry VIII in 1521, rewarding him for his support of the Papacy during the early years of
the Protestant Reformation, particularly for his book the Defence of the Seven Sacraments, but after Henry
broke from the Roman Church, Pope Paul III revoked the grant, however Parliament passed a law
authorising its continued use.
The Queen is known as "Her Majesty", and a king would be known as "His Majesty". The form "Britannic
Majesty" appears in international treaties and on passports to differentiate the British monarch from
foreign rulers. The monarch chooses his or her regnal name, not necessarily his or her first name—King
George VI, King Edward VII and Queen Victoria did not use their first names.  In fact, if only one
monarch has used a particular name, no ordinal is used; for example, Queen Victoria is not known as
"Victoria I", and ordinals are not used for English monarchs who reigned before the Norman conquest of
England. The question of whether numbering for British monarchs is based on previous English or Scottish
monarchs was raised in 1953 when Scottish nationalists challenged the Queen's use of "Elizabeth II", on
the grounds that there had never been a "Queen Elizabeth I" in Scotland. In MacCormick v. Lord
Advocate, the Scottish Court of Session ruled against the plaintiffs, finding that the Queen's title was a
matter of her own choice and prerogative. The Home Secretary told the House of Commons that monarchs
since the Acts of Union had consistently used the higher of the English and Scottish ordinals, which in the
applicable four cases has been the English ordinal.  The Prime Minister confirmed this practice, but noted
that "neither The Queen nor her advisers could seek to bind their successors".  Future monarchs will apply
this policy.
In the constitutional writer Walter Bagehot's words: "the Sovereign has, under a constitutional monarchy,
three rights—the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, the right to warn."4

4
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The president of the United States (POTUS)[B] is the head of state and head of government of
the United States of America. The president directs the executive branch of the federal
government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces.
In contemporary times, the president is looked upon as one of the world's most powerful political
figures as the leader of the only remaining global superpower.[12][13][14][15] The role includes
responsibility for the world's most expensive military, which has the second largest nuclear
arsenal. The president also leads the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The
president possesses significant domestic and international hard and soft power.
Article II of the Constitution establishes the executive branch of the federal government. It vests
the executive power of the United States in the president. The power includes the execution and
enforcement of federal law, alongside the responsibility of appointing federal executive,
diplomatic, regulatory and judicial officers, and concluding treaties with foreign powers with
the advice and consent of the Senate. The president is further empowered to grant
federal pardons and reprieves, and to convene and adjourn either or both houses
of Congress under extraordinary circumstances.[16] The president directs the foreign and domestic
policies of the United States, and takes an active role in promoting his policy priorities to
members of Congress.[17] In addition, as part of the system of checks and balances, Article I,
Section 7 of the Constitution gives the president the power to sign or veto federal legislation. The
power of the presidency has grown substantially since its formation, as has the power of the
federal government as a whole.[18]
Through the Electoral College, registered voters indirectly elect the president and vice
president to a four-year term. This is the only federal election in the United States which is not
decided by popular vote.[19] Nine vice presidents became president by virtue of a president's intra-
term death or resignation.[C]
Article II, Section 1, Clause 5 sets three qualifications for holding the presidency: natural-born
U.S. citizenship; at least thirty-five years of age; and residency in the United States for at least
fourteen years. The Twenty-second Amendment states that no person who has been elected to
two presidential terms may be elected to a third. In all, 44 individuals have served 45
presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms.[20] Grover Cleveland served two non-consecutive
terms, so he is counted twice, as both the 22nd and 24th president.[21]
Donald Trump is the 45th and current president of the United States. He assumed office on
January 20, 2017.5

5
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Origin

In July 1776, during the American Revolutionary War, the Thirteen Colonies, acting jointly
through the Second Continental Congress, declared themselves to be 13 independent sovereign
states, no longer under British rule.[22] Recognizing the necessity of closely coordinating their
efforts against the British,[23] the Continental Congress simultaneously began the process of
drafting a constitution that would bind the states together. There were long debates on a number
of issues, including representation and voting, and the exact powers to be given the central
government.[24] Congress finished work on the Articles of Confederation to establish a perpetual
union between the states in November 1777 and sent it to the states for ratification.[22]
Under the Articles, which took effect on March 1, 1781, the Congress of the Confederation was a
central political authority without any legislative power. It could make its own resolutions,
determinations, and regulations, but not any laws, and could not impose any taxes or enforce
local commercial regulations upon its citizens.[23] This institutional design reflected how Americans
believed the deposed British system of Crown and Parliament ought to have functioned with
respect to the royal dominion: a superintending body for matters that concerned the entire
empire.[23] The states were out from under any monarchy and assigned some formerly royal
prerogatives (e.g., making war, receiving ambassadors, etc.) to Congress; the remaining
prerogatives were lodged within their own respective state governments. The members of
Congress elected a president of the United States in Congress Assembled to preside over its
deliberation as a neutral discussion moderator. Unrelated to and quite dissimilar from the later
office of president of the United States, it was a largely ceremonial position without much
influence.[25]
In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies. With peace at
hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs.[22] By 1786, Americans found their
continental borders besieged and weak and their respective economies in crises as neighboring
states agitated trade rivalries with one another. They witnessed their hard currency pouring into
foreign markets to pay for imports, their Mediterranean commerce preyed upon by North
African pirates, and their foreign-financed Revolutionary War debts unpaid and accruing interest.
[22]
 Civil and political unrest loomed.
Following the successful resolution of commercial and fishing disputes between Virginia and
Maryland at the Mount Vernon Conference in 1785, Virginia called for a trade conference
between all the states, set for September 1786 in Annapolis, Maryland, with an aim toward
resolving further-reaching interstate commercial antagonisms. When the convention failed for
lack of attendance due to suspicions among most of the other states, Alexander Hamilton led the
Annapolis delegates in a call for a convention to offer revisions to the Articles, to be held the next
spring in Philadelphia. Prospects for the next convention appeared bleak until James
Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washington's attendance to
Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia.[22][26]
When the Constitutional Convention convened in May 1787, the 12 state delegations in
attendance (Rhode Island did not send delegates) brought with them an accumulated experience
over a diverse set of institutional arrangements between legislative and executive branches from
within their respective state governments. Most states maintained a weak executive without veto
or appointment powers, elected annually by the legislature to a single term only, sharing power
with an executive council, and countered by a strong legislature.[22] New York offered the greatest
exception, having a strong, unitary governor with veto and appointment power elected to a three-
year term, and eligible for reelection to an indefinite number of terms thereafter.[22] It was through
the closed-door negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U.S.
Constitution emerged.6

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Powers and duties
President Donald Trump delivers the 2018 State of the Union Address, with Vice President Mike Pence
and Speaker of the House Paul Ryan.

The Presentment Clause requires that any bill passed by Congress must be presented to the

president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has
three options:

1. Sign the legislation within ten days, excluding Sundays – the bill becomes law.
2. Veto the legislation within the above timeframe and return it to the house of Congress
from which it originated, expressing any objections – the bill does not become law,
unless both houses of Congress vote to override the veto by a two-thirds vote.
3. Take no action on the legislation within the above timeframe – the bill becomes law, as if
the president had signed it, unless Congress is adjourned at the time, in which case it
does not become law (a pocket veto).
In 1996, Congress attempted to enhance the president's veto power with the Line Item Veto Act.
The legislation empowered the president to sign any spending bill into law while simultaneously
striking certain spending items within the bill, particularly any new spending, any amount of
discretionary spending, or any new limited tax benefit. Congress could then repass that particular
item. If the president then vetoed the new legislation, Congress could override the veto by its
ordinary means, a two-thirds vote in both houses. In Clinton v. City of New
York, 524 U.S. 417 (1998), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled such a legislative alteration of the veto
power to be unconstitutional.
The president can also be involved in crafting legislation by suggesting, requesting or even
insisting that Congress enact laws he believes are needed. Additionally, he can attempt to shape
legislation during the legislative process by exerting influence on individual members of
Congress.[27] Presidents possess this power because the Constitution is silent about who can
write legislation, but the power is limited because only members of Congress can introduce
legislation.[28] Article I, Section 1 of the Constitution, bolstered by Article I, Section 8, puts
all lawmaking power in Congress's hands, and Article 1, Section 6, Clause 2 prevents the
president (and all other executive branch officers) from simultaneously being a member of
Congress.
The president or other officials of the executive branch may draft legislation and then ask
senators or representatives to introduce these drafts into Congress. The president can further
influence the legislative branch through constitutionally (e.g. Article II, Section 3) or statutorily
mandated periodic reports to Congress. These reports may be either written or oral, but today
the greatest in importance is given as the oral State of the Union addresses, which often outline
the president's legislative proposals for the coming year. Additionally, the president may attempt
to have Congress alter proposed legislation by threatening to veto that legislation unless
requested changes are made.[29]
In the 20th century, critics charged that too many legislative and budgetary powers that should
have belonged to Congress had slid into the hands of presidents. As the head of the executive
branch, presidents control a vast array of agencies that can issue regulations with little oversight
from Congress. One critic charged that presidents could appoint a "virtual army of 'czars' – each
wholly unaccountable to Congress yet tasked with spearheading major policy efforts for the
White House".[30] Presidents have been criticized for making signing statements when signing
congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it.[31] This practice
has been criticized by the American Bar Association as unconstitutional.[32] Conservative
commentator George Will wrote of an "increasingly swollen executive branch" and "the eclipse of
Congress".[33]7

7
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Article II executive powers
One of the most important of executive powers is the president's role as commander-in-chief of
the United States Armed Forces. The power to declare war is constitutionally vested in
Congress, but the president has ultimate responsibility for the direction and disposition of the
military. The exact degree of authority that the Constitution grants to the president as
commander-in-chief has been the subject of much debate throughout history, with Congress at
various times granting the president wide authority and at others attempting to restrict that
authority.[34]
The amount of military detail handled personally by the president in wartime has varied greatly.
[35]
 George Washington, the first U.S. president, firmly established military subordination under
civilian authority. In 1794, Washington used his constitutional powers to assemble 12,000 militia
to quell the Whiskey Rebellion—a conflict in western Pennsylvania involving armed farmers and
distillers who refused to pay an excise tax on spirits. According to historian Joseph Ellis, this was
the "first and only time a sitting American president led troops in the field", though James
Madison briefly took control of artillery units in defense of Washington, D.C., during the War of
1812.[36] Abraham Lincoln was deeply involved in overall strategy and in day-to-day operations
during the American Civil War, 1861–1865; historians have given Lincoln high praise for his
strategic sense and his ability to select and encourage commanders such as Ulysses S. Grant.[37]
The present-day operational command of the Armed Forces is delegated to the Department of
Defense and is normally exercised through the secretary of defense. The chairman of the Joint
Chiefs of Staff and the Combatant Commands assist with the operation as outlined in the
presidentially approved Unified Command Plan (UCP).[38][39][40] The framers of the Constitution took
care to limit the president's powers regarding the military; Alexander Hamilton explained this
in Federalist No. 69:
The President is to be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States. ... It would
amount to nothing more than the supreme command and direction of the military and naval
forces ... while that [the power] of the British king extends to the DECLARING of war and to the
RAISING and REGULATING of fleets and armies, all [of] which ... would appertain to the
legislature.[41] [Emphasis in the original.]

Pursuant to the War Powers Resolution, Congress must authorize any troop deployments longer
than 60 days, although that process relies on triggering mechanisms that have never been
employed, rendering it ineffectual.[42] Additionally, Congress provides a check to presidential
military power through its control over military spending and regulation. Presidents have
historically initiated the process for going to war,[43][44] but critics have charged that there have
been several conflicts in which presidents did not get official declarations, including Theodore
Roosevelt's military move into Panama in 1903,[43] the Korean War,[43] the Vietnam War,[43] and the
invasions of Grenada in 1983[45] and Panama in 1989.[46]
The Constitution also empowers the president to propose and chiefly negotiate agreements
between the United States and other countries. Such agreements, upon receiving the advice and
consent of the U.S. Senate (by a two-thirds majority vote), become binding with the force of
federal law.8

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Administrative powers
Suffice it to say that the President is made the sole repository of the executive powers of the United States, and
the powers entrusted to him as well as the duties imposed upon him are awesome indeed.
Nixon v. General Services Administration, 433 U.S. 425 (1977) (Rehnquist, J., dissenting)

The president is head of the executive branch of the federal government and is constitutionally
obligated to "take care that the laws be faithfully executed".[47] The executive branch has over four
million employees, including the military.[48]
Presidents make numerous executive branch appointments: an incoming president may make up
to 6,000 before taking office and 8,000 more while serving. Ambassadors, members of
the Cabinet, and other federal officers, are all appointed by a president with the "advice and
consent" of a majority of the Senate. When the Senate is in recess for at least ten days, the
president may make recess appointments.[49] Recess appointments are temporary and expire at
the end of the next session of the Senate.
The power of a president to fire executive officials has long been a contentious political issue.
Generally, a president may remove executive officials purely at will.[50] However, Congress can
curtail and constrain a president's authority to fire commissioners of independent regulatory
agencies and certain inferior executive officers by statute.[51]
To manage the growing federal bureaucracy, presidents have gradually surrounded themselves
with many layers of staff, who were eventually organized into the Executive Office of the
President of the United States. Within the Executive Office, the president's innermost layer of
aides (and their assistants) are located in the White House Office.
To allow the government to act quickly in case of a major domestic or international crisis arising
when Congress is not in session, the president is empowered by Article II, Section 3 of the
Constitution to call a special session of one or both houses of Congress. Since John Adams first
did so in 1797, the president has called the full Congress to convene for a special session on 27
occasions. Harry Truman was the most recent to do so in July 1948 (the so-called "Turnip Day
Session"). In addition, prior to ratification of the Twentieth Amendment in 1933, which brought
forward the date on which Congress convenes from December to January,
newly inaugurated presidents would routinely call the Senate to meet to confirm nominations or
ratify treaties. Correspondingly, the president is authorized to adjourn Congress if the House and
Senate cannot agree on the time of adjournment; no president has ever had to exercise this
administrative power.[52][53]9

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Juridical powers and privileges
The president has power to nominate federal judges, including members of the United States
courts of appeals and the Supreme Court of the United States. However, these nominations
require Senate confirmation before they may take office. Securing Senate approval can provide a
major obstacle for presidents who wish to orient the federal judiciary toward a particular
ideological stance. When nominating judges to U.S. district courts, presidents often respect the
long-standing tradition of senatorial courtesy. Presidents may also
grant pardons and reprieves. Gerald Ford pardoned Richard Nixon a month after taking office.
Presidents often grant pardons shortly before leaving office, like when Bill Clinton pardoned Patty
Hearst on his last day in office; this is often controversial.[55][56][57]
For further information, see List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the President of the
United States.
Two doctrines concerning executive power have developed that enable the president to exercise
executive power with a degree of autonomy. The first is executive privilege, which allows the
president to withhold from disclosure any communications made directly to the president in the
performance of executive duties. George Washington first claimed the privilege when Congress
requested to see Chief Justice John Jay's notes from an unpopular treaty negotiation with Great
Britain. While not enshrined in the Constitution or any other law, Washington's action created the
precedent for the privilege. When Nixon tried to use executive privilege as a reason for not
turning over subpoenaed evidence to Congress during the Watergate scandal, the Supreme
Court ruled in United States v. Nixon, 418 U.S. 683 (1974), that executive privilege did not apply
in cases where a president was attempting to avoid criminal prosecution. When Bill Clinton
attempted to use executive privilege regarding the Lewinsky scandal, the Supreme Court ruled
in Clinton v. Jones, 520 U.S. 681 (1997), that the privilege also could not be used in civil suits.
These cases established the legal precedent that executive privilege is valid, although the exact
extent of the privilege has yet to be clearly defined. Additionally, federal courts have allowed this
privilege to radiate outward and protect other executive branch employees, but have weakened
that protection for those executive branch communications that do not involve the president.[58]
The state secrets privilege allows the president and the executive branch to withhold information
or documents from discovery in legal proceedings if such release would harm national security.
Precedent for the privilege arose early in the 19th century when Thomas Jefferson refused to
release military documents in the treason trial of Aaron Burr and again in Totten v. United
States 92 U.S. 105 (1876), when the Supreme Court dismissed a case brought by a former
Union spy.[59] However, the privilege was not formally recognized by the U.S. Supreme Court
until United States v. Reynolds 345 U.S. 1 (1953), where it was held to be a common
law evidentiary privilege.[60] Before the September 11 attacks, use of the privilege had been rare,
but increasing in frequency.[61] Since 2001, the government has asserted the privilege in more
cases and at earlier stages of the litigation, thus in some instances causing dismissal of the suits
before reaching the merits of the claims, as in the Ninth Circuit's ruling in Mohamed v. Jeppesen
Dataplan, Inc.[60][62][63] Critics of the privilege claim its use has become a tool for the government to
cover up illegal or embarrassing government actions.[64][65]
The degree to which the president personally has sovereign immunity from court cases is
contested and has been the subject of several Supreme Court decisions. Nixon v. Fitzgerald10

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Ceremonial roles
The president fulfills many ceremonial duties. William Howard Taft started the tradition of
throwing out the ceremonial first pitch in 1910 at Griffith Stadium, Washington, D.C., on
the Washington Senators's Opening Day. Every president since Taft, except for Jimmy Carter,
threw out at least one ceremonial first ball or pitch for Opening Day, the All-Star Game, or
the World Series, usually with much fanfare.[67] Every president since Theodore Roosevelt has
served as honorary president of the Boy Scouts of America.[68]
Other presidential traditions are associated with American holidays. Rutherford B. Hayes began
in 1878 the first White House egg rolling for local children.[69] Beginning in 1947, during the Harry
S. Truman administration, every Thanksgiving the president is presented with a live domestic
turkey during the annual National Thanksgiving Turkey Presentation held at the White House.
Since 1989, when the custom of "pardoning" the turkey was formalized by George H. W. Bush,
the turkey has been taken to a farm where it will live out the rest of its natural life.[70]
Presidential traditions also involve the president's role as head of government. Many outgoing
presidents since James Buchanan traditionally give advice to their successor during
the presidential transition.[71] Ronald Reagan and his successors have also left a private message
on the desk of the Oval Office on Inauguration Day for the incoming president.[72]

Critics of presidency's evolution

Main articles: Imperial Presidency and Imperiled Presidency
The nation's Founding Fathers expected the Congress—which was the first branch of
government described in the Constitution—to be the dominant branch of government; they did
not expect a strong executive department.[80] However, presidential power has shifted over time,
which has resulted in claims that the modern presidency has become too powerful,[81]
[82]
 unchecked, unbalanced,[83] and "monarchist" in nature.[84] Professor Dana D. Nelson believes
presidents over the past thirty years have worked towards "undivided presidential control of the
executive branch and its agencies".[85] She criticizes proponents of the unitary executive for
expanding "the many existing uncheckable executive powers – such as executive orders,
decrees, memorandums, proclamations, national security directives and legislative signing
statements – that already allow presidents to enact a good deal of foreign and domestic policy
without aid, interference or consent from Congress".[85] Bill Wilson, board member of Americans
for Limited Government, opined that the expanded presidency was "the greatest threat ever to
individual freedom and democratic rule".[86]

Selection process

Eligibility
Article II, Section 1, Clause 5 of the Constitution sets three qualifications for holding the
presidency. To serve as president, one must:

 be a natural-born citizen of the United States;

 be at least 35 years old;
 be a resident in the United States for at least 14 years.[87]
A person who meets the above qualifications would, however, still be disqualified from holding
the office of president under any of the following conditions:11

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Campaigns and nomination
Main articles: United States presidential primary, United States presidential nominating
convention, United States presidential election debates, and United States presidential election
The modern presidential campaign begins before the primary elections, which the two major
political parties use to clear the field of candidates before their national nominating conventions,
where the most successful candidate is made the party's nominee for president. Typically, the
party's presidential candidate chooses a vice presidential nominee, and this choice is rubber-
stamped by the convention. The most common previous profession of U.S. presidents is lawyer.
[92]

Nominees participate in nationally televised debates, and while the debates are usually restricted
to the Democratic and Republican nominees, third party candidates may be invited, such
as Ross Perot in the 1992 debates. Nominees campaign across the country to explain their
views, convince voters and solicit contributions. Much of the modern electoral process is
concerned with winning swing states through frequent visits and mass media advertising drives.

Election
Map of the United States showing the number of electoral votes allocated following the 2010 census to
each state and the District of Columbia for the 2012, 2016 and 2020 presidential elections; it also notes
that Maine and Nebraska distribute electors by way of the Congressional District Method. 270 electoral
votes are required for a majority out of 538 votes possible.

Main article: United States Electoral College

The president is elected indirectly by the voters of each state and the District of
Columbia through the Electoral College, a body of electors formed every four years for the sole
purpose of electing the president and vice president to concurrent four-year terms. As prescribed
by Article II, Section 1, Clause 2, each state is entitled to a number of electors equal to the size
of its total delegation in both houses of Congress. Additionally, the Twenty-third
Amendment provides that the District of Columbia is entitled to the number it would have if it
were a state, but in no case more than that of the least populous state.[93] Currently, all states and
the District of Columbia select their electors based on a popular election held on Election Day.
[94]
 In all but two states, the party whose presidential–vice presidential ticket receives a plurality of
popular votes in the state has its entire slate of elector nominees chosen as the state's electors.
[95]
 Maine and Nebraska deviate from this winner-take-all practice, awarding two electors to the
statewide winner and one to the winner in each congressional district.[96][97]
On the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December, about six weeks after the
election, the electors convene in their respective state capitals (and in Washington, D.C.) to vote
for president and, on a separate ballot, for vice president. They typically vote for the candidates
of the party that nominated them. While there is no constitutional mandate or federal law
requiring them to do so, the District of Columbia and 30 states have laws requiring that their
electors vote for the candidates to whom they are pledged.[94][98] Following the vote, each state
then sends a certified record of their electoral votes to Congress. The votes of the electors are
opened and counted during a joint session of Congress, held in the first week of January. If a
candidate has received an absolute majority of electoral votes for president (currently 270 of
538), that person is declared the winner. Otherwise, the House of Representatives must meet to
elect a president using a contingent election procedure in which representatives, voting by state
delegation, with each state casting a single vote, choose between the top electoral vote-getters
for president. For a candidate to win, he or she must receive the votes of an absolute majority of
states (currently 26 of 50).[94]
There have been two contingent presidential elections in the nation's history. A 73–73 electoral
vote tie between Thomas Jefferson and fellow Democratic-Republican Aaron Burr in the election
of 1800 necessitated the first. Conducted under the original procedure established by Article II,
Section 1, Clause 3 of the Constitution, which stipulates that if two or three persons received a
majority vote and an equal vote, the House of Representatives would choose one of them for
president; the runner-up would become vice president.[99] On February 17, 1801, Jefferson was
elected president on the 36th ballot, and Burr became vice president. Afterward, the system was
overhauled through the Twelfth Amendment in time to be used in the 1804 election.[100] A quarter-
century later, the choice for president again devolved to the House when no candidate won an
absolute majority of electoral votes (131 of 261) in the election of 1824. Under the Twelfth
Amendment, the House was required to choose a president from among the top three electoral
vote recipients: Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and William H. Crawford. Held February
9, 1825, this second and most recent contingent election resulted in John Quincy Adams being
elected president on the first ballot.[101]

Tenure
Inauguration
Main article: United States presidential inauguration
Pursuant to the Twentieth Amendment, the four-year term of office for both the president and the
vice president begins at noon on January 20.[102] The first presidential and vice presidential terms
to begin on this date, known as Inauguration Day, were the second terms of President Franklin
D. Roosevelt and Vice President John Nance Garner in 1937.[103] Previously, Inauguration Day
was on March 4. As a result of the date change, the first term (1933–37) of both men had been
shortened by 43 days.[104]
Before executing the powers of the office, a president is required to recite the Presidential Oath
of Office, found in Article II, Section 1, Clause 8 of the Constitution. This is the only component in
the inauguration ceremony mandated by the Constitution:
I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United
States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the
United States.[105]

Presidents have traditionally placed one hand upon a Bible while taking the oath, and have
added "So help me God" to the end of the oath.[106][107] Although the oath may be administered by
any person authorized by law to administer oaths, presidents are traditionally sworn in by
the chief justice of the United States.[105]12

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Term limit
When the first president, George Washington, announced in his Farewell Address that he was
not running for a third term, he established a "two-terms then out" precedent. Precedent became
tradition after Thomas Jefferson publicly embraced the principle a decade later during his second
term, as did his two immediate successors, James Madison and James Monroe.[108] In spite of the
strong two-term tradition, Ulysses S. Grant sought a non-consecutive third term in 1880,[109] as
did Theodore Roosevelt in 1912 (though it would have been only his second full term).[110] Both
were unsuccessful.

Impeachment
Further information: Impeachment in the United States
Article II, Section 4 of the Constitution allows for the removal of high federal officials, including
the president, from office for "treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors." Article I,
Section 2, Clause 5 authorizes the House of Representatives to serve as a "grand jury" with the
power to impeach said officials by a majority vote.[117] Article I, Section 3, Clause 6 authorizes the
Senate to serve as a court with the power to remove impeached officials from office, by a two-
thirds vote to convict.[118]
Two presidents have been impeached by the House of Representatives: Andrew
Johnson in 1868, and Bill Clinton in 1998. Both were acquitted by the Senate: Johnson by one
vote, and Clinton by 17 votes. Additionally, the House Judiciary Committee commenced
impeachment proceedings against Richard Nixon in 1974; however, he resigned from office
before the full House voted on the articles of impeachment.[117]13

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