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    Box 11: Religion §1600,-religiorc continued to pr worid.The two poles of belief were C Roman Catholicism was officially ba v Reformat e 1530s, only to be resto ref Mary took the throne (1553-58) and then. banished: again “under her Sister. Elizabeth's (1558-1603). English monatchs becamé Supreme Head of the Chu Engjand, the state-run Protestant Church, ‘The Catholic faith had dorninated western Europe since th Roman Empire, Authority and obedience were the key ideas, reflected by the hierarchy of deacons ai whi reported to the Por ture and throughout the Middle’ Ages most believers had no bible, which afiyway was available only in Latin. Its stories we the 5 language, The Mass was conducted behind a the celebrant priests facing away fromm the congregation. At the when they believed thet the bread and wine became Christ's body and blcod, the church’s bells would ring and the congregation would kneel down in prayer. S offered to. men confirmation, marriage, confession, communion and the last rites, conferred s. Allpeople v te of sin, but baptism took that sin shat, offen ven through confession, provided that truly sorry, ‘Good works’ were also required. 7 magicand fi many. felt that its accumnulaied’ power hurch. The incurnbent Pope v n. Menasterie san which ps tantisin, from England by Henry Vill smiand Prot aled, but fed text was fever read to Catholic. congregations in. their own rforated screen, in Latin, with ment the sinner was became closely inked to m te Middle Ag ad corrupted the hierarchy of the C id often sit ‘@ major prince; he had his own army, avens devote ame time, but in the jnning to make its ated the application of reas 7 simple obedience to authority. One of their Key ideas wes that igh Careful reading of Greek anc: Roman texts they could recover. the standing of the world which, they thought, mi jon became apparent that critcal reasoning should be je ancient times supe or to pplied to the bible itself: Ard if reading the bible was the route to Christian knowledge and virt's, then-it'should be ‘made available: in the languages was the beginning of the Protestant. people actually spoke. In these ide Reformation aes chings ‘of the Germar fy; although similar ideas ally traced back to. the monk Martin Luther, in the early sixteenth cent cant a iad been circulatirig-for-coughly.200 years. Luther-taught thatthe individual: a Kad a personal’ relationship with’ God and found is. er her own truth i nrough close study of the bible, without priestly intervention. Furthermore, t you could go to heaver sugh faith alone’, nply by believing that j you were saved. You didn't need any sacraments, and "good warks' were a sign of being saved, rather than the means of achieving it. i By stressing the importance of revelations of divine truth to individ Protestantism fostered the splitting of the Church into different sects, each convinced of the authenticity of its own version of Christianity’s message. In a country with one state-established Church, headed by the monarch, such diversity could not.be tolerated. The more ‘extreme! oft would not tolerate any ministers at all and. it was-a short step from denying rell- gious authority to. denying royal authority. The Church of England kept its hierarchy of priests and bishops and defended its position als, The most influential. form of Protestantisin ih England in 1600. was Calvinism, named after Jean Calvin, who set: had up a model Protestant community in the “Swiss city of Geneva. While Mary, a: Catholic, ruled England, leading religious opponents of Protestantism were under threat of i fled to erieva: imprisonment and execution: Many Protestant cleraym There they produced the Geneva tranilation of tié bible into English, which was the version Shakespeare used, When these Protestants’ fetumed at izabeth’s, accession. brought limited ‘elisious toler d to Catholics) ‘Arkey 40 Calvinism is the doctrine of predestinat th \@:who to hell. Our fates already dec: is and find a calm confide bers of God's “elect”. If we find there doubt, ti ate’ and destined for damnation. Good ined, but the most apparently wicked individual could, through = grace, become one of th very, influential-in the settlement which ce to England (although this did not ext If Godis altknowing of time who will go and cannot be chariged sh env and allspowerful, he must knowi.tro: hea Hwe look into our so beginn ein our own then We ai probably re deeds will not save terrors and contradiction: s giving way, to the idea of free w Calvinism was the official positio: ple in‘London. As many Protestants held. d proof of ele erty, By the hat. wealth great number of pe and power. on. earth were. signs of God's favour ion, Calvinism pr tive to the merchant class. token, c tows and The byl aros not Because the Calvinists and other serious Protestants ichings as 3 pure version of the original form nf Christianity, they came to ated wi koown, as, Puritans, Joday.the word is a sex, drinking end taking pleas neral Calvinists, but some did regard-ihis life solely as a place of contemplation of ‘the loys to come. tt was ama fiesh. Many traditional and indeed fornication, as ‘Popish!, and the Pu ing, dance, aught regarded. as expressions of superstition or else mp out such diversions. The ‘theatre became a target eactiels regularly deioul ced the playhouses in their public sermons. The playwrights retaliated by eatirising Puritans as hypocrites, like Angalo in Measure for Measure and lig in Twelfth Nig) Between leaving Warwickshire and arriving in London, Shakespeare may have been in the service of @ Roman Catholic family in Lancashire completing 5 ing (Honan 1998: 60-§) Evidence existed that his. father was a Catholic, end gossip soon after Shakespeare's death asserted that he ‘died 2 Papist’ (Williams 1933: 232). not knew what Sheke: ually ‘believed’. Perhaps he didn't, know himself. in such a time of changing b: Catholic and Protestant beliefs. Stil, the endings of The Winter's 2 Tempest might*b peara & many held a mixture of ie and: towards the Christian doct AEST, + ee % Charles | Tames I dled in 1625, and his successor, Charl 11625-1649) _f of the x Pelton Right tion ¢ jecal Background | : Tue STUARTS 4. James I 2. Charles I (1625-1649) (O. Cromwell - R. Cromwell) (1649-1660) Charles I oe 5. Mary IL 7. Anne and 6, William IL The Stuarts i 51 Soon toweréd the prestize onarchy abroad by {isiiééessful expeditions in France. (to help the "Huguenots against Richelieu), yn. Both the army and the navy had been Hegiciedt tin ! Fingland could not Ghallenge France and Spain together. A” Sst policy would have been to preserve the Baltice of power trvide to fritinuiin peace with France while Spain was master of such large part of Europes “The House of Gommons refused the subsidies for these wars. Carles «i solved Parliament and tried to SBE money by illegal means and forced [dans But funds were silt insufficient, and the king was obliged to call a parliament again in 1628; The Commons apreed 19 grant a laxge sum of money-on-concit t Charles would accept the Petition of Réghts,a document which ranks Taimporane arta or the Greatt Charier of Liberties of 1215, ‘Two of its most important points were ino man was to pay any tace not approved by Parliament xno man was to be trprisoried arbitrarily. After this parliament, Charles did not call another for eleven years (until 1640) and ruled the [and as he wished, ignoring the privileges of Members of Pariianien, dismissing judges who interpreted the law impartially, and remo ing any control on his actions. He was not a Roman Catholic like his wife, Hen= “Hella Mara, the daughter of the King of France, but he was in favour of the High Chuifch, the section of the Angfican Church that gave more importance to finurgy than to evan, ice. When Chases | made the bigh.churchman ‘William Laud Archbishop of Canterbury, this fécuOh became stronger, This de: (elopment ennigea many Englishmen, above all the Puritan Party, and was one of the causes of the Civil War, Laud was 2 great churcliman, but he was not a stitésmidn, He persecuted the Puritans, while, owing to the influence of the Queen, he favoured the Roman Catholics. When Laud iret to impose uniform ra eee > The Common Law + The Civil War The execution of Charles | (contemporary engraving) ale ity of worship on the Presbyterians of Scotlancl, ws linigy, che Scots rebelled! against England Economic difficulties, together with religious problems, muacle things wors Charles wus obliged! to call a Parliament (1640), whicl'S4¢ for only one mons (he.short Pariiamend. as the Pe berween Chases and Parliament vas aso a quarrel between owo doctrines, two conceptions of the law; fed By allt countries of Europe, and English Common Law (see p. 33). Roman Law ve garded the king's Will as “she source of the Ladi; the judges were subject to the king, and were bound to follow his directions, But the spirit of English Come mon Law proved sironger than Roman Law, which derived from source. The law of the land belonged to English civilization; the law seas. dependent of the king's will, It was 4b6v€ the king and above his subjects, tox it existed in iself, and c High ment could alter it. ‘Qwing to his difficulties with Scotland, Charles was obliged to call a Lament again in 1640 @he Lang Parliamend, six months after the Shor ment, But this did not'gtéat‘fiohey; on the contrary, it passed important acts in opposition to the king, Archbishop Laud was imprisoned and later execut- In 1641 the Commons asked the king 10 relinquish control of all military, civil and religious affuirs. The king cefused, and the, Civil, War broke out in 1642, a The nobility, the clergy and a large part of the gentry sided with the king and were called! Cavalie and the middle asses ing would not tolerate any fora of opposition the city of London, other towns, wealthy mercl -¢ for Parliament, and were called Parliamentarians frst rwo years the result of the war was uncertain; but largely GWidkg fo OliF€r Cromwell and his New Model Army (also known as Jronsides), the king was at last defeated, imprisoned, transfered to London, Alter the death of James |, wha! expeditions die) his sucoessor, Chorles |, mmake® FL As the Conmony refed funds forthe wet, how dd Chorls yt rise money? CB When the king summoned @ patiomen’ in 1628, on'what conden did # gront hiri:enoney? Whicheart of the Anglican Church did the King faveur ond what char ‘ceri? this faction? Why did the appointment of Wiliam Laud erage mony Englishmen? Why -exdid the Scols rebel? (Ei why wos the quarrel between King ond Parliament olso a quarel between two conceplions of fow® What do you knew about the Civil Ware 1649-16601 “The Dulch Wor 116524654) Richard Cromwell were entrusted (0 a Corneil ae ¢ monarchy Was abolished, ancl all powers House of Lords as also abolished, «nd B: gland was pre te, with 3 unicameral claimed a Common ube) anda Free st diament the Commions (known as the “Rump ld House of Commons), In 1653 the Rump, too, was dismissed, and the coun try was naled by thé Army. In 1654 England was divided into eleven clistricts, riled by Major General dtiver C “IL was made Lord Protector of England and Ireland. Cromyell was a great man, without the WOrst sp of many Puritans, he. Sarting (the poet Milton was his Latin Sec- retary), he liked music, a imetimes.sigid, believed, pleration. in foreign policy he was successful and increused English prestige abroad Berred coll dl Jeeland to submission, revived English sea-power and reorganized the Navy. In 1651 he renewed the Navie Acts Cwbich had been passed under Richarel {1 but seldom observed), by which goods import- ed into Engkand could only be carried by English ships. or by ships belonging to the exporting countries, This led to a war with Holland, which hac! been master of the sea for a generation and had the greatest share of the cargo trade, ‘The Dutch were defeated and obliged to aveept the English terms. tn his final years Cromwell tried to diminish the power of the Army. The iajority of the English people wanted to revive the monarchy; the crown was offered to Cromwell, but he refused, since the extremist Puritan elements would never have accepted changes in the Republican form, ‘When Cromwell died, in 1658, his son Richard became Protector, but he was not supported by the Army and was vedio resign. After eighteen months of confusion, a strong man,@éiieral Moni marched from Scotland to London, and dem met in 1660, and Festored! the monarchy; the late Kin; Tl, was recalled from Paris (where he had fled because of the Civil Wa Condition that he granted a general pardon andl allowed religious toleration The return of Charles Uf from his exile marked the beginning of the Restor tion Period. PE what remained of the ‘Oliver Cromvell (an uninisbec! init Samuel Cooper, 1609-1672) (private col by and the House of lords wer fo whom were Bi When the Monarch All powers entrusled? Brot was-England deck What wos th Bh How was Englond divided in 1654? Bi What kind of man was Oliver Cromwell? g vew in 16512 Why did this foc! lead to o war with socalled "Rump"? accept the republican form of government? J EE Who! events led io the: Restoration of the Monarchy offer Cromwell Ue ‘Charles I England saw the religious Clash between Puritans and An- social and. politica! conflict, the Puritans advocate hing what still s nia 2 oni ments, pi , music, chanting, incense Burning, ete. They were. againgt almost any fo ind prohibit- ed Maypole dancing, horse racing, céckfighting and bear-baiting: they cor: tolled ale-houses and, in 1642, closed the theives as improper est people. ~ glican ore, and become vo Puritans _., On the basis of Calvin's xii and mor. rigour in the Church by abol 1 more simplicity polic in. the 18s for hon. ‘A Puritan fuily xe - Anglicans ‘The Anglicans, on the other hand, were determined to tiaintain their rel gion as it had been established by Elizabeth. The members of the nobility stl dressed in Sitin and Velvet garments and wore elaborate plumed hats over their ‘wigs or their natural curls. As they were mainly coiirers, they were usually called “Cavaliers” When the civil w. ‘Republicans" “thFOugh their opposition to the Crown asi the Bishops, who w: ing to perpetuate an obsolete feudal system and oppose the dévelpment o §, oF Parlamentarians, came to Enibitely the ay esistance to despot an exclusively, religious Mattetint. national movement, whose supporie d Inainly. to- the. midel nin Church.and “€ met ‘The elfects of the Civil War upon Caroline society were manifold. The mer chant class grew in importance, one of the reasons for this being thei pur- c of estates that the Royalists were Forced to sell because of Cromwell's sxation. The widespread preaching of the Bible from the pulpit and the 1¢ Scriptures encouraged by the Pur reforms, which combined the old ‘ore important ones, such as woman's suffrage 1s led some utopi an idealists to propose ra theories of Wycliffe with oth: free medical services fos mumunistic 1e poor, ‘he two most important groups of reform soon br , the Levellers and the Dig is, but helped to awaken the gers consciences of common people. We may therefore say that, in spite of its fan aticism and excesses, the great heritage left by Republican Puritanism vw e€ tendency to democracy. ge of th Seclaration and hor did the Purtons advocate on the basis of Cahin'st wos the Purilon opinion of cond su distingbished the Anglicans from the Puritans? Bin how mony ways can the Mo oppasing factions be defined? sehave? Did the Parla ideals of fr rst Puritons belong? Civil We jo which class EI Which were the wo ni grou civocatec greater participation by the people ia dhe 198 ove and Alfred, Lord Tennyson's “The Charge of the Light Brigade” are all poems “The Horatian ode that have long survived their original occasions, and W. B. Yeats’ “Easter, of the odes of the Ron 1916" and W.F, Auden's "September 1, 1939" aremotable modem examples. 4 ness, and formal nog England’ poet laureate is often called on to meet the emergency of royal meditative, and colloq anniversaries and important public events with an appropriate occasional ten ina single repeate: oom © amples ate Marvell’ 3 Ireland” (1650) and Ke de. A long lyric poem that is serious in subject and treatment, elevated in | __ See Robert Shafer, style, and elaborate in its stnzaic stractare. As Norman Maclean has said, the 5 lish Ode fom Mitton to term now calls to mind a iyric whieh is “massive, public in ts proclamations, and the Nine A Hie and Pindaric in ts classical protorype” ("Prom Action to Image,” in Critics and the odes of Pine Criticism, ef. RS. Crane, 1952). The prototype was established by the Greek = (1969); Poul E Fy, The poet Pindar, whose odes were modeled on the songs by the choris im Greek ge ; Grama. His'complex stanzas were patterned in sets of three: moving in a Onomatopoeia, dance rhythm to the left, the chorus chanted the strophe; moving fo the = in abroad sense, ‘ight, the antistrophe; then, standing sil, che epode. : ‘The regular or Pindaric ode in English is a cose imitation of Pindar Oo form, with all the strophes and antstrophes written in one stamea pattern, : som word, or a com and ail the epodes in another. This form was introduced into England by Ben. anes Jonson's ode “To the Immortal Memory and Friendship of That Noble Pair, Sit aaa es day an Se ee aay oe eee ea ore ventently studied in this poem or in Thomas Gray’s "The Progress of Poesy” articulating the (1787). The irregular ode was introduced in 1656 by Abraham Cowley, who Tennyson!" Ce imitated the Pindaric style and matter but disregarded the recurrent stanzaic fees pattern in each strophic triad; instead, he allowed each stanza to establish its eat ener own pattern of variable line lengths, number of lines, and rhyme scheme. 4 ‘The moan of, This type of irregular stanzaic structure, which is free to alter in accordance And murmurt with shifts in subject and mood, has been the most common for the English : ‘The American cr ‘ode ever since; Wordsworth’s “Ode: Intimations of Immortality” (1807) is 1 Ing only two ch resentative. : ; echote effect bec Pindar’s odes were encomiastic; that is, they were written to praise and e dering of innume slorify someone—in the instance of Pindar, the ode celebrated a victorious = The sounds : athlete in the Olympic games. The earlier English odes, and many later ones. not be pleasant oj were also written to eulogize something, such as a person Gohn Dryden fects, as in “Meeti “Anne Killigrew"), or the arts of music or poetry (Dryden’s "Alexander: ‘Asl gain the & Feast"), or a time of day (Collins’ “Ode to Evening”), or abstract concepts < bisa ae (Gray's “Hymn to Adversity” and Wordsworth’s “Ode to Duty"). Romant: Atapat the pa poets perfected the personal ode of description and passionate meditatior And blue spare ‘which is stimulated by (and sometimes at its close reverts to) an aspect of t= Compare exphony outer scene and tums on the attempt to solve either a personal emotion: 2) In the broad see problem or a generally human one (Wordsworth’s “Intimations” ode, Cai= which seem to co, ‘idge’s “Dejection: An Ode,” Shelley's “Ode to the West Wind”). Recent exa== note in any way wi ples of this latter type are Allen Tate's “Ode to the Confederate Dead” ana. well as sound (act Wallace Stevens’ “The Idea of Order at Key West.” See M. H. Abrams, "Str such extended ver! ture and Style in the Greater Romantic Lyric," in The Corespondent Bre-= | he says that “the s 1984. ‘on to illustrate his onoMaroPoeA ‘The Horatian ode was originally modeled on the matter, tone, and form of the odes of the Roman Horace. In contrast to the passion, visionary bold- ‘ness, and formal language of Pindar’s odes, many Horatian odes are calm, meditative, and colloquial; they are also usually homostrophic (that is, writ- ten in a single repeated stanza form), and shorter than the Pindaric ode. Ex- amples are Marvell's “An Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from freland” (1680) and Keats’ ode “To Autumn” (1820). ‘See Robert Shafer, The English Ode to 1660 (1918); G. N. Shuster, The Eng- lish Ode from Milton to Keats (1940, reprinted 1964); Carol Maddison, Apollo ‘and the Nine: A History of the Ode (1960)—this book includes a discussion of the odes of Pindar and Horace (chapter 2); John Heath-Stubbes, The Ode (1969); Paul H. Fry, The Poet's Calling in the English Ode (1980). Onomatopoeia, sometimes called echoism, is used both in a narrow and in a broad sense. (1) In the narrow and most common use, onomatopoeia designates a word, or a combination of words, whose sound seems to resemble closely the sound it denotes: “hiss,” “buzz,” “rattle,” “bang.” There is ‘no exact duplication, however, of nonverbal by verbal sounds; the perceived similarity is due as much to the meaning, and to the feel of articulating the words, as to their sounds. Two lines of Alfred, Lord ‘Tennyson's “Come Down, © Maid” (1847) are often cited as a skillful instance of onomatopoeia: ‘The moan of doves in immemorial elms, ‘And murmuring of ‘anumerable bees. ‘The American critic John Crowe Ransom has remarked that by mak- ing only two changes in the consonants of the last line, we lose the echoic effect because we change the meaning drastically: “And mur dering of innumerable beeves."” The sounds seemingly mimicked by onomatopoeic words need not be pleasant ones. Robert Browning liked squishy and scratchy ef- fects, as in “Meeting at Night" (1845): As I gain the cove with pushing prow, {And quench its speed i’ the slushy sand. ‘Aap at the pane, the quick sharp scratch And blue spurt of a lighted match. Compare euphony and cacophony. (2) In the broad sense, “onomatopoeia” is applied to words or passages which seem to correspond to, or to strongly suggest, what they de- note in any way whatever—in size, movement, tactile feel, or force, as well as sound (see sound-symbolism). Alexander Pope recommends such extended verbal mimicry in his Essay on Criticism (1711) when jhe says that “the sound should seem an echo of the sense,” and goes on to illustrate his maxim by mimicking two different kinds of action 199 Works | period 116291639) Earlier poems i. John Milton (1608-1674) Ue. the greatest of all the Puritan writers, John Milton is also the best representative of the historical period in which he lived. He was bom in’ London On December 8, 1608. The son of a prosperous scsivener and amatetir musician, he inherited from his father a love for learning and the arts a3 well as a deep interest if music. He studied at Cambridge and, when he finally Jeft the university in, 1632, was conversant with the works of dassical and contemporary writers, well acquainted, with Hebrew, Lain, Greek, Italian and French, and had alreacly begun to-write poems, He was also skilled in music and had more than a smuittering of mathematiés. Abandoning an carly intention to en- ter the Anglican Church, he went in 1632 to live at Horton, bis family’s coun try house, where he remained for six years, ‘oso Aue pte ‘suuel8\do jo Iau paysyidiaoooe Squsiy es 20Hg MORE, ‘¢d04 30 pure “qifod jo Yo 30, 38 ats Se paqhDsap Uosgog URSmY ae4p aU Sua Gonuao wgusaiygip arp i Setoadse paystinoy wo} YL UID waqOu Due “uosuol aq autiog, uyof se sieed Yoos Aq Soumya URua=uaAAS PUE Inuaares ayef ath OF puynigT Ur payeanjwo ypnun sexs wreftdo asioa ayy ‘ston ur usesSida auies ‘2g2 20} opow Suunpua ay peysigess YwaeMwERds uEwOY am jogo 1S0UU) 10 “ejop2eUL “AzeUaWLdUcoD ‘aaerTpaUl "Pe}B}9 %104 jans ue do ag bus unnds ayy, “apn pure “paruod 5204 St YSIS Solos Uf aioe SUBUDgeYS Zo} pase MOU ST UN} Iq] “uEDABY (yo6t) ays de ii eo UY nf atjouel pur {P96T) 2Haylsay wo Jo uaudopalag HL BAHIHLL UO WAKE ie UOT o2 Joon PUR AHR IRI PUD WPOHE OUD 235 uatay Uy SEO pang Hare pur puog presipg se swdis.ce yon ‘peu sey soto akla pu uanbon, poonpoxd sue saoougwuosenda sed ayp yeu so}se039 30 oor aut Hise ob Saajsed wrap 29g asoddo pue “usar sjoads0g jo ave 2304 ye 314s ue ONDE a Jo UOREYRUD! ap UE Sounppae 2g) Jo sedis ayy Hosgns ov Pure apaig 222 0 a4 lao us LoyeZEU paypeap P Buisoydus Sy 21> “paren arom pur pies pau sae agh pn "Beg wR NEN 8 34 nqusy pauaGodtsaxp WO 10 “0, peor owe Ah lod 308 099 Jo Suu uuospediwoo aneiogeye we 4q ‘wniuowspung yo azeyed ynq-mat AOU pIEAoL Susuonp sjade vogtey tp "polqns drow sy soquosep VOY “CH BBL run ur ayy ada 9p uy Ss arene up Jo soussaja¥ TUBuEE aps fen yeyuounera ayy anueyus oF 31 padoidune ome ‘ye Aero, Jo $28 un soo pie NOH DY ‘WENA Aq JOMOH Woy pasedrun sea ans sHyL, CRT in, auyeundy rapun 998) pazedwo9 sty yotuM OF Yous 10 "alqns drecand Son on priesed asop> Jo svurod 2gpoads sur puodog 1} parerogels S| P44 10 Solgns Geptoass auf Hom Wr sqTUMS paTESNS “eUNO} are $94 Peres» SUS 8 9-208 J, tuo} aU ‘aye 30 woyssa30 [paompouur ‘sapete ow a SASH “NAN sN00R ah Wepy of ayeseu (auydey [aSUE 24) 520 PARADISE LOST. Milton formed the intention of writing a great epic poem as early as 1639. A list of possible subjects, some of them scriptural, some from British history written about 1640-1, still exists, with drafts of the scheme of a poem on Paradise Lost. The work was not begun in earnest until 1658, and it was finished in 1663. It was licensed for publication by the Reverend Thomas Tomkyns, chaplain to the archbishop of Canterbury. Summary: Book I: The general subject is briefly stated: man’s disobedience and the loss thereupon of Paradise, with its prime cause, Satan, who, having revolted from God, has been driven out of heaven. Satan is presented, with his angels, lying on the burning lake of hell, He awakens his legions, comforts them, and summons a council, Pandemonium, the palace of Satan, is built Book IJ: The council debates whether another battle for the recovery of Heaven shall be attempted, but decides to examine the report that a new world, with new creatures in it, has been created. Satan undertakes alone th rarded by search. He passes through Hell-gates Sin and Death, and passes upward through the realm of Chaos. Book III: God sees Satan flying towards our world and foretells his success and the fall and punishment of Man. The Son of God offers himself a ransom for Man, is accepted and exalted. Satan finds the stairs leading up to Heaven, descends tot the Sun and is directed by Uriel to this Earth, Book IV: The Garden of Eden is described, where Satan first sees Adam and Eve and overhears their discourse regarding the Tree of Knowledge, of which they are forbidden to eat the fruit. He decides to found his enterprise upon this, and proceeds to tempt Eve in a dream; but is discovered by Gabriel and ejected fiom the garden Book V. Bve relates her disquieting dream to Adam, Raphael, sent by God, comes to Paradise, warns Adam of his enemy and enjoins obedience, At Adam’s request he relates how and why Satan incited his legions to revolt Book VI: Raphael continues his nartative, how Michael and Gabriel were sent to fight against Satan, After indecisive battles the Son of God himself, causing his legions to stand still, alone attacked the hosts of Satan, and, driving them to the edge of heaven, forced them to leap down into the deep. Book Vil. Raphael relates how thereafter God decided on the creation of another ‘world with new creatures fo dwell therein and sent his son to perform the ereation in 6 days. Book VIII. Adam inquites concerning the motions of the heavenly bodies and is answered ambiguously. (The controversy regarding the Ptolemaic and Copernican systems ‘was at its height when Paradise Lost was written and Milton was unable to decide between them as seen in Book X), Adam relates what he remembers since his own creation, and discourses with the angel regarding the relations of man with woman, Raphael departs, Book LX: Satan enters into the serpent, and in this form finds Eve alone. He persuades her to eat of the Tree of Knowledge. Eve relates to Adam what has passed and brings him of the fruit, Adam, perceiving that she is lost, from extreme love for her, resolves to perish with her, and eats of the fruit ‘This robs them of their innocence; they cover their nakedness and fall to recriminations, Book X: God sends his Son to judge the transgressors. He passes sentence on the man anjon the woman, Sin and Death resolve to come to this world and make a broad highway thither from Hell. Satan returns to Hell and relates his success; he and his angels are temporarily transformed into serpents, Adam and Eve confer how to evade the curse upon their offspring and finally approach the Son of God with repentance and supplication, Book.XI. The Son of God intercedes for Adam and Eve. God decides on their expulsion from Paradise. Michael comes down to carry out the decree. Eve laments, Adam pleads but submits. The angel leads him to @ high hill and shows him in a series of visions the future misery of man and what shell happen till the Flood, Book XII. Michael relates what shall follow and explains the future coming of the Messiah, his incarnation, death, resurrection and ascension, and foretells the corrupt state of the Church till his 2™ coming. Adam and Eve, submissive, are Jed out of Paradise. Language and style 1). the diction is characterized by a very high incidence of words qualifving nouns; in spite of the fact that the use of adjectives is restrained compared with, say, Spenser's Milton manages ‘o develop fine discriminations and to introduce qualifications in an oblique or indirect way 2), the frequency of conjunctions for a coordinating kind reflects Milton's desire, on the one hand, to achieve fluent continuity and energy of movement, and, on the other, to interpose continual corrections and qualifications, 3). the Latinity of the style, An early comment in this respect was Jonathan Richardson's “Milton’s language is English, but it is Milton's English; ‘tis Latin, “tis Greek English; not only the Words, the Phraseology, the Transpositions, but the Ancient Idiom is seen in Alll he Writes, so that 2 Learned Foreigner will think Milton the Easiest to be Understood of All the English Writers” a) The flowing mass of the verse paragraphs is profoundly classical, ie, the sense.is diffused throughout a larger block of words than is common. Classicism in that sense is only a virtue b) If the sentence structure is native, there are nevertheless many individual clauses ot phrases that could be described as having a Latin or Greek construction, Milton preferred his, poetic dislocations of conventional English syntax to have the additional value of corresponding to ancient usage, Thus the common omission of the article and the eccasional use of afier with a past Participle (after heaven seen) produce effects that are first concise, spare and pungent, Latinite constructions are most common in the transitions, where they give a sense of command and artistic detachment. ©) The word order has tent as much support as anything to the charge of unidiomatic remoteness for about %4 of its clauses are inverted. This is because the word order in Milton's time was much freer than that permissible with us. Often what has been taken for imitation of Latin or Greek really only poetic departure from ordinary usage, often, 100, even when the ancient idiom is really present it contributes no more than an ambiguity 4). the interplay between words of Romance and of Anglo Saxon origin is an important feature of Millon’s style as of most English styles. 5). If the Latinisms in Paradise Lost have been overestimated, it is quite the reverse with the ambiguities and ironies, They may almost be said to form the general texture of the style. The effects range from double-syntax, through puns, ironies and doubles entendres, to outright radical ambiguities challenging a choice of altitude on the part of the reader. Radical ambiguities which present real alternatives of value constitute one of the most characteristic features of Milion’s style, giving it much of its surprising sharpness and subtlety. 6). Much recent criticism of the poem has been given over to faithful and sometimes remorseless tracing of how Milton’s every use of certain key words is in accordance with strategic considerations of placement, association, sequence and the like (whether following or preceding the Fall; whether used by God or by Satan; etc.) Almost any word in the poem could be shown to be a key word. And the study of them has put it beyond question that Milton chooses and builds his words with an extraordinarily sustained awareness of their ideological and moral implications. It is very characteristic, e.g, that the only time he uses iltless in an innocent amoral sense is immediately before the Fall)’ As Richardson states “a Reader of Milton must be Always upon Duty; he is Surrounded with Sense, it rises in every line, every word is to the Purpose, There are no lazy Intervals, All has been Considered and Demands and Merits Observation”. The study of the key words becomes at its best a study of key images and objects. A key word like ree sends us to the sacred Biblical Trees of Life and of Knowledge, the emblematic trees and plants of virtue, the ordinary wild natural trees that complete the grotesque surrounding frame ~ everywhere in Paradise vegetation grows luxuriantly. It is natural and inevitable that the universe itself should be thought of as @ plant whose ‘bright consummate flower’ is breathed in heaven 7), the excessive use of similes, He constantly employs magnifying and diminishing similes For example, Satan’s shield is described as hanging on his shoulder like the moon viewed through Galileo's telescope. 8). The use of lists. The catalogue of Gods in Book I is, for example, a traditional device. In Book VIL the story of creation is entirely formed on the principle of paraphrasing Seriptures and then expanding on the general category with a list of particulars. “God created fowl, says Genesis ~ eagles, storks, cranes, swans and roosters” adds Milton. The catalogues of places as well as of mythological or romantic persons, the descriptive lists of flowers, and the comparative lists of serpents, all suggest a general habit of mind: Milton had a distinct interest in naming things, an interest largely unrelated and sometimes opposed to his interest in telling a story, presenting an image or even writing a poem 9). The style is built on a deliberate contrast between “natural English” and the artificial speech of poetry; it is a language more complex, extended and resourceful than English traditionally is. 10), Gift for melodic invention and repetition, for alliteration, assonance and thyme, no less than for witty contrasts and poetic decorum, Some of these peculiar qualities of his verse may be associated with the largeness and boldness of assertion. We can conchide that Milton’s manner of writing represents the final working out of an ornate manner and learned vocabulary which have not taken firm root in English speech. 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