Underwater Applications of Light Emitting Diodes
Underwater Charging and Guidance
Frank H. Fan
Mathematical Science and Advanced Technology
Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology
Yokohama, Japan
frankfan@jamstec.go.jp
Abstract-This paper describes a conceptual system to assist
an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) land on an
underwater docking station, and transfer energy to the vehicle to
enable underwater battery charging. The system consists of light
emitting diodes (LEDs) mounted on the docking station, and
optical sensors and photovoltaic (PV) cells onboard the vehicle.
The combination of sensors onboard the AUV and the docking
station LEDs will allow the vehicle to estimate the relative
position of the intended docking location. Once the vehicle has
landed on the docking station, the combination of the LEDs and
the PV cells allows the battery onboard the vehicle to be charged
without any physical contact.
Keywords-AUV; LED; charging; photovoltaic
I. INTRODUCTION
The development of autonomous underwater vehicles
(AUVs) have provided mankind with a tool to explore the
oceans and collect scientific data. Ocean exploration can
improve our understanding in marine biology, climatology, and
potentially lead to new sources of energy and other natural
resources. However, most of the underwater world remain
unexplored, with one of the main reasons being the sheer
vastness of the world's oceans. Much of the unvisited regions
of the ocean can be explored using underwater vehicles if their
energy storage can be expanded. However, simply increasing
the size of the energy storage device onboard a vehicle would
only bring limited improvement in range, while the added mass
and bulk will require additional modifications to the vehicle,
and could add complications to the operational aspect of the
AUV mission. For a battery powered vehicle, underwater
charging capability could increase its endurance, allowing it to
perform long term environmental monitoring. Underwater
charging could also increase the range of the underwater
vehicle, enabling greater range of exploration with improved
efficiency.
Underwater charging poses many difficulties, ranging from
building the necessary infrastructure to developing
technologies required to transfer the energy to the vehicles. A
plausible infrastructure consists of powered and networked
underwater docking stations, and AUVs that are capable of
achieving underwater docking. In this paper, we propose a
system to help guide the underwater vehicle to dock with the
docking station at the desired location, and supply the energy to
the vehicle once it has achieved proper docking. The main
Shojiro Ishibashi
Marine Technology and Engineering Center
Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology
Yokosuka, Japan
sisibashi@jamstec.go.jp
components of the system are light emitting diodes (LEDs) on
the docking station that act as both a visual beacon and energy
source, a vision system on the AUV to detect the docking
station, and photovoltaic (PV) panels onboard the AUV to
receive energy from the docking station. We provide the basic
concept of the system, and the rationale for the basic design.
An important consideration for the system design is to
minimize the use of moving parts needed for docking
procedure, and in particular, ones mounted on the docking
station and exposed to seawater. One reason for reducing the
use of moving parts on the docking system is simply because
the intended operating environment is hostile towards these
parts. Reducing the number of moving parts will likely result in
a more reliable design. Another reason is that inspection,
service, and maintenance for mechanical parts at sea bottom
will be difficult and costly.
Another important factor for our design is the desire to use
each main component in the system for multiple purposes.
Thus, the LEDs mounted on the underwater docking station act
as a visual beacon for the underwater vehicle on its approach
towards the docking station. The images of the LEDs captured
by the vehicle's optical sensors are processed to provide an
accurate docking location for effective charging. Once the
vehicle lands on the docking station, the LEDs then provide the
energy to the vehicle through PV cells mounted on the vehicle.
The PV cells also allow the underwater vehicle to charge its
battery when it is at the surface, when the vehicle is exposed to
the sun. In addition, the PV cells could potentially be used as a
proximity sensor to detect the docking station when the vehicle
is in close proximity.
II. UNDERWATER DOCKING AND CHARGING
Various systems for underwater docking and battery
charging for AUVs have been presented. The main goals for
most docking systems are similar, they are: 1) to extend the
endurance of the AUVs, 2) to extend the range of the AUVs, 3)
to download the data collected from the AUVs, and 4) to
upload new mission data to the AUVs. However, the various
methods to achieve the desired goals are quite different.
A complete docking and charging system was described by
Singh, Bowen, Hover, LeBas, and Yoerger for the
Autonomous Ocean Sampling Network (AOSN) [1]. The dock
in the AOSN is suspended in the water column from a buoy at
the ocean surface. The AUV docks by first latching onto a
vertical docking pole, then a motorized carriage moves up the
docking pole and aligns the inductive cores on both the dock
and the AUV. The docking procedure is aided by an acoustic
homing beacon. The inductive cores allows power to be
transferred from the batteries in the dock to the docked AUV.
In addition, the inductive cores allows two way transmission of
data between the dock and the AUV. The surface buoy is
equipped with satellite communication hardware, thus enabling
data transmission between the AUV and operators at a remote
site.
An alternative approach to underwater docking is to design
a device to capture the AUV. A typical passive capture device
is an appropriately sized cone-shaped enclosure attached to the
docking station, which funnels the AUV to the desired docking
position. Such a cone-shaped guide was used in conjunction
with optical tracking by Cowen, Briest, and Dombrowski to
successfully demonstrate autonomous docking for both the
Flying Plug and the Odyssey AUVs [2]. The optical tracking
system consists of an optical beacon mounted in the cone­
shaped guide, a photodetector mounted on the AUV, and an
algorithm to determine the pointing errors between the AUV
and the opening of the cone-shaped guide. When the optical
beacon is in the photodetector's field of view, the algorithm
determines which quadrant the beacon is located in, and
calculates the pitch and yaw pointing errors. The pointing
errors are then used by the vehicle's control system to generate
the commands for the fins to orient the AUV in the direction of
the enclosure.
A cone-shaped guide was also used by Stokey et al. in the
design of the docking system for the REMUS AUV [3, 4]. In
the docking procedure, REMUS navigates towards the cone­
shaped guide using a combination of dead reckoning and
updates from an underwater positioning system. The
underwater positioning system consists of an array of
hydrophones mounted on the AUV, and an acoustic beacon
mounted on the docking station. The REMUS docking system
utilizes insulated contacts to establish an electrical connection
between the AUV and the docking station. The electrical
connection allows both power and data to be transferred.
Brighenti, Zugno, Mattiuzzo, and Sperandio described a
conceptual docking system called the EURODOCKER [5].
The project aimed to develop a docking system suitable for a
variety of different AUVs. The EURODOCKER docking
system was designed so it can be deployed from a ship or
mounted on the sea bottom. The dock is an enclosed space with
a cone-shaped opening. The enclosure was intended to offer
protection for the docked AUV. While docked, the enclosure
could provide means to charge the AUV's battery, download
information collected by the AUV, and upload new mission
information to the AUV.
Whereas the above docking systems are mainly intended
for cruising type AUVs, a relatively recent trend in the AUV
community is the development of highly agile, hovering type
vehicles, and docking systems for these vehicles. In contrast to
torpedo-shaped cruising type AUVs, the hovering type AUVs
are often not streamlined, and have additional thrusters
allowing the vehicles additional degrees of freedom in sway,
heave and yaw. Akin to their contemporary counterparts on
land and in the air, a hovering type AUV is typically equipped
with a camera system, which potentially could enable vision
based autonomous navigation. Wirtz, Hilderbrandt, and Gaudig
presented a docking system for hovering type AUV with both
charging capability and two way data communication
capability [6]. The power transfer between the AUV and the
dock was achieved using underwater-pluggable connectors; the
data was transmitted using off-the-shelf WiFi routers. Test
results showed effective data transfer in freshwater when the
antennas of the routers are in close proximity, but no tests were
conducted in seawater. Although autonomous docking
capability was still under development by Wirtz, Hilderbrandt
and Gaudig, their algorithm for autonomous docking will
utilize stereo vision with two sets of visual markers on the
docking station acting as beacons.
Maki et al. considered the navigational aspect of the
docking problem for hovering type AUVs [7]. A multi-mode
controller was used to perform the autonomous underwater
docking. The controller was designed to utilize the vehicle's
heave motion and altitude as feedback for the final phase of the
docking procedure. The altitude was computed from visual
information of LED markers mounted on the dock.
III. GENERAL SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
We envision a complete underwater exploration and
monitoring system that consists of a fleet of AUVs, and an
infrastructure of networked and powered docking stations. The
docking stations will be installed on the sea floor at depths up
to several hundred meters. The locations of the docking
stations will be determined based on a combination of factors.
These factors include the type of underwater terrain, sea floor
composition, and the range of the AUVs. The locations of the
docking stations will be stored with the AUVs, allowing the
AUVs to navigate towards a docking station when needed.
The deployment of a networked of docking stations will be
a significant investment, so it is likely the docking stations will
contain hardware for other functions. Candidate hardware
include sensors for localized environmental monitoring, and
cameras for underwater observation in the vicinity of the
docking stations. The remainder of this paper first gives a high
level functional overview of the docking system. Then we
focus on the subsystems that will help a hovering type AUV to
accurately land on the docking station, and allow energy
transfer between the docking station and the vehicle.
In a generic AUV operation scenario, when the vehicle's
battery needs to be charged, it will seek out and dock with an
available docking station to charge the battery. While docked,
the data collected by the AUV can be downloaded by the
docking station, and the vehicle can receive new or updated
mission information. Once the charging and downloading tasks
are completed, the AUV will either resume its original mission,
or initiate a new mission. The ability to charge the AUV's
battery underwater allows the vehicle to accomplish tasks such
as persistent environmental monitoring; it also allows the AUV
to operate in extended missions with reduced need for a
support ship and the required personnel. As a result, the
development of a network of underwater docking stations
could increase the utility of underwater vehicles, and
potentially reduce the operating cost of an AUV mission.
A. Autonomous Underwater Vehicles
Different types of AUVs are suitable for different types of
underwater task to be performed. For example, streamlined
cruising type AUVs can be used to efficiently map and survey
large areas with relatively few features; highly maneuverable
hovering type AUVs can be used to collect samples and
perform detailed exploration of unknown and unstructured
environments; hybrid type AUVs, which combines the
attributes of cruising type AUVs and hovering type AUVs, can
be used for mUlti-purpose missions over various types of
terrains.
We intend for our docking system to work with AUVs with
hovering capability, since hybrid type AUVs can effectively
perform the tasks traditionally carried out by cruising type
AUVs. The AUVs intended to be used with our system are
assumed to be capable of controller vertical descent, with
independent motion control for vehicle heading, and in the
surge and sway directions. Docking is achieved when the AUV
securely lands on a designated flat landing area on the docking
station, and power transfer commences.
We intend to use vision based navigation for the descent
onto the landing area, since it is relatively common for an AUV
to be equipped with both a camera system and a computer
system. Vision based navigation will require an algorithm that
can provide an estimate of the location of the landing area, and
the computer system must be capable of real-time visual
processing. The development of vision based navigation
tailored for our application is a significant part of our current
research effort, and we will report on the findings at a later
date.
Charging the battery provides the AUV with extended
range and endurance, and introduces the potential case in
which an AUV collects more data than it could store onboard.
To avoid losing data or the need to revisit a site to repeat the
data collection process, the vehicle will have the ability to
transmit the data to the docking station while the vehicle is
docked. It may also be necessary to provide the AUV with
updated mission objectives or to perform a diagnostic check on
the vehicle while it is docked. Hence, the ability to upload data
from the docking station to the vehicle will also be available.
B. Docking Station
The main purposes of the docking stations are to provide a
means to charge the battery onboard the AUVs, and to act as a
portal for the transmission of information to and from the
AUVs. The docking system will have a common interface that
allows different types of AUVs to securely dock and access the
power supply for battery charging. Power will be supplied to
the docking stations via an underwater cable network, and the
docking stations will be equipped with rechargeable batteries to
store energy. Installing batteries, and the hardware needed to
charge them, in the docking station adds complexity in the
design and the deployment process. However, the batteries will
serve as an emergency backup power supply, and could reduce
the amount of time needed to charge the battery of the docked
AUV.
In addition to being the source of energy transfer, some of
the LEDs mounted on the docking station will also act as a
luminous beacon for the approaching AUV. The LEDs will be
arranged in a configuration to aid the AUV in the docking
procedure. The configuration of the LEDs for the docking
stations will be stored in the AUVs, which will allow each
AUV to compute its relative distance and orientation with
respect to the docking area.
In lieu of using mechanisms with moving parts to secure
the AUV to the docking station, we will use a passive restraint
method in which the AUV maneuvers itself into a secure
position. One candidate scheme to realize this method is to
mount lipped channels on the docking station, and suitably
sized bars on the AUV. During the docking process, the AUV
will maneuver so that the bars enter the lipped channels, which
act both as tracks to help the AUV arrive at the final docking
position, and ensures the AUV will stay securely on the dock.
The initial entry of the bars can be simplified by widening the
openings of the lipped channels. The lipped channel and
mating bar scheme will limit the direction in which the AUV
can dock with the docking station. An alternative scheme to
secure the AUV to the docking station is to use hook like
devices for the AUV to grasp the docking station.
Each docking station will also be networked so that it can
communicate with a remote command center. A data storage
system in the docking station will act as a buffer during the
data transfer process. The data downloaded from the AUV will
be relayed to the command center, and can then be accessed by
researchers and scientists for processing and analysis.
Information can also be sent from the command center to the
docking station, and then uploaded to the vehicle. Thus new
mission objectives, terrain maps, and other relevant
information can be supplied to the docked AUV. We are
currently investigating the methods for underwater data
transmission. Candidates include acoustic communication,
optical and infrared communication, and radio frequency
communication. It is possible that LEDs are also used in the
data communication scheme.
IV. DOCKING PROCEDURE
The AUV docking procedure is divided into three phases.
When the need to dock arises, the AUV will plan and execute a
path towards a reachable docking station, thus initiating the
first phase. Scenarios in which an AUV will need to dock
include when its battery level is low, when its data storage
device is full, or when it has completed its mission. An implicit
assumption is that the AUV will always operate in a location in
which it can reach a docking station when needed. Since the
AUV navigates by dead reckoning, the relative location of the
docking station is only approximately known, with possibly a
large amount of uncertainty. The large uncertainty brings up
the scenario in which the AUV runs out of battery while
searching for the docking station. An acoustic positioning
system, in which an acoustic beacon is attached to the docking
station, and hydrophones are attached to the AUV can reduce
the likelihood of a stranded AUV.
The initial phase is over once the docking station can be
visually detected. The visual detection is aided by the LEDs
mounted on the docking station. Turbidity and other factors
will affect the distance in which the AUV can detect the
docking station. Once the docking station has been detected by
the AUV's optical system, the second phase is initiated. In the
second phase, optical sensing of the LEDs on the docking
station will provide additional information to allow the AUV to
orient and position itself for the final docking phase. The
second phase ends when the AUV has successfully reached a
prescribed state, which is a steady hover just above the landing
area.
In the fmal phase, the LEDs may no longer be in the field
of view of the camera system. However, since the AUV is now
near both the docking station and the sea floor, a general
feature based vision algorithm, such as the one used by Marks,
Wang, Lee and Rock [8], may be used to provide the control
system with the necessary information for the final descent. To
complete the docking procedure, the AUV will engage the
passive restraint system by performing a sequence of
predefined maneuvers. To undock, the sequence of maneuvers
will be reversed, and the AUV will then be free to carry out its
mission. Since the final docking position should provide
effective energy transfer, the output of the AUV's PV cells
could potentially be used to provide an additional piece of
information for the AUV's control system during the final
phase.
V. ENERGY TRANSFER SYSTEM
The docking station will provide energy to the docked
AUV. For battery charging purpose, the energy needs to be in
the form of electricity. A physical plug can be used to directly
connect the circuits between the dock and AUV. However, to
reduce the likelihood of exposing electrical parts to seawater,
we prefer to use a contactless method to transfer energy to the
AUV.
One contactless method for energy transfer is accomplished
through the application of electromagnetic induction. In the
inductive energy transfer scheme, power is supplied to the
primary inductive coil to produce an alternating
electromagnetic field. The electromagnetic field will induce an
alternating voltage in the secondary inductive coil placed in
close proximity. When a circuit is connected to the secondary
inductive coil, the resulting alternating current can then be
converted to direct current to charge a battery. A variation of
the inductive energy transfer method, in which the primary and
secondary coils are concentric [9], was shown to have an
efficiency of over 80% in salt water by Heeres, Novotny,
Divan and Lorenz [10]. However, Gish tested a concentric coil
type inductive system in seawater, and the resulting efficiency
was significantly lower [11]. For inductive energy transfer, an
improvement in the range between coils, and the energy
transfer efficiency can be achieved by introducing resonant
circuits of the same frequency on both the primary and
secondary coils [12].
A. Radiant Energy Transfer
As an alternative to inductive energy transfer, we propose a
system that emits radiant energy from the docking station, and
then converts the radiant energy to electricity within the AUV.
The electricity can then be used to charge the battery onboard
the AUV. The idea is similar in concept to laser power
beaming [13], but we are only interested in relatively low
power transfer over very short distance underwater. We choose
LED luminaire as the light source, since on average it has
superior performance, in terms of efficiency and rated life time,
when compared to other lighting technologies such as
fluorescent and halogen. An array of LEDs arranged over the
intended landing area on the docking station defines the
interface for energy transfer to the AUV. On the receiving end
of the energy transfer, the AUV is equipped with PV cells to
convert the radiant energy to electricity. The PV cells are
mounted so that in the docked position, the efficiency of the
energy transfer is maximized.
Most PV cells are designed to maximize the efficiency of
converting solar radiation to electricity. The spectrum of solar
radiation resembles the spectrum of an ideal black body at a
temperature of 5,800 K. A significant portion, including the
peak value, of the solar spectrum lies within the visible
spectrum, which corresponds to electromagnetic radiation with
wavelengths between 400 nm to 700 nm . The other significant
portion of the solar spectrum lies in the near-infrared range.
A single-junction PV cell, which is made up of a single
semiconducting material, can convert solar energy within a
specific range of wavelengths to electricity. Efficiency in
converting solar energy to electricity can be increased by
building a PV cell utilizing mUltiple semiconducting materials,
where each material is intended to work in a different range of
wavelengths. The so called multi-junction PV cells achieve
higher efficiency by converting solar energy in a wider range
of wavelengths to electricity. Further increase in efficiency can
be achieved with the use of a concentrator, such as a Fresnel
lens.
In contrast to the typical usage of PV cells, in our
application, the PV cells are nominally only exposed to
artificial light source on the docking station. Thus the primary
design consideration is to select the combination of LED and
PV cell that would enable the most efficient radiant energy
transfer. Note that choosing the most efficient LED and the
most efficient PV cell will not necessarily result in the most
efficient system for radiant energy transfer. The efficiency we
want to optimize is the ratio between the energy supplied to the
LEDs and the energy available to charge the AUV's battery, or
equivalently, the ratio between the power supplied to the
LEDs, and the power supplied to charge the battery. An
additional consideration, with regard to the LED, is the range
in which the light can be visually detected underwater.
B. Efficiency Considerations
As with most lighting products intended for general
illumination applications, LEDs are typically rated for their
perceived power rather than radiant power. To quantify the
perceived power of light, the sensitivity of the human eye to
electromagnetic radiation at different wavelengths must be
taken into account. The average human eye's sensitivity to
light at different wavelengths is described by the luminous
efficiency function. The luminous efficiency function is used as
the weighting function to determine the perceived power of
light radiating from a source, resulting in a quantity called the
luminous power. To quantify the efficiency of our proposed
method of contactless energy transfer, we need to quantify the
LED in terms of its radiometric characteristics, in particular,
we need to know its spectral radiant power. Although it is not
possible to calculate the radiant power of an LED given only
its luminous power rating, for a monochromatic LED, a
reasonable estimate of the radiant power can be obtained if the
range of its wavelength is known.
Since PV cells are intended to be used mainly in solar
energy applications, the efficiency of a PV cell is obtained
based on the amount of energy it can generate from a
standardized model of the radiation from the sun. A significant
portion of the solar radiation is in the infrared range, so an ideal
PV cell must be able to convert both visible light and infrared
radiation to electricity. However, in our proposed method, the
PV cells will be used in the sea at a depth where sunlight
penetration is negligible. Thus the PV cells are not exposed to
broadband radiation from the sun, and their efficiency should
be calculated based on the energy of the actual radiant source,
namely the LEDs used to transfer the energy. Concentrator
technologies could potentially be applied to the system.
Although it will not improve the efficiency of the system, a
concentrator could reduce the required size of the PV cells on
the AUV.
C. Battery Charging
The method to charge a battery depends on the type of
battery. Battery chargers generally either regulate the voltage
or the current of the electricity supplied to the battery.
Monitoring the voltage of the battery allows the state of charge
to be monitored. Once the battery has reached a certain state of
charge, appropriate change to the charging current ensures the
battery is charged to near full capacity. A basic battery
charging system thus consists of a supply of electrical power,
and electronics to regulate the electricity. In addition, to
automate the charging process, a charger would need sensors to
monitor the battery, and the ability to change the output electric
current accordingly. In the case a physical plug is used to
connect the AUV to the docking station, the charging hardware
can be installed in the docking station. For the contactless
energy transfer methods, the charging hardware will have to be
installed in the vehicle.
VI. SUMMARY AND FUTURE WORK
We provided an outline of a system that will help guide an
AUV to dock with an underwater docking station. Once
docked, the system will enable energy transfer from the
docking station to the AUV, allowing the battery onboard the
vehicle to be charged. We specified the concept level design
with a desire for high degrees of scalability and modularity.
While the concept considers the LEDs and PV panel as a
system, they are physically distinct modules. It is possible to
adjust the number of LED modules and PV modules to
accommodate AUVs of different sizes, and also to adjust the
rate of energy transfer.
Our next step is to identify the most promising
combinations of LEDs and PV cells, and build a prototype to
demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed method of energy
transfer. With the prototype system, we intend to examine a
range of topics. These topics include the optimal operating
condition for different scenarios, the effect of the distance and
media between the LEDs and the PV cells, thermal
considerations, issues related to biofouling, and the achievable
efficiency of the system. A parallel effort will focus on the
detection and estimation of LEDs for navigational purpose.
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