1995 MASTER SERIES1998 CORBIS CORP.

he technique of time domain reflectometry (TDR) has fluids compel users to opt for multiple level sensor

T been used by electrical engineers since the 1930s for

testing the characteristics of transmission lines and di-
agnosing faults. Although TDR instruments for test-
ing cable are commonly used today, few instrumentation
engineers are aware that the technique can measure liquid lev-
els and fluid interfaces. In this article, I review the theory and
principles of time domain reflectometry and present the appli-
cation of this technology as a liquid level sensor.
Liquid Level Sensors
Instrumentation and process control engineers are constantly
faced with difficult liquid level measurement problems. Many
applications require the measurement of more than one liquid
level interface, often in challenging environments. These appli-
cations frequently preclude the use of traditional, well-known
technologies for level sensors. Stringent requirements set by the
process control and refinery industries for inventory control or
by the EPA regarding the release of petroleum contaminated
technologies in a single tank. However, in many cases, a TDR
level sensor could be used to accurately track multiple fluid lev-
els and interfaces with a single probe. Although TDR level sen-
sors have been available commercially for the past several
years, many people are unfamiliar with these devices and over-
look them when selecting level sensors.
What Is TDR?
TDR is a pulse sampling technique that characterizes the dis-
tributed electrical properties of transmission lines. TDR in-
struments launch low amplitude, high frequency pulses onto
a transmission line, cable, or waveguide under test and then
sequentially sample the reflected signal amplitudes. Typically,
the reflected pulse amplitudes are displayed on a calibrated
time scale. In this way, cable impedance changes, and discon-
tinuities can be spatially located and assessed.
Transmission cables used to propagate time-varying elec-
tromagnetic energy behave like distributed circuits as op-

40 IEEE Instrumentation & Measurement Magazine December 2001

1094-6969/01/$10.00©2001IEEE
posed to a single, lumped element. For measurement connected to a transmission line made up of two coaxial cable
purposes, transmission lines can be represented as a series of segments in series terminated with a load resistor, RT. The first
discrete circuit elements. coaxial cable segment has
A coaxial cable can be impedance Z1 given by the
modeled as an ideal, With a little apriori knowledge, you unit length capacitance
lossless, unbalanced and inductance, C1 and L1,
transmission line (Fig. 1).
can infer cable length, cable respectively. The second
Characteristic imped- impedance, and the location of coax segment has an im-
ance, pulse propagation pedance, Z2 given by its
velocity, and reflection co- impedance discontinuities from the unit length capacitance
efficient determine the and inductance, C2 and L2.
voltage-current relation-
TDR signal trace. Let’s assume that RS = Z1
ship of a time-varying sig- =50 Ω, Z2 = 75 Ω, and RT =
nal along the length of the coaxial cable [6]. The characteristic 100 Ω. Fig. 2(b) illustrates what happens when the TDR
impedance, Z0, is given as the square root of the ratio of the in- launches a pulse onto this transmission line.
ductance and capacitance per some unit length: At t0, the pulse begins to travel along segment 1 with voltage
amplitude V1 and propagation velocity v1. When it reaches the
L junction with coax segment 2, a pulse with amplitude V2 will
Z0 = .
C continue to propagate down coax segment 2 but with a new ve-
locity, v2. At the same time, a pulse with amplitude V3 reflects
Z is measured in ohms, L in henrys and C in farads. For the back along segment 1 towards the sampling circuit. The ampli-
lossless case, the impedance is purely resistive. More sophisti- tude of the transmitted and reflected pulses is calculated with
cated models account for reactance. reflection coefficient, ␳12. The reflected pulse arrives at the sam-
The pulse propagation velocity, v, is given as the inverse of pling circuit at t1. Pulse V3 continues to travel along segment 2
the square root of the product of the per unit length capaci- until it reaches the termination resistor where it reflects. This re-
tance and inductance: flected pulse has amplitude V4 determined by the reflection co-
efficient, ␳23. This pulse propagates back along segment 2 until
1 it reaches the junction with segment 1. Again, a portion of the
v= .
LC pulse continues to travel towards the sampling circuit arriving
at t2 and a portion reflects back towards the termination. These
Any change in a transmission line’s physical properties pulses are shown as V5 and V6. The amplitudes are determined
will alter its characteristic impedance. Electromagnetic sig- by reflection coefficient ␳21.
nals traveling along the transmission line will have some or The values of voltage and time can be calculated by using
all of its energy reflected at the impedance discontinuity. the following relationships:
For example, if a uniform coaxial cable is terminated with a
load, ZT, some or all of the electromagnetic pulse traveling
along the coax will be reflected at this termination. The am-
plitude and polarity of the reflected energy is determined 1 2
by the reflection coefficient, ρ, and is expressed as: Z1 Z2
Rs Sampler L1 C1 L2 C2 RT
v1 v2
ZT − Z0
ρ= (a)
ZT + Z0

t0 V1 V2
where ZT is the termination or load impedance.
t1 V3 ρ12 ρ23
Knowing these parameters allows you to predict the am-
plitude of the voltage and current of a pulse at any location t2 V5 V4
along the coax, for any instance in time. ρ21 V6
In its simplest form, a TDR consists of a pulse generator and (b)
pulse sampler as shown in Fig. 2(a) In this example, the TDR is

V3 V5
V V1
T
L L L t0 t1 t2
C C C RL (c)

Fig. 2. (a) TDR and two segment coaxial networks; (b) pulse reflection
Fig. 1. Discrete model of an unbalanced, lossless transmission line. diagram; (c) idealized TDR trace on an oscilloscope.

December 2001 IEEE Instrumentation & Measurement Magazine 41

 ρ12 = (Z2-Z1)/(Z2+Z1) = (75-50)/(75+50) = 0.2 fluid level sensors are commercially available from several
ρ23 = (RL-Z2)/(RL+Z2) = (100-75)/(100+75) = 0.1429 companies. Fig. 3 shows an example: the Krohne Model BM102.
ρ21 = (Z1-Z2)/(Z1+Z2) = (50-75)/(50+75) = -0.2
V2 = ␳12 V1 + V1 = 1.2 V1
V3 = ␳12 V1 = 0.2 V1 TDR as a Fluid Level
V4 = ␳23 V2 = 0.14 V2 = 0.17 V1 Measurement Sensor
V5 = ␳21 V4 + V4 = -0.2 (0.17) + 0.17 = 0.136. The TDR level sensor has four major functional elements:
M Probe;
Fig. 2(c) shows the idealized scope trace of the pulse sam- M TDR electronics;
pler output. At t1, the pulse V3 has amplitude 0.2 V. This is su- M Signal processor/output/display;
perimposed on the initial M Power supply.
signal to give a step in- Fig. 4 shows a TDR
crease of 0.2 V. At t2, pulse Pulse propagation velocity is inversely fluid level sensor. The
V5 returns to the sampler level probe acts as an
and gives a step increase
proportional to capacitance and open transmission line; it
of 0.136 V. Timing of the can be expressed in terms of the can be a length of pipe,
signals is related as twice co-located metal rods,
the length of the cable dielectric constant. steel cables, or any other
segment divided by the configuration that acts as
propagation velocity: a uniform transmission line for the TDR pulse signal. The tank
contents become the transmission line’s insulation dielectric.
t1 = 2(length of segment 1) / v1 At each fluid interface, a change in dielectric constant of the
fluid surrounding the probe results in a change in electrical
t2 - t1 = 2(length of segment 2) / v2. impedance that reflects a portion of the pulse amplitude to the
TDR receiver. Pulse reflection amplitude and timing informa-
With a little apriori knowledge, one can infer cable length, ca- tion can be used to accurately determine the fluid levels and
ble impedance, and the location of impedance discontinuities location of each fluid interface within the tank.
from the TDR signal trace. This is done as follows: For coaxial probes, the characteris-
tic impedance can be calculated by:
Development of the TDR
Liquid Level Sensor 138 log 10 ( b / a )
Z0 =
TDR can measure the level of liquids and solids in a tank. In- er / ur
stead of interrogating a cable, the TDR connects to a level probe
inserted into the tank [2]. The first patented applications of time
domain reflectometry for sensing liquid level were filed in the
Local
1960s. In the 1980s, U.S. Navy engineers at the David Taylor Re- Display
search Center in Annapolis, MD, developed a TDR liquid level and
Control
sensor system for the measurement of fuel oil in seawater com-
pensated fuel storage tanks on United States Navy warships Signal I/O
[3]. A working system successfully demonstrated the concept Processor (4 -20 mA) Remote
aboard a U.S. Navy destroyer in the late 1980s. Today, TDR Display
or
TDR Power Control
Electronics Supply System Gallons

Coaxial
Cable Tank Probe

Fluid 1
ε1

Fluid 2
ε2 > ε1

Fig. 3. Commercial TDR level sensor. (Courtesy of Krohne, Inc.) Fig. 4. TDR fluid level sensor.

42 IEEE Instrumentation & Measurement Magazine December 2001

where:
a = diameter of the center conductor (Fig. 5);
b = inside diameter of the outer (ground) conductor (Fig. 5);
er = relative permittivity (dielectric) of the insulating material
separating the conductors;
u r = relative permeability of the material separating the a b
conductors.
The per unit length capacitance and inductance are given by:

C = (2πε)/ ln(b/a)

L = (µ/2π) ln(b/a). Fig. 5. Coaxial section of a tank probe.

Thus we see how both the pulse timing and voltage reflec-
By substituting the terms of the equations and factoring out
tion amplitude can be used to eliminate the variation of the
µ, the probe’s characteristic impedance can be expressed in terms
fluid dielectric on height and interface measurement calcula-
of the dielectric constant of the media surrounding the probe:
tions. This enables a level measurement without knowledge of
the fluid’s dielectric constant and results in a measurement
1
Z fα . unaffected by changes due to temperature.
εf

Advantages of TDR
This new expression for impedance can be substituted into
Advantages of TDR fluid level sensor technology include:
the pulse reflection coefficient, ρ, and related to the amplitude
M Simple mounting;
of the pulse reflection. Recall that the pulse propagation veloc-
M No moving parts, maintenance-free in-tank probe;
ity is inversely proportional to capacitance and can be ex-
pressed in terms of the dielectric constant as well. The equation M High resolution;
for the timing between pulse reflections can be simplified as: M Ability to measure multiple fluid interface levels;
M Ease of repair;
ρtαL f ε f M Ability to handle complex tank geometries;
M Intrinsically safe operation;
where ρt is the time between pulse reflections at the fluid inter- M Insensitivity to temperature variations, dust, vapor, and
faces and Lf is the length of the fluid along the probe. foam.

Table 1. Comparison of Selected Level Sensing Technologies.

Tank Contents Conditions Variables Inaccuracy
Buildup / Encrustation
Low Dielectric Fluids

Temperature Changes
Product Foaming

Density Changes
Heavy Agitation
Viscous/Sticky
Clean Fluids

Interface

Vacuum
Powder
Slurry

Dust

Float G P P NS F G F NS NS NS G P G 1%
Capacitive G F-G F F L F G G F P P G P 1-2%
Ultrasonic F-G G G F F G NS P G NS L G P 1%
Radar G G F P P L G NS L L L G G 3 mm
TDR G L G G G G G G L F G G G 3 mm
G = Good F = Fair P = Poor NS = Not Suitable L = Operates under limited conditions. Apply with caution.

December 2001 IEEE Instrumentation & Measurement Magazine 43

 In addition, TDR level sensors have inherent built-in di-
agnostics and can remotely troubleshoot problems with the
cable and probe. Probe material can be selected to resist cor-
rosion or may be coated to eliminate corrosion problems alto-
gether. Probes may have a variety of configurations as long
as they act as uniform, low-loss transmission lines for the
TDR pulses.
Although there are few fluids that cannot be measured by
TDR level instruments, there are some limitations. The top
layer cannot be electrically conductive or the fluid will severely
attenuate or even short circuit the TDR signal. Since the probe
height is known, the conductivity of the bottom fluid layer usu-
ally does not present a measurement problem. In addition, the
dielectric constants of the fluid layers must increase with depth
along the probe. Table 1 provides a brief comparison of TDR
level measurement to other commonly used technologies [1],
[4], [5]. The table is not complete; you must carefully evaluate
any application before making an instrument selection.
Summary
There is a diverse array of liquid level sensing instrumenta-
tion available today. The competitive cost and unique advan-
tages of TDR level sensors make them worth considering
especially for interface and hostile applications. TDR level
sensors have been successfully used in petrochemical, pulp
and paper, mining, cement production, and military applica-
tions worldwide.
References
[1] R. Bettenbrock, “TOF technologies offer flexible, cost effective
measurement solutions,” Contr. Solutions, vol. 73, pp. 35-40, Nov.
2000.
44 IEEE Instrumentation & Measurement Magazine
[2] B.E. Dozer, “Liquid level measurement for hostile environment,”
Instrum. Technol., vol 14, pp. 55-58, Feb. 1967.
[3] W. J. Harney and C. P. Nemarich, “Electromagnetic level indicat-
ing (EMLI) system using time domain reflectometry,” in 1983
IEEE Proc. MTS-IEEE Oceans Conf., San Francisco, CA.
[4] P. M. Hollywood, “TDR level measurement,” Meas. Control, vol.
31, no. 6, pp. 94-98, Dec. 1997.
[5] B. G. Liptak, Process Measurement and Analysis, Instrument Engi -
neers’ Handbook, 3rd ed. Radnor, PA: Chilton, 1995, pp. 272-273.
[6] P. C. Magnusson, Transmission Lines and Wave Propagation, 2nd ed.
Corvallis, OR: O.S.U. Book Stores Inc., 1979, pp. 1-54.
Note: Reference [4] gives a detailed description of different
probe geometries and design tradeoffs. For more information
on the theory and use of TDR for cable testing, visit
www.bicotest.co.uk and download the free tutorials.
Christopher P. Nemarich received his B.S.E.E. from the Uni-
versity of Michigan in 1980 and his M.S.E.E. from George
Washington University in 1985. He is currently employed as
an engineering consultant with GEO-CENTERS Inc. His pri-
mary work is with environmental equipment instrumentation
and controls for the United States Navy. He spent 18 years at
the U.S. Navy’s David Taylor Research Center working in the
area of sensor, instrumentation, and control system R&D for
naval shipboard applications. He was a member of the TDR
level sensor development team and was the Senior Project
Leader responsible for the system performance specification
and technology transfer to industry. He is currently involved
in an effort to militarize a commercial TDR level sensor for
shipboard use. He can be reached at c.nemarich@ieee.org.
December 2001