UNIT -2

FEED STOCK

AGRICULTURE RESIDUE

 Some forms of agricultural residues represent an attractive resource for

lignocellulosic.biomass in our quest to reduce the dependence of the Western World on
fossil fuels.
 After crops have been harvested, the residues usually represent relatively large amounts
of cellulosic material that could be returned to the soil for its future enrichment in
carbon and nutrients.
 However, today, many believe that a substantial portion of these residues could be made
available for further conversion to biofuels
 Ultimately, much of this plant matter is again converted to a form that can be
incorporated
Into living plant tissue
Nature thus has the time needed to manage the plant biosphere with low - energy
consuming processes that can be less than idea
The present FEED STOCK deals with the current status of our knowledge regarding the
Function of cellulases and cellulosomes, and how we might use them in processes for biomass
conversion to biofuels.

pretreatment strategies required to enhance enzymatic attack and to avoid toxic byproducts that
would interfere with enzyme action and fermentation.
The more accepted alternative is to employ microbial cellulases and related enzymes to cell walls
that have been conditioned therma and chemically in a milder process, known as pretreatment

The major impediment to facile enzymatic degradation of plant cell wall biomass to
biofuels:
• Arrangement and density of the vascular bundles
• Relative amount of sclerenchymatous (thick wall) tissue
• Degree of lignification
• Structural heterogeneity and complexity of cell wall constituents, that is, microfi brils
and matrix polymers
• Challenges for enzymes acting on an insoluble substrate
• Inhibitors to subsequent fermentations that exist naturally in cell walls or are generated
During conversion processes

This is an overview of the emerging technologies that have been developed recently or are in the
process of development for ethanol (biofuel) production from agricultural residues. In this
direction numerous advances have been made. Problems associated with inhibitor generation and
detoxification, fermentation of both hexoses and petoses to ethanol and development of effi cient
microbial strains have partially been addressed. Simultaneous product recovery and process
consolidation and/or integration will further improve the economics of production of biofuels
from biomass. It is emphasized that numerous domestic and international companies have
initiated their programs to commercialize conversion of biomass (agricultural residues) to
biofuels. Separation and use of byproducts as additional sources of generating revenues can
strengthen this fermentation further.

Agricultural Residues
Crop residues encompasses all agricultural wastes such as straw, stem, stalk, leaves, husk, shell,
peel, pulp, stubble, etc. which come from cereals (rice, wheat, maize or corn, sorghum, barley,
millet), cotton, groundnut, jute, legumes (tomato, bean, soy) coffee, cacao, tea, fruits (banana,
mango, coco, cashew) and palm oil.
Generation of bio fuels

First generation of bio fuels:

Feed stocks for first generation of bio fuels:

(a)Corn,b)Sugar Cane, c)Soybeans, d)Vegetable Oil, e)Wheat, f) sugar beets, g)rapeseed, h) peanuts are food
crops have all, at one point or another, served as feedstock for first generation of biofuel.

First generation biofuels are produced directly from food crops. The biofuel is ultimately
derived from the starch, sugar, animal fats, and vegetable oil that these crops provide. It is
important to note that the structure of the biofuel itself does not change between generations, but
rather the source from which the fuel is derived changes. Corn, wheat, and sugar cane are the
most commonly used first generation biofuel feed stock

First generation biofuels symbolize a step towards energy independence and weaning off fossil
fuels for energy demands. These biofuels also support agricultural industries and rural
communities through increased demand for crops.
st
This being said, 1 generation biofuels also have several disadvantages. They pose a threat to
food prices since the biomass used are food crops such as corn and sugar beet. First generation
biofuel production has contributed to recent increases in world prices for food and animal feeds.
They also have the potential to have a negative impact on biodiversity and competition for water
in some regions. First generation biofuels are also a more expensive option than gasoline,
making it economically unfavorable. Finally, biodiesel almost always comes from recycled oils
from restaurants, as opposed to virgin oils, so the supply is limited by restaurants’ oil use .

Corn

Corn is the primary source of the world's fuel ethanol and most of that corn comes from the
United States. As of 2012, more than 40 percent of the US corn crop was being used to produce
corn ethanol, though not all of ethanol is used as biofuel. Current requirements by the United
States government require that roughly 36 billion gallons of renewable biofuel be produced in
2013. Under the renewable fuel standard, up to 15 billion gallons of that will be grain based
ethanol, including corn.

The Advantages of corn are:

  Infrastructure for planting, harvesting, and processing is already in place.
 Relatively simple conversion of corn starch to ethanol.
 Potential to use the rest of the plant (stalk, cob, etc.) to produce ethanol as well.
 Corn has the potential to supply about ¼ of U.S. gasoline consumption.
 There are no indirect land use costs with corn.

The Disadvantages of corn are:

 Relatively high requirement for pesticide and fertilizer. Not only is this expensive, but it
leads to soil and water contamination.
 It is a food staple and use in biofuel has increased food prices worldwide, leading to
hunger.
 The production rate is low at an average of just 350 gallons of fuel per acre.
 Energy yield is about 1.2, which is just barely positive at 20% net yield.

The general consensus seems to be the corn can never be anything more than a side show in the
biofuel world. Its drawbacks, particularly it's important in the food chain, prevent corn from
being a viable alternative fuel feedstock.

Sugar Cane

Not far behind corn in terms of overall ethanol production is sugar cane. The majority of the
world's sugar cane is grown in Brazil, which was the world's largest producer of alcohol fuel
until very recently went it was eclipsed by the United States. Brazil produces roughly 5 billion
gallons or 18 billion litres of fuel ethanol annually. The country adopted a very favourable stance
on ethanol derived from sugar cane as a result of the oil embargo of the 1970s. Brazil has a
policy of at least 22% ethanol in its gasoline, though 100% ethanol is available for purchase.

Unlike corn, sugar cane provides sugar rather than starch, which is more easily converted to
alcohol. Where as corn requires heating and then fermentation, sugar cane requires only
fermentation.

The Advantages of sugar cane include:

 Infrastructure for planting, harvesting, and processing that is already in place.

 No land use changes provide plantations sizes remain stable.
 The yield is higher than that of corn at an average of 650 gallons per acre.
 Carbon dioxide emissions can be 90% lower than for conventional gasoline when land
use changes do not occur.

The disadvantages of sugar cane include:

 Despite having a higher yield than corn, it is still relatively low

 Few regions are suitable to cultivation
 Sugar cane is a food staple in countries of South and Central America
Like corn, sugar cane is not considered a viable solution to the world's energy needs. It suits
Brazil and a few other countries well, but cannot be scaled for a number of reasons.

Soybeans

Unlike corn and sugar cane, soybeans are grown throughout much of North America, South
America, and Asia. In other words, soybeans are a global food crop. The United States produce
roughly 32 percent of all soybeans in the world, followed by Brazil at 28 percent. Despite its
relatively high price as a food crop, soybean is still a major feedstock for the production of
biofuel. In this case, rather than ethanol, soybean is used to produce biodiesel. Soybean is
probably the worst feedstock for biofuel production.

The Advantages of soybeans include:

 Grows in many regions

 Relatively easy to maintain

The disadvantages of soybeans include:

 A yield of only about 70 gallons of biodiesel per acre, which is the worst yield of any
crop. Palm oil produces almost 10 times as much biodiesel per acre at 600 gallons (note
palm oil is considered a second generation feedstock).
 Soybean is a common food source and thus its use as a biofuel directly threatens the food
chain.
 It faces a number of disease and pest burdens
 It is generally not a profitable biofuel feedstock.
 More energy is usually required to cultivate soybeans than can be derived from the fuel
produced from them.

Vegetable Oil

Vegetable oil, which can be derived from any number of vegetables, can fall into the category of
both a first and a second generation biofuel. If used directly as “virgin” vegetable oil, it is a first
generation biofuel. If used after it is no longer fit for cooking, then vegetable oil becomes a
second generation biofuel. Here we consider only its benefits and drawbacks as a first generation
feedstock used in the production of biodiesel.

The advantages of vegetable oil:

 It is easy to convert to biodiesel

 It is widely available
 It can often be used directly in diesel engines with little modification

The disadvantages of vegetable oil:

 It is an important feedstock
  When unrefined, it can cause engine damage through carbon deposition due to
incomplete combustion
 The replacement of old growth forest with oil palms increases carbon emissions and
damages biodiversity.

Other Candidate Crops

Wheat, sugar beets, rapeseed, peanuts, and a number of other food crops have all, at one point or
another, served as feedstock for biofuel. However, they all suffer from the same problems
including threatening the food chain, increasing carbon emissions when planted outside
traditional agricultural settings, and intense growth requirements. Ultimately, first generation
biofuels have given way to second and third generation fuels for the reasons mentioned above.
Though first generation feedstock will provide biofuel for the foreseeable future, their
importance is waning and new, better alternatives are being developed.

Corn

Corn is the primary source of the world's fuel ethanol and most of that corn comes from the
United States. As of 2012, more than 40 percent of the US corn crop was being used to produce
corn ethanol, though not all of ethanol is used as biofuel. Current requirements by the United
States government require that roughly 36 billion gallons of renewable biofuel be produced in
2013. Under the renewable fuel standard, up to 15 billion gallons of that will be grain based
ethanol, including corn.

The Advantages of corn are:

 Infrastructure for planting, harvesting, and processing is already in place.

 Relatively simple conversion of corn starch to ethanol.
 Potential to use the rest of the plant (stalk, cob, etc.) to produce ethanol as well.
 Corn has the potential to supply about ¼ of U.S. gasoline consumption.
 There are no indirect land use costs with corn.

The Disadvantages of corn are:

 Relatively high requirement for pesticide and fertilizer. Not only is this expensive, but it
leads to soil and water contamination.
 It is a food staple and use in biofuel has increased food prices worldwide, leading to
hunger.
 The production rate is low at an average of just 350 gallons of fuel per acre.
 Energy yield is about 1.2, which is just barely positive at 20% net yield.

The general consensus seems to be the corn can never be anything more than a side show in the
biofuel world. Its drawbacks, particularly it's important in the food chain, prevent corn from
being a viable alternative fuel feedstock.

Sugar Cane
Not far behind corn in terms of overall ethanol production is sugar cane. The majority of the
world's sugar cane is grown in Brazil, which was the world's largest producer of alcohol fuel
until very recently went it was eclipsed by the United States. Brazil produces roughly 5 billion
gallons or 18 billion litres of fuel ethanol annually. The country adopted a very favourable stance
on ethanol derived from sugar cane as a result of the oil embargo of the 1970s. Brazil has a
policy of at least 22% ethanol in its gasoline, though 100% ethanol is available for purchase.

Unlike corn, sugar cane provides sugar rather than starch, which is more easily converted to
alcohol. Where as corn requires heating and then fermentation, sugar cane requires only
fermentation.

The Advantages of sugar cane include:

 Infrastructure for planting, harvesting, and processing that is already in place.

 No land use changes provide plantations sizes remain stable.
 The yield is higher than that of corn at an average of 650 gallons per acre.
 Carbon dioxide emissions can be 90% lower than for conventional gasoline when land
use changes do not occur.

The disadvantages of sugar cane include:

 Despite having a higher yield than corn, it is still relatively low

 Few regions are suitable to cultivation
 Sugar cane is a food staple in countries of South and Central America

Like corn, sugar cane is not considered a viable solution to the world's energy needs. It suits
Brazil and a few other countries well, but cannot be scaled for a number of reasons.

Soybeans

Unlike corn and sugar cane, soybeans are grown throughout much of North America, South
America, and Asia. In other words, soybeans are a global food crop. The United States produce
roughly 32 percent of all soybeans in the world, followed by Brazil at 28 percent. Despite its
relatively high price as a food crop, soybean is still a major feedstock for the production of
biofuel. In this case, rather than ethanol, soybean is used to produce biodiesel. Soybean is
probably the worst feedstock for biofuel production.

The Advantages of soybeans include:

 Grows in many regions

 Relatively easy to maintain

The disadvantages of soybeans include:

  A yield of only about 70 gallons of biodiesel per acre, which is the worst yield of any
crop. Palm oil produces almost 10 times as much biodiesel per acre at 600 gallons (note
palm oil is considered a second generation feedstock).
 Soybean is a common food source and thus its use as a biofuel directly threatens the food
chain.
 It faces a number of disease and pest burdens
 It is generally not a profitable biofuel feedstock.
 More energy is usually required to cultivate soybeans than can be derived from the fuel
produced from them.

Vegetable Oil

Vegetable oil, which can be derived from any number of vegetables, can fall into the category of
both a first and a second generation biofuel. If used directly as “virgin” vegetable oil, it is a first
generation biofuel. If used after it is no longer fit for cooking, then vegetable oil becomes a
second generation biofuel. Here we consider only its benefits and drawbacks as a first generation
feedstock used in the production of biodiesel.

The advantages of vegetable oil:

 It is easy to convert to biodiesel

 It is widely available
 It can often be used directly in diesel engines with little modification

The disadvantages of vegetable oil:

 It is an important feedstock
 When unrefined, it can cause engine damage through carbon deposition due to
incomplete combustion
 The replacement of old growth forest with oil palms increases carbon emissions and
damages biodiversity.

Other Candidate Crops

Wheat, sugar beets, rapeseed, peanuts, and a number of other food crops have all, at one point or
another, served as feedstock for biofuel. However, they all suffer from the same problems
including threatening the food chain, increasing carbon emissions when planted outside
traditional agricultural settings, and intense growth requirements. Ultimately, first generation
biofuels have given way to second and third generation fuels for the reasons mentioned above.
Though first generation feedstock will provide biofuel for the foreseeable future, their
importance is waning and new, better alternatives are being developed.

3)second generation of bio fuels: Second generation biofuels address many issues associated
st
with 1 generation biofuels. They don’t compete between fuels and food crops since they come
from distinct biomass. Second generation biofuels also generate higher energy yields per acre
st
than 1 generation fuels.
Second generation biofuels are also known as advanced biofuels. What separates them from first
generation biofuels the fact that feedstock used in producing second generation biofuels are
generally not food crops. The only time the food crops can act as second generation biofuels is if
they have already fulfilled their food purpose. For instance, waste vegetable oil is a second
generation biofuels because it has already been used and is no longer fit for human consumption.
Virgin vegetable oil, however, would be a first generation biofuel.

Because second generation biofuels are derived from different feed stock, Different technology
is often used to extract energy from them. This does not mean that second generation biofuels
cannot be burned directly as the biomass. In fact, several second generation biofuels, like
Switchgrass, are cultivated specifically to act as direct biomas

Common Second Generation Feedstock

To qualify as a second generation feedstock, a source must not be suitable for human
consumption. It is not a requirement that the feedstock be grown on non-agricultural land, but it
generally goes without saying that a second generation feedstock should grow on what is known
as marginal land. Marginal land is land that cannot be used for “arable” crops, meaning it cannot
be used to effectively grow food. The unspoken point here is that second generation feedstock
should not require a great deal of water or fertilizer to grow, a fact that has led to disappointment
in several second generation crops.

Grasses

A number of grasses like Switchgrass, Myscanthus, Indiangrass, and others have alternatively
been placed in the spotlight. The particular grass chosen generally depends on the location as
some are more suitable to certain climates. In the United States, Switchgrass is favoured. In
Southeast Asia, Myscanthus is the choice.

The advantages of grasses are:

 They are perennial and so energy for planting need only be invested once
 They are fast growing and can usually be harvested a few times per year
 They have relatively low fertilizer needs
 They grow on marginal land
 They work well as direct biomass
  They have a high net energy yield of about 540%

The disadvantages of grasses are:

 They are not suitable for producing biodiesel

 They require extensive processing to made into ethanol
 It may take several years for switch grass to reach harvest density
 The seeds are weak competitors with weeds. So, even though they grow on marginal
land, the early investment in culture is substantial
 They require moist soil and do not do well in arid climates.

Water demands are the biggest drawback to grasses and the factor that keeps them from
becoming more popular as second generation biofuels. Despite this shortcoming, grasses do find
a number of uses, particularly in the United States.

Jatropha and other seed crops

Seed crops are useful in the production of biodiesel. In the early Part of the 21st century, a plant
known as Jatropha became exceedingly popular among biodiesel advocates. The plant was
praised for its yield per seed, which could return values as high as 40 percent. When compared to
the 15 percent oil found in soybean, Jatropha look to be a miracle crop. Adding to its allure was
the misconception that I could be grown on marginal land. As it turns out, oil production drops
substantially when Jatropha is grown on marginal land. Interest in Jatropha has waned
considerably in recent years.

Other, similar seed crops have met with the same fate as Jatropha. Examples include Cammelina,
Oil Palm, and rapeseed. In all cases, the initial benefits of the crops were quickly realized to be
offset by the need to use crop land to achieve suitable yields.

Waste Vegetable Oil (WVO)

WVO have been used as a fuel for more than a century. In fact, some of the earliest diesel
engines ran exclusively on vegetable oil. Waste vegetable oil is considered a second generation
biofuels because its utility as a food has been expended. In fact, recycling it for fuel can help to
improve its overall environmental impact.

The advantages of WVO are:

 It does not threaten the food chain

 It is readily available
 It is easy to convert to biodiesel
 It can be burned directly in some diesel engines
 It is low in sulphur
 There are no associated land use changes

The disadvantages of WVO are:

  It can decrease engine life if not properly refined

WVO is probably one of the best sources of biodiesel and, as long as blending is all that is
required, can meet much of the demand for biodiesel. Collecting it can be a problem though as it
is distributed throughout the world in restaurants and homes.

Municipal Solid Waste

This refers to things like landfill gas, human waste, and grass and yard clippings. All of these
sources of energy are, in many cases, simply being allowed to go to waste. Though not as clean
as solar and wind, the carbon footprint of these fuels is much less than that of traditionally
derived fossil fuels. Municipal solid waste is often used in cogeneration plants, where it is
burned to produce both heat and electricity.

6)Third generation of bio fuels

st nd
Third generation biofuels are more energy dense than 1 and 2 generation biofuels per area of
harvest. They are cultured as low-cost, high-energy, and completely renewable sources of
st nd
energy. Algae are advantageous in that it can grow in areas unsuitable for 1 and 2 generation
crops, which would relieve stress on water and arable land used. It can be grown using sewage,
wastewater, and saltwater, such as oceans or salt lakes.

One of the major benefits of algae is that they can use a diverse array of carbon sources. Most
notably, it has been suggested that algae might be tied directly to carbon emitting sources (power
plants, industry, etc.) where they could directly convert emissions into usable fuel. This means
that no carbon dioxide would be released from these settings and thus total emissions would be
reduced substantially.
As with everything, algae have a down side. In this case, the downside is large and if it cannot be
solved, is a deal breaker. Algae, even when grown in waste water, require large amounts of
water, nitrogen and phosphorus to grow. So much in fact that the production of fertilizer to meet
the needs of algae used to produce biofuel would produce more greenhouse gas emissions than
were saved by using algae based biofuel to begin with. It also means the cost of algae-base
biofuel is much higher than fuel from other sources

Fuel Potential of Third Generation Biofuels

When it comes to the potential to produce fuel, no feedstock can match algae In terms of quantity
or diversity. The diversity of fuel that algae can produce results from two characteristics of the
microorganism. First, algae produce an oil that can easily be refined into diesel or even certain
components of gasoline. More importantly, however, is a second property in it can be genetically
manipulated to produce everything from ethanol and butanol to even gasoline and diesel fuel
directly.

Butanol is of great interest because the alcohol is exceptionally similar to gasoline. In fact, it has
a nearly identical energy density to gasoline and an improved emissions profile. Until the advent
of genetically modified algae, scientists had a great deal of difficulty producing butanol. Now,
several commercial-scale facilities have been developed and are on the brink of making butanol
and more popular biofuel than ethanol because it is not only similar in many ways to gasoline,
but also does not cause engine damage or even require engine modification the way ethanol does.

The list of fuels that can be derived from algae includes:

Biodiesel, Butanol, Gasoline, Methane, Ethanol, Vegetable Oil, Jet Fuel

Cultivation of Third Generation Biofuels

Another favorable property of algae is the diversity of ways in which it can be cultivated. Algae
can be grown in any of the following ways.

 Open ponds – These are the simplest systems in which algae is grown in a pond in the
open air. They are simple and have low capital costs, but are less efficient than other
systems. They are also of concern because other organisms can contaminate the pond and
potentially damage or kill the algae
 Closed-loop systems – These are similar to open ponds, but they are not exposed to the
atmosphere and use a sterile source of carbon dioxide. Such systems have potential
because they may be able to be directly connected to carbon dioxide sources (such as
smokestacks) and thus use the gas before it is every released into the atmosphere.
 Photobioreactors – These are the most advanced and thus most difficult systems to
implement, resulting in high capital costs. Their advantages in terms of yield and control,
however, are unparalleled. They are closed systems.

Note that all three systems mean that algae are able to be grown almost anywhere that
temperatures are warm enough. This means that no farm land need be threatened by algae.
Closed-loop and photobioreactor systems have even been used in desert settings.
5) Forest waste:
New types of green fuels produced using waste from forestry may be among the first new
generation biofuels
biofuel production and was currently conducting trials to produce biodiesel, bioethanol and
heavy fuel oils from forest residues including tree bark, twigs and stumps
Woody biomass resources range from corn kernels to corn stalks, from soybean and canola oils
to animal fats, from prairie grasses to hardwoods, and even include algae. Woody biomass may
be used for energy production at different scales, including large-scale power generation, CHP,
or small-scale thermal heating projects. Some of the major sources of woody biomass
Forest harvesting is a major source of biomass for energy. Harvesting may occur as thinning in
young stands, or cutting in older stands for timber or pulp that also yields tops and branches
usable for bioenergy. Harvesting operations usually remove only 25 to 50 percent of the volume,
leaving the residues available as biomass for energy. Stands damaged by insects, disease or fire
are additional sources of biomass. Forest residues normally have low density and fuel values that
keep transport costs high, and so it is economical to reduce the biomass density in the forest itself

Energy Crops
Dedicated energy crops are another source of woody biomass for energy. These crops are fast-
growing plants, trees or other herbaceous biomass which are harvested specifically for energy
production. Rapidly-growing, pest-tolerant, site and soil-specific crops have been identified by
making use of bioengineering. For example, operational yield in the northern hemisphere is 10-
15 tonnes/ha annually. A typical 20 MW steam cycle power station using energy crops would
require a land area of around 8,000 ha to supply energy on rotation.

Urban Wood Wastes

Such waste consists of lawn and tree trimmings, whole tree trunks, wood pallets and any other
construction and demolition wastes made from lumber. The rejected woody material can be
collected after a construction or demolition project and turned into mulch, compost or used to
fuel bioenergy plants.

Forestry residues are generated by operations such as thinning of plantations, clearing for
logging roads, extracting stem-wood for pulp and timber, and natural attrition. Harvesting may
occur as thinning in young stands, or cutting in older stands for timber or pulp that also yields
tops and branches usable for biomass energy. Harvesting operations usually remove only 25 to
50 percent of the volume, leaving the residues available as biomass for energy.

6)Industrial Wastes
The food industry produces a large number of residues and by-products that can be used as
biomass energy sources. These waste materials are generated from all sectors of the food
industry with everything from meat production to confectionery producing waste that can be
utilised as an energy source.
 Solid wastes include peelings and scraps from fruit and vegetables, food that does not meet
quality control standards, pulp and fibre from sugar and starch extraction, filter sludges and
coffee grounds. These wastes are usually disposed of in landfill dumps.

Liquid wastes are generated by washing meat, fruit and vegetables, blanching fruit and
vegetables, pre-cooking meats, poultry and fish, cleaning and processing operations as well as
wine making.

These waste waters contain sugars, starches and other dissolved and solid organic matter. The
potential exists for these industrial wastes to be anaerobically digested to produce biogas, or
fermented to produce ethanol, and several commercial examples of waste-to-energy conversion
already exist.

Pulp and paper industry is considered to be one of the highly polluting industries and consumes
large amount of energy and water in various unit operations. The wastewater discharged by this
industry is highly heterogeneous as it contains compounds from wood or other raw materials,
processed chemicals as well as compound formed during processing. Black liquor can be
judiciously utilized for production of biogas using anaerobic UASB technology.