2010-2016 Nomenclature: Section 9: Developments in South and Southeast Asia From The Mid-20th Century To 2000

P3 HL Option 3: History of Asia and Oceania
Section 16: Developments and challenges in South Asia after 1947

This section focuses on the history of South Asia post-1947. The challenges facing the newly created nations
of Pakistan, Bangladesh and Ceylon/Sri Lanka should be examined, as well as the different approaches of
governments/leaders to these challenges. The reasons for, and impact of, conflict in the region should also be
addressed.
2010-2016 Nomenclature: Section 9: Developments in South and Southeast Asia from the mid-20th
century to 2000
This section analyses the political developments in the newly independent countries of South and Southeast
Asia, after the Second World War. A tension developed between attachment to democratic institutions and
free elections and the desire for strong government to prevent political divisions leading to partition and
fragmentation, as eventually happened when Bangladesh was created out of East Pakistan. Ethnic and
religious minorities existed to a greater or lesser extent in all countries of the region and posed a problem with
regard to developing a sense of national identity and unity. Strong centralized government, often with military
backing, was seen as a means of imposing a national ideology and maintaining national unity. Conversely,
there was also the desire to have government ratified by national elections. This tension between democracy
and centralized government was a common feature in the region.
• India: domestic policies and achievements of Nehru, Indira Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi
• Indo-Pakistani relations (including Kashmir); Indian foreign policy (including non-alignment); Sino-Indian
relations
• Pakistan: domestic policies and achievements of Jinnah, Ayub Khan, Zulfikar Bhutto, Zia
• Religious issues in India and Pakistan
• Social and economic developments in India and Pakistan
• Developments in Indo-China: Vietnam 1955‑75, Cambodia (Kampuchea), Laos
• Case study of political, social and economic developments of two of the following: the Philippines,
Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Indonesia, Burma, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh
Foreign policy and economic developments under Nehru: relationship between India and Pakistan;
Indo-Pakistani Wars—1947, 1965, 1971; causes and results; independence of Bangladesh (1971)
31. To what extent were Nehru’s economic policies successful? [May 2018]
Candidates will consider the merits or otherwise of the suggestion that Nehru’s economic policies were
successful. They may adopt a chronological approach that contextualises Nehru’s economic policies by
referring to the state of India at the time of partition and after his rule, but this must be clearly linked to the
issue raised in the question. Alternatively, candidates may choose a thematic approach and refer to aspects
such as the Five Year Plans, agricultural improvements, industrialization, government sponsored projects,
government regulation, taxation, and the limitations on foreign investment and imports. These need not all be
covered or covered equally. While other, relevant, factors such as political and cultural issues or foreign
policies may be referred to, the bulk of the response will remain on the issue raised in the question. Candidates
may agree, partly agree or disagree with the suggestion.
31. To what extent can Nehru’s foreign policy be considered successful? [May 2019]
31. Evaluate the foreign policy of Jawaharlal Nehru between 1947 and 1964. [Nov 2018]
Candidates are required to make an appraisal by weighing up the strengths and limitations of Nehru’s foreign
policy from 1947 to 1964. Candidates may consider the motives, philosophy and impact of the non-alignment
policy. The strengths and limitations of India’s participation in the Bandung Conference, the Asian relations
conference, membership of the Commonwealth along with the annexation of Goa may be appraised. India’s
P3 HL O3: HoAs&O/ S16: Developments and challenges in South Asia after 1947 1
relationship with both the US and the USSR along with the first Indo-Pakistan war, the issue of Kashmir, the
relationship with China, the Pancha Shila treaty, the offer of protection to the Dalai Lama and the War with
China in 1962 may also be evaluated. Although candidates are required to refer to both strengths and
limitations of Nehru’s foreign policy, there may be an imbalance between the two.
17. To what extent do you agree that Nehru served India well in the years 1947 to 1964? [Nov 2014]
This is a broad question that enables candidates to assess a wide range of Nehru’s social, economic and foreign
policies in the years 1947 to 1964. Although candidates may start by assessing Nehru’s role in Indian
Independence this should not be the main focus of their response.
Nehru was a key figure in the Indian independence movement and he played a critical role in negotiations
with the British. He opposed the Muslim League’s demands for a separate Muslim state. Mountbatten, the last
British viceroy, proposed the division as the most practical solution and Nehru unwillingly agreed to it. On 15
August 1947, Nehru became the first prime minister of India and formed the first independent government.
As Prime Minister, Nehru introduced a series of moderate socialist economic reforms and encouraged the
process of industrialization. The four pillars of his domestic policies were democracy, socialism, unity, and
secularism. Nehru sought to modernise India by importing modern values and encouraging scientific and
technological developments. He also aspired to make Indian people more aware of those living in poverty. It
could be argued that one of his greatest achievements was the reform of the ancient Hindu civil code that
finally enabled Hindu widows to have equality with men with regards to inheritance and property.
One of the most problematic issues Nehru faced was conflict with Pakistan over the state of Kashmir. Nehru
sent troops into the state to support India’s claim. Despite the work of the United Nations the situation in
Kashmir would remain volatile. The Indian army was also heavily defeated by Chinese forces following border
disputes in 1962. Nehru worked hard to keep India out of the Cold War conflict by developing a policy of
“positive neutrality” for India. He also became a key spokesman for the non-alignment movement.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However,
it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the
responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.
17. Assess the reasons for the tension in Indo–Pakistani relations between 1947 and 2000. [May 2014]
India and Pakistan both gained independence after the British partition of India in 1947. Pakistan became a
Muslim state, which eventually had authoritarian governments, whilst India became a secular democracy with
a Hindu majority. Partition caused millions of people to be displaced. This whole process led to many violent
clashes and massacres. Since 1947, relations between India and Pakistan have remained tense. Control of the
different Muslim and Hindu regions of Kashmir was the focal point of much conflict, leading to wars in 1947,
1965 and 1999. In the 1971 Indo–Pakistani War, India supported the liberation of Bangladesh. There have
been many other border disputes and skirmishes. Attempts have been made to solve these in numerous
agreements and treaties: 1966 Tashkent Declaration; 1972 Shimla Agreement; 1999 Lahore Declaration. Other
areas of conflict have included: the treatment of minorities; language issues; West Bengali refugees in India
after the 1971 Indo–Pakistani War; nuclear arms development; and water issues. In foreign relations, both
countries have pursued different paths. India was involved in the Non-Aligned Movement, and during the
1970s received considerable aid from the Soviet Union. Pakistan developed closer relations with the US and
benefited from US aid. India recognized the Soviet-backed government of Afghanistan in 1978, whilst
Pakistan supported the Mujahideen resistance to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 and the
subsequent war. In the late 20th century, the rise of Islamic fundamentalism with links to the Taliban and Al-
Qaeda flourished in Pakistan, with India being opposed to the Taliban in Afghanistan. Pakistan was blamed
for several acts of terrorism in India in the 1990s.
the list is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
17. How and why has the region of Kashmir caused problems for Indo–Pakistani relations since
independence? [Nov 2013]
The Kashmir dispute dates from 1947. Candidates will probably be familiar with the issue of Kashmir and the
reason for it. Because of its location, Kashmir could choose to join either India or Pakistan. Reasons for
tensions should be well known; Maharaja Hari Singh, the ruler of Kashmir, was Hindu but most of his subjects
were Muslim. Unable to decide which nation his state should join, Hari Singh at first chose neutrality.
However, conflict developed into war between the two countries in 1947–1948. Kashmir was formally
incorporated into the Indian Union in 1957 but war broke out again in 1965. Problems continued between the
two sides although both agreed to try to resolve the issue peacefully, as they had other, more urgent domestic
issues of their own to deal with. In the 1990s further disputes occurred with both countries exchanging artillery
fire and thousands of casualties resulting from the dispute. Candidates should clearly distinguish how and why
the dispute continues to cause problems for the two countries. Two-thirds of Jammu and Kashmir is controlled
by India and one-third is administered by Pakistan.
Candidates may well refer to other problems that came about as a consequence of partition and Kashmir. This
should be made relevant in the context of the Kashmir dispute and the problems between India and Pakistan.
The role of the United Nations and the Cold War may be referred to. Some candidates may suggest that
Kashmir is a symptom not the cause of tensions between the two. For the higher mark bands there must be an
attempt to reach a judgment on how and why Kashmir has caused problems.
Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the ‘best fit’ to the
17. Evaluate the policies and achievements of the post-independence governments of either India or
Pakistan between 1947 and 1971. [May 2013]
For India: Candidates may initially discuss India’s independence from the British in August 1947 and that it
inherited the British parliamentary system. Jawaharlal Nehru was India’s first Prime Minister until 1964. He
created the Republic of India in 1950. Nehru was quite a visionary thinker and believed in state planning and
a mixed economy. In 1951 he introduced the first Five Year Plan which enabled land redistribution;
community development projects; the growth of manufacturing; electricity. Despite these improvements India
was still desperately poor and suffered food shortages in rural areas. Nehru negotiated a water agreement with
Pakistan. His reforms in education were designed to modernize the country and included: a commitment to
provide primary schooling for all children; free milk and meals to improve health; investment in creating many
tertiary institutions, particularly promoting technological education; adult education. Socially, he legislated
against caste discrimination and improved the legal status women. In foreign affairs, Nehru was one of the
founders of the non-aligned movement in the Cold War and he recognized the People’s Republic of China.
This meant that India had strained relations with the USA. There was the 1947 Indo–Pakistani War over
Kashmir and a border dispute with China in 1962. Nehru won, with convincing majorities, elections in 1952,
1957 and 1962. He died in office in 1964. He was succeeded briefly by Shastri, who died suddenly after the
second Indo–Pakistani War in 1965. Nehru’s daughter, Indira Gandhi, then became India’s third Prime
Minister. Her economic policies initially were a continuation of her father’s. She introduced more left-wing
economic policies and promoted agricultural productivity in what was called the Green Revolution and this
resulted in reducing food shortages. She also expanded industry and developed India’s nuclear programme.
Intervention in the Bangladesh conflict in 1971 was generally considered to be successful in containing a
potential refugee crisis. She won the 1971 election with a convincing majority.
For Pakistan: Candidates may initially discuss Pakistan’s independence from the British in August 1947 and
that it inherited the British parliamentary system. There was a considerable amount of violence surrounding
partition from India and independence. The charismatic leader, Jinnah, who was Pakistan’s first president,
died shortly afterwards. The first prime minister, Liaquat Ali Khan, was faced with the challenges of the
refugee problem; the 1947 Indo–Pakistan War over Kashmir; and the use of Urdu as the national language.
He introduced the framework for Pakistan’s future constitutions, the Objectives Resolution which combined
features of both Western and Islamic traditions. He cemented Pakistan’s alliance with the US. In 1951 he was
assassinated and civil unrest followed. In 1953, with the advent of religious political parties, there were riots
and martial law was imposed. This was the beginning of military intervention in the political and civilian
affairs of the country. During this period Pakistan became part of the Baghdad Pact. The Dominion was
dissolved in 1956 and Pakistan was declared an Islamic Republic in 1956. Two years later the military took
control and Ayub Khan became the President. He continued with the US alliance; introduced measures to end
water disputes with India; increased industrialization; improved agricultural output; supported a space
programme. In 1965 there was another Indo–Pakistan War over Kashmir. The geographical structure of West
Pakistan and East Pakistan increased the problems in government and party politics. Bengali nationalism grew
in popularity and an independence movement in East Pakistan gained momentum. This led to an uprising in
1969 and Ayub Khan was replaced by General Yahya Khan, who intended to hold general elections in 1970.
Yahya Khan and Zulfikar Bhutto, the founder and leader of the Pakistan People’s Party (PPP), did not accept
the outcome of the democratic elections in 1971. This led to the crisis that caused the Bangladesh Liberation
War and the secession of East Pakistan to create the new country of Bangladesh in 1971. Bhutto then became
President and civilian rule was restored.
Better answers will need to explicitly evaluate some achievements of the governments of their chosen country.
India: social, political and economic developments and challenges under Indira Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi
and Rao
32. To what extent could Indira Gandhi’s leadership of India be regarded as successful? [SP 2017]
Candidates must demonstrate a clear understanding of the requirements of the question and effectively deploy
knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question; in this case the extent to which Indira Gandhi’s leadership
of India could be regarded as successful. Candidates should assess a range of Indira Gandhi’s policies and
actions to determine the extent to which they were successful.
Points discussed may include:
• Indira Gandhi was the prime minister of India for three consecutive terms from 1966 to 1977 and for a
fourth term from 1980 until her assassination in 1984, and was the dominant figure in India for almost two
decades. Her political career was often dogged by controversy;
• Positive social developments made under her leadership could include social equality, dealing with the
caste system, women’s rights, health, religious divisions, and education. However, some of her policies,
such as controlling population growth through a forced sterilization programme, were disliked because of
their authoritarian nature;
• A good deal had already been accomplished by her father (Jawaharlal Nehru) in terms of economic
development, as a result of a series of Five Year Plans. Indira’s economic policies were initially a
continuation of Nehru’s. She introduced left wing economic policies and promoted agricultural
productivity. However, by the mid-1970s India was facing an economic crisis, to which it could be argued
she failed to respond effectively;
• Indira’s style of leadership of India was often criticized. She was found guilty of electoral malpractice in
the 1975 elections and her support for her son Rajiv led to accusation of nepotism and corruption. Indira
was authoritarian by nature and her most controversial measure was the State of Emergency in 1975, which
enabled her to stay in power. In 1984 she authorized the Indian army to forcibly enter the Sikh sacred
Golden Temple in Amritsar to arrest insurgents. She was assassinated in 1984 by a disgruntled Sikh
bodyguard;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the extent to which Indira
Gandhi’s leadership of India could be regarded as successful.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses; however,
it is neither prescriptive nor exhaustive and no set answer is required. Examiners are reminded of the need to
apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit
wherever it is possible to do so.
31. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the governments of either Zulfikar Ali Bhutto in Pakistan
or Indira Gandhi in India. [Nov 2017]
Candidates will offer a considered and balanced review of the strengths and weaknesses of the governments
of either Zulfikar Ali Bhutto or Indira Gandhi. Candidates may choose to discuss Bhutto who was the leader
of Pakistan from 1971 to 1977. Possible strengths discussed may include Pakistan’s role in the non-alignment
movement, the nuclear programme and peace talks with India. Weaknesses discussed may include Bhutto’s
treatment of political opponents, human rights abuses and causing the Bangladesh Liberation War by not
accepting the outcome of the democratic elections. Candidates may choose to discuss Indira Gandhi who was
prime minister of India for four terms between 1966 and 1984. Possible strengths discussed may include her
intervention in the Bangladesh conflict, the Green Revolution and her role in the non-alignment movement.
Weaknesses discussed may include the accusations of nepotism, corruption, her disregard for democratic
processes and the attack on the Golden Temple in 1984.
18. Analyse the controversial role of either Zulfikar Bhutto in Pakistan or Indira Gandhi in India. [May
2010]
Candidates will need to address the issue of why Zulfikar Bhutto is a controversial figure as they evaluate his
political career. Bhutto was in power between 1971 and 1977. He was the founder of the Pakistan People’s
Party (PPP), the largest and most influential political party in Pakistan. In 1962, he was appointed Pakistan’s
foreign minister and he significantly transformed Pakistan’s hitherto pro-Western foreign policy. Bhutto began
asserting a foreign policy course for Pakistan that was independent of US influence. Bhutto made Pakistan an
influential member in non-aligned organizations. While he was hailed for being a nationalist, Bhutto was
roundly criticized for opportunism and intimidating his political opponents. He gave Pakistan its third
constitution, oversaw Pakistan’s nuclear programme and held peace talks with neighbouring India. His
socialist policies are blamed for slowing down Pakistan’s economic progress owing to poor productivity and
high costs. Bhutto is also criticized for human rights abuses perpetrated by the army. Many in Pakistan’s
military condemned Bhutto for having caused the crisis that caused the Bangladesh Liberation War by not
accepting the outcome of the democratic elections in 1971. In 1977 the military, led by General Zia, staged a
coup and relieved Bhutto of power. He was executed in 1979 for authorizing the murder of a political
opponent. In spite of all the criticism Bhutto still remains a popular leader of the country.
Candidates will need to address the issue of why Indira Gandhi is a controversial figure as they evaluate her
political career. She was prime minister of India for three consecutive terms between 1966 and 1977 and for
a fourth term in 1980 until her assassination in 1984. The issues to be considered include: the implementation
of the State of Emergency in 1975; other policies such as population control and the forced sterilization
programme which were disliked because of their authoritarian nature. Indira Gandhi’s support of her son,
Sanjay, led to accusations of nepotism and corruption. Intervention in the Bangladesh conflict in 1971 was
generally considered to be successful in containing a potential refugee crisis. Her economic policies initially
were a continuation of Nehru’s. She introduced left-wing economic policies and promoted agricultural
productivity, but by the mid-1970s India was facing an economic crisis and her popularity was declining. Her
most controversial measure was the State of Emergency and analysis will no doubt consider whether it was
necessary or whether it was a non-democratic measure to enable her to retain power. In June 1984 she
authorized the Indian army to forcibly enter the Sikh sacred Golden Temple to arrest insurgents. She was
assassinated in 1984 by a disgruntled Sikh.
17. To what extent were the domestic policies pursued by Indira Gandhi a continuation of those of her
father? [Nov 2011]
Indira Gandhi was the prime minister of the Republic of India for three consecutive terms from 1966 to 1977
and for a fourth term from 1980 until her assassination in 1984, and the dominant figure in India for almost
two decades. She was India’s first and, to date, only female Prime Minister. Indira Gandhi was autocratic and
determined to govern an almost ungovernable nation that seemed always in domestic turmoil. She was born
to politics and power, the granddaughter of Motilal Nehru, an early leader of the Indian independence
movement, and daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru, who led India as prime minister in its first 17 years of
independence from Britain. Jawaharlal Nehru’s social policies/programmes included “Untouchability”
(Offences) Act of 1955, quotas for harijans in civil service, state assemblies, the universities, Hindu Marriage
Acts removing barriers to intercaste marriage, raising minimum age of marriage to 18 for males and 15 for
females and giving Hindu women right of divorce. Economic programmes and policies under Jawaharlal
Nehru included emphasis on centralized economic planning – First Five Year Plan (1951) with its attempts to
deal with agricultural and, to a lesser extent, industrial growth, the Second Five Year Plan (1956 to 1961) with
emphasis on heavy industry, mining, power and textiles and the Third Five Year Plan (1961 to 1966), which
led to India’s ranking of seventh in the world’s most advanced industrial nations.
Candidates will probably refer to areas such as the economy, Five Year Plans, industrial development and the
pursuit of socialist goals in addition to social policies such as dealing with the caste system, social equality,
the rights of women, population control and education. As Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi presided over the
world’s most populous democracy, with the population rising from just under 500 million to over 730 million
people by the time of her death in 1984. During her tenure the government made limited headway against such
age-old Indian problems as overpopulation, hunger, caste, inadequate sanitation and chronic religious strife
among the majority Hindus, Muslims and other sects. Indira Gandhi was found guilty of electoral malpractice
in the 1975 elections and from 1975 to 1977, she ruled India under a state of emergency. Analysis from
candidates could consider the extent to which Indira Gandhi used undemocratic methods in contrast to
Jawaharlal Nehru’s commitment to democracy. Better candidates will be able to go beyond recounting the
domestic policies and should look for the methods of implementation such as Jawaharlal Nehru’s
encouragement of social change and domestic improvements, whereas Indira Gandhi was more willing to use
forceful methods for change.
Candidates should identify the key policies and aims of both leaders; however the focus of the question is
Indira Gandhi. Candidates who have misunderstood who Indira Gandhi’s father was cannot score highly.
17. Examine the successes and failures of Rajiv Gandhi’s leadership of India. [May 2016]
Candidates are required to consider how well the India fared due to the policies and actions of Rajiv Gandhi.
Conclusions should be presented clearly and supported with appropriate evidence.
Indicative content
Successes:
• Economic successes discussed could include the reduction of taxes and import quotas on consumer goods.
Gandhi also developed information technology and telecommunications industries. Provisions were made
to support the creation of new businesses and remove bureaucratic constraints.
• Social successes may include an assessment of his education policies, which included making primary
education more accessible in rural areas and increasing higher education opportunities. The subjects of
science and technology were also developed.
• Political successes include Rajiv Gandhi’s maintenance of good relations with both the US and the USSR.
Failures:
• Political problems could include discussion of the tensions in Punjab, which eventually resulted in the
introduction of martial law. His support for the Sri Lankan government during their civil war was unpopular
amongst the Indian people.
• Rumours of political and financial corruption damaged Rajiv Gandhi’s reputation and leadership.
• There was also unease about his rule due to its dynastic nature.
17. Analyse the policies and achievements of either Rajiv Gandhi (1984–1991) in India or Zia (1977–
1988) in Pakistan. [May 2012]
Rajiv Gandhi
Candidates may start by outlining his political career. This may include: the pressure place on him by his
mother, Indira Gandhi, and the Indian National Congress Party to enter politics after the death of his brother,
Sanjay, in 1980; his election to Parliament in 1981; being chosen by the Congress Party as Prime Minister
after the assassination of his mother in 1984; the landslide victory of the elections shortly after in 1984; the
Bofors corruption scandal that contributed to his defeat in 1989; and his assassination by a Tamil supporter
whist campaigning in 1991. Candidates will need to analyse his policies and achievements. Rajiv Gandhi
moved away from the more socialist policies of his mother and encouraged the development of small
businesses. He reduced taxes and import quotas on consumer goods and developed the information technology
and telecommunications industries. Yet, during the course of his rule the value of the rupee dropped
considerably. In education he gave support to science and technology, expanded higher education and
established a programme to promote secondary education in rural areas. Internal security in the Punjab was a
major issue and his government imposed martial law which was controversial. Rajiv Gandhi improved India’s
relationship with the US, whilst still maintaining friendship with the USSR. The most contentious of his
policies was his government’s involvement in the civil war in Sri Lanka. Under his mother’s government India
had supported the Tamil rebels, but after the Indo-Sri Lanka Peace Accord in 1987 the support shifted to the
Sri Lankan government. The Indian Peace Keeping Force aimed to disarm the rebels and get them to accept
the Accord. This proved unpopular in India and contributed to Rajiv Gandhi’s defeat in 1989 and his death in
1991.
17. To what extent do you agree that Indian foreign policy was successful in the years 1947 to 2000?
[Nov 2015]
Candidates are expected to consider examine the nature and achievements of Indian foreign policy during the
set period and consider its merits or otherwise before arriving at a substantiated judgment as to the extent it
was successful.
Indicative content
• India played a key role in establishing the Non-Aligned Movement in 1961. Though India pursued close
relations with both the US and the USSR, it decided not to join any major power bloc and refrained from
joining military alliances.
• After the Sino-Indian War and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, India made considerable changes to its
foreign policy. It developed a close relationship with the Soviet Union and started receiving massive
military equipment and financial assistance from the USSR. This had an adverse effect on the Indo-US
relationship.
• In response, the US gave Pakistan military assistance. This created an atmosphere of mistrust between India
and the US. The Indo-US relationship further suffered when the Soviets took over Afghanistan and India
overtly supported the Soviet Union. Following nuclear tests carried out in India in the 1970s the US
imposed sanctions on them.
• Relations with China were turbulent in this period. In 1962 war broke out between the two and conflict
over their boundaries continued for many years. Indo-Chinese relations did however improve gradually
after 1988.
• Relations between India and Pakistan were dominated by years of mistrust and suspicion since the partition
of India in 1947. The principal source of contention between India and its western neighbour was the
question of sovereignty over the territory of Kashmir.
• The end of the Cold War significantly affected India’s foreign policy. The country sought to strengthen its
diplomatic and economic ties with the US, the People’s Republic of China and the European Union. India
also forged close ties with the member states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and
the Arab League.
Pakistan 1947–1991: nation building; social, political and economic developments and challenges;
friction between East and West Pakistan; cultural and linguistic differences; constitutional referendum
(1991); Jinnah; Ayub Khan; Zulfikar Ali Bhutto; Zia-ul-Haq; Benazir Bhutto
32. Discuss the political challenges facing Pakistan between 1947 and 1971. [Nov 2018]
Candidates are required to offer a considered and balanced review of the political challenges facing Pakistan
between 1947 and 1971. In their approach, candidates may discuss internal and external challenges or focus
on one aspect in depth. Areas of discussion may include Pakistan’s relationship with India and the
geographical and ethnic divide with East Pakistan. Examples could include the refugee crisis, the issue of
Kashmir and the three Indo-Pakistan wars. Following Jinnah’s death Pakistan faced the challenge of
maintaining a democratic state and candidates may discuss the assassination of Prime Minister Liaqat Ali
Khan and military rule under General Ayub Khan and General Yahya Khan. Corruption, instability and the
rise of fundamentalism and violence may also be discussed. Friction between East and West Pakistan due to
unfair political treatment of East Pakistan was a significant political challenge that led to the creation of
Bangladesh.
32. “Political factors were the main cause of friction between East and West Pakistan.” Discuss. [May
2018]
Candidates will offer a considered and balanced review of the statement that “political factors were the main
cause of friction between East and West Pakistan”. This is a question about a range of issues so a description
of the 1971 war should not be the focus of the response. Candidates may refer to demographic issues, political
representation, internal political rivalries and upheavals, military leaders, and discrimination against East
Pakistanis in the bureaucracy and the military. These need not all be covered or covered equally. While other,
relevant, factors such as economic policies, cultural friction, Indian influence and US aid may be referred to,
the bulk of the response will remain on the issue raised in the question. Candidates may agree, partly agree or
disagree with the statement.
17. Explain how developments in both the eastern and western wings of Pakistan between 1966 and
1971 led to civil war and the emergence of an independent Bangladeshi state. [Nov 2012]
The key dates of 1966 and 1971 refer to the issuing of the six point programme of demands/reforms of the
Awami League under the leadership of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and the intensification of regional demands
for parity to full-blown independence in the period up to 1971. Candidates will probably examine the longer
and shorter-term reasons why a majority population actually broke away to form their own independent state
with the aid of an outside power (India). In addition, some will demonstrate relevant knowledge of the
inherently inequitable treatment of the eastern Bengali population from 1947 onwards, in terms of the
economy and linguistic policy, and how this resulted in a form of discrimination in the eyes of many East
Pakistanis. Developments led to a military and political dominance for the West Pakistani elite and within the
civil service. Candidates will probably outline the demands/grievances contained therein for the formation of
an East Pakistan militia, a federal constitution, separate currencies etc. Candidates will be able to consider
why the demand for autonomy had intensified to a higher level by the time of Ayub Khan, Yahya Khan and
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto in 1970 to 1971. The most perceptive and knowledgeable answers will demonstrate not
only a sound grasp of the issues which were at stake for both West Pakistani and East Pakistani leaders from
the time of the creation of Pakistan, but are also likely to show an awareness of the circumstances in which
the state of Pakistan came into existence in 1947 and the extent to which the circumstances of its creation
(geographic, economic) were liable to lead to a viable state, considering the haste with which the subcontinent
underwent the process of decolonisation. Credit especially those answers which are able to explain the
intensification of regional demands for parity to full independence in the period 1966 to 1971.
17. Evaluate the extent to which Ayub Khan created stable government and national unity in Pakistan
between 1958 and 1969. [May 2015]
Ayub Khan was President of Pakistan from 1958 to 1969. Candidates may initially place his accession to
power in context and examine the problems and instability experienced in Pakistan since 1947. Pakistan gained
independence from Britain in August 1947 although it inherited the British parliamentary system. There was
a considerable amount of violence surrounding partition from India and independence. The charismatic leader,
Jinnah, who was Pakistan’s first president, died shortly afterwards. The first Prime Minister, Liaquat Ali Khan,
was faced with the challenges of the refugee problem; the 1947 Indo–Pakistani War over Kashmir; the
dominance of landlords; and the use of Urdu as the national language. He introduced the framework for
Pakistan’s future constitutions and he cemented Pakistan’s alliance with the US. In 1951 he was assassinated;
civil unrest followed and by 1953 martial law was imposed. This was the beginning of military intervention
in the political and civilian affairs of the country. Pakistan was declared an Islamic Republic in 1956. Two
years later the military took control and Ayub Khan became President. He continued with the US alliance;
introduced measures to end water disputes with India; increased industrialization; improved agricultural
output; and supported a space programme. Further examination of his policies may include: land reform; the
implementation of the Second Five Year Plan leading to increased food production; hydroelectric power
projects; and the sacking of corrupt civil servants. Candidates may argue that Ayub Khan created a stable
government and some measure of national unity. Stability could also be represented by his electoral victory
in 1965 that provided continuity, but plans to return to democracy led to the emergence of opposition groups
who represented landowners. In 1965 there was another Indo–Pakistani war over Kashmir. The geographical
structure of West Pakistan and East Pakistan increased the problems in government and party politics. Bengali
nationalism grew in popularity and an independence movement in East Pakistan gained momentum. This led
to an uprising and Ayub Khan lost the support of the military and was deposed in 1969. He was replaced by
General Yahya Khan, who intended to hold general elections in 1970.
Candidates may argue that Ayub Khan created a measure of economic stability but political stability was only
possible with fairly authoritarian methods. Some may argue that Ayub Khan was less successful in creating
national unity in a country that was so divided ethnically, culturally and geographically. Candidates may look
at subsequent events such as the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War and the secession of East Pakistan to argue
that Ayub Khan’s regime had been relatively stable and beneficial to Pakistan.
18. Consider the view that Ayub Khan provided stability in Pakistan in the years between 1958 and
1969. [Nov 2011]
Candidates will need to set Ayub Khan‟s accession to power in context and should examine the problems
experienced in Pakistan since 1947 (death of Jinnah, death of Liaquat Ali Khan, political instability, economic
problems including refugees, food shortages etc., tensions between East and West Pakistan, dominance of
landlords). An examination of his policies such as land reform, implementation of the Second Five Year Plan
leading to increased food production, hydroelectric power projects, sacking of corrupt civil servants should
be expected. Candidates may argue that this represented stability. Stability could also be represented by
securing electoral victory in 1965 providing continuity, but plans “to return to democracy” led to the
emergence of opposition groups led by Bhutto (often representing landowners). Ultimately Ayub Khan lost
the support of the military and was deposed in 1969 by Yahya Khan.
Candidates may comment that Ayub Khan provided a measure of economic stability but political stability was
only possible with fairly authoritarian methods. Some may argue that Ayub Khan provided as much stability
as was possible in a nation that was so divided culturally and geographically, and also economically.
Candidates may look at subsequent events (1971 war, etc.) to sustain argument on Ayub Khan‟s relatively
stable regime which was considered by many to be beneficial to Pakistan.
31. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the governments of either Zulfikar Ali Bhutto in Pakistan
or Indira Gandhi in India. [Nov 2017]
Candidates will offer a considered and balanced review of the strengths and weaknesses of the governments
of either Zulfikar Ali Bhutto or Indira Gandhi. Candidates may choose to discuss Bhutto who was the leader
of Pakistan from 1971 to 1977. Possible strengths discussed may include Pakistan’s role in the non-alignment
movement, the nuclear programme and peace talks with India. Weaknesses discussed may include Bhutto’s
treatment of political opponents, human rights abuses and causing the Bangladesh Liberation War by not
accepting the outcome of the democratic elections. Candidates may choose to discuss Indira Gandhi who was
prime minister of India for four terms between 1966 and 1984. Possible strengths discussed may include her
intervention in the Bangladesh conflict, the Green Revolution and her role in the non-alignment movement.
Weaknesses discussed may include the accusations of nepotism, corruption, her disregard for democratic
processes and the attack on the Golden Temple in 1984.
18. Analyse the controversial role of either Zulfikar Bhutto in Pakistan or Indira Gandhi in India. [May
2010]
Candidates will need to address the issue of why Zulfikar Bhutto is a controversial figure as they evaluate his
political career. Bhutto was in power between 1971 and 1977. He was the founder of the Pakistan People’s
Party (PPP), the largest and most influential political party in Pakistan. In 1962, he was appointed Pakistan’s
foreign minister and he significantly transformed Pakistan’s hitherto pro-Western foreign policy. Bhutto began
asserting a foreign policy course for Pakistan that was independent of US influence. Bhutto made Pakistan an
influential member in non-aligned organizations. While he was hailed for being a nationalist, Bhutto was
roundly criticized for opportunism and intimidating his political opponents. He gave Pakistan its third
constitution, oversaw Pakistan’s nuclear programme and held peace talks with neighbouring India. His
socialist policies are blamed for slowing down Pakistan’s economic progress owing to poor productivity and
high costs. Bhutto is also criticized for human rights abuses perpetrated by the army. Many in Pakistan’s
military condemned Bhutto for having caused the crisis that caused the Bangladesh Liberation War by not
accepting the outcome of the democratic elections in 1971. In 1977 the military, led by General Zia, staged a
coup and relieved Bhutto of power. He was executed in 1979 for authorizing the murder of a political
opponent. In spite of all the criticism Bhutto still remains a popular leader of the country.
Candidates will need to address the issue of why Indira Gandhi is a controversial figure as they evaluate her
political career. She was prime minister of India for three consecutive terms between 1966 and 1977 and for
a fourth term in 1980 until her assassination in 1984. The issues to be considered include: the implementation
of the State of Emergency in 1975; other policies such as population control and the forced sterilization
programme which were disliked because of their authoritarian nature. Indira Gandhi’s support of her son,
Sanjay, led to accusations of nepotism and corruption. Intervention in the Bangladesh conflict in 1971 was
generally considered to be successful in containing a potential refugee crisis. Her economic policies initially
were a continuation of Nehru’s. She introduced left-wing economic policies and promoted agricultural
productivity, but by the mid-1970s India was facing an economic crisis and her popularity was declining. Her
most controversial measure was the State of Emergency and analysis will no doubt consider whether it was
necessary or whether it was a non-democratic measure to enable her to retain power. In June 1984 she
authorized the Indian army to forcibly enter the Sikh sacred Golden Temple to arrest insurgents. She was
assassinated in 1984 by a disgruntled Sikh.
17. Evaluate the success of Zulfikar Bhutto’s domestic policies. [Nov 2016]
Candidates are required to appraise the domestic policies of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. They will focus on the nature
of his policies and consider the level of his achievements. Bhutto was in power between 1971 and 1977 and
was the founder of the Pakistan People’s Party (PPP), the largest and most influential political party in
Pakistan. Candidates may discuss whether Bhutto was interested in maintaining the political integrity of
Pakistan or if he was more concerned with advancing a personal agenda.
Indicative content
• Bhutto was determined to maintain Pakistan as a nation and used intelligence and military operations to
attempt to destroy separatist movements across Pakistan.
• Bhutto refused to cooperate with the Awami League after the 1970 elections, tensions over this eventually
led to the declaration of independence in Bangladesh and the Bangladesh Liberation War.
• Bhutto held peace talks with Indira Gandhi. The Shimla Agreement (1972) resulted in nearly 100,000
Pakistani prisoners being released and the establishment of a temporary line of control in Kashmir.
• Constitutional developments included Bhutto recognizing the sovereignty of Bangladesh in the 1973
Constitution.
• Bhutto established a nuclear programme for Pakistan to respond to a potential nuclear threat from India.
He set up the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission and provided funds for research into nuclear weapons.
• Bhutto was determined to improve Pakistan’s education and health systems but this was at a great cost and
his socialist principles were often blamed for slowing down Pakistan’s economic progress.
• Land reforms capped the amount of land that could be owned and tax benefits were given to small
landowners.
• Bhutto attempted to make Pakistan more self-sufficient by developing the sugar, rice and wheat industries.
• In the area of education, there were significant developments. Hundreds of elementary, middle and high
schools were built in urban and rural areas. Bhutto rejected Western systems of education and Western
books. Islamic Studies was made compulsory.
the list is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.
17. Analyse the policies and achievements of either Rajiv Gandhi (1984–1991) in India or Zia (1977–
1988) in Pakistan. [May 2012]
Zia
Candidates may start by outlining his political career. Zia was the Chief of the Army under Bhutto’s
government. Democratic elections were held in 1977 and the Pakistan People’s Party won, but this was
challenged by the opposition. Bhutto was accused of rigging the vote and was implicated in the murder of a
political opponent. The military, led by General Zia, staged a coup, relieved Bhutto of power and had him
executed for murder in 1979. Zia initially promised to hold new elections, but these were postponed and he
maintained martial law. He became President in 1978, consolidated his power as head of state and introduced
Islamic law. From 1980 to 1985 he ruled with the help of an advisory body, the Shoora, made up of
intellectuals, technocrats and economists. In 1984 he held a referendum to ensure his continuation as head of
state and then allowed elections in 1985. The new government ended martial law, but was essentially
controlled by Zia. In 1988 he dissolved this government and promised to hold elections within 90 days, but
he was killed in a suspicious aeroplane crash. Candidates will need to analyse his policies and achievements.
Zia’s government consolidated Pakistan’s nuclear programme begun under Bhutto, but it changed his socialist
policies and successfully encouraged private enterprize and the growth of industry. His government developed
closer relations with the US and Pakistan benefitted from US aid. In part this was due to Zia’s stance on the
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. He was anti-communist and supported the mujahedeen resistance.
This gained the financial backing of the US under President Reagan. These policies are considered
controversial because they encouraged Islamic fundamentalism and endorsed violence. This led to a more
divided Pakistan and increased support for the Taliban and Al-Qaeda in the 1990s.
31. Discuss the nature of the problems facing Pakistan, and the extent to which they had been resolved
by the end of the 20th century. [SP 2017]
Candidates must demonstrate a clear understanding of the requirements of the question and effectively deploy
knowledge of the key issue(s) raised by the question. In this case candidates should discuss the nature of range
of social, political and economic problems facing Pakistan, and also assess the extent to which those problems
had been resolved by the end of the 20th century.
Points discussed may include:
• Pakistan was created from the two regions where Muslims were the majority but this resulted in the new
nation being a divided one, separated by Indian territory. East Pakistanis felt exploited by the West
Pakistan-dominated central government. Linguistic, cultural, and ethnic differences also contributed to the
estrangement of East from West Pakistan. This division into East and West Pakistan would eventually lead
to conflict and the creation of Bangladesh in 1971;
• Kashmir also added to the problems facing the new Pakistani government. Kashmir quickly became
disputed territory with India and Pakistan, was a cause of wars between the two nations in 1965, 1971 and
1999, and was clearly not resolved by 2000;
• The economic situation in Pakistan was also very difficult. The wealth of British India had been granted to
India whereas Pakistan initially had little to support it. Pakistan had hoped for a share of India’s material,
financial, and military assets but this was not to be. Millions of refugees on both sides of the divide also
caused further difficulties. Economic problems remained an ongoing issue. However, during the Khan era
there were improvements in both agricultural and industrial sectors, partly as a result of US funding;
• Jinnah had held the country together in these early days but his death led to a power vacuum. Prime
ministers that followed him lacked his strength of personality to deal with the regional issues and religious
differences/extremism that would continue to hinder Pakistan’s development up until the end of the
century;
• Violence, instability and dictatorial rule dominated the new nation. In 1958 a military government was
established and martial law declared, which would last over three years;
• The role of religion in politics would also remain an ongoing issue for Pakistan. Jinnah managed to promote
religious equality and tolerance but the prime ministers that followed failed to do so. Ayub Khan had
attempted to bring about a series of social reforms regarding women/family life but many conservative
Muslims saw them as too western. Under Zia’s leadership of Pakistan religious tradition would dominate
all aspects of daily life. Islamization therefore became the guiding principle in Zia’s plan to reform
Pakistan, to reassure its unity, and to galvanize the country to meet all threats, both foreign and domestic;
• Responses achieving marks in the top bands will provide a clear judgment on the nature of the problems
facing Pakistan and the extent to which they had been resolved by the end of the 20th century.
The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses; however,
it is neither prescriptive nor exhaustive and no set answer is required. Examiners are reminded of the need to
apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit
wherever it is possible to do so.
17. Analyse the reasons why authoritarian rule rather than democracy became the main type of
government in Pakistan between 1947 and 1979. [May 2011]
Pakistan gained independence from the British in August 1947 and inherited the British parliamentary system.
There was a considerable amount of violence surrounding partition from India and independence. The
charismatic leader, Jinnah, who was Pakistan’s first president, died shortly afterwards. In 1953, with the advent
of religious political parties there were riots and martial law was imposed. This was the beginning of military
intervention in the political and civilian affairs of the country. The Dominion was dissolved in 1956 and
Pakistan was declared an Islamic Republic in 1956. Two years later the military took control and Ayub Khan
became the President. The geographical structure of West Pakistan and East Pakistan increased the problems
in government and party politics. Bengali nationalism grew in popularity and an independence movement in
East Pakistan gained momentum. This led to an uprising in 1969 and Ayub Khan was replaced by General
Yahya Khan, who intended to hold general elections in 1970. Yahya Khan and Zulfikar Bhutto, the founder
and leader of the Pakistan People’s Party (PPP), did not accept the outcome of the democratic elections in
1971. This led to the crisis that caused the Bangladesh Liberation War and the secession of East Pakistan to
create the new country of Bangladesh in 1971. Bhutto then became President and civilian rule was restored.
He was in power between 1971 and 1977 and in 1973 there was a new constitution, Pakistan’s third one.
Bhutto had a reformist agenda and he introduced many industrial and agricultural reforms. He was also
concerned with national security: he supported Pakistan’s nuclear development and held peace talks with
India. Bhutto was criticized for the human rights abuses he allowed and for his underhand political tactics.
Democratic elections were held in 1977 and the PPP won, but this was challenged by the opposition and
Bhutto was accused of rigging the vote. The military, led by General Zia, staged a coup and relieved Bhutto
of power. Zia introduced martial law. His government reversed the socialist policies of the previous
government and introduced Islamic law in 1978. Bhutto was executed in 1979.
Bangladesh: nation building; social, political and economic developments and challenges
32. To what extent had the challenges facing Bangladesh been resolved by the end of the 20th century?
[Nov 2017]
Candidates will consider the merits or otherwise of the suggestion that the challenges facing Bangladesh had
been resolved by the end of the 20th century. Candidates may adopt a chronological approach to this response
or they may take a more thematic approach addressing social, economic and/or political challenges. The nature
of the question is very broad and candidates will not be able to discuss all the challenges facing Bangladesh.
Social challenges may include a discussion of the effects of poverty, AIDS, status of women and ethnic
minorities as well as the pressures on urban areas due to a rapidly growing population. Economic challenges
may include slow economic growth, low energy production, poor infrastructure, corruption and lack of foreign
investments. Candidates may refer to political challenges that Pakistan faced including consolidating
democracy, combatting Islamic radicalization and terrorism.
31. Discuss the political and economic developments that took place in Bangladesh between 1971 and
2005. [May 2017]
Candidates will offer a considered and balanced review of the political and economic developments in
Bangladesh that includes a range of arguments and factors. Candidates may outline political developments
followed by economic ones while others may adopt a chronological approach or a thematic one. Candidates
may argue that despite initial authoritarian governments Bangladesh became democratic after 1991 and there
were significant economic developments with diversified industries. Additionally or alternatively, candidates
may suggest that the democracy was compromised by traditional power structures and the emergence of
Islamist politics and that economic development was limited by inefficient government and corruption. While
candidates may also mention social and cultural changes these must be within the context of the political and
economic developments.
Ceylon/Sri Lanka: nation building; social, political and economic developments and challenges; conflict
between Sinhalese and Tamils; 1971 uprising; civil war; Sirimavo Bandaranaike
32. “Economic issues were the main cause of the Sinhalese-Tamil conflict.” Discuss. [May 2019]
32. Evaluate the causes of the civil war in Sri Lanka. [May 2017]
Candidates will appraise the causes of the civil war in Sri Lanka by weighing up the strengths and limitations
of long- and short-term factors. Candidates may adopt a chronological approach that outlines the nature of
society in colonial times and then the legislation and events after independence resulting in civil war.
Alternatively, candidates may choose a thematic approach and address aspects such as ethnic tensions, British
“divide and rule” policies, geographic distribution of ethnic groups, impact of the Citizenship Act, the issues
of the official language and religion, access to education and the rise of militant Tamil groups. External factors
such as the support for the Tamil cause from the United Kingdom and India may also be considered.
Case study of political, social and economic developments of two of the following:
18. With reference to any two countries in South/Southeast Asia, examine the social and economic
developments that have occurred in the second half of the 20th century. [May 2016]
In their responses, candidates will need to select two appropriate countries (both from one subregion, or one
from each sub-region) and they will need to consider both the social and economic developments that their
chosen states have experienced. Answers should be supported with relevant detail and there should be some
attempt to reach a reasoned conclusion.
Indicative content
Social developments:
• A growing sense of national identity.
• The impact of immigration/migration.
• The nature and degree of equality for women.
• Increased accessibility to education.
• Relations between different religious and ethnic groups.
• The introduction of health and welfare systems.
Economic developments:
• Recovery from the devastation of the Second World War.
• The impact of urbanization.
• Increasing industrialization and technological advances.
• State control of the economy and trade.
• Globalization.

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Section 16: Developments and challenges in South Asia after 1947

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